Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-87611-7 - A Linguistic Geography of Africa Edited by Bernd Heine and Derek Nurse Index More information Index Aari 277 consonant types 40–1 ablative, grammaticalization 235–6, 237–8 distinctively African characteristics 26 accusative case marking 253 distribution of case languages 251 accusative languages 253, 254 distribution of typological properties 31 Adamawa languages 31 documentation of languages 86, 103, 153, Adamawa-Ubangi languages 18 224 ATR vowel harmony 158 genetic relationships among languages 12, features of the Macro-Sudan belt 167 34 labial flaps 165 history of 1 labial-velar stops 157 phonological features 10 in the Macro-Sudan belt 178 prosodic features 68–80 minimal-augmented pronoun systems 169 relative frequency of typological properties question intonation 79 29 word order 161, 162, 164, 167 segmental features 39–68 adjectives 125–6, 279 specific properties 10, 28–34 paucity of 21 typological features 11 position of 279 typological relationships among 1 possibilities of expansion 125 variation space 36 reduplication of 21 African linguistics, history of 170–4 adpositions 124–5, 145, 280 genealogical super-group 173–4 adverbs 126, 237, 304 Greenberg’s nuclear African area 172–3 Afar 140 morpholosyntactic features 11, 148 Afitti 285 Niger-Kordofanian þ Nilo-Saharan Africa 15–33 super-group 173–4 ‘‘Africanisms’’ 19–27 Westermann’s Sudansprachen 170–2 as an areal-typological unit 10 ‘‘Africanisms’’ 18, 19–27, 39 comparative linguistics 17–18 gender or noun class systems 19 evidence for definition as a linguistic area grammar 20–4 28–34, 149–50, polysemy and grammaticalizations 24–6 internal coherence 148 Afroasiatic languages language groups in 36 accusative languages 267 micro-areas 9–10 case marking 88, 147, 251, 301 as a morphosyntactic area 86–315 clause-chaining 107 as a phonological area 36 converbs 299 phonological zones 36–9, 81 double object constructions 102 typological properties 12, 13 in Ethiopia 229 African languages 10, 28–34, 168, 178 gender systems 115 anastasis 22 ideophones 127 areal-linguistic relations 184 implosives 59 areal subgroups 11 marked-nominative languages 263, 270 characteristics more common in Africa than and Nilo-Saharan languages 308 elsewhere 26–7, 36 prenominal relatives 140 354 © Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-87611-7 - A Linguistic Geography of Africa Edited by Bernd Heine and Derek Nurse Index More information Index 355 question intonation 77 articles, definite 315 ‘say’ constructions 304 Asax 188 structural diversity 269 aspirated stops 61–2, 63 verb-final languages 273, 275–81 assertion, focus marking and 132 word order 129 Atlantic languages 31, 152 Agaw languages 231, 240, 268 ATR vowel harmony 158 agriculture 188 labial-velar stops 43, 157 Aikhenvald, Alexandra Y. 269 noun class systems 116 Aiki (Runga) 118 plural number systems 120 Akan 50, 160 question intonation 75–6 Akure Yoruba 52 verb-final languages 322 Alagwa 189 word order 128, 161, 162 Bantu influence in 225–6 ATR vowel harmony 21, 50–3, 81, 159, 178, lexical transfer from Burunge 214 311 preverbal clitic la for optative 214 distribution of 51 preverbal hortative laa 214 in the Macro-Sudan belt 158–9, 179, 181 subjunctive suffix 218 reduced form 50–1 verbal plural stem formation 206 Attie 145 word order 219 Amharic 234, 235, 250, 281 Bacama 158 accusative case 235, 237, 238, 313 Bambara 121, 131, 133, 141 agreement markers 243 Bantoid languages 79, 155 benefactive focus 243 Bantu languages 186, 312; see also Narrow comparative constructions 236 Bantu languages Proto-Bantu, Savanna complementation 143 Bantu languages, Southern Bantu existence 245 languages, Ruvu Bantu languages hypothetical conditional 248 the accusative in 252 intentional constructions 241 applicatives 218 irrealis condition 248 aspirated stops 61 language contact with K’abeena 250 case marking 88, 89, 90, 263 obligation 245 in the Center zone 39 possession 245 clause fusion 200–1 prenominal relatives 140 clicks 63 prepositions incorporated into the verb 111 consonants 64 relativization 141 contact with Nilotic languages 4 subordinate clauses 244 contrast between voiced and voiceless anastasis 22 explosive stops 196 ||Ani cross-height ATR harmony 54 adverbial clauses 283 ejective stops 60, 61 converbs 298 future marker laa- 214 postpositional phrases 283 habitual or pluractional marker 210 subject and object agreement 309 human vs. non-human distinction 117 word order 282–3 implosives 55, 57, 59, 60 animate vs. inanimate distinction 117 influence in the Tanzanian Rift Valley 191, antipassive 97, 111, 314 225–6 Anywa 321 labial-velar stops 43–4, 316 apodosis of an irrealis conditional 247–50 language contact 186 Appleyard, David 230 locative constructions 146 applicatives 109–10, 121, 218 nasal vowels 45 Arabic languages 38, 117, 142–3, 152 noun class systems 116 Arbore 268 number systems 3, 120, 190 areal contact 2, 306 past and future tenses 211, 212 areal diffusion 6, 74, 269 pluractional verbs 114 areal ‘‘hotbeds’’ 167, 169 predicative inflection of nouns 131 areal patterning 6–9, 13, 17 preverbal clitic clustering 198 © Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-87611-7 - A Linguistic Geography of Africa Edited by Bernd Heine and Derek Nurse Index More information Index356 Bantu languages (cont.) Bura Mabang 285 pronominal affixes 87 Burak 310 question intonation 76, 77, 80 Burunge in the South zone 39 Bantu influence in 225–6 stops 63 degree of similarity index 224 in the Sudanic belt 38 future tenses 212, 213 tonal accent languages 69 lexical transfer to Alagwa 214 tonal case system 88, 252 preverbal clitic la for optative 214 tone system 189 preverbal hortative laa 214 use of bare verbs 108 subjunctive suffix 218 vowel harmony 53–4 suppletive verb stems 207–8 vowel systems 218 verbal plural stem formation 207 without P-sounds 312 word order 219 Bari 97, 269 Bwamu 57 Baule 98 Bayso 120, 268, 322 Cahill, Mike 310 Bechhaus-Gerst, Marianne 15 calquing 3 ‘belly,’ semantic extension for emotional Campbell, Lyle 233, 310 concepts 216 case marking 21, 121, 251, 256 Bender, M. Lionel 230 accusative 90 grammatical features of the ELA 232, 233 characteristics of 13 Niger-Kordofanian þ Nilo-Saharan ergative 90 super-group 173 and flexibility in word order 278 phonological features of the ELA 230 locative 145 benefactive focus, in the ELA 243 by tonal differences 89, 263, 270 Benue-Congo languages 31, 183 typology of 87–91 ATR vowel harmony 158 cattle nomads 188 features of the Macro-Sudan belt 167 causal relations 143, 293 labial-velar stops 157 Center zone 66, 82 logophoricity 155 Central Chadic languages 88, 128 in the Macro-Sudan belt 178 Central Khoisan languages 298, 301; see also minimal-augmented pronoun systems 169 Khoisan languages word order 128, 161, 162, 164 case marking 288 Berber languages 38, 152, 265 complementation 143 case marking 90, 263, 264 head marking on verbs 291 construct form of nouns 315 lateral consonants 192 dative 102 number system 119 marked-nominative languages 252, 270 and Sandawe 283 split-S systems 252 sequential constructions 140 word order 129 verb-final languages 273, 281–4 Beria 295 verb serialization 298, 299 Bisang, Walter 230 verbal derivational markers 292 Blench, Roger M. 173, 178 verbs 307 Bondei 9 word order 281 Bongo-Bagirmi languages Central Sudanic languages 18, 182; see also ATR vowel harmony 158 Sudanic languages features of the Macro-Sudan belt 167 labial flaps 41 labial flaps 165 labial-velar stops 43, 44 labial-velar stops 157 logophoricity 155, 182 minimal-augmented pronoun systems 169 number system 119 word order 164, 167 word order 283 Boyd, Raymond 173 Chadic languages 31, 38, 152; see also Central Boretsky, Norbert 18 Chadic languages Eastern Chadic Brown, Cecil H. 24 languages Bryan, M. A. 284, 285 adverbs 126 © Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-87611-7 - A Linguistic Geography of Africa Edited by Bernd Heine and Derek Nurse Index More information Index 357 ATR vowel harmony 158, 159 conjunctions 301 auxiliary verbs 106 consecutive constructions 140 case marking 88, 264 consonants 20–1, 40, 41, 61, 63 complementation 143, 144 fortis 57 dative 100, 102 Sudanic 40–1 focus 138 in the Tanzanian Rift Valley 189 gender systems 314 constituency relations, in verb-final languages goal orientation 110–11 290–3 implosives 59 constituent orders: see word order labial flaps 41 converbs 107, 273, 298 labial-velar stops 43, 44, 157, 158 in Nilo-Saharan languages 107, 295 locative constructions 146 in verb-final languages 293–4 logophoricity 155 convergence 4, 184, 186 modality markers 104 coordination and subordination 13, 139, 294, negation 135, 137 308 number 118, 119 copulas 130–2, 321 object markers 94 coronal stops 68 pluractional verbs 114 Crass, Joachim 321 possession 123 Creissels, Denis 86–315 pronouns 169 creole languages 18, 30, 35, 44 questions 76, 79, 80, 133–4 cross-height vowel harmony 21; see also ATR relativization 141 vowel harmony sequential constructions 140 crosslinguistic variation 308 serial verb systems 113 Cushitic communities 188 in the Sudanic belt 38 Cushitic languages 38, 152, 186, 229; see also tense/aspect systems 108 Eastern Cushitic languages, Southern tone languages 72 Cushitic languages verbal number 114 agreement markers 243 word order 164, 315 applicatives 218 Chai 267 ATR vowel harmony 158, 159 clause combining 13 dative case 102, 301 clause fusion 199 focus marking 104 clause coordination 139 grammaticalizations