Gender and Internationalization in China

CEU eTD Collection

Gender and Internationalization inChina In partial fulfillment Doctor ofPhilosophy in ComparativeGender Studies Submittedto Central European University The Case ofNüxueThe Case bao(1898) Supervisor: Professor AllaineCerwonka Department ofGender Studies Dušica Ristivojević Dušica of the requirements forthe degree of Budapest, 2012 By

CEU eTD Collection

------DušicaRistivojević the form bibliographical of reference. published by another person, except where appropriate acknowledgmentmade is in degree any in other institutions and nomaterials previously written and/or I hereby declare that this dissertation contains nomaterialsaccepted forany other

Declaration i

CEU eTD Collection of identity presentwomen discursive struggles over a the its past, and practicesand of late fucian (neo)Con interpretative framework which informed- socio as organize recognized to act and legitimate socioopportunities - of t agendas use Qing period in particular. Despite the inherent historical uncertainties related to the authorship, I the processes of changes social in China in School ( Learning women ofoperation three Chinese women’s socio participationdirect in the debates actionsand pointedto the improvement andChina’s of of dissertation Wuxumovementprism My investigates women’s the reform through ofdebatessubjects the and public activities. and womenobjects both Chinese as of entrance space for the the providing thus strengthening, Wuxu reforms considered the change of women’s position asnecessa ry China’s step towards their calling for gradual but systematic change of Chinese society, intellectual elites leading the reinvig standing and China’sbyreinterpreting international nineteenth triedcentury enhance to New May Cultureand movements, Fourth reformers active the in the years final of the modernizing ideologie of ideasanddiffering embrace foreign iconoclastic thatwouldentailideals; from wider a change modern world. Differing from earlier reforming efforts, 1898 intellectuals opted for social more Empire the withinposition Chinese favorably t to tried juncture elite when historical neo/Confucian Wuxu a the about is reforms(1898), as the central source for an investigation of the ways in which women used the used women which ofwaysin the central sourceforinvestigation an the Nüxuebaoas ( orating cultural socioand - This project is about the initial phase of China’s positioning in the modern world order. It modern order. inworld phasethe positioning the China’s initial about of project This is In In the dissertation, readI the texts and actions ascribed to reform Nüxue) tang Nüxue hui he Wuxuhe reforms to conceptualize and actualize historically unprecedented - - ),the journal Chinese Girls’

Qing elites. I argue that the process of of formation political collective s s of politicalrepublicanand revolutionaries visions the and adherents of as crucial forrolethatwithin key understandinghas a the played gender - political conditions. historicallyunprecedented conditions. analyze emergence and political I oriented reformist projects – political cannons and practices of China’s present and past. In Abstract

general, and within the reformmovement and the late within of general, ii

he symboliche politicalof and hierarchies the Progress the asso political actors. ciation culturalpolitical and ( ) andNüxue bao) the The Societyfor Women’s - oriented womenoriented within nd future defining

discourses Girls’ Girls’ - CEU eTD Collection late gender, Keywords: change. China, facilitated and go and- forsocio and cultural gender roles both between nei redefinition of relationships the social changes in late relationships between meaningsand content boundaries, the rolemultiple reveal focal of destabilizations thethat

nei - - Qing China, social change, internationalization, change,nei social internationalization, Qing China, women’s press, Qing China. FocusingQing China. onNüx t facilitatedt bywomen’s organizing, theorizing acting and for social (inner) and wai (outer) spheres played proposed (outer)and/orpracticed spheres in and political ordering of the world defined orderingbyImperialpolitical ofworld the iii wai

spheres, spatio , my will show a bao, ue thesis that - symbolic notions crucial for for symbolic notionscrucial - wai

CEU eTD Collection goes Katja. to you most thank special Nebojša, andMy to Tibor, unfadingsupportand Marija Marko. for their a friends My clarifications. To Zhang Yun I wish all the luck in her future academic career. resources when needed, to and Guochun Li for her patient instructionslinguistic and andhelp support inspiring, and for his enjoyable Chen Ruyong into makingmy Beijing research for Zhou Lei who gratitude to Lüher Meiyi generouslyProfessor shared me. resources with thank to want I part ofmy research: with obtaining Nüx during myhospitality Beijingto me most visits University for and helping the with important I am especially grateful to Professor WeiGuoying from Beijing University for her kind Academia Sinica. research visit to Prague, as well as to Dr. Peng Hsiao Ching- Chiang and Lomová to Olga indebted Professor workwith anto Professor Jaschok, having Maria extended influence on am work.I my academic sources. Chevening rich meScholarship oneallowed spend to year at the Oxford Universit for Chinese Institute the years. throughout alsoI support want to thank Professor Melissa Dale and the USF Ricci When it comes to institutional help, Iwant to thank Central European University for the financial me way. Mirjana Pavlović whoencouraged to all the and have Professor Radosav P to indebted amalso I solidarity. and assistance her unselfish and joyful conversations, our for Sudo Mizuyo my friend to dear of gratitude owe debt a profoundly. my I changed thinking gratitude goes Professors Linda to Fishe special My of themy years during Ph.D. first supervisionsupport and deFrancisca Haanfor her inspiring advice, as well asfor the academic freedom that enjoyed. I alsoI thank Professor want I thank Professorto my Allaine Cerwonka supervisor for nd family are the ones the I nd family are whoammy burdens. shared myand to joys grateful family

. amI greatly toindebted Miha Fugina and AlpBiricik who helped me the with

- ušić who taught me how to be sincere and devoted in my approach to China, China, to approach myin devoted and sincere be to how me taught who ušić Western Cultural History for thegenerous grantthat enabled me to use their

Acknowledg r and Prem Kumar Rajaram whosecourses and lectures ue bao ue iv

from the Wuxi City library. I feel very deep e ments - yen for enabling m kuo Foundation for supporting my for supporting kuo Foundation

her enduring patience and

y research stay at y and y and CEU eTD Collection Wuxu reform period reform Wuxu the and world, the China, order: Sinocentric the of Destabilization 3: Chapter Chapter Methodology, 2: sources,my and position asaresearcher Chapter 4: Extending the nei the Extending 4: Chapter Chapter 1: Introducing the project the Introducing 1: Chapter Acknowledgements Abstract Declaration Table ofContents socio bao Nüxue 5: Chapter steering committee, Nüxue committee, steering hui tang’ Nüxue of meeting preparatory The other: each know to get to women for time The 4.3. 3.3. Three faces of reforms: Alicia Little, Mary Richard and Kang Youwei Kang and Mary Richard Little, Alicia reforms: of faces 3.3. Three decomposition its of beginning the and system Tribute 3.2. 4.2. Setting the networks in motion: Chinese “public”, press and cooperating men cooperating and press “public”, Chinese motion: in networks the Setting 4.2. 3.1. 3.1. 4.1. 4.1. 2.3. My position as a researcher a as My position 2.3. records historical analyzing and Gathering 2.2. history Chinese in analyzing conceptualizations centric Ch frames: methodological Overall 2.1. tang Nüxue of practices Announced 4.4. past Chinese the from women exemplary of theinclusion for precondition A state: the of Benefit 5.2. collectivity the Approaching 5.1. 4.5...... 3.3.1. Alicia Ellen Neva Bewicke (18453.3.1. Bewicke Ellen– Neva Alicia 3.3.2. Mary Martin (1843 3.3.3. (1858 Youwei Kang 5.2.2. 5.2.1. Framing the past: the Framing 5.2.1. yuan (Chinese origin of the Western learning) Western the of origin (Chinese yuan 4.3.1. Deciphering December 6 December Deciphering 4.3.1. political actors -political Nei Nei Nei Nei Its first nine issues nine Its first bao: Nüxue

......

and and and and “We all know them”: Women from the past the from Women them”: know all “We

...... : Political geography of civilization of geography : Political wai ace, labor, and discursive genre discursive and labor, ace, sp of divisions Gendered : wai

......

and the defining defining the and

: Chinese women’s association, the school and the journal the and school the association, women’s Chinese :

Non -1903): Mrs. Timothy Richard - 1927): Visions of Confucianism, women and racial eugenics racial and women Confucianism, of Visions 1927):

linear historical time, Three Dynasties and the notion of xixue zhong zhong xixue of notion the and Dynasties Three time, historical -linear and the grand grand the and

......

...... th

, 1897 ...... of of ina boundaries of collective identity of women as recognized recognized as women of identity collective of boundaries ......

...... 1926): Mrs Archibald Little Archibald Mrs 1926): centered approach and problematization of Western of problematization and approach -centered meeting on December 6 December on meeting

......

...... v

......

...... th

, 1897 ......

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...... s female female s -

.....

111 170 178 132 144 164 170 165 154 126

58 4 40 97 65 37 33 95 75 19 30 19 80 iv 9 1 ii i

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Bibliography questions further and remarks Concluding 7: Chapter discursive sites of reformist interve reformist of sites discursive wai the and Gender 6: Chapter

Competing 6.5. 5.4. Who we are not and what we don’t want to be: Textual and actual exclusions actual and Textual be: to want don’t we what and not are we Who 5.4. Qing Male Travelers Male -Qing Late of Writings the in Women Foreign 6.1. 6.4. Regulating Religiosity: Missionary woman and Confucius and woman Missionary Religiosity: Regulating 6.4. decision and Women 6.3. aims and contents its Education, 6.2. 5.3. Proper education and its employment: Ruling women of “Our Qing dynasty” Qing “Our of women Ruling employment: its and education Proper 5.3. 5.3.2. Empress, Empress Dowager, youmin (vagabonds) an (vagabonds) youmin Dowager, Empress Empress, 5.3.2. regulations, announcements, reported and suggested practices suggested and reported announcements, regulations, tang’s Nüxue Reading practice: in collectivity of boundaries the about Observations 5.4.2 consumers unproductive and readers frivolous beauties, vulgar as Women exclusions: Textual 5.4.1. 5.3.1. 5.3.1.

...... Courting the Court the Courting

...... visionsmarriage of - -related affairs state in leadership and Participation making: of the Chinese Empire: The figure of (Western) foreign woman and the the and woman foreign (Western) of figure The Empire: Chinese the of

...... ntions she helped to define to helped she ntions

......

...... vi

......

...... d tufan (indigenous primitives) (indigenous tufan d

......

...... 284 271 259 249 187 189 195 193 208 212 216 244 226 187 CEU eTD Collection (Cambridge,New York, New Rochelle,Melbourne, Sydney: Cambridge UniversityPress, 1980). History of China Volume11, Late Ch’ing 1800- (London: Curzon, 1990); Chang Hao. “Intellectual Change and the Reform Movement, 1890 - revive what revive totheir used in China be pre to must order become in China what to and propose position ofEmpire assumed the central immediate danger of China’s dismemberment had forced the intellectual elite ofmost agonizing all,the capitulation ofQingarmywar the with in Japan in 1895 and A the 2 1 ofmastering Western technology, industry and language as waya to safeguard the indigenous West the introduced had ofand and superiority technological the military the recognized powersequal, an a generation Western as with communicate empower to QingEmpire of literati influence on the Qing court, it became inevitable to confront the crisis. In their efforts to c marginalized themodern actorsat world stage. elite educated one China perception only many and by the ofis that emerged position transformation from the to Empire wasthe Republic that to extent large a influenced bynewly National Identity and International Relations International Identity and National unified, rational subjects, I have no other choice than to reproduce it. See William Bloom, Personal Identity, co of as communication actors its and participating politics international the discuss style that discursive a credibility. I am trying to be very precise about what I’m addressing, but when the literature I am consulting is using state are fused in imageone can be made, but that these statements do not carry academic i London: Duke University Press, 2002). William Bloom warns that the statements in which people, government and

limate was peripheral, but after the occupation of Beijing in 1860 and the increased European increased European the 1860and in theof occupation after Beijing but limate wasperipheral, Chinese Nationalism in Nationalism Chinese Laitinen, Kauko Staging the World: Chinese Nation Chinese the World: E.Rebecca Karl,Staging nglo The immediate impact of the defeat in the Opium War in 1842 on the Chinese intellectual intellectual War Chinese Opium 1842onthe the in impactin ofdefeat The immediate the of The turn twentieth century the considered is be beginningto the of China’s - French French invasion of 1856- Chapter 1:Introducing theproject

the late Qing Dynasty: Zhang Binglin as an Anti an as Binglin Zhang Dynasty: Qing late the 60, the Sino

(Cambridge: CambridgeUniversity Press, 1990), 1. - modern view. world 1911, Part2 1 alism the Century at of theTurn Twentieth alism The British victory in the OpiumWar (1839 1 - French fighting overFrench Vietnam fighting the and, in 1880s, , ed.John, K. Fairbank 2

- ntegrity and intellectual and intellectual ntegrity and Kwang Manchu Propagandist The Cambridge TheCambridge in 8,”

to rethink the rethink to

(Durham and and (Durham - ching Liu ching herent, herent, - 42), , CEU eTD Collection 4 3 way that“public” and “private” are mutuallynot and excluding hierarc participationdirect of women the in public/political sphere, with doso I appreciation an for the Chines gradual the and proliferation ofwomen’s voices Chinese the in debates andabout China’s within and the reformmovement of late genderthat has played within the processes of modernizing social changes in China in gene ( association ofemergenceoperation and ofanalysis the women three - - women’s socio Chinese and improvementChina’s for the act and of Wuxu forgradual reformers’call a syste but women.Chinese the which investigate waysin I women the used opportunity created by the debat involvedwomen historicallyunprecedented becomeactivities in and to themselves actively Chinese way for society,the paved and Chinese the in roleof the women about discussions ensure China’s bet the ones self - (1894 socio China China

Nüxue bao) the and Girls’ School ( Jerome B. Grieder, Nanxiu Qian, “Revitalizing the Xianyuan (Worthy Ladies) Tradition: Women in the 1898 Reforms,” Modern - es associo 29, no. 4 (2003). 4 no. 29, cultural and political practices. 1895) of group empowereda maleargueof to scope reforms intellectuals forwider a tha e women’s socio My study examines study My beginning participation the direct of in women’s public/political life My dissertation focuses The SocietyThe f - strengtheners proposed andpropositionsofstrengtheners their to proposed practiced.In changes needed the - political actors. Intellectuals and the State in the Modern China

ter future, ofter future, advocates the Reform the of the 1898initiated Movement - Women’sor Learning political conditions. However, by highlighting the significance of However, the significance the conditions. political byhighlighting

on the initial stage in the formation of a political collectivity of ) Nüxue tang 3 Nonethele - Qing period particular. in matic socio ( 2 Nüxue hui -

ss, China’s defeat in the Sino offers key a for understanding the crucial role (New York: The Free Press, 1981). - ), the journal Chinese Girls’ the ), Progress political change to organize, theorize oriented reformistprojects 4

hically positioned entities. political The conditions. - Japanese War

– ral, ral, the the n CEU eTD Collection 5 Thispositions. makes Nüxuebao who were meant become to i involved female Nüxuebao consumption, and production its in involved of persons gender e th certifying evolvingaround issues notwithstanding the otherwords, and In contributors readers. female editors, to assumed of been have concern be to represented as being exclusively female- pen editors, Even though further analysi exclusively- previously the space incontributors, promisingto dynamics the access autonomous thus reader the of women’s introduced to the broader public as the result of the joint efforts of female editors and participated ofwho women discussions and andactions allowsto us the analyze observe audience, as and claimedcontributors, imagined journal involvementeditors, that as first the women of inclusion into the historically male politicalpublic/directly wantsphere, I to women’s acknowledge Chinese endeavors for the changes in Chinese women’s lives that eme as rged a ofresult their own engagement the in of Chinesethose thewomen’sin actual investment and course twentieth century, processes, theRather, ofin light - socio Universityof C

Perry Link, Link, Perry One myof foundational -

assumed Mandarin Ducks and Butterflies: Popular Fiction in Early Twentieth Century Chinese Cities Chinese Century in Twentieth Early Fiction Popular Butterflies: and Ducks Mandarin - in these three reform alifornia Press, 1981). Press, alifornia named and the authors readers of women’s jour

that they are reading the texts written male sphere of political debates and decision s is needed for theorizingthe implications men’sof engagement as

political and cultural changes in China that would follow in the

assumptions for is project this that Nüxuebao, historically the - the exclusive site for investigating what was at least supposed - oriented projects from a unique perspective. The journal was Thejournal perspective. projects from unique a oriented occupied sphere that they themselves were fighting for. n the improvements of China’sChinese and women’s led, led, female- has afascinating story to tell: thereaders - 3 oriented whatmedia, revealing should thus by

progressive women and and progressive women nals, 5 Nüxuebaowas self -

and policy- and for for

(Berkeley: (Berkeley: mak male or women women

ing. ing. - CEU eTD Collection Universityof N Press,Raphals, 1997); Lisa Sharing the Light: Representations of Women and Virtue in Early China Mann, Susan 1994); definition nei spatial, ritual between nei negotiations symbolic and who for importance the metheof critical findings argue of led scholars support that it to, sources 7 6 philosophy. ofexplorations Confucian in media rolethatprint emphasize the played to in gender identity of women as recognized and legitimate socio meanings ofcollective and the content over the gles discursivestrug the only not address to m printed as position I a it Rather, during the Wuxu period. discussions and reform women’s actions Nüxuebao consider do not to be a mere source of information necessary f for status act forthrough and China higher group ways in which the efforts ofWuxu the reformscreated socio advised female r understood be to Confucianism and Women: APhilosophical Interpretation of the Inner Chambers: Women and Culture in Seventeenth in Late Imperial and Modern China ed. Larson, Wendi and Goodman Bryna 1997); London,

Francesca Bray, Technology Bray, and Gender: FabricsFrancesca of Power in Late ImperialChina Li Nüxue bao - Hsiang Lisa Rosenlee, “Neiwai, Civility, and Gender Distinctions,” Asian and Gender Civility, “Neiwai, Distinctions,” Rosenlee, Hsiang Lisa Philosophy of reform As will I argue, attentive read Hence, I see Nüxuebao

edia site thatedia offers an analysi and of performance genderin roles China. ew York Press, 1998). 1998). Press, York ew will interrelate - eaders oneaders direction should the and ofthey change undertake. support oriented women,oriented for and understanding how women it to used theorize organize, Precious Records: Women in China’s Long Eighteenth Century Eighteenth Long inChina’s Women Records: Precious as theenterpriseofreform

Teachers Teachers Ko, Dorothy 2005); Inc., Publishers, Littlefield & Rowman (Lanham: nei nei as an unmatched historical source for an investigation of for investigation the an unmatchedsource historical an as and 7 As Rosenlee summarizes: ing ofing wai wai s of its politicsof ofs representation,in me its turn, allows that, in a way that Li way a that in - and and oriented womenoriented had who,the as presumed authors, Nüxue bao Gender in Motion: Divisions of Labor and Cultural Change 4 with (Albany:State Universityof NewYork Press, 2006). - Century China Century 6

- My reading of reading My ideas actions and publicized a higher status for women. higherstatus a However,I its political actors in late - related changes. (inner) and ofand otherprimary secondary and - - Hsiang Lisa Rosenlee does in her politically empowering space for a

and and (Stanford: Stanford (Stanford:

wai wai

(Stanford: Stanford University University Stanford (Stanford:

(Berkeley, Los Angeles and (outer) or an investigation of investigation an or - Qing China, also but

14, no. 1 (2004); 1 (2004); no. 14,

realms for the University Press, Press, University

(Albany: State (Albany:

CEU eTD Collection 2009). Japan and China Empire: and Cornell University Press, 1997), 154. The term East Asian International Society is from Shogo Suzuki, Civilization 9 8 anddivisions symbolic in norms China,Imperial only we of not see propriety the interrelation of with of moreaddressed nei joined when reading and it is often by constituted understanding as conceived China’s modern/izing is of world nei understoodatial sp are in and civilizational terms. the East Asian International Society as destabilization of nei dismantling itsinterrelated asoftribute system well the and Wong’s expression, R.use Bin words, read thethe and I power other challenge In that normsof civility. domainof neo/Confucian itsacceptance Chinese Imperial the proximity to and treatment of informed had - geo relationship that China’s destabilization a as of conceptualizatio read nineteenthwouldbe century the ritualized, within nei conceptualizing movement by reformWuxu of the modern/izing world that China faced in this period.modern/izing that world this facedin China of empowering propriety ofpolitically sphere male gover ofinterior and culturally civilizationallysuperior China’sdomain; ruling wai and

Rosenlee, Rosenlee, R. Bin Wong, Bin Wong, R.

boundary between what is perceived as central and peripheral, or civil and barbaric. nei private/public. However,the of concept dualistic Western the with congruous be to assumed often is world, The spatialbipolar of nei In this reading of this In nei Hence, willI analyze the ways in which women organized, theorized and acted as a part 2004, 2004, China Transformed: Historical Change and the Limits of European Experience and Change the Limits of European Historical Transformed: China 41. -

kinship of operation roles, female gender ’s Encounter with European International Society

and and wai - wai , China’s forced internationalization in the second halfof the in second internationalization forced , China’s , that marks proper gender distinctions in the Chinese the in distinctions gender marks proper , that - wai

binary in the Chinese imaginary is rather a shifting 5 9

When communication of with China the presence of the“Western foreigners” to

per, per, for pro demarcation as the both nance and literacy, and literacy, and nance - and wai political entities according to the -

relationships where as the spatial term marking the wai

(London and New York: Routledge, Routledge, York: New and (London

in termsl in gendered of -

(Ithaca and London: London: and (Ithaca wai as socio both n of nei

relationship, relationship, the broader broader the nei

and and - abor abor wai wai 8 -

CEU eTD Collection Velingerová and Oldřih Král (Cambridge:VelingerováKrálOldřihinandHarvardUniversityMcIntyre, WomenTanya 2001); “ImagesPress,of in TheProject,” Appropri Harvard University Press, 2002); Leo Ou 2002); Press, University Harvard ed. Zarrow, Peter BeyondTradition andModernity: Gender, Genre andCosmopolitanism Brill, Rebecca 2004); (Leiden: Modernity(Lanham:Chinese Lexington Books, 2008); Grace S. Fong, Nanxiu Qian, and Harriet T. Zurndorfer, ed. of theemergence of apolitical collectivity of “Chinese women”? Whatthethroughout the Chinese new resultspast? of are of this kind wom of Reform familial and the movement artistic and networks women formed maintained and auspices under the between women’s relations organizing the What are Empire? of Chinese the how did women treated and facilitated further redefinition of the relations between civilizational [outer] 11 10 history general,Chinese in of and the WuxuReformmovement in particular. politi and importance academic literature that intervenes in the critique and assessment of theextended historical writings and activities from the turn of the twentieth century I hope to contribute to the bodyof historical experience. thatare immersed meanings based in expectations thinking and onEuropean contemporary of out the developments women’s history historical Chinese and national andgender, internationalbutpolitics, we also get closer to keeping the Chinese “Beyond Sinocentrism and Eurocentrism,” ed. Theodore Huters, R. Bin Wong, and Pauline Yu (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1997); R. Bin Wong, in Culture and Social Political Order,” and State in Chinese History: Conventions, Accommodations, and University Press, 2011); R. Bin Wong, Theodore Huters, and Pauline Yu, “Introduction: Shifting Paradigms of trans. Wang Yang,in WangHui,

Wang Hui, “How to Explain ‘China’ and its ‘Modernity’: Rethinking ‘The Rise of Modern Chinese Thought’,” Kai - wing Chow, Tze Chow, wing

My analysisMy will thus be framed interpretations byneo/Confucian of nei My project aims to contribute to several scholarly fields. By looking at Chinese women’s Chinese at scholarlylooking several By to fields. aims contribute project My to and and bewill guided nei nei Rethinking the 1898 Period: Political and Cultural Change in Late Qing China and - ki Hon, Hung Hon, ki 10 wai cal implications of the pre ation of the Cultural Capital: China’s May Fourth Project May Fourth China’s Capital: Cultural the of ation

influenced the the influenced by the questions:following How the did destabilization of geo

The Politics of Imagining Asia The Politicsof Imagining - yok Ip, and Don C. Price, C. Don and Ip, yok - fan Lee, “Incomplete Modernity: Rethinking the May Fourth Intellectual May Intellectual the Fourth Rethinking “Incomplete Lee, Modernity: fan Science and SocietyScience nei - wai 6

relation in gendered spatio - gendered relation in - New New 65, no. 2 (2003).

ed. ed. Beyond the May Fourth Paradigm: In Search of Culture/May Forth periodCulture/May modern of , ed. Theodore Huters (Cambridge: Harvard

conceptual categories used in , ed. Milena ed. , Doleželová en’s bonding in terms in bonding en’s symbolic terms, and 11 In In this sense, I [inner] nei (Cambridge:

E. Karl and Karl E.

Critiques and and and wai wai wai - - ,

CEU eTD Collection (2003); Hu Wenhua and Liu Shubo, “Lüelun Zhongguo zaoqi funü baokan” (A brief discussion of early Chinese Modernities of Late of Modernities Enlightenment,” Enlightenment,” 14 13 12 in Period,” theModern Early of Prints Popular women’s press. later epochs; areworks either concerned “general” new with growing body of literature that deals with the print media in late socio by scholars,contribute studied I theofprintto historiography Chinese media gener in doma simultaneously used threatening and promising destabilizations of geo- Nüxuebao at looks 1898,and 1897and in enacted in these processes. What m that communication onthemodern/izing focuses played role China’s the world with that China will engage with the literature concerned with the change of ideas and social ideals in late (A milest (A Image, Cityand Early in Chinese Newspapers, 1870 (Cambridge and London: Harvard University Press, 2004); Rudolf G. Wagner, ed. Joining the Global Public: World, Cha and Identity, China?: Power, for A Mittler, Newspaper Barbara and Politics: ‘Shibao’ and the Culture of Reform in Late Qing China 2008: Introduction Cynthia ed. Br , Circa to 1800 fields in Transition, Literary Publishing, and toPrinting, Chinese the Internet: Woodblocks From http://www.yorku.ca/ycar/Programs_Projects/summary_popular_press.pdf Grace Fong. The description of the project is atavailable Popular Press in China: Gender and Cultural Production, 1904 32,” - 1900 China, in Sphere thePublic Literary Community and Sentiment That Fit to The Lee theAre Print: of Haiyan “All Feelings 4 (1975); Anne McLaren (Clayton: Monash Asia Institute, 1999); David Der

Chen Xiaohua, “Zhongguo jindai baokanshi shang de yi zuo lichengbei: Lun Xinhai gemin sheqi de funü baokan” Charlotte “Feminism Beahan, Nationalism and Chinese the in Women’s Press, 1902 Andrea Janku, “The Uses of Genre in the ChinesePress From Late the toQing the Early Republican Period,” in Studies onAsia - ins in and through textual andtextual actual with in and foreign through encounters their ins counterparts. cultural historical investigations of Chinese women’s journals in particular. There is a , a publication to this day day systematicallynot this publication to Nüxuebao,a with byengaging Furthermore, one of early modern history of Chinese press: Women’s press in the Xinhai period) 13 Gender Issues Gender or treat Nüxuebao treat or 14 - Qing Fiction, 1849

3, no. 1(2006); There is also an ongoing research 1918,” 1918,” Mod

22, no. 1 (2005), “Surviving the National Revolution: Chinese Women’s Press 1924 - y project elucidates are the visions of social change authored and ern China ern okaw and Christopher A. Reed (Leiden, Boston: Brill, 2010); Joan Judge, - 1911 as partofa linear chronology ofdevelopment the of Chinese 27, no. 3 (2001);Ma Yuxin, “WomenJournalists inthe Chinese (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1997). Dress, Dress, Sex andText - 1910 (Albany:State Universityof NewYork Press, 2007). 7 - style - to to see the ways women in which treated and 1937” press; -

wei Wang,

conducted by Joan Judge, Barbara Mittler and project entitled “ entitled project in Chinese Culture Chinese in nge in Shanghai’s News Media (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1996); 12

(accessed December 20, 2012). December 20, (accessed they discuss they of women’s journal - Qing China, but these academic Fin - de - A New Approach to the the to Approach A New 1922,” 1922,” - siècle Splendor: Repressedsiècle Splendor: , ed. Antonia Finnane and

civilizational Shehuo kexue yanjiu Modern China

- , 1872 al, and to and al,

nei - 1, no. Qing Qing - Print Print

1912 1912 wai

CEU eTD Collection yu chuantong kexue ban) kexue yiyi emergence and (The xuebao Xueyuan Daxue Shifan Qingdao Meiying, “Lüelun jindai Zhongguo de funü baokan” (A brief discussion of early modern Chinese women’s press) yinshuguan, 2004). yinshuguan, A historical review of the development of Chinese women’s thought and literature, 1851 2 ser. congshu Minguo (Shanghai: 16 15 - 1898 in China, and Feminism Journalism women’s press) destabilization the ofrelationshipto between the - geo China’s attending my in study, it approach I as modern/izing or, theworld, with communication other words, late intoby and translated women- movement, Wuxu the reform in women’s engagements Chinese who historians discuss number of I China. align my literature with onChinese work women’s history, in but, a contrast to a evolve. women should and different oftencontradicting for voicing reflectedformattingand of the political collectivityof “Chinese women emerging political collectivities. Thus, I will highlight the ways in which offormation of the embeddedin process multivocality the steaming from contradictions and of the journal will enable me to emphasize the potential of print media to reveal the complexities without missing 1989); Wang Fei, Fei, Wang 1989); Chinese Women Revolution of Century in a movement in the Wuxu period and its emphasis on national revolution) 153, Janku, Han Lian, “Wuxu shiqi funü yundong cezhong minzu gemin de wenhua fenxi (Cultural analysis of the women’s I willreadI the journal in a “Chinese readers’ way Lastly, I will attempt to contribute to the flourishing academic analysis of gender in

20, no. 1 (1997) 1 no. 20,

16 154;Mittler, 5, referringto GeGongzhen, baoxueshi Zhongguo (Women’s media: History and tradition) (Beijing: Zhongguo Meijie Daxue chubans I thoroughly engage with the ways in which internationalization of China gotChina of ways internationalization the which in with engage thoroughly I Anhui Shifan Daxue xuebao (renw Kongqian zhi ji: Zhongguo funü sixiang yu wenxue fazhan shilun,

a single world - Qing women in China, their ideas and actions were not isolated from not were isolated China’s actions ideasand their Qing women China, in significance earlyof modern Chinese women’s press) Hebei Shifan Daxuexuebao (shehui

,no. 49, 1990 [1928]), 221. .” oriented reformist projects and how it related its participants. In 15

15, no.4 (1998); ZhouZhaoyi, “Zhongguo jindaifunü baokande xingqi ji I expect I that comprehensive closereading of the entire issues 1937 1937 , trans. and ed. Joshua A. Fogel (Stanford: Stanford University Press, (Amherst: Cambria Press, 2010); Song Suhong, Suhong, Song 2010); Press, Cambria (Amherst: en shehui kexue ban) visions of the direction in which China and its and in China which ofdirection visions the 8

civilizatio ,”

that is, “from the beginning to end, end, to beginning the “from is, that Qingshi yanjiu Qingshi

31, no. 3(2003);Ma Yuxin, nal nal (A history of newspapers in China) nei nei 1851 ,” and and —

- Nüxue bao serving as aplatform 1930) (Beijing: Shangwu (Beijing: 1930)

1930 1 (2002); Kazuko Ono, Ono, Kazuko (2002); 1 wai Nüxing Lishi meijie: (Unprecedented act:

of Chinese the he, 2006); Yin 2006); he, facilitated Women Women

CEU eTD Collection 1918 Aide) Ji Qichao ‘Ji Liang China Zhongguo funüshi yanjiu Meets the Modern: Female Exemplarsin Early Martialand inHeroines Late Qing Women’s Journals,” (Cambridge and London: Harvard University P Changing in Citizenship,” Meanings of Citizenship in Modern China, ed.Merle GoldmanandElizabeth J. Perry 18 17 operationand of women- ofencounters late actual throughand discuss I pagestextual ofwill both solely the also because Nüxuebao,but approachable women’sinvestments and own strategies textual and scholarship of Hu Judge, and only not works in withthat I slightly deal earlier discursive addressed eventsthan in those the Women atChina the of turn of the nineteenth century. My dissertation will differ from these Western of the inproduction New Chineseand the blending women’s imagesother onthe highlighting the role of the imageopposing of “traditional” womenChinese onthe hand, one and scho historycomplexity. general inChinese in ofwomen’s and history particular all its Chinese and involvedestablishment foreign ideasand the foreign participants in of web of- contextually men Chinese foreign and ideas, a whichforeign and socialin Chinese positions, retheorizing proper mindsof women’s bodies and of kind nei Destabilization ofEmpire. this Cent Nanxiu Qian has already made a very important point about drastic difference between the discourses employed by

Hu Ying Joan Judge, “Blended Wish Images: Chinese and Western Exemplary Women at the Turn of the Twentieth ury,”

lars such as Hu Joan Yingand Judge. (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2004). Press, University Stanford (Stanford: Nüxue bao

Jindai Zhongguo funüshi yanjiu (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2008); Hu Ying, “Lishi shuxie yu xin nüxing xingxiang de chuli: Cong Cong chuli: de xingxiang yuxinnüxing shuxie “Lishi HuYing, 2008); Press, University Stanford (Stanford: The discursive encounters between Western and Chinese women have been studied by 6, no. 1 (2004), “Citizens or Mothers of Citizens? Gender and the Meaning of Modern Chinese Chinese Modern of Meaning the and Gender of Citizens? Mothers or “Citizens 1(2004), 6, no. Nü Nan ’s major’s focus is post angxi Kang nüshi’ yi wen tan qi” (The new woman and writing of history: The Case of Kang Kang of The Case of history: writing and woman new (The qi” tan yi wen nüshi’ Kang angxi i s, in my view, disabling us to interpret this significant moment of modern significant momentmodern this of interpret to us my in disabling s, view, - Qing Chinese women with the Western women involved in the establishment the Western in womenQing womeninvolved the Chinese with bound To relations. power or belittle augment roleplayedto the bythe 8 (2000), oriented reformist enterprises - 1899 texts, while Joan Judge looks at the early years of the twentieth century.

The Precious Raft of History: The Past, the West, and the Woman Question in

9 (2001), nd women communicated and cooperated withincomplex a cooperated and women communicated nd ress, 2002), “Expanding the Feminine/National Imaginary: Social Social Imaginary: Feminine/National the “Expanding 2002), ress, Tales of Translation: Composing the New Woman in China, in theWoman 1899 New China, Composing Tales of Translation:

- - Twentieth Century Textbooks for for and Textbooks Girls Century Wo Twentieth wai 17

Their respective studies makemajor a step by relationship created the space for organizing and and space for organizing the created relationship 9 Jindai Zhongguo funüshi yanjiu funüshi Zhongguo Jindai . 18 In doing In I so, hope thatmy Nüxue hui

15 (2007), “Meng Mu “Meng 15 (2007), , Nüxue tang tang Nüxue men,” men,” Jindai Jindai

CEU eTD Collection qianshi jinsheng” (Previous and present life of the two late tuanti”(Late (Sketches fromtheworld of poetry) (Hangzhou:Zhejiang wenyichubanshe, 1991); and biographiesof foreign womeninlate (2010) ; “‘Shijie gujin mingfu jian’ yu wan Qing waiguo nüjie zhuan” (“Encyclopedia of world’s famous women” New York: Routledge, 2002). Chinese History Chinese Movement in Late Ch’ing China: Indigenous Development and Western Influence,” Nanxiu Qian, Grace S. Fong, and Richard J. Smith (Leiden and Boston: Brill, 2008). Different Worlds of Discourse: Transformation of Gender and Genre in Late Qing and E congkan Bodies in Modern China inModern Bodies (Youngstown: Philo Press, 1981); Fan Hong, Hong, Fan 1981); Press, Philo (Youngstown: Women in China: Current Directions in Historical Scholarship, ed. Richard W. Guisso and Stanley Johannesen 2007); Alison R. Drucker, “The Influence of Western Womentheon Anti 20 19 xuebao women involved in the Wuxu reforms and fe sinophone academic audiences. dynamic the about findings late Wuxuthe movement. reform onNüxuebao authorofacademic Anglophone pieces the exclusive University, andBeijing Qi Nanxiu the based at historian a Xiaohong, theXia workof myindebted: heavily dissertation is writing whose to twoscholars will significantlydiffer from Wuxu the changethe reformsocial in period Chinawomen Chineseuncritical changing and womenway. in rather a in scholarly the literaturethat,in theWesternalso involvementofmenmy approach view, and history as being free (or significantly freer) from but the involvements, influencesand foreign ofmentioned perspectives “nationalized”abridged previously writing women’s onChinese contextualized and re/construction analysis of

Xia Xiaohong, “Peng Jiyun nüshi xiaokao (Brief remarks on Lady Peng yanjiu Jiyun), wexue xiandai Zhongguo Xiaoping Cong, Cong, Xiaoping

versus theDaughter Nü xuebao: Differencesand Generational 1898 1902 Women Reformers,”between in In the course the invaluable Xiaohongproviding h In offruitfulXia been her career, has Furthermore, the way in which I will address women’s 3 (2001); “Shanghai Nüx - Qing women’s groups) groups) women’s Qing

2 (199 Teachers’ Schools and the Making of the Modern Chinese Nation- 4); Leonard Warren, Warren, Leonard 4);

(Londonand Portland: Frank Cass, 1997); Chia

1 (1996); “Wan Qing liang fen fen liang “Wan Qing 1(1996); xuebao xueyuan shifan Hangzhou

tang kaoshi” (Investigation of Shanghai’s Girls’ School), 20 - Qing women’s lives, lived or depicted, to both anglophone and and to anglophone depicted, both livedor Qing women’s lives, A notable difference A notable between Xia’s opus and my dissertation is an, an US based literary scholar who now, the literarybased scholar was,until US an an, - Qing period), Adele Marion Fielde: Feminist, Social Activist, Scientist Activist, Social Feminist, Marion Fielde: Adele male activeafter 1900. See “The reformers Nanxiu Nü Mother Qian, Footbinding, Feminism and Freedom: The

these encounters will simultane 10 - Beijing Daxu Beijing Qing Nüxue bao e xuebao e - Footbinding Movement1840 - ) - lin Pao Tao,“The Anti Jindai Zhongwen xuekan Zhongwen Jindai

organizing and theorizing of and theorizingof organizing and women’sand involvementin

Shi jie shiji Shi (2009); 3 no. 46,

Research on Women in Modern State 19 arly RepublicanChina

(Vancouver: UBCPress,

Liberation ofWomen’s ously problematize “Wan Qing de nüzi nüzi de Qing “Wan Zhongguo wenhua Zhongguo

Nüxue bao Nüxue (London and and (London

- 1, Sum. no. footbinding istorical 1911,” in , ed. , ed.

31 de de

CEU eTD Collection Social His and itsDiscontents,” History Social of The Politics Turn? the Linguistic of “Who's JamesAfraid Vernon, 1984); The Pursuit of History: Aims, Methods, and New Directions in the Study of Modern History 23 22 21 (2012); 16 centralization of issues thegender in thedebates on China’ and May the Culture demonstrate that the issues of gender were systematically raised and debate prior to the New Peter and by publishedKarl Zarr the Rebecca in 2002volumeedited essays depth ofthe broadening interpretations of revisionist the 1898 Reform several While period. primary the in I consult liter sources chancesecondary a to had in and and sources, different point to ways the which in am events I have narrated analyzing both been inc alwaysincomplete information. byavailabilityonly and selectionour of “data not influenced and always access or mediated our “reality,”is to present, past that who argue with “the facts” and “the sources.” assumingly way: withoutpositivist judgment, assessment, involvement,personal meddling or books and in Xiaohong’s Xia articles the read that, wayit, aim I to reconstruct the pastin a Karl and Zarr Citizenship, and Gender in Late Qing China’s Global Context”; and Hu Ying, “Naming the First ‘New Woman’”, in Zhang the Conference to Mark the Centenary of Jaroslav Prusek Daxuechubanshe, 2004); Shanghai) zhongxin”(Newly established education for women in the Wuxu period: The case of Chinese girls’ s tang wei nüxue Zhongguo Shanghai Yi funü jiaoyu: de xinxing chuban qianhou “Wuxu 1995); she,

See JoanSee Judge, “Reforming Feminine:the Female Literacy the and Legacy of Rebecca1898”; Karl, “’Slavery’, FranklinRudolf (Stanford: Ankersmith, Representation Historical Stanford Universit For yet another, very daring - myonclusiveness of historico Nanxiu Qian made a significant contribution to the literature on women in China by toliteratureonwomen contribution by China the made in significant Qian a Nanxiu

tory Family Wenhuashi zhishi Wan Qing n Qing Wan ow, 2002. ow,

19, no. 1 (1994). 1 no. 19,

(Berkeley, Los Angeles and London: University of California Press, 2007). Press, California of University London: and Angeles Los (Berkeley,

ü xing yu jindai Zhongguo jindai yu xing Wan Qingwe

6 (1998) Fourth style of writing Chinese women’s history, see Susan Mann, Mann, Susan see history, women’s Chinese writing of style

; “Wu Mengban: A Pioneering Chine 22 movement, and do testify that post movement, dotestifythat and 21 nren funüguan nren Hence, throughout Hence, my engageI with thesis the intrinsic analytical endeavor, address the issues of availability of

Instead, my dissertation align with the insights of scholars with my ofthedissertation align insights scholars Instead,

(Late , ed., Olga Lomová (Prague:The KarolinumPress, 2008). ,” 11 -

Qing women and early modern China) (Beijing: Beijing

(Late but also bybut invested our interpretation of these - Qing literati’s view literati’s Qing s salvation, s se Feminist”, in in Feminist”, se ature.

23 on women) (Beijing: Zuojia Zuojia (Beijing: on women) - Qian has corrected the 1898 period saw the 1898 periodsawthe y Press, 2001); John Tosh, Tosh, John 2001); y Press,

Paths Toward Modernity: ow, as Qian noticed, noticed, ow, Qian as The Talented Women of

(Harlow: Longman, chool in

CEU eTD Collection who reconstructs the developments around the journals in a different way. See Xia, 2012. Someof Qian’sfoundational hi reformers, and her essay which is comparing “the mother” bao Nüxue 25 24 to proofreasons convincing the presenting about without reformist aroundagenda, organized the involved women in who- wasactively In all h and (over)emphasizes the importance of certain authors and their ideas the at expense of others. other discursive v atogether limited of texts number of Nüxuebao,and followingto, her argument, movethe to ofanalysis,forefront her reformed. women be Chinese and should China which ofwaysin the contradictingsometimes visions “Chinese women discursivea struggle over the meanings and boundaries of dissertation in at least one crucial way. research and publications sig are 1898 Reformmovementfirst time forthe the to English by introducing date kongjian kaituo:Xue Shaohu to use the media, to speak as a group and to practice what they advocated. See Qian Nanxiu, “Qingmo nüxing yanjiu yanjiu Late Qing China: Xue Shaohui’s motivation and aim in compiling the ‘Biographies of Foreign Women’)

The articles written by Qian that deal with the journal in is earlies bydealwith morefocused her Qian a that the articles written journal The In her recent essay, however, Qian does explicate that theWuxu reformperiod was the time when women started 1, no.1 (2011): 190. (2011): no.1 1, er publications, promotesQian Xue Shaohui, extraordinarily an educated late In thisway,In silencesmyriad Qian a approachable throughof this journal, voices unique Qian does not conceptualize Nüxuebao 24 As see I it, i ,” ,” enues, i.e. to the “general” press or the poetry the to “general”enues, pressor collections. i.e. the Nüxue bao neither doesneither she

i bianyi “Waiguo lien“Waiguo i bianyi 25 nstead of puttingnstead t storiographical premises are challenged in the most recent article of the article most of in recent Xia Xiaohong challenged premises are storiographical Nanxiu Qian tendsof Qian toone Nanxiu argumentation choose line bringsthat

and the actors involved in thein women - involved actors theand nificantly my different theam in approachI than developing

orientedenterprises, as analyze

ü zhuan” de dongji yu mudi” (The expansion of women’s space in he journal’srich and content to multivocality the

12 as aunique it as a media site that reveals competing and -

of 1898 with “the daughter” journal of 1902. speaking audience. However,Qian’sspeaking audience. platform facilitatedthat and reflected the formatting political collectivity of

central figure of a female oriented projects within the

essay about the female - Qing writer Fanyi shi Fanyi - group group CEU eTD Collection 14, 16. 14, 27 26 Myacademic fields. analysis and are methodologies informed by primarily ofthe insights reform period. Wuxu perspective active onthe focusing were underanalyzed ofin analysis, who women illuminating part of this “quieter” story of China’s modernization. My thesis will offer its prior to 1895 treated in Elman’s writings, the ideas and a empireand the triumphalreplace of recounting marchWesternthe ofimperialismscience, via technology, reiterated bymany Euro still is 1895;story which after beneaththe military and inhistory failure” technological, Chinese A. thatElman th states opportunities thismomentunknown great in audience of a varrepresent reveal. focusmuch it can thisreason,I as For analysis of onthe Nüxue bao of nomatter representative’sworld, a intellectual how insightful, mayinadvertently obscure as representative of female reformers.Neverthele woman intellectual as andthe life a ofmay endeavors outstanding an who observed be do so. association and the journal, and how they organized in terms of power and authority. functions 2010). As I will discuss in the fourth chapter, we still do not have enough evidence to speculate what were the Qing through Ming from Writers Women and Beyond: Quarters Benjamin Elman, Benjamin See, for instance, Qian Nanxiu, “Xue Late instance, Qing ShaohuiSee, and for ChronicleQian Nanxiu, Poetic of her

26 This project is from an thatcombinesinsights interdisciplinary several study the Benjamin China, in historymodern science of cultural beginningofbookona At the his Qian’s research is without any doubt of a great scholarly value because it shed light onto light shed scholarly becauseit value of doubt great any a is without Qian’s research assumed by women who were involved in the establishment and operation of the women’s school, - building.” iety of voices and attitudes and iety of thatcontributors voices shared knownits their with and A Cultural History of Modern Science in China Science Modern of History Cultural A 27 ere another is lies story that underneath the “cultural narrative of scientific, Just likethe Just modernscience China genealogyof “overshadowed” in - Americans, Japanese, and Chinese alike; the one th

ss, a representative is not analysis an not and ss, group, is a representative a 13 , ed. Grace S. Fong and Ellen Widmer (Leiden: Brill, and , ed. S. Fong (Leiden: Ellen Grace Widmer

for women for (Berkeley: Univ (Berkeley: ctions Nüxue publicized in bao . ersity of California Press, 2006), 2006), Press, ersity California of

Reforms,” in The in Reforms,” Inner at “willnever and aspire to are an are CEU eTD Collection no. 1 (2003). 1 no. processes have played haveprocesses played in focus my way defining research the and frame that I my findings. understandingits ofrelationshipsocio and - dialectic between a discourse that influence deep e a nevertheless byth suggested I CDA, acknowledge questions but and steps 29 28 approach, I reflectalso myon position as aresearcher. which myproject is built. Acknowledging the influence of methodology feminist onmy used mymaterialin indicatedof archival methods introduce and previously analysis the work; China asaspace from general which theories are developed, address historiographical literature that argues for “ women which - socio map and my the in project use I methodology sources and analysis asdiscourse proposed byNorman Fairclough. instances, of thevisualmaterial reproduced in thejournal, contentare analysis and critical Methods ofsources. analysis thatinformmy of the published reading and texts, several in issues of Nüxuebao from theperspective of late - termsphilosophy, most notablyin ofliteratureonthe conceptualizations the of the orderworld a I studies. scholars specialized in socio Discourse and SocialChange Tani E. Barlow, “The Direction of History and History of Wo “The E. Barlow, Direction Tani

Norman Fairclough, Analyzing Discourse: Textual Analysis for Social Research My dis My the enabled mecollect which to research mainmethodology ofarchival consists the My

m also heavily relying on literature from International Relations and Chinese - oriented reformist projects emerged and operated. Hence, I in the second chapter sertation will consist of several parts. opening ofparts. willsectionsintroducesertation consist the several I the In and a wide array of other primary and secondary anglophone and sinophone primarysecondary and of array wide a other and

(Cambridge: Blackwell, 1992). Blackwell, (Cambridge: Qing China, withsocial and neo/Confucianismits and -

cultural history of Chinese China, women’s history gender and men in China,” 14

the shift of ‘Ch of shift the

28 Journal of Colonialism and Colonial History Ido not strictly follow all the research ” to use Tani A. Barlow's wording A. Tani Barlow's use to cultural and political context in ina ’

from spatial a location to

(London: Routledge, 2003); 2003); Routledge, (London: cultural andpolitical implications. on

; 4, 4, 29

CEU eTD Collection 265. China Century 31 30 Nüxue tang householdstotheir the extended women’s relations, their proper aspirations and practices from changelate in social for women of theorizingand organizing, acting the which in Wuxuofthe involved women reforms. post in work onwomen’s organizing investments and interests positions, attemptto an steamingdifferent Youweiissues from in show different First,will I discuss the meaningstermstheof Wuxumovement. the reform in women’s engagement of context Chinese ofbroader the features to use Linda use to P. Shin’s expression. – War (1894 finalinterventions the of in the decades nineteenth century. political and civilization of Sinoinstitutionalization - civilizational of position - geo and New York: Berg, 2001),6. 2001),6. Berg, York: New and Feminists, Muslims, Queers Muslims, Feminists,

Maria Jaschok, Cecilia Milweritz and Ping and Cecilia Milweritz Jaschok, Maria T’ing “Wu Shin, P. Linda

The third chapter of my thesis grounds my later textual analysis by explicating particular analysis byexplicating my textual grounds my later ofthesis chapter The third My research emphasis, as in Maria Jaschok, Cecilia Milweritz and Ping Second, willI discuss socio , ed. Paul A. Cohen and John E. Schrecker (Cambridge and Lo and and representativesof these andof partners supporters of women-

1895), and discuss the 1898Reform through the “socialandmovement three portraits discuss 1895), Nüxue hui , ed., Ping - wai fang: A Member aof colonial Elite Coastal as in Nineteenth Reformer,” in Reform nei nei

centric world order and its destabilization after the relations of geo

played the role of institutions that at the same time emerged as the a sphere. chapterThis will highlight the ways which in political spaces. I will also elaborate on the political and diplomatic

nd - Chun Hsiung, Maria Jaschok, and Cecilia Milweritz, with Red Chan with Red Chan and MariaCecilia Chun Milweritz, Jaschok, Hsiung, wai - political situation in China in the wake of the Sino 30

- - were forcibly altered by the Western and Japanese military 1980s China, lays in “the content and process of andities” process “the content activ in lays China, 1980s Chun Hsiung, “Introduction,”in Iwill talk about Alicia Little, Mary Richard and Kang 31 Hence, the fourth chapter addresses the ways in nei 15

and and wai

when they conn Chinawhen they ote ndon:Harvard UniversityPress, 1976), Chinese Women Organizing: Cadres,

oriented enterprises. the “inner” the domainof - Chun Hsiung’s - Qing China Qing China Nüxue bao, - designated - Japanese (Oxford (Oxford

,” - -

CEU eTD Collection “Chinese women” involved two strategies. First,contrast and to themalein a reformers, th nei socio of contested formatting of an emerging collective identity of “Chinese women” asrecognized women subjects in the discussions and particular events related to the empowermentChina and of its exclusive domainthe men.participationas of Women’s legitimate speaking,writing, acting and the discursive wai important to women’s entrance to the spatial wai activitiesin the specific ritualized spatial way di the about as explicitly well different and/or implicitlyas ofwomen’s Chinese conveyed visions future, especially interested in theprocesses of emergence and resolution of thetensions between chaptersThroughout deal which w the responsible theywhich formedgroups operationfor of the thesereformist projects. way inon speculate the to order in is, that bonded, women which waysin the analyze to order in doso will cational I edu association. and school women’s aboutjournal, the data “biographical” wheresites women themselves performed thisrepositioning. result of reformist ideas about desirable soci - wai - political interlocutor, the issue I discuss inthe fifth chapter of my dissertation. As acritical product and possible is It to argue that women’s presence in the wai I first use Nüxue bao

- domains, the contested and multivocal process of defining the socio- of process the contested multivocal defining and the domains,

that itself entered the wai screpancies between the proclaimed and the practiced.

school and through their attendance at the meetings the attendanceEqually at ofassociation. andtheir the school through domain of specific literarygenres andpreoccupations previou and cohort a of primary and secondary sources to reconstruct the - a source of an source a on-

at this particular historical moment was signified by women’s domain pages through the of Nüxuebao ith the analysis of primary data from, I will Nüxuebao be o - 16 political engagements of women, and served as going redefinition ofgoing between relationships the is their invited and recognized engagement theirrecognized and is invited in

sphere

– conceived in a gender a in conceived political category of category political -

entailed aprocess sly sanctioned assly sanctioned

e - CEU eTD Collection 32 offigure “foreign woman” in the publicized texts in Nüxue bao.I observe these images, in or, forming women’s group. as understood be a who to who meant wasand - wasnot member newly may of disclose this also Furthermore, chapter the is creation of of thefigure - alate as legitimate actor in the legitimizing meansfor (sometimes) contradicting arguments anddemands. practices and aspirations ascribed to her in a most benign way, as utilizationas well its as a it allow my of thesis, chapter their respectable aspirations, abilities and deeds. On the otherhand, as elaborateI in the sixth into the forming collectivity of late enabled the inclusion ofcarefully selected examples of theex Chinese practices,neglected serving at twoleast purposes. significant one On the it hand, of xixuenotion zhongyuan the progress is located. temporal progressive of non- variant examples ofhistory. selected admired from women Chinese contributors Nüxuebao to

See Joan Judge’s book for different “types” of temporality she identifies in post As already I’ve indicated, the sixth chapter discusses the creation and treatments of a definsecond Theprocess in As accentuate, I the discourses created by particular texts of Nüxuebao

at theend at of analyze chapterI this reported women’s activities and agendas that line ar ar time defies that modern, Western movements, instead, had, and perceived 32 wai wai This construction of construction This non - that interprets Western learning and institutions as descendants of the legitimized their demandsrelating by themselves to strategically domain types of certain literacy government and in discuss I this

ed the introduction of the figure of “foreign woman” and the woman” the and of “foreign theed offigure introduction the ing theing collectivity oflate - Qing reform 17 - oriented women by creating continuity with creating womenoriented by Qing woman who needs to be reformed. be to Qing womanneeds who linear historical time was joined with -

generated understandinggenerated of linear, alted womenalted fromChinese past the

- the past as a temporal point where Qing Chinese women recognized - 1900 texts. Judge, 2008. Judge, texts. 1900

supported a a supported

the the CEU eTD Collection 33 findings,questions pointsto and thatmyresulting raises forresearch. project subsequent military affairs, and decision education, religiosity,marriage, as well as about women’s dispositions and abilities related to useddiscursive narratives the trope of woman foreign support to Nüxue bao the Western women to the elite Chinese readers, indicating the available discourses contributors analysis of selected travel writings of late foreignabout womenand Western general women in about particular, in and commence an demands. various convey to of Nüxuebao showtexts and Empire, the Chinese how to therelated changing relationships bet engagement “emblem Judge’swords, Joan global the Qing of in late imaginary,” woman” as well. Judge, 2008, 60. this formulation appropriate to explain the textual engagements with the figure of more broadly defined “foreign

In forming her argument Judge writes about “the new cultural category of the public Western woman,” but I f The concluding ofpart thedissertation recapitulates the stepsof my analysis and I first brieflyI to attend possible ofthe sources information thatthe possessed authors could deal with. In succeedingthe discussion focus ontheI whichways in reformist

- and policy and

- ween geopolitical and civilization making. - Qing men introduced Chinese “the that facts” about 18 used it to support various argument supportvarious to used it

arguments women’s about al

nei

and and 33 asdirectly wai

of the of the s and s and ind ind

CEU eTD Collection history problematization of Western of problematization China, by and period on relying a developing bodyof scholarly work thatarticulates its oriented reformist projects into a socio China Overall methodologicalframes: 2.1. Discourse Analysis and content analysis. aintroduce methodinforms that my analysis of printed media production, namely Critical position as a researcher, discussI t delineate influences, among other my background that, academic depict I own after and of women- operation establishment and explicate how critical this scholarship has influenced through social theory and conceptual frameworks based on Western historical experience. After I and observed exercising when is China obtaining the West is influence the with concerned ed approach ofdiscussion ways modern the which in Chinesehas history been, should and be, be could chapter Chapter 2:Methodology, sources, myposition a and as

By soundly embedding my analysis of the establishment and operation of operation womenmy ofestablishmentand the - embedding By analysis soundly Before establish I the socio I address methodological issues important for myproject. I will first mapan on

and written. More specifically, I outline the arguments articulated - he printed material useI in my study. A final section will - centric conceptualizations in analyzing Chinese Chinese analyzing in conceptualizations centric cultural and political context of late Qing China, in this - cultural researcher oriented reformist projects in the Wuxu the in period, projects reform reformist oriented

19 and and - historical context of late centered approachcentered and

my historiographical approach to the the my approachto historiographical - Qing, Wuxu re Qing, Wuxu by the scholars scholars by the - going s form form

my my CEU eTD Collection MinnesotaPress, 1991). (Cambridge, New York, Port Chester, Melbourne, Sydney: Cambridge University Press, 1983), 324. 1983), Press, University Cambridge Sydney: Melbourne, Port Chester, York, New (Cambridge, in in and Chinese Modernity: The Politics of Reading Between West and East 35 34 deals historiography of modernChina, introduce another, that with whichway one or all “in dominant and identified he which criticized three China, in American paradigms in traditionalcommitment values.” to Westernization was underway, it was impossible for the Chinese “to maintain any authentic forones; native once substituting viewressive ofWesternthe and that, prog linearity ideas the historiographical modernapproach to suggests China intellectualthe passivity of the Chinese; resistance to “adding” China into epistemological, conceptual and theoretical Western traditions of scienceand socio generated by this first s themotivating desire to change, and to the enormous stimulus,both positive and negative, calling our attention to the “critical importance ofWestern imperialism as an external force role that imperialism played in directing and a us West”. the acknowledgesthatthisnotion “responsealerts to the Furth to paradigm China’s of writes Furth brief, a significant historiographical Charlotte but comment 1910s, and onthe 1890s Furth, and, Charlotte more form, ain elaborated Cohen. Paul of historiography the in field of anglophone Chinese studies ininitiated the bytheof 1980s views framework inquiry, of wish academic I myto situate research in st a I Charlotte Furth, “Intellectual Change: From the Reform Movement to the May Fourth Movement, 1895 dem. For an insightful discussion about Western passivization and feminization of China see Rey Chow, The Cambridge History of China Volume 12, Republican China 1912 1912 China Republican 12, Volume of China History The Cambridge A yearafter Furth’s text was publish In a a In ofshort section her on article the dynamics of change intellectual in between China

erious Chinese explorationof dominanterious nineteenth

- political thought.” 35

ed, Paul Cohen published his Discovering Cohenhis published Paul ed, History in 20 ccelerating the change the change ccelerating in China, modern/izing 34 However, as Furth However,as warns, rightly this

(Minnesota and London: University of –

1949, Part 1 Part 1949, , ed. John K. Fairbank K. Fairbank John , ed. - ream of critical century Western

- – centric Woman Woman

1920, ” CEU eTD Collection nationalism), nationalism), for instance, Yang Sixin’s article “Jindai wenhua minzuzhuyi lunlüe”(A brief discussion of modern cultural certainly too complex to be analyzed here, but for a glance on this particular treatment of the response theory, see, reactions of Chinese intellectuals in the past and present on the paradigm of “Western impact rejection of the “foreign cultural influences” as being a toreaction the threatening presence theof West. The nationalism studies in China, explaining and eulogizing Chinese nationalism, s changes and developments in modern China as resulting from the western presence is used in the field of forthe purposeof reaffirming the histo rical importance of the West. Instead, the paradigm that explains various conceptualizationresponse” of Sino Guangxi shehui kexue shehui Guangxi Zhongguo de wenhua minzuzhuyi ji qi xiandai quxiang” (Modern Chinese cultural nationalism and its trends), 37 36 explora an becoming China of historiography with as a static traditional entity unable to “modernize” without the intervention of the “modern” West, defined as important, meaningful change. Cohen As aresult, writes, China becomesrepresented i be to is what externaland definitionsmodernizingchange of its with what the tradition and contactsviolent bearsexamination.unequal and multiple, scale constitution“China” the and oftenof mutual throughout of“West” the the China was inert, but because “the West” was not acoherent entity, “Chinese” responses were Chinese hi have impact imperialan onrecent because the expansion didn’t not W ectedunconn with the response to a Western presence. Adding to often leads reducing to the ofimportance all ofaspects modern Chinese history are which paradigmThe first – Western Columbia University Press, 1984), 3. 113, no.(20 5

Gail Hershatter and Wang Zheng, “Chinese History: Useful Category of Analysis,” Analysis,” of Category Useful History: “Chinese Zheng, and Wang Hershatter Gail Paul Cohen, ang have emphasizedang have theperspectivethat “Western impact, Chinese response” problematic is The The - centric distortions in Qinghai shi 08):1408. I have to add a note about another kind of appropriation of the “western impact – second second Americanconceptual asparadigm the historiography, Cohen in maintains, is - D modernity model which has been deeply rooted nineteenth deeply - in been modernity has modelwhich iscovering History in China: American Historical Writing on the Recent Chinese Past Recent Chinese the on Writing Historical American China: in History iscovering

6 (gen. no. 96) (2003). fan daxue xuebao (Zhexue shehui kexue ban) the impact to our understanding and of nineteenth twentieth-

- western encounters. Some scholars in China also adopt this perspective, but not

- response theory theory response

21 37 –

tion of the Chinese past aiming at finding the the aimingfinding at past ofChinese the tion emphasizes China’s response to theWest and

2 (gen. no. 93) (2002) and Ji Aimin’s “Jindai “Jindai and Ji Aimin’s (2002) no. 93) 2 (gen.

Cohen’s views, Hershatter and ense of cultural superiority, and superiority, cultural of ense Review Historical American century ethnocentrism ethnocentrism century - Chinese response century China.” story orbecause dentified and dentified and

(New York:

Chinese ” is is ” 36

CEU eTD Collection American Historical Writing on the Recent Chinese Past Past the Recent Writing Chinese on Historical American Chinese socio very real and critically important impact of imperialism got shaped by influencethe of imperialism,engagement wellrigorous ways as scholarly the which with in a rather call doesn’t H thatimperialism but forimperialism ignoring influence altogether. onChina, had understanding influencedheavily the of China. trends ideological and operation of preciselythe “cultural is insight Timothyit and the ofBlue in Gregory Brook, 41 40 39 38 significant for are of some mythe As which conceptualization ownCohen writes: of project. West no by the have West or connection the with at all. Theapproach several features, has key with Chinesebeginning problems Chinese a set in whether context, these problems are genera development with which imperialism interfered. “leadingchange toward modernity, definedas by Western the historical experience.” UniversityPress, 1999): 5. Knowledge Sinological Cohen, 2010, xiii- 2010, Cohen, 4. 1984, Cohen,

Cohen, 1984, 1984, Cohen, Gregory Blue and Timothy Brook, “Introduction,” i invites the exploration of the ways in which Chinese themselves perceived and negotiated perceived themselves Chinese which ofwaysin the exploration invites the The paradigm third assumes for history Chinese a “natural” or “normal” course of theories, methodologies, and techniques developed in disciplines other than history otherthan disciplines methodologies, developedin techniques theories, and hierarchically arranged in number a it and welcomes of levels, enthusiasm different with smaller,it breaking down into moremanageable units, it sees Chineseas society being world ofChinese by approachattempts size cope the centered the to complexity with and the Chinesein problems the set with Chi to addition starting In What Cohenis suggests China a - 77 and Paul Cohen, “Preface to the Second Paperback Edition,”

cultural, economical life. political and xiv.

that took Western capitalist relations to be the norm ofworld” the that has , ed. Timothy Brook and Gregory Blue (Cambridge, New York and Melbourne: Cambridge Cambridge Melbourne: and York New (Cambridge, Blue Gregory and Brook Timothy , ed.

- centered approachwhichimported criteria avoids by 39 22 (New York: Columbia University Press, 2010 [1996]): xvii.

40 n C China and Historical Capitalism: Genealogies of of Genealogies Capitalism: Historical and China 41 ohen ohen

criticize s

scholarship’s focus onthe Discovering History in China: in History Discovering

nese context, the context, Chinanese the internal dynamics of 38 To bring

ted ted e -

CEU eTD Collection Chinese state and its subjects. Ibid., Ibid., 26. its subjects. and state Chinese possibilities created during “pre during created possibilities not modeled exclusively modern modeled experience.”not exclusively onWestern acknowledge “the importance of conceptualizing political and cultural authority in ways that are 44 43 42 identifiable in turn categories, practices and socio that indigenous Wong, insist HutersPaulineYu, and upwho was taken byR. Theodore Bin Western pertinent togeopolitical, concerns andand ideological interests. economic historiography, have and opened the about its discussion approach to China through the concepts remarksCohen’s diverted scholarly effectively attention to problematicthe for important myhowwrite to work is discussionabout thinking and for China multilayered hierarchies within Chinese society (otherwise acknowledged in Cohen’s proposition implicationsof influence further inadequacyof the notthe approach’s does nor and elaborate the diasporas. ofapproaching histories non- the Wong, H Wong, Ibid., x. Ibid, 9 Ibid, - Writing in 2003,Writing in wledges Cohen ackno that China historical analysis . exclusively, not social (mostly, but strivesthe sciences) and integrate to these into The c The Ev

13. uters, and Yu, 23. The authors contain that we may identify the persistent durability of practices and and that andcontain practices Yu, uters, authors of The we may 23. durability the persistent identify - 43 en with this shortcoming of Cohen’s engagement with the historiographical issues, his thisshortcomingissues, engagement with en historiographical his the Cohen’s with of centered centered ontheresearch) very process writing. of history

By doing so, he implies that China impliesthat he Byso, doing oncern about anoncern about over

- of - the 42 - -

twenty Western

- cultural configurations, even if reshaped and redeployed, are still are redeployed, cultural ifand even configurations, reshaped

- Han ChineseHan ethnicities as well ashistories of Chinese Han emphasis of - - century involvement” history of China in of of China involvement” the predicament history latetwentieth China, and invite further research would China, further research invite that and -

23 Western influence in th centered research Hanis China 44 - centered research is inadequate when

Chinese (women’s) history.Chinese (women’s) e historiographye of China - centered research,

tradition oftradition CEU eTD Collection 47 46 45 problematicthe outcomes of using the current social theory historicalin of inquiries China expectations. own historical formationsChina’s trajectories- Euro historical without and imposing centric template or will reveal “a and against the expectations that Chinese historical ex developments the European normand - are paradigmhistory ofsocio the and in factthat stretch back centuries.” countries with separate pasts; and by new Chinese vocabularies that assign newness to con two influences: by and China the Wes presence in China. He demonstrates what that mattered politically before theintense contact of Experience simply so because it resembles patterns existing in Europe and North America. categories transported fromWestern thought, and social change. in late of dynamics of change social relied that on the creation of strategies and choices of actors social Yu, 321 Yu, Wong, 1997b, 323. 1997b, Wong, 283. 1997a, Wong, R. Bin Wong, “Confucian Agendas for Material and Ideological Control in Modern China,” in Huters, Wong, and - - imperial China that could not (and was not) shaped merely byWes merely shaped not wasnot) imperial thatcould (and China 322. points to thecrucial to samevolume publishedimportance article the his in points in Wong R. Bin Wong in his ChinaTransformed:Wong his in

refuses to acceptaclear boundary in China’s history that duplicatesWestern 47 Hence,he asks for ahistoriographical approach that is at the same time aware of This dynamicsThis

t continued beto continued in19 important t the “modern Western inclination see to only distorted images of in Europe

, as Wong further explicates further Wong , as - typical” historical processes, Bin Wong decipher processes, proposesto typical” Bin historical 46 In his protest his In Historical Change and the Limits the Historical Change and 24

against the research strategies assume that that what might easily be labeled “modern” is perience will either reproduce this Euro th

and 20

and warns th

century, even if obscured by if obscured even century, , cannot be interpreted by interpreted be , cannot tern understandingsof tern 45 historical change,

of Europeanof centric cerns cerns , and and - CEU eTD Collection 51 50 49 48 worldviews perspective.” from this and beliefs, perspective” rethink ofopportunityownhistorical and “to our knowledge, the Western modernity.” culture, theirsociety, and grownof taxonomies having ofknowledgedivisions out social the and analyze derivedto history politics,social are fromwith science, modern economics, cultural of ideological other and contexts. Wang contains that “the fundamental categories used analysis historical experience. geopolitical spaces)from theperspective of patterns and concepts based on Europe’s socio are which andchange developments enrich understanding- ofour Wong’ssignificantly symmetries view, socio would, in Europe, perspective willthat use thesame of set criteria when looking Chinaat f than extremeoptions makes available.” either sinocentrism] and [i.e. Europocentrism ofand menuinformed the“broader t a of to creation richer contributes empirically that 282. 1997a, Wong, 183. 2003, Wong, Wang Hui, 2011a, 67. I dem.

What Bin Wong argues for is not a methatheorethical position, not but What formethatheorethical BinWongis a rather symmetric a argues Wang Hui joinsthediscussion on the issues that emerge when the categories of social - and and based onEuropean philosophy are generated categories, in contribute in ion, Wang’s opin generated categories, 50 at Europeat from theperspective of Chinese historical experience. These new research This interpretative framework that place particular historical phenomena in these

51 Wang is, nonetheless quick to Wangnonetheless explain is, that “the critique of , presenat used socio for- interpreting the 25 t,

the results of looking at China (and other results of Chinathe other looking at (and s

to the loss of the “internal rom the perspective ofrom perspective the historical experiences 48

heoretical historical - CEU eTD Collection 472. Asia history by adopting Confucianhistory concepts “China 56 55 54 53 52 reminds about, all us are “external imposition with Duara inequality,to state,few that dealing name about people, whenterms talking a only “takethisessay, willconsiderable creative investigation and thought”since the terms we are that and history theory. between andbinaries to Western/local and the rethink complex universal/particular breach relationship [generated by the Western experience], application per se unavoidable,” is Wan historicized attitude when applying theoretical concepts and social scientific paradigms effective interpretation modern and sheerrelianceof thought theories, ontraditional ideaswill not guarantee (more meanings their inlight the andobtain paradigms concepts the traditional since phenomena, but, particular”activati by ng traditional Chinese categories to address and explain historical balance the created antagonisms “theWestern between versus local” and “universal versus by expansionism.” and dominated egocentrism, exclusivity, affirmation an Eurocentrism not is ofAsiacentrism, an butattempt rather to eradicate alogic

Wa of Politics “The Hui, Wang Prasenjit Duara, “Book Review: Review: “Book Duara, Prasenjit I and the State,” China Field Field:Or,the China Marks, State the “The of Robert dem.

, ed. Theodore Huters (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2011 ng Hui, 201 Hui, ng

- Robert Marks in his reactive essay to Cohen’s centeredness is such a spongy concept,” and that “it could mean explaining Chinese 1a, 64.

. 54

Imagining Asia,”trans. Matthew A. Hale, in Wang Hui, The Politics of Imagining In arguing that “although maintaina to we arguingthat need careful and In 55 The Politics of Imagining Asia Imagining of Politics The

Nevertheless, as Prasenjit Duara writes .” 53

Wang Hui acknowledges thatWang do Huiacknowledges scholars attemptto . ” 56 26

,” ,” Discovering History in China Pacific Affairs Pacific b 52 ), 61.

85, no. 2 (2012): 379. 379. (2012): 2 no. 85,

Modern China

in his review of his Wang’sin review

11, no. 4 (1985): 4(1985): no. 11, g suggests to to g suggests

writes that

) CEU eTD Collection ng, ed. ed. Zheng, Wang and Ko see Dorothy mean” Gender &Gender History gendere For a judicious criticism of the “avoidance” of established Chinese studies scholars to unpack the meanings of a number of pertinent issues that my study points to, notably the issues of Chinese modernity and Chinese feminism. 57 mydocome theoreticalmethodological and insights study fromthe that underpin primarily the methodologies,theories, techniques and developed disciplines in other than history. Thus, while China thata reflection playe cultural and political changes in China; and - in modern socio the order and positioning world process interrelated China’s initial the of aduring specificmoment of the Wuxu reform significantlyadvance period pmy specificgrou operated followingreform Asof demonstrates, this women study period. that involved in establishmentthe of operation and womenin theplayed operation establishmentand of women- and interdis forChina a guidelines of Cohen’s collaborative networkwider than has possible been for presentthe study. such a comparative project would deman proposedas byBinWong - takewide a not will I of ways. number a in my dissertation

In my view, the world history perspective would enable me to offer meaningful contributions the interests and engagements o d in these processes. d modernity in the context of late All these concerns have theseconcerns All crucial for been my is about the thinking Moreover, Moreover, conductedmy is agreement in analysis with previously Cohen’s mentioned my ofgroupreform layer in a society ofA is discrete educated study ciplinarity; as well as a cautious engagement with the role that foreign presence in China in presence thatforeign cautiousrole a as engagementthe ciplinarity;with well as

23, no. 2 (2011). For the initiation of the discussion about “translated feminisms – “translated about the discussion of the For initiation 2 (2011). no. 23, - centered approach should strive to integrate into historical analysis

though though certainlyI hope to doso in futurethe

- - centered approach: focus ona discrete of level Chinese society; Qing China see Rebecca E. Karl, “The State of Chinese Women’s History,” Translating Feminism Feminism Translating f the cooperating foreigners in in Wuxu foreigners thef cooperating the reform period d more knowledge, thatis, d time,and resources

it further highlights the central that role gender 27 oriented reformist enterprises. oriented reformist projects oriented in Wuxu the (Malden, Oxford and Carlton: Blackwell, 2007). Blackwell, and Carlton: Oxford (Malden, - sway perspective of the world history ofworld the sway perspective 57 sues I am analyzing in s

Instead, I adopt some -

our understandingour of

because, see it, as I -

to the debates about oriented womenoriented

whatever they whatever

CEU eTD Collection bond.” and 59 58 mind ownin their interests had when approaching other. each cooperationtranscultural more troublesome groupsthat both interpretation men) of(and women of thes contextualizing the eventsof 1897and 1898,and after together bringing representationsdifferent abilities and own their value and in confidence pride, dignity, joy, I examine communic ideas and did That is why I reemphasize the point made by Nanxiu Qian that Chinese women whose actions entailed. and it limits inthe both analyzed termsopportunities be of my should study examine in “internationalized dynamicgender that ” men, communication this and women foreign and and Chinese and ideas, Chinese foreign brought together reformist projects foreigners in general, andWesterners particular in didplay in th participate in “national” writing of Chinese (women’s) history that minimize the role that to want donot I approach.However, my has century crucialresearch forbeen nineteenth the of ofWest since thesecondmagnify role in changes underwent half China the the self andRelationsmadefindings literature suggestionsphilosophy. International in Chinese and fields of Chinese socio Ibid., 411. See, for instance, Qian, 2003. instance,Qian, for See, - , I do not share Qian’s women’s “ Western share and Nüxue tangenthusiasm donot Chinese , I about importance and overconfidence created byimportance in created overconfidence demonstrated and the scholarlythat works e events by some participants in the establishment and operation of Nüxuehui 59 As I emphasizeAs I mythroughout Wuxu the study, reform periodand women- Furthermore, previously discussed criticism directed at Western cultural and political I find more find plausible, I but and fromof perspective theorizing transnational the

- political history and Chinese and women’s history hi political

ate with foreign ideas and supporters, and have done so with with so done have and foreign with supporters, ideas ate 28

e events e am I observing. story; alsothe include they - related ideas and actions I . 58 Nonetheless, after , Nüxue bao oriented warm warm CEU eTD Collection observable in the issues of. Nüxuebao century half ofnineteenth got into bywomen’s and the translated of decomposition which the tribute system Asian the and East InternationalSociety in second the the civilizational ordering of the literacy and participation in thecreation of certain types of discourses; and the destabilization of ritualizeddestabilization of properly gendered spatiality; the forms redefinition of gendered of and the andinner outer interpenetrated, bodiesbody merged social the with politic.” between boundaries and a “the kingshipin kinship 61 60 subsumed, elaborateon I destabiliz three maintaining the political and civil order. Chinese canonical hadthinkers referred theto anfamily as ground initial for developing and because not only that in China state and familynot treated were as discretebut spheres, of private conceptions ofspheres Western the significantly differsfrom terms literature from discussed previously points key acknowledging the of nei notions Angeles: University of California Press, 2003), 7. 2003), Press, California of University Angeles: Premodern 85. 2002, Rosenlee, Dorothy Ko, JaHyun KimHaboush and Joan R. Piggot, “Introduction,” in Cultures in Confucian and Women

in myLisain study. Li

The terms “private” Hence, in order to attend to the attendnei to the meanings to complexityof that order in Hence,

, ed. Dorothy Ko, JaHyun Kim Haboush and Joan R. Piggot (Berkeley and Los and (Berkeley Piggot Joan R. and Kim JaHyun Haboush Ko, ed. , Dorothy andJapan Korea China, and and

wai , the terms for my crucial of analysis the Wuxu reform period.However, - /“domestic” and “public” may plausibleseem translations of the hsiang Rosenlee explains that nei explainshsiang Rosenlee

tianxia ed ed

60 domain. otherwords, In I am waysin examining the That is, as Dorothy Ko Piggottwrite, Haboushand nei - 29 wai

domains at the period ofmy the examination: ll Confucianizedll societies were blurred: the - wai

preoccupations andactivities

, binary in Chinese thinking binary in I am keeping - public or family- public or - wai

61 relationships the original

state, , CEU eTD Collection instances where, even wit textual material created by the participants in the intellectual life of late different onbodies of as primary well several anglophone andliterature, as sinophone secondary of array wide drew I my ona Wuxi. writing In dissertation, Nanjing and London, Taipei, records Gathering andanalyzing2.2. historical Because of thetiny size of the“un Nanjingthe the Library, available photocopies the in Wuxi Library to in in reproduce allowed other way- any than hand it readera unit) is see of allowed to onlyphotocopies which, the the journals in notturn, s/he is the first place since I was neither enrolled stude in letter introductory to froman document easy obtain (a Afterpresenting not texts journal. the transformedwhich my four with me. Meiyi, adoyenne ofwomen’s history, Chinese whoshared generously thisinvaluable source The has ninth Library. issue ofjournal been the partofLü a collection personal Professor complete collection of the journal that comprises the first eight issues is located in Wuxithe the replicas of thesecond and the third issues to celebrate its centurion in 2007, while themost published, with its first eight issues collected in two libraries in China. Nanjing Library printed . bao Twelve Nüxue issues thein published are ofwere texts primary thejournal sources Between 2007Between 2009 and conducted I archival research in ofthe libraries Oxford, Beijing, When compared with the replicas of thesecond of third thefrom and the journal issues Nüxue bao

is treated as a treasure of theJiangsu province, with harsh access restrictions, h the help of library the staff, I could not be certain thatI’ve recognized - week research trip to Wuxi into an extensive hand - simplified” simplified” 30 fanti nt atnt Universitythe in norChina had I work a characters on these photocopies, werethere writing.

are considerably smaller. - Qing China. My main Qing China. main My - copying of the - CEU eTD Collection socialparticular changes through e practicesdiscursiv present in aparticular socio point that dialectic relationship between discourse and social structure allows us to explore Fairclough’s particularlyimportant of found analysis Norman I critical and discourse Fairclough. (http://divdl.library.yale.edu/dl/index.aspx?qc=AdHoc). of The History Database on the Christianity School’s AdHoc Text Image and been recently digitalized and available . Nüxue tang men who partin women and took the operation establishmentand of Nüxue hui G. Laurence of Thompson’sEnglish translation the book. .Datong shu The translations of are thesetexts mine, but in caseofshu Datong of the earliest Chinese diplomatic missio written by Chinese men that I use in my thesis. I collected selected travel diaries of the members Beijing Capital Library and Academia Sinica allowedme to accesstwo types of primary material across Serbian of theissue was journal invaluable as well. deeplyI thank her for enabling my operation study’s myand handwriting deciphering own Chinese wenyan meliterarywith helped only not Li myMs Li in Ms project. Guochun played that role important I to but authors, need their meanings and texts produced bythe alter not the did characters putthe correctly. an I’ve ensuringenormous to thatmy effort reproduction of sources My analysisMy ofobtained the is textual informedmaterial ception con bythe of discourse The third body of primary literature Iuse in mydissertati on thewritingsare ofWestern to addition In to contemporary contemporary to This materialThis is gathered the in libraries Oxfordin London. and Some have volumes - English- Nüxue bao, library research conducted in Beijing wenyan- putonghua putonghua translations. translation of the texts of Nüxuebao,but help inher via the Internet Archive (archive.org) and Yale Divinity ns sentns Europeto and the US Kang and Youwei’s the indistinc 31

t characters from

the copy of copy the ninth the University Library, acknowledge the , Nüxue bao I also - historical used used and and CEU eTD Collection Clive Seale (London, Thousand Oaks, New Delhi: Sage Publications, 1998), 234. 64 63 62 ofcontributors discursive repertoire about content enables, conclusions analysis that convincing provide various and readings conclusions. content analysis as aform of analysis textual focus speaking, as Qing women writing acting and collectivity.political As Donexplains, Slater Youwei late and or practices. announced the report planned) also to think about the inconsistencies between the (argumentative) texts and (the texts that the figure of the“foreign woman”was argument),but the used or author’s tosupport express underlyingthe assumptionsofargumentation the (especially,I in as demonstrate, the wherecase creation over the struggle ofmeanings. point has particular This directed my to only attentionnot produced meanings are throughthe which discourses within the ruptures and cracks myCDA’s is insistence Equallyforimportanceavailable issues. important onthe work that were influenced destabilizations multiple which of waysin aboutnei the questions context. Ibid., 234, 235. 234, Ibid., 2003. 1992, Fairclough, Don Slater, “Analyzing cultural objects: content analysis and semiotics,” in analysis in semiotics,” content and cultural objects: “Analyzing Slater, Don writings ofmethod writings Kang approachthe to analysisa as content use Additionally, I 62 meapproachNüxuebao encouraged to insight This

and their texts operated texts their in. and Nüxue bao

- by and were treated in thediscourses publicized in the pages of its all currently Qing male whose travelers actionsideas and facilitated positioning the of late

Western women in the broader discursive context in discursivecontext broader the which the Western women in

64 I use this to useto present I this some examples ofavailable 32 es on the texts themselves and it aims to 63 Acknowledging the Acknowledging descriptive of nature and ask one ofmymain research Rese -

wai arching Society and Culture

relationships influenced,

play in the in play , ed. ed. , - CEU eTD Collection Practices of Power: A Feminist Sociology of Knowledge of Knowledge Feminist A Power: Sociology of Practices 66 65 epistemologically representation as disinterestedandillusionist of decontextualized, knower a investments. and and whosubject knowledge separatedproducer is fromand context her negotiation of interests wai historically unprecedented opportunitypositionthe to in themselves articulatedhow and their they substantiated arguments andthis used how demands,and they female audience, at the center of my enquiry.Iwhat understand try to forwas important them, source that claimed the involvementof aiming female contributors engagement at the of the history.Chinese Instead, position I a ofgroup gentry- claim donot specificentirety,I a interve 1898as to 1897 and adequately describe women’s experience.” priorities, different and would given the choice, devisenew that chronologies could more indicates that “women’s history asks different questions, often demonstrates sig juxtaposingand of the primary andndary seco use I sources my in analysis scholarship, as a researcher 2.3. My position B Science as SocialKnowledge

arbara Ramusackarbara N. and

Sandra Harding, Harding, Sandra Sharon Sievers, “Women in China, Japan, and Korea,” in WomeninRestoring Asia: Womento History Feminist scholarship influenced byfeminist show, heavily references the perhaps morethan is, thesis This especially in terms of theresearch questions I am asking, and persistent questioning Whose Science?Whose Knowledge? 66 Feminist critique of what Donna Haraway calls “god

evers Si Sharon (Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1999): 158.

(Princeton: Princeton University Pre University Princeton (Princeton:

has been arguing a against positivist notion of disinterestedknowing

65 By observing the extraordinarily dynamic years of thedynamic years extraordinarily By observing 33 (London:Routledge, 1990). (Ithaca:Cornell UniversityPress, 1991); HelenLongino, women, or rather the earliest printed media ss, 1990) ss, ne in a “general” periodization of “general” a periodization in ne ; Dorothy Smith, The Smith, Dorothy Conceptual

sphere. - trick

. Sharon Sievers ,”

that is, of an nificantly , ed. ed. ,

CEU eTD Collection 69 68 67 literature, but also of Chinese philosophyand socio- Bologna day and- University, literature from“old language an Belgrade impactdissertation. onmydecisive onthis work Chinese studies may agood be startin studies.” history; a qualification in the area of China research; and an additional qualification in gender the qualificationin “achieve a to threefold qualification: encouraged a Western be PhD gendershould and studies students in sinology, marginalization of women’s ProblemsRepublican China: Research” and Theory proposesthat,as in way a of overcoming privileged epistemologicalclaims to position. and accept acknowledge my of“outsider” position the to history, Chinese no (women’s) with West natural wasimportant, the in thought people history as far aspossible astheChinese themselves experienced rather it than in terms ofwhat production influenced its what and processis the of thesis. creation of this “objective Research,” in in Research,” Curzon, 2003),1. Spakowski (Münster: Lit Verlag, 2005), 70.

Mechthild Leutner, “Woman’s, Gender and mainstream Studies on Republican China: Problems in Theory and Paul A.Cohen, Haraway, Donna I do not want to, and I do I Chinese and believeinside can, reconstruct to, not want that I to “get China, donot I I donotI have disciplinary a degreein history. Instead, I received my BA Chinese in Mechthild Leutner in herarticle “Women’s, Gender and Mainstream Studies 69 ,” Leutner’s suggestions for improving the quality of research on women and gender in gender onwomen of research and forquality improving the suggestions Leutner’s Women in China: The Republican Period inHist Period The Republican inChina: Women

as well as the insistence on sensitivity to the various forms various knowledge of the to situated onsensitivity insistence the as well as - style MA degree, which accentuated not only a study of Chinese l

China Unbound: Unbound: China Simians, Cyborgs, and Women: The Reinvention of Nature

Evolving PerspectivestheChinese on Past

g point to explain my own academic background that had had my background that to own academic explain g point

, or normal,”Cohen suggests. , or as , ed. Mechthild Leutner and Nicola and Leutner oricalMechthild Perspectiveed. , cultural and political history. After pursuing style” degree similar to the present

(New York: Routledge, 1991). Routledge, York: (New

(London and New York: Routledge Routledge York: New and (London basic discipline, that is, 67

anguage and and anguage 68 Instead, I

on - CEU eTD Collection research and preoccupations. methodologies, two self lea functioning existence, smooth,fairly of and independent overcome:dissertation the (at to andstudents, obtain to results of sharethe to only Beijing University’s International Women’s Studies Center. These research visits allowed me not my andgratifying, research the way to atAcademia Sinica was opened. to very proved be waymy a that in refocused inquiry Studiesliterature,I Chinese to access gained immediate I Oxford numberof fromat a in ways: benefited spent University year one gathered Women in scholars supportive unfailingly the to related closely waysis my other) change (and did academic influencesthat main ofone the disadvantages an myto own others’ and positionalitiessituational material in symbolic and websof privileges, learner sensitive to reflexive mostbecomeinterdisciplinary research,perhaps importantly, a and, different questions and criticisms, to my hear me to program interests, interdisciplinary Gender expand Studies scholarly to allowed commenced my PhD at studies MA and the StudiesDepartmentGender the CEU. at The one cannotthat beat the influence that the onlack have of resources academic production, I of year degreeone Socio MPhil in Another majorAnother influence pertinent to my are tworesearch workonthis thesis visits to the US tothe addition acquiring In - contained academic worlds: those of sinophone and anglophone scholarly literature, anglophone and of academic sinophone those worlds: contained d marginalization. d marginalization. , but have also made me aware of an issue too too alsomade ofcomplexmy have me issue Nüxue bao,but aware an for

my research, exchange research experiences with the professors and

- cultural anthropologyUniversity, and at Belgrade realizing - style academic that training I have received theCEU,at

see the advantages and feel disadvantages of

and Gender in Chinese studies network. I studiesI Chinese network. in Gender and

st) CEU eTD Collection 70 educationalbackground.my and institutional personal of limitations and ofopportunities a as the understood product is thatmy ensure to dissertation problematic politicallyand indicative demarcation because ofacademicbut wa the I domains, maintain very wish I this to do I because not so anglophone sinology. the to access specific of a space within fromand myfunctioning a own acknowledging am ThI UK. us, the and exposure to this material was limitedmy to never- claimliterature I cannot in proficiency full a sinophonemy academic production because afieldis of academic enquiry Michael Hockx, “What’s in a Date? May Fourth in Modern Chinese Literary History,” in History,” Literary Chinese in Modern Fourth May in a Date? “What’s Hockx, Michael Hence, mustI agreewith

Michael Hockx in itself. 70 Even though I use Chinese languagesecondary Chinese use I Eventhough 36

who recognizes - that English who recognizes long - enough research visits to China, Taiwan Lomová, 291. language sinology language sinology

nt nt

CEU eTD Collection this was not the case with China and East Asia. Furthermore, the Chinese world order, to use order,to world Chinese the Furthermore, Asia. East and China with wasnot case the this must be able to conceptidentify the sovereign of a nationas territorial a cultural and unit, and international, because,as Fairbank John argues,in orderto refer to the international system one mustnineteenth However,I century. caution thatit is problematic name to this system civilizational understanding of ne social and political institutionalization of the Chinese interventions. and civilization destabilization ofChina the callsShogo Suzuki “East Asian InternationalSociety.” differently, Put I will discuss on the tribute system.will closeI this section with a brief account of the dismantlin diplomatic institutionalization of previously introduced of theChinese “state” and “international relations” Iwill elaborate on the political and civilizational attainments. political domains s discuss notionsofwill the nei Nüxue hui Chapter 3:Destabilization oftheSinocentricorder: China, I amI onSuzuki’sworkbecause drawing his insights are forimportant understanding the In alignment with Wang Hui’s insistence on a contextualized approach to the discussion contextualized ona Wanginsistence todiscussion alignmentwith Hui’s the In approach A purpose of chapter this to is establish the socio , Nüxue tang the world, and the the world,and Wuxu reform period nei nei that signify and and and

wai - when acknowledged when world order Nüxue bao

[inner]and [inner]and were forcibly altered by the Wester proper placement thein Sino i and emerged and operated. In the first partof the theIemerged In first chapter operated. and wai wai wai

37 nei when nei [outer] and its destabilization the its in and dismantling and - acknowledged orderbased- world ongeo nei - cultural and political which in context - wai the understandingsof- the geo

relationships in East Asia, that is, and and centric world order based on wai n and Japanese military

are understood- geo are as

g of what what g of political political CEU eTD Collection 71 rely on. Since Mrs. Richard provided pretty detailed first- andeducational practices expertise women theChinese in work involved of Nüxuetang presented as an example of female missionaries, a grou encountersChinaChinese. with the and shadow of her on Qinginfluence the b Court, greatlyforofBritish from merchantfurtherthe and whoincrease pleaded benefitted and the to assess her social activismChina, in her marriage with Archibald Little, British industrialist gained in the Unfair Treaties to change the lives of Chinese w and Richard, Kang Youwei. late about personswhom three discussion show as position I political introduce the situationperiodbetweenbriefly the in proceed 1898,and 1895and at its central position, and separated from theSouthern and Western Asia, named “international.” - with nation case the [nominally] theincluded countries whichwith did China build formallynot egalitarian – relations ute of structure relations, trib generalized and for normative,idealized wording Fairbank’s Relations

John King Fairbank, “A Preliminary Framework,” in - Qing women’s educational and publishing enterprises. I will talk about Alicia Little, Mary Mary Richard was a wife of famous British missionary Timothy missionary Shewill be British Richardwifefamous wasa Richard. ofMary Westerners benefits that Littlewhothe foreigners used most thoughtful Alicia was among In the final part of this chapter I will talk , ed. John King Fairbank (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1968), 1- 71 Instead, will asI discuss, this was an East Asian system, geographically tian zi tian

ringsback us to theWestern imperialist projectasan inevitable – states the Son of Heaven presiding over it. thepresiding Sonover of Heaven – and these relations and the world hardly may called be hardly world the and relations these and The Chi 38 about the Wuxu reform period. I will first nese World Order: Traditional China’s Foreign

tianxia tianxia - p ofWestern women on whose selected cases of distinct groups of supporters of of groups supporters cases of distinct hand ofsurrounding the account events omen and girls. Yet, Yet, omen girls. and in attempt an – All under Heaven – Heaven under All 2, 5. 2,

with China China with

had to to had to the the to as is is as CEU eTD Collection Hefei Gongye Daxuechubanshe, 2010), 150 jiegou meijie (Amherst:Cambria Press, 2010), 79. Zheng Guanying: Merchant Reformer of Late Qing China and his Influence on Economics, Politics, and Society 73 72 a number of important issues anis effort to map the important referents that facilitated and my ofwomen attempt chapter ground analysis to of fourth opening sections the the in and in will present I this operated journal that the and father her to active and understanding actions ofideasand of the Kang Tongwei,his eldest a sense,positions of importantare kind contextualization this for Kangour In Youwei’s pinpoint arelation between the discourses creat ofdiscursive the showpart a to only not future,ideal aswell as the reformist suggestions for anew treatment of Confucianism. do I so decided to discuss Kang’s Datongshu does the injustice to the complexity of the ideas that were circulating at that moment. that a emphasis onthe of scholarly contribution the to 1898 Kang Youwei reformmovement Chinese ownaims.of womentheir strategic Christian poor for discloseto the which way in Mary Richard othermissionary and womenvoices the appropriated of presentation the DowagerCixi Empress sixtiethbirthda the Newfor the her Testament to chosen chapter Forevent – I’ve ofhistorical thethis one in my dissertation. chapter events fourth the establishment and operati disguises the disguises of weakness Kang and revolution via the 1898 reformmovement. This oversimplified and reductive historical analysis, in Wu’s view, t of

hwit her father relation see Tongwei’s WangKang Tiangen,For In pointing to the overemphasis that historiography puts to Kang and Liang, Wu is also criticizing the construction he vision of unilinear and progressive evolution from the bureaucratic reformism of the 1870s to the republican The following discussionsThe following of- ideo is regularlydiscussed a ofKang Youwei figure 1898ReformWuthe Guo period. warns ” (Late Qing and early Republican press and the construction of revolutionary public opinion) (Hefei: ly involved in the reformist projects I analyze in the later chapters.

on of

Liang’s characters, as wellthe as limited of scope the reform itself. Guo Wu, Nüxue hui - 153. and theand racist treatment of women hi in

political which association in context women’s school, repertoire which was available to women, but also to

39 and ed byreform ed oriented reformist enterprises. My treatment of Nüxue tang will, I analyze her visionof the “ Qingmo Minchu baokan yu geming yulun de - oriented men and their female menkin. their and oriented

daughter whodaughter was very close s visionss of the 72 73 Still, I

y –

CEU eTD Collection in Brian Carr and Indira Mahalingam (London and New York: Routledge, 1997), 447 1997), Routledge, York: New and (London Mahalingam Indira and Carr Brian in 75 74 has subsumedDaoism,by (what been neo/Confucianism. under) Buddhism and being without continue cancelled philosophyout, inspire to Chinese subsume: and intellectual and cultural life. These views, interconnected in a way that one giv core of earliest Chinese the structure ofphilosophyand Chinese direction fundamental 3.1. of elaboration significantexhaustive topics. these and women’slimited actions 1897in shoul discussions 1899,and and eventually influenced the lives of common people political and intellectual persuasion to shape and impose the ideology on the vernacular tradition, all of which which tradition,” the “great tradition between

When discussing the place of Confucian tradition in Chinese culture, Mou adapts Robert Redfield’s distinction Cheng Chung Nei Nei of Chinese philosophy. of philosophy. Chinese whether collective or individual, political or moral, in the formation of the early schools humanism, intrinsic an and naturalism forcosmic a basis the provides which subject, philosophy; and a timely awakening to the potentiality and awakeningthe to creativityphilosophy; timely of a and Chinese guiding and in thinking wayand ofimplicitly conditioning the perception bipolar onto bipolar meaning for the ethical, social and political life of the Chinese pe intrinsican reverence for heaven spirits, ancestral and providethewhich sourceof These ideasThese inform are byall and supported three main teachings appreciated in China: - As Cheng Chung and and - ying, “Th ying,

wai is created and maintained by the unlettered. Mou explain that Confucian tradition utilize tradition did that Confucian Mou theexplain is maintained by unlettered. created and : Politicalcivilization geographyof : - cosmological reflectioncosmological provides which backbone ofthe methodology a e Origins of Chinese Philosophy,” in Companion Encyclopedia of Asian Philosophy ,”

that is, a tradition that is cultivated by the elite intellectuals in a the in eliteand by aissociety, the “little is, that that tradition cultivated intellectuals ying articulated, there are three “strains of thinking” which create the the articulated,are “strains ofcreate there three which ying thinking”

. as However, Mouargues, the influence was never unidirectional 40

- d as understood be an not 448.

ople; adialectical es birth to another 75

Eventhough

the human human the , ed. CEU eTD Collection Abingdon: Routledge, 2011). & Virgins Convents Catolic Christian & Temples, Mosques in Daoist China: Islamic Space Women’s Mosques in Chinese Islam Avalokitesvara popular religious beliefs in Chinese women’s lives see Yü Chün examples of fine scholarship in English that r affairs, opted to prove their cultural competency by engaging with neo/Confucian discourses and concerns. For the analyzing in my thes analyzing Buddhism, or, for that matter, other pertinent thoughts/belief systems in China, is that the authors of the texts amI De Vos (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1998), 7 Prescriptions for Women’s Lives: A Thousand Years of Biographies of Chinese Women and practices throughout the Chinese history. streams Sharpe, 2004), 6. This vision of dynamic historical coexistence of different and sometimes seemingly contradicting 78 77 76 manages to subvert the message channeled down from the Confucian tradition.” S and, “while practicing what is imposed on it, with apparent obedience and faithfulness, the vernacular tradition there are three meanings of the term: Ru mu oftranslation Ru from, derivative dependentonConfucius. ThewordConfucianism,neither nor Jesuit’s people.” Chinese of the ofidentity civility the the as coherence well the it underpins more importantly as Li ceasing] be to defining characteristics of theChinese way of life.” Wei with, Tu as two thousand years, Confucianism influenced the profoundly Daoism Buddhism and also significantly have influenced the way of and life thinking, is a meaningful literally means “the family of scholars,” and that adds neither the adjective “Confucian” nor the term “Confucianism” Rosenlee, 2006, 17. 2006, Rosenlee, Rosenlee, 2006, 17. Tu also thatstresses Chinese term rujia Wei Tu ch easier ch easier consumption in the West.” - hsiang Lisa Rosenlee’s conveys, not only “the fundamental cultural Chinese symbol, but of thoughts and practicesmay be a good way to think about the richness, instability and endurance of ideas Ru The meaning ofRu the - ming, 77 The origin or asit has been known in the West since , New York: Columbia University Press, 2001; Maria Jaschok and Shui Jingjun, The History of

term in Chinese. Tu, 1998, 3 “Confucius and Confucianism,” in Confucianism andthe family , makes,, as Rosenlee conveys, “the concept of Ru

is, aspiring to fix their forming position of recognized participants in the debates on the wai s ofconcepts the of Ru

(Surrey: Curzon, 2000); Maria Jaschok and Shui Jingjun, Jingjun, Shui and Jaschok Maria 2000); Curzon, (Surrey:

is enigmaticis not and unified, Rosenlee as further observes, - 4, 8. 4,

eveal the importance that Buddhism, Daoism, Islam, Christianity and Christianity Islam, that Daoism, Buddhism, theeveal importance - 78 ming concludes, “Confucian values and norms [never ming “Confucian norms valuesand concludes, [never

thoughts and actions of people in China for more for China than in of actions thoughts and people

as acommon name of learned all men; Ru

precede theprecede life hence ofthe Confucius, term is 41 , inadequately rendered as Confucianism in English, - the eighteenth century century eighteenth the 8.main A reason why I don’t discussDaoism and - fang, Kuan - 76 yin: The Chinese Transformation of

simplified and secularized for , ed. Walter H Slote and Ge Slote H ed. Walter ,

herry J. Mou, Mou, J. herry (Armonk and London: M.E. M.E. and London: (Armonk – Women, Religion, and and Religion, Women, Confucianism, is,

(New York and York (New Gentlemen’s orge A. as an and and

CEU eTD Collection eco of the proper life of human beings with integrated aesthetic, ethical, spiritual, political and 82 81 80 79 statedominant ideology cult and when the Han dynasty (141 – music,1 (1 rites, ethics and Zhouof early dynasty the ethic,social political a ideology,a scholarly tradition, a and way of life vagu and term, much is evokes definition.e understood it “a broader Hence, as worldview, a accomplishment and a virtuous existence. admired the past sage- in and and rituals six inmourning burial arts;expertise and 2006), 9 2006), of Authority Cultures 1.

John H. Berthrong and Evelyn Nagai Berthrong, 3. 1998, Tu, Ibid., 24.For the discussion ofthe usage of Henry Rosemont Jr, “Two Loci of Authority: Autonomous Individuals and Related Persons,” in nomic dimensions.” -

“What weConfucianism,” call Mou as her opens statement, originated in the system of painters; and much more. of the and debates the backgroundhistory; economicintellectual for poets reformers; community rituals; dedication to government service; aesthetic criticism; a philosoph the cosmos; an ethical system; an educational program; acomplex of family and exploration philosophic a of religioussensibility praxis; and primordial was a places, and encompassed allthe possible domains of humanvarious concern.Confucianism, at times interlocking for formsgenerationsoflife ofmenAsia women East that in and philosophic movement, Confucianismunderstood as compelling a better is assemblageof mostly West of knownthe practices,the in heart…Although habits and rituals, Confucianism has been and still is a vast, interconnected system ofphilosophies, ideas, 10.

, ed. Peter D Hershock and Roger T. Ames (Albany: State University of New York Press, Press, York New of University State (Albany: Ames T. Roger and Hershock D Peter ed. , 81 Or, in Berthrong and Berthrong’s more comprehensive understanding: morecomprehensive Berthrong’s Berthrongand Or,in kings and canons, and urged for the efforts bringing to moral bringing to efforts the for andurged and kings canons,

Ru Ru in historical texts see see in texts historical Confucianism: A Short Introduction 79 Nonetheless, Confucianism, as ageneric Western 42 th

century ibid. , 18 , 18 Ru - – 87 B.C.) officially announced 771 B.C.), became had and a

24. 24. as a school of thought that that of thought school a as

, (Oxford: One World, 2000), 2000), World, One (Oxford: ” 80 as“acoherent view Confucian as a as a y of

CEU eTD Collection communal self Chunqiu while communication; and mutual reliance on trust, maintained society envisaged not as an adversary system based on contractual relations, but as a communityfounded and the Confucian value of the common emotions, sentiments and feelings; ji Li emphasizing the ethical foundation necessary for a humane government from divinatory art and numerological technique society: 85 84 83 in the annual sacrifice at thestate Teacher”First was established, with stateall officials and the emperor being obliged to take part recruitmentscale device, and the imperialof cult Confucius, is, ofthat the“Supreme Sage an (618 formation Confucianthe tradition. ofclassical the classics and publicthe of display fulltheir content marks, in a symbolic way, the completion of larg conferences, thecourtfinished the reconstruction of The theclassics. classics were inscribed in after several decades of imperially sponsored work of theresearch team and scholarly make Confucius wereuiredto A.D.government req in sacrifices in and schools 58; A.D. 175, graduates were to becomemembers the oftheimperial bureaucracy was established; all core educational material for all stages of learning; de facto imperial university whose male Rujia preoccupations and offer the authoritative male curriculum Five education. Classics for The which texts contemplative compriseelaborate the Confucian We are witnessing a state a are witnessing We again in the period between the ending years of the Qing dynasty and the end of Cultural Revolution. Mou, 2004, 5. Conf the thought; Confucian power of social Later Han, Jin and Wei dynastic reigns, Buddhism and Daoism gained popularity and had seized the political and Education instance, Don Starr, “Chinese Language Education in Europe: the Confucius Institutes,” European Journ of al differently motivated and argued suspicions, cautions and anxieties of its critics. On Confucius Institutes, see, for Rosenlee, 2006, 26. 2006, Rosenlee,

In itslong In Tu speculates that the compilation of the Five Classics came out theof ecumenical desireto define core e stone whichtablets were erected Xi’an,in and this of act “eternalizing” the approved

– to be thestate be only to Yijing Twopments major Ru develo in 907): the Confucian text Confucian the 907):

44, no.1 (2009). no.1 44,

history, as Mou further conveys, Confucianismhad two major setbacks and two major revivals. In the -

identifi (Book of Changes) is developing a metaphysical vision by presenting the ethical insights abstracted abstracted insights the ethical by presenting vision metaphysical a is developing Changes) of (Book

cation. Tu, 1998, 19 1998, Tu, cation.

- sponsored revival of Confucianismin a globa - sponsored doctrine.

–based service civil examination startedas alarge to be used - constructed temple. -

21. elaborations in the fields of metaphysics, politics, poetics, history and history poetics, politics, of metaphysics, fields in the elaborations ucianist influence was regained during the Song period; and challenged

learning happened during the reign ofTangdynasty the happenedreign during learning ; Shujing 83 43 Consequently, Confucian classics came to be the 84

(Book

85 The proceeding Song- dynasty Theproceeding (960

of Documents) is instructing into the politics by the politics into instructing is Documents) of ; Shijing stresses the importance of history for l soft l

(Book of Rites) e Rites) of (Book (Book of History) is talking about about is talking History) of (Book - power competition, as well as as well as competition, power laborates on the on laborates 1279) 1279) d - CEU eTD Collection interpretations of of interpretations the Yuan dynasty, Zhu Xi’s commentaries and on Books the Four (nine years after he died) that Zhu Xi was honored with the posthumous title, and only in 1313 during the reign of title official his crimes.ten With for prosecuted was he 1196

88 87 86 world historical rapture f Geography theand unique cultural continuity and consistency, never static but without genuine been intimately related with Chinese self years. hundred made thema most influential reference in the Chinese intellectual life in the following six onwards, century had and Zhu XiplacedtheClassics Books fourteenth Four above Five the Four Books the central scriptures for primary education and civil examinatio humanisticmaking vision,addition,them Books.Four In coherent by a named and them as the yong xue who Da put and xue later asLi - neo situation the thoughtappliedto contemporary classicaland claimed, the Confucian it literati refreshed ofsaw the reinvigoration Confucian thought withnew the philosophical stream Song as which, Ibid., 27. Zhu Xi’s work came under attack in the 1180s, and, after his after his and, the 1180s, attack in under came work Zhu Xi’s 27. Ibid., Ibid., 26. Tu, 1998, p. 25. p. 1998, Tu, Confucianism in the WestConfucianism the in (T -

Neo/Confucianism as a a butNeo/Confucianism as endurin an changing sinocentrism he Doctrine of theMean) 86

Zhu Xi is a most a philosopher Xiis revered of Zhu schoolthatcame of called be thought this to Ru

learning andhad becamethe basis ofcivil service examination. Rosenlee, 2006, 28. (The Great Learning)

or more than two thousand years, shaped the traditio shapedChinese of the view nal twothe years, morethan or thousand (The School of the Heavenly/Universal Principle) in China. in Principle) Heavenly/Universal School(The of the -

in which the Chinese perceived themselves as the center of the universe,

, and have first been denoted as been Dao denoted first xue have , and

in in a sequence, synthesized their commentaries, interpreted , - Mengzi perception, political system, and ordering of the world. system,ofworld. perception, political ordering and the 44 (Mencious), and privileges removedin 1199,it was notuntil 1209 - g socio Five Classics becameFive offi Classics Dao xue Lun yu cultural and political corpus has corpus political cultural and

was labeled as “false learning” in (the Analects)

(The School of the Way) the of School (The 87 Zhu was the one the Zhu was cially embraced ns fromns the

and and

Zhong CEU eTD Collection it. a discourse that sometimes did and sometimes the lackof did and power China’s of realities not the political reflect culture by civilized rules and, in so doing, one becomes Chinese.” Ibid., 99. Uni in death, and ancestorhood.” and death, performance of keyrituals associated with the life circle, namely, the rites of birth,marriage, 91 90 89 the stat wasChinese understand to perform and the cultivated socio and social arrangements of theChinese state and culture was what being Chinese was about. all politica in L.participant Cohenfull explains,ofa Myron firm a being consciousness As the andConfucian cultivated orders. adopting tradition philosophical and Confucian moral become Ch non- and, determined principle, in ethnicity, purely identity wasnot group by pre a as terms,Chineseness and China defined cultural being in Therefore, culturaltradition. expressedciples practiceofthrough and neo/Confucian knowledge prin defined determined as China were that culturalcommunity a whoseboundaries bythe superiority of the Chinese civilization. pridetaking in owntheir standards, valuesand habits Meaning ofBeing Chinese a Today Fate Modern its - Anti an as Ibid., 92; and James L. Watson, “Rites or Beliefs? The Construction of a Unified Culture in China,” Imperial in Culture Late a of Unified Construction The Beliefs? or “Rites and James 92; L. Watson, Ibid.,

Myron L. Cohen, “Being Chinese: The Peripherization of Traditional Identity,” in in Identity,” of Traditional Peripherization The “Being Chinese: L. Cohen, Myron On sinocentrism see, for instance, Kauko Laitinen’s China’s Quest for National Identity National Quest for China’s versity Press, 1993), 87. As Watson sums up, “following correct forms ensures that one is playing the game of Sinocentrism premise was abasic of culturalism, i.e. the belief, doctrine of orset ideas The elite was mastering (neo e - Manchu P Manchu Confucianism that there was a proper way of everyday behavior and correct a behavior everyday way of proper Confucianism wasa there that inese through assimilation, which mainly involved mastering and accepting the accepting and mastering mainly throughwhich assimilation, involved inese

(Berkeley: University of California Press, 1968). Press, is It California 1968). thatof important to sinocentrismemphasize (Berkeley: University was ropagandist - political hierarchies; whereas, from the perspective of ordinary people, to be 91

(London: Curzon, 1990) and Joseph 1990) Curzon, R.(London: Levenson’s trilogy and China Confucian , ed., Tu Wei

, ed. Lowell Dittmer and Samuel S. Kim (Ithaca and London: Cornell Cornell London: and S. KimSamuel (Ithaca and Dittmer Lowell ed. , ) Confucian 89 -

ming( Stanford: Stanford U li (etiquette, ritual), to view(etiquette, that is, acknowledge the of Chinese Nationalism in the late Qing Dynasty: inBinglin the Zhang late Dynasty: Qing Chinese Nationalism 45 moral and philosophical tradition, thus adopting , and claiming unchallenged an

niversityPress, 1991), 98, 100. The Living Tree: TheChanging - national category of national of category Chinese could could Chinese l, cultural, cultural

CEU eTD Collection Conceptual Horizon of Historical East Asian Politics” in the in volume. same Politics” Asian edited Historical East Horizon of Conceptual tributesyste on literature meaning is “culturally advanced realm sees.” four The meaning second is political, it and may as understood be meanings. The first meaning is geographical, and it may refer to “all under the Heaven” and to China “within the Gungwu in Reassessment,” A Relations: referring to the common aspiration of the people.” Ren Xiao, “Traditional Chinese Theory and Practice o of of the notion myam discussing I In not study relations. East in Asian institution only the system was implytribute that to “tributeapproach system” combine I the insig of theof Chinese character yi University of New York Press, 2006), 271. It should be noted that the term “barbarian” is modern British translation territ the accounts in which the world had been divided into the royal domain, the states of the feudal lords, and the work articulated his in discusses Lewis that political States actors Late Warring value. numerological their for rather 44. 2004), Press, University Stanford (Stanford: throne the to loyalty family the with to loyalty integrated force that ethical as an worked culture Confucian atthe macrolevel. throne the imperial and to to their atthe families microlevel was loyalty inasmuch the people’s as nation a not was China Kong, Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1989), 2. Suisheng Zhao adds that “as an ancient empire, communication between British and Chinese in mid- analysis of China of analysis 95 94 93 92 nine or Emperor, the Son of Heaven, as its radiating center. dynasty the turn, in ofwhich, guardian the wasthe culture. Chinese was to preserve the culture and the dynasty, whereas the cultural hierarchies maintained that C dynasty governed nation other nation- implies and both, (Cambridge: Cambridge UniversityPress, 2002), 7. Forastir that the word yi Ancient Cosmo, Di Nicola China. China and Its Enemies: The Rise of Nomadic Power in East Asian History Ea

The magic numbers five and nine were not selected for their correspondence with“realis the inthe the last influence, pre studies decade international China’s of the increase Reflecting Young Jonathan Unger, “Introduction,” in st Asian foreign relations in general, and on tianxia tianxia ories ofthe barbarians.Mark Edward Lewis, The Construction of Space in Early China - , ed. Zheng Yongnian (London and New York: Routledge, 2010), 111 2010), Routledge, York: New and (London Yongnian , ed.Zheng Differing frommodern nationalism that “centers loyal The world of culture and of The world civilization culture Chinesethat defined was tianxia, - zone vision ofzone the vision world

tsu Wong, Search for Modern Nationalism: Zhang Binglin and Revolutionary China 1869- in great detail. in great detail. I that hope it be will su - states,” - related academic production in the field of IR cannot be fully addressed in my study. In my .” SuishengZhao, ANation- 92 culturalism in imperial China was actually patriarchal loyalty to the ruling msee, for instance, Zhang Feng, “Rethinking the ‘Tribute System’: Broadening the , , thatand a hina bythe hina of prescripts Confucianmoral culture - statesor would China and International Relations: The Chinese View and the Contribution Wang of andContribution Chinese View the The Relations: International and China

Chinese Chinese Nationalism 95 ,” in the in following way: single term analogous to the English “barbarian” did not exist in Ancient

while the fourth, in Re

fficed to note here that htsofa number of scholars,but State by Construction: Dynamics of Modern Chinese Nationalism Nationalism Chinese Modern of Dynamics by Construction: State - be nation- be nineteenth century China see Lydia H. Liu, see Liu, LydiaH. century China nineteenth

in particular are multiplying. These debates, as well as the 46 , ed. 94 Jonathan Unger (Armonk:M.E. Sharpe, 1996), xii. states that define themselves in contrast to Mark Mark Edward Lewis describes a five n’s own words, own n’s 93 tianxia

“the regime”“the country”. “the and The third ties onties the state or an ethnicity or , as Ren Xiao explains, has four basic -

112. For a criticism pointed to For a the criticism112. pointed , while doing so, I do not want to

“is moral tianxia / barbarian createdbarbarian in the

the priority of a loyal - modern China’s and with the Chinese the with tic accounts” butaccounts” tic

(Albany: State State (Albany: , by and large byand , The Clash of of Clash The 1936 f Foreign Foreign f - (Hong (Hong zone zone

CEU eTD Collection China andthe West,1500 99 98 97 96 2004). Empires: The Invention of China in Modern World Press, MakingUniversity Harvard London: and (Cambridge progres periphery, “a with the “outer”. of overtakenmoving newhad whilefrontier asthe came the position perceived be “inward” to space was not ordered in a static way: internally, as C ( foreigners” Manchuria, the territoryMongolia, Tibet; Uigur and zone by the and “outer Outer inhabited the semi bynomadic inhabited and zone, neighbors and eastern southern China’s included zone, that world: Sinitic ofgeographical zone their Mungello, David Fairbankand way byJohn World Order, Past and Present,” in Fairbank, 1968, 277. 1968, in Fairbank, Present,” and Past Order, World areSchwartz,“The societyChinesePerception as valid.”Benjamin I. of Chinese culture entities such or corrections have been made, it will “still prove general the contrary phenomena, when it comes to the notion of a Chinese perception of the world order, even after all the andaccounts statistical crude be but whichdescribes predominanttendencies and do not precludetheexistence of cannot and millions eventhoughall longof about people, periods time, territories, that, general of statements vast Ibid., 271. Fairbank, 1968, 8- 1968, Fairbank, translates Fairbank Eulogizing the sweeping academic gesture of discussing the Chinese world order, Benjamin I. Schwartz writes

The Chinese ordering the world is described in a slightly different (and different dehistoricized) in slightly described a the is ordering world The Chinese barbarians. lords,thos by feudal areaunder thethe ruler, that is, the capital moveregion, then throughcontrolled regions divided the into aworld of series zones of declining orderand civility. beginThese with This model where the ruler was the central point of ahierarchized spatial structure …

– 99 Korea, Vietnam,Korea, Liuqiu (Ryukyu the ) and,Islands occasionally, Japan;Asian Inner waiyi In all In cases of the ordering zoning, of world the clearly distinguished center and 9. waiyi waiyi ) from Southeast from South Holland) Portugal, England. Asia, and Southeast Asia 96

- 1800 as“outer barbarians”.Fairbank, 1968,2, 13; DavidMungello,

(Rowman &Littlefield, 2009), 4. 4. 2009), &Littlefield, (Rowman sive decline asone moves away from thecenter through a series of e occupiedore pacified by dynasty,the and under current finally those - nomadic neighbors from the north a north from neighbors the nomadic ly valid in the sense in which all general propositions about

47 97 who claim that Chinese identified three identified Chinese who claim that

hinese propergrew, former the frontier The GreatEncounter of nd the west – west nd the 98 The The

CEU eTD Collection of of was primarily and defined practicedthrough the ofmastering li,proper and etiquette practicing Wall sense (hencethephysical Great of properr China), also throughbut the within the nei These boundariesopponents. that will demarcate the difference between the Han civility placed ofmilitary the sphere standsfor chaotic, the and outer court ofimperial civil the sphere ordered, spatial marker of theborder between the inner and the outer, where the innerrepresents the 102 101 100 Hsiang Rosenlee formulates: a higher mere of the domination a junior which has been a constituent of the Chinese culture from its earliest periods, do not entail thinking neo/Confucian throughunderstood the waysin hierarchy which and were (non)duality conceived in be willfollowing be should the genrechapter, labor,and that elaborated in ofdivisions space, political geography of civilization that Iam of nei authority geo- ordering the squares,” concentric between between Genderfriends. relation father allwith supersedes others, relationship 72. 71, 2006, Rosenlee, 287. 114, Lewis, Mou describes neo/Confucian social hierarchy of high/low and close/apart in the following way: ruler bie , gender differentiation. , gender When appearing in Shujing in When appearing - Cheng Chung sphere, and uncivilized the unruliness of the , the the, the wai inner over

ying explains that an order of the higher and the lower, the senior and the and the the and senior lower, orderofhigher an explainsthe ying that and ordering and s depend on generation and age. Mou, 2004, 194. 2004, Mou, age. and son generation depend

101 However, the the relation between However, nei nd the senior over the lower and the junior. the and lower the over senior nd the forthe first of , the outer.”, the the social world. world. social the - civilizational space of political power “in terms of the son, brother

discussing in this chapter, and in terms of gendered of and thistermsgendered in chapter, discussing 48 time asabinary term, 100 - brother,and husband-

wai

sphere were drawn not only in a a in only not drawn were sphere

and and wife preceding the relationship the relationship preceding wife nei wai - wai , both in in , both a of sense itualization which

is principally a 102 As Lisa Li As - subject subject - CEU eTD Collection 104 103 extractedfrom European the assumptions bythe precluded notionsotherwise ofvarious state” the state, that is, for clarifications of “different notions and typ theoretizations ofWang for different of asks are modernity,” the opposite Hui featuresthat the its the decomposition beginning system 3.2. Tribute of and tribute system. resulting political embodiment and enactment in the East Asian “international” relations: the specifically at the ordering of the nei one dependentand to another.” mutually complementary thisholistic In positions. and roles respective the maintenance of a “holistic totality” of an order that allocates the higher and the lower to their ensure which of higher,both the toward oflower respect the lower the and the provideto should State University of New York Press, 2010), 184. Philosophy and Contemporary Issues, East Asia and Beyond, ed. Chang Wonsuk and Leah Kalmanson (Albany Cheng, 448, 449. 448, Cheng,

Li - Confucianism in Context: Classic Classic Context: in Confucianism in Confucianism,” of “A Feminist Appropriation Lisa Rosenlee, hsiang Therefore, as Cheng adds, what is important in this order is the protectionthe orderis in the important that this is what Therefore, Cheng adds, as areand also reciprocal they complementary through through. and theIn Confucian world, althoughit true is that social relations are hierarchicalin nature, domination submissionand in which superior the an has power absolute over the inferior. the Unlike powerHobbesian model, the ofparticular structure relationis each not that of - binaryof the nation against Arguing of China ofordering discussion the a to nowI turn

and and

wai states and empires, where theempire “constitutes all 49

totality of an order, “all individual parties are - geo in domains 104 -

acknowledged Imperial world. I look acknowledged world. look Imperial I civilizational terms, and to its es of political structure and

103

higher : CEU eTD Collection (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1995). Press, University Stanford (Stanford: see Liu, Lydia H. China groundbreaking s nineteenth century. For the Chinese “translating - Western of translation Wang builds Hamashita Takeshi’s understanding of regional and world history. understandingworld and of Takeshi’s regional Hamashita Wang builds enveloped within the history of modernEuropean 108 107 106 105 atofbeen the core whicthis totality following: culturally, economically and politically Asia forms a totality; Chinese civilization has integration of Asia on a tribute network derived from basicpremises. three These include the and China throughwoven together the tribute system,” and advocates Wang affirmingly summarizes his ideas, reconstructs the “East Asian world order centered on sovereign states or characteristic of a tribute systems? – And Africa relationships with its “allied nations” or “strategic partners” scattered throughout Asia, Europe, by a treaty or tribute relationship? Were the United States (or the USSR’s) twentieth “Were G and economies, and challenges the Western Wang affirms a tribute system as “a unique political culture” that intersect ritual, politics, culture developments.experiences and “tribute system” at the time when it functioned, and that contemporary term that Wang uses assumes internal linkan “East between chubanshe in 1999. jinji Yazhou guan jindai tixi yu

Wan Wang Hui, 2011b, 56. What Wang does not comment, though, is the fact that there was no Chinese term tomark WangHui, 2011a, 79. criticizes “empire” that foraway “state” discourse makingin Asia the binary European versus on the Wang g refers Chinese to translation of Hamashita Takeshi’s book In challenging the made challenging the In reat Britain’s nineteenth century trade relations with India and North America defined tudyabout the rolesthat neologismsand the processof translation (have)played in modern/izing particularly in the Cold War post and Cold the particularly in

- generated name for the political and social relations exercised in the before world relationsexercised politicalsocial the nameEast Asian generated and for

Translingual Practice: Literature, National Culture, and Modernity, China China 1900 Modernity, and Culture, National Literature, Practice: Translingual

translated by Zhu Yinguiand OuYangfei, andpublished byZhongguo shehui kexue

- - to 105 Asian modernity” and nation - be “So as to “Soas the prevent notion of state being completely

- intrinsic link between nation h is linked together networkby a of trans back” this term invented by the West see Zhang Feng, 96. For a - centric thinking aof byposing unasked set questions: 50 capitalism and its associated nation ” - 107 Cold War– periods Jindai Zhongguo de guoji qiji: Chaogong maoyi maoyi Chaogong qiji: guoji de Zhongguo Jindai -

state. Wang Wang state. - Hui, 2011b, 44- 2011b, Hui, state and modernity and state in

the notion of internal relationships among among relationships –

108 chaogong tixi chaogong 45. Hamashita, as

- state tribute - states,” - century century

- – Asia 1937

is a is 106

CEU eTD Collection and Time imperial period. Suzuki, 35. alsoSee Joshua Fogel, permanent China’s dominance over the other participants in the political, cultural, economical exchanges during the 114 113 112 111 110 109 sense the in of jimi famous governing’not ( we grasp are to the essence of the relationship, are the Chinese expressions of but ‘subordinating more symbolic ‘reigning’ rather than a genu order had on these peoples and their rulers. benefits of the tribute system; and the little effect that Chinese empire’s pretensions to world milWong the identifies three BinWongreasons. Empire, Chinese lists projected bythe order Sinocentricworld the order.” the normative supremacy within forei with of conduct rules the system, set andagreement thatit Qingemerged Ming the during the dynasties. of contested, therelevel a are scholarly origins is though even its that explains Shogo Suzuki practices of tribute andbestowal ( relations; this tribute networked is joined with a set of “core in his opinion, overemphasizes China’s influence, that, Fairbank’s naming criticizes Society. Suzuki names Society it East Asian International International European amo relations diplomatic Fairbank uses the term “Chinese world order.” Shogo Suzuki’s recent publication that shed additional light on the Ren, 105. Ren, 281. 1997, Wong, Suzuki, 36. Suzuki, 35. Wang Hui, 2011b, Hui, Wang There are many names thatscholars tend to use for this word: Joshua Fogel calls it “sinosphere” while John K. The Tribute Systemthe institutionalwas expression of aChina

(Cambridgeand London: Harvard UniversityPress, 2009).

chen erbu andzhi) ‘neithersubordina

45.

ng the polities of East Asia before and at the initial stage of their socialization in the socialization their of and atthestage initial Asia before East of polities ng the itary weaknessstatesconfrontitary ofto China; these and material symbolic or ‘Loose Rein’ policy.” ‘Looseor Rein’

ce feng 112 ).

because the situation was much more complex than one 109 Explaining why the rulers of other peoplestolerated of rulers other why Explaining the gn polities, and, “as a regional hegemon…assumed and,regional a “as gn polities, ine ‘ruling’,” and adds that, “o that, adds and ‘ruling’,” ine Articulating the Sinosphere:Articulating Sino -

113 51 t a mostly “China t Assough Renexplains, Xiao 114 ting nor governing’ting (

- periphery” ties and its assumed - regulated world order. regulated world 111 Japanese Relations in Space f much significance, ifmuchf significance, bu chen bubu chen zhi China imagined this imagined China - sided and ), much), 110

CEU eTD Collection 117 116 115 trade privileges envoys granted statestheir oftributary were or power, rulers the China’s the ofemperor,” a control the of the properbeyond China immediately effective regions “these extension an were concludes, envoysthe theto Qing courtsymbolically confirmed supremacy. Ritually, Suzuki China’s as elaborated pr meansofQing court. By the highly presented areas the tribute neighboring to and envoys privileges, ofspecial incorporated newly for andmaintenance of the (hierarchical) social order, and ethical rule.” Twovalues. teachings important playedpertinent a role holding in systemthe together: “respect as highest and Confucian ofphilosophy,aimingstability the extension order universalist at affairs greater prestige.” more likely werethey to seen be to be responsive to virtuethe ofChinese emperor, the enjoy and theirextent) geographicalproximity China: to “Th moree China’s neighbors ‘sinified’ were, the lesser anda (to into Chinese culture assimilation of level their the judgmenton Chinese about become legitimatemembers of theorder. Rather, the statuses of non demarcated territorial boundaries, nor did they need to possess sovereign auto Ren, 107. Ren,

Ibid., 38. Ren Xiao reminds us about a particular security Ibid., 36. Suzuki, 37 The polities of the East Asian Asian The politiesofEast international the alwaysclearly system not have did The East AsianThe East International Society, as Suzuki conceptualizes the of world foreign in Eastpriorin Asia the to nineteenthwas century, structured constitutionally onthe

- 38.

115

nd China’s secure “buffer zones.”

conception of “defense through the barbarians” ( otocol of audience otocol ofand audience exchange of the gifts, 117 In return for their recognition of - Chinese statesChinese often relied 116 In order to gain orderto In nomy order in si yi si ). CEU eTD Collection perform appthe of local products. The foreign rulers or their envoys were escorted to court by the imperial post, where they would Russian mission in Beijing.” Henrietta Harrison, Harrison, in Beijing.” Henrietta mission Russian customsand needs. the Manchus dealtthe with summarizes, of powers northand Central Asia in ato according their pragmatic way: As by Harrison type anexamplethe court. Henrietta another ofQing practiced of relations actually, foreign Decision Making Decision 122 121 120 119 118 between these two polities because there were no official bilateral relations. superiority. perceived diplomatic organize relations to and the from in samewaydid that China of position self her intellectuals to shift the logic of the Tribute System, to posit Japan at the civilizational center, ( Tokugawa Period investiture from theChinese emperor. (which were not a crucial reward), the Da Qing dynastic reign dynastic Qing Da the noble rank in the Qing hierarchy; calculated time according to the Qing calendar and dated their communicat a received patent appointment of and official seal fromin correspondence use the to with Emperor; they a received it did it only 19 times. For an informative address of Sino of address aninformative times. For 19 it only it did Ch’ing Tribute System: An Interpretive Essay,” in Fairbank, 1968, 75 Mark to“The the Emperor tribute inMancall, British Canton). (like presented (regular) without the frontier conductedthe (R thetrade that intribute presented was without Beijing Interpreting History in Sino History Interpreting Rose, Caroline see century nineteenth

Ibid., 50. Suzuki, 49. Japan paid tribute to China only from the beginning of the fifteenth until themiddle of the sixteenth century, and Mark As Suzuki, 38, 39. Describing early nineteenth- Kingdoms” orthe“Centers o the East Asian International Society: both states identified themselves as“Middle norms was behavior of fundamental informed thoroughly the states’ Systems”. by Both startedJapan not contest to East Sinocentric(but Asian) orderworld in already the between China, andbetween Japan i diplomatic ofInternationalSociety,the interaction European ofexpansion eve On the the

Mancall argues, it was possible that the trade was conducted immediately after the tribute was presented; tribute presented; was the thatimmediately Mancallit trade after was conducted the argues, possible was

ropriate ceremonies, notably kowtow and prostrations. Fairbank, 1968, 10

(London and New York: Routledge, 1998), 5- “Embassies two there sentthe majornegotiations between states were for was and apermanent 1603- 121 - title; presented tribute memorials on appropriate occasions, as well as a symbolic tribute symbolic a as tribute well as occasions, appropriate on tribute memorials title; presented China did China not recognize Japan 1868)

. 120 ts ts The rule ofnon- the Therule 118 f Civilization”, and their interests were framed in terms of 119 neighbors and received highly prestigious received and highly gifts from emperor: the

China century tributary practice, Fairba

(London:Arnold, 2001), 56. 53

had settledhad into patterna of “competing Tribute - Chinese relations from the third century B.C. until the until B.C. century third from the relations Chinese 9.

- ’s centrality, but there was no conflict Japanese Relations: A Case Study in Political Han Qing dynasty helped helped J Han Qingdynasty ussians itdid inussians way); to this or, a do at trade - 76. Qing court’s treatme nk claims nk foreign rulers the that

- 11. 11. 122 As writes: Suzuki

nt of Russia is, is, Russia of nt apanese ion by -

CEU eTD Collection Frederic Frederic Wakeman Jr. and Wang Xi (Berkeley : In Century of GreatTransformation, 1840s products and treaties, such as the opening theof foreign thebanks, issue of foreign currencies, direct purchase of the agricultural The Modernization of China use cheap Chinese labor and avoid even the law tariffs that were imposed on outside products. Gilb addedJapanese the right for toforeigners manufacturesdevelop in treaty ports areas, thereby making it possible to The industries. protect or itstrade control unable was to China that meant astreaty thus powers, and ameansfunctioned thefor extraction and expansion privileges.Tariffof arrangements 126 125 124 123 and assumes thetreaty that system early in its stages was theoutgrowth of thetribute system nonetheless, Fairbank, readingoffers different the a ofsituation in mid the - of the beginningofend traditionalthe Sinocentric world order,” claimsYing Yü foreigners’ extraterritoriality, the most favored nation clause and specific tariff arrangements. referred as to the Unequal Treaty System, which implies fought with powers. foreign Theresultingpattern of treaties imposed uponChina usually is Great Qing.the In courseofthe second half ofnineteenth century the lostall China warsthe as as Thewell. most favored clausenation meantt tha China could negotiate only wide China remained under the jurisdiction of foreign laws, which were applicable to foreigners’ employees and protégés reserved for foreign reside to areas Settlement); International Shanghai (the settlements semiautonomous Concession); Tianjin (French consuls conditions ranged from formal over riverside ports opened to foreign commerce and residence came in time to number approximately one hundre quasi have played an “active part in the expansion of ‘European’ or ‘Western’ dominance, and was also regarded ‘as a l the in politics in European participate fully not “did States the United that Suzukiacknowledges writing, on Watson’s Adam By drawing States.

John John K. Fairbank, “The Early Treaty System Chinesethe in inWorld Order,” Fairban Ying Yü Beginning with five treaty ports obtained at the closure of the Opium War, the number of China’s ocean and Suzuki, 54 - equal partner in formulating agreed policies towards Eastern As The First OpiumThe First War – (1839 ‘foreigners’ to submit tribute. maintainsocial andseeking to within theenhance this orderbyattracting standing “The replacement of thetributary system by the treaty system in 1840s already marked - shih, “The Radicalization of China in the Twentieth Century,” Century,” Chinathe of Twentieth in shih, Radicalization “The - the development of the farms were also in operation. Luo Rongqu, “A New Approach to China’s 55. Suzukistates thatwhenhe Europeanaddresses International Society includes he also the United nts but subject to Chinese administration. Extraterritoriality meant that the foreigners in the foreigners that meant Extraterritoriality administration. to Chinese subject but nts (New York: The Free Press, 1981), 34. Imperialistic prerogatives not secured by

- taking of territory (British Hong Kong); concessions governed by foreign ate nineteenth century in accordance with the Monroe Doctrine of 1823,” but –

1940s,” in 1940s,” 123 1842) wasthe1842) first of unbroken an series of set

stitute of East Asian Studies, University of California,1997), 139. California,1997), of University Studies, Asian East of stitute China’s Quest for Modernization: A Historical Perspective A Historical for Modernization: Quest China’s 54 the establishment of foreign settlements, ia’by the European powers.” Ibid. 184 n4.

Shimonoseki Treaty (1895) signed by the Daedalus -

ranging settlements with all the with ranging settlements 122, no. 2 (1993):135. 2 no. 122, k, 1968, 257. k, 1968, nineteenth century, century, nineteenth ert Rozman, ed.

backs for -

shih. d. The 124

. , ed. ed. , 126 125

CEU eTD Collection treating themtreating the with all same condescending benevolence.” I 129 128 127 sources were what Chinese understood as Western science and history. As Furth describes, they late in evolutionary cosmology - this newly defines Furth evolutionarycosmology. new aboutmeaning” bythe brought primarily had to cope with continuities and discontinuities in “significantly altered structures of started to emerge.What Charlotte Furth claims is that the intellectuals of the reform period diplomacyor new a China powernotcontrol, - politics, military could contain world and that Korea.” Chinese) and (Liuin qiu Ryukyu tookthe over Islands control the Japan over Vietnam and theovermost began control “its states,” tributary whento lost important France three West the Chinese giving accommodating and itplacewithinworl a the into China bringing world;the Western it may well equally viewed be Ch’ing a as devicefor Hence, he claims the that treaty system in this period “was not merelyWestern a device for Prentice Hall, 2006), 93. 2006), Hall, Prentice the imperial desire to imperial show desire impartialitythe all to non had imports, imports as well taxing China should be superintended by a head man who would take responsibility for his countrymen. The Ch’ing tariff, mo four to extended simply were Canton of walls the and outside atMacao restricted been times, had earlier in foreigners other Suzuki, 10.

Fairbank elaborates his claim in the following way: “The residential and trading areas to which Westerners, like which Westerners, to areas trading and way:residential “The following claimthe in his elaborates Fairbank R. Keith Schoppa, Schoppa, Keith R. Nevertheless, as R. Keith exp Schoppa inlains, the periodbetween 1874 1895Chinaand With through and the communication Western with powers and Japan in the sphereof more engage withto fully European International Society. final collapse ofbut few had order.Afterthis,China theEastoptions Asian international remainingtributary last an relations China’s put Korea,the to end with signaling also defeat, military but China’s utter symbolized only of not Shimonoseki The 1895Treaty 128 re re ports. The consuls merely the ancient represented principle that acommunity foreign of merchants in As Suzuki concludes: As Suzuki

Revolution and Its Past: Identities and Change in Modern History

- Qing havi as China

never aimed to be protective. The most - Chinese, the better to play off one barbarian against another while 55 ng internal and external sources. The external sources. external ng internaland bid., 258,260.

129 - favored

d.” d.” - 127 nation clause originated in

(New Jersey: Pearson formed formed view view CEU eTD Collection world. with of one in it of as manythe replaced understanding civilization, and an of China cultures cosmology, new a world links socio- that causation be to continued Confucian- nineteenth century 133 132 131 130 nature Society. of remindsand ofdualistic us International Hethat: writes the International Law Eu and - ropean non- inter- European states’ relations with other Europea butbiology, also those of physics.” Newtonian implicationsWesternof scientific law interaction with o of thewere “discovery a history world encompassingplurality a of high civilizations in dynamic in his in Politics Politics

Suzuki, 1- Suzuki, 1. The thesis on the “standard of civilization” in internationa Ibid. 325. Furth, European polities were scaled according to the “standards of civilization”, particularly The Standard of “Civilization”in International Society European relations aimed “the tolerance to coexistence” and of the Society’s members,

131 ( polities adecidedly coercive, expansionist character. necessary. Th spread to blessingsduty ofcivilization, byforce the European outright and colonization if ‘civilization’European concomitant a and belief European states that the a had moral were incorporated into the of…in context the nineteenth late century Japanwhen and China encountered and InternationalEuropean S Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,2002).

2. See Edward also Keene,

ne another aswell aswith a ‘barbarian’ perimeter [and] theexploration of the is gave the mode of interaction which applied to whichnon- ‘barbarous’ mode applied the gave interaction of is - view emerged which destabilize China’s self political phenomena and cosmic patterns. As aresult of new

the Society, there existed a firmbelief in the superiority of style diplomatic institutions. BeyondAnarchical Society: Grotius,Colonialism, and Orderin World ociety hadociety different modes interaction informed of which -

particularly the laws of evolutionupon based Darwinian 56 130 n states and non- with

Theinternal of sources new cos Daoist understandings of the interdependent understandingsDaoist ofinterdependent the

(Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1984). 1984). Press, Clarendon (Oxford: l society elaborated by was Gerrit W. Gong 133 132

Suzuki followsSuzuki EdwardKeene - European polities. While image ofonly the source

mology of the European CEU eTD Collection 136 135 134 mind,t now I the Westerners and their partners in the colonial environment. free hands to operatein thevarious spheres of Chinese socio during itsdisplaced semi of “spheres influence.” demarcation onthe ofor national harmonizedcolonizers mutually “Open onthe principle, Door” that is, opportunity for all, equal where colonial rule over a territory is indivisible and exclusive, there can potential to make way a intooverseas an economy. from differing Furthermore, formal empire ( unlikecolonialism sense, informal In supported. this empire, politically oftennot were which as Osterhammel explains, but mostly are instrumentsfor securing significant economic interests (‘gunboatpressure diplomacy’) quasithe weakerlimited a administration, statesovereign the to – extent but is only r of Osterhammel domination, as political system, clarifies, policy the and regulationof foreign control exercised by the Imperialists converted China into a part of informal empire. In this form reduced China to the status of semi Kingston: Ian Randle Publishers, 1997), 20. 1997), Publishers, Randle Ian Kingston: Michigan, Center for Chinese Studies, 1970), 67. formal empire) presupposes apparent economic superiority presupposes economic ofquasi apparent formal the empire) outine domestic affairs remain in the hands of the weaker state. There is no colonial Ibid., 20, 21. Rhoads Murphey, Murphey, Rhoads Jürgen Osterhammel, Thus, the direct intervention into China’s economic and political life by foreign powers life powers byforeign China’s interventioneconomic direct into Thus, the political and - colonizers guaranteed by“unequal obtained and treaties” t

urn to ofWuxu to urn discussion thea Reform period. The Treaty Ports and , trans. Shelley L. Frisch (Princeton: M. Wiener; M. Wiener; (Princeton: Frisch Shelley L. , trans. overview a theoretical Colonialism: - colonial period,and,

.” 134 - Informal empires are rarely motivated by strategy or prestige, colony. As Jürgen Osterhammelcolony. quasi theorizes,the China’s Modernization: What Went Wrong

neither foreigners nor treaty port Chinese ever had 57 135 Yet, Chinese sovereignty was never - political and economic life as did as political life economic and 136

With this important point in hrough “selectively applied ?” (Ann Arbor: University of of University Arbor: (Ann ?” there arethere privileges for -

colonizer the and be quasi several - colonial - CEU eTD Collection attempts lacking the general plan and coordination that a movement should have in order to be called movement. a number of officials who, in the author’s opinion, “operated more or less independent that these actions were not actually a movement or the commitment of the Qing court, but rather individual effort of 138 137 known Self as generation a the when in 1860s wasonly it and peripheral, Youwei and AliciaRichard Little,Mary Kang reforms: faces 3.3. Three of talkabout Daysreforms,Hundred Ali will I One ledthe to events that political the discussing after women. China’s Thus, and China thetook stage ofand organizing theorizingthe ofdirections change social thatwould empower presentwhowere in thesocio socio sp the enter women to for Chinese possibility ofunprecedented the the emergence influenced community. Thefollowing partof thischapter first discusswill the main political events that China’s behaviors, and systemic fashion.” have sincethat powerfully informed China’s firstmodernity posedwere in systematica and questions of series historical of “a 1911) lution Revo the DaysReformto Hundred from One the moment extended an as define authors the movement thedemonstrate, Reform during (which

atial and discursiveatial wai Rebecca Rebecca E. Karl and Zarrow, Peter “Introduction,” in Karl Zarrow,and 2002, 1, 2. Luke S.K. Kwong protests against namingthe initiative - political actors. I will also represent some of theactions and ideas of those social actors As the essays published in a volume edited by Rebecca Karl and Peter Zarrow The immediate impact of thedefeat in theOpiumWaron Chinese intellectuals was - strengtheners, undertook a reform program to empower the Qingdynasty. undertook empower the strengtheners, to reform a program 137 One of these issues is the close relation between women’s bodies, minds,

national strength, and China’s position andposition the strength, in moderninternational China’s national - sphere oflate

- political life of late Qing China as recognized collectivity of legitimate cia Little, Mary Richardcia Little, Mary and Kang Youwei. 58 - s before 1895 self 1895 before s Qing China w of new scholars of new hen Chinese women themselves - strengthening movement and claims

ly of one another” with their - administrators,

138

CEU eTD Collection 1898 goal, 1997, 13. 13. 1997, “Approaches to the Study of Modern Chinese History: External versus Internal Causations,” in Wakeman and Wang, on Volume per Company,1999), 225. Thousand Thousand Words Memorial” theto throne. 142 141 140 139 self that suggests Kwong industrial motivating They a innovation. also technical skills, and for the improved quality of agriculture through training schools aimed at withwho Asia could Chinese Southeast contributein modernization ties ofarmy, the closer qualified to become legitimate participants in governmental affairs. any sense “students”, but were rather establishedmembers of theoffice- 1895 were coordinated Qichao byKangcompile YouweiLiang and to a present and springjinshi Beijing for the who in provinces gathered from sixteen scholars the strengthened. elite, prompting them argue that to wider changes were needed if wasand China to be rescued - Sino outcome the of sense of Chinese cultural superiority rem engagedthe These literati militaryofWest,but admitted theand superiority technological the position. Ibid., 223, 226. him in the face and had wounded him just below his left eye) which somewhat impro shot by a Japanese assassin during the negotiations. Japanese were ashamed because of Li’s injury (the gunman shot ofthetreaty would have beenmuch worse ifLi Hongz promoted Chinese learning for ti

Philip A. Kuhn, “Ideas Behind China's Modern State,” The Shimonoseki treaty involved a heavy indemnity that included cession of Taiwan and Liaodong, but the terms These literati adopted the terminology from the neo/Confucian philosopher Zhu Xi - Jonathan Spence, The Searc iod of recurrent crises.” Luke S.K. Kwong,

(Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1984), 152. yong Af

e: The Continuity e: The of problem Intellectual the method which served ti ter they learned about the proposed terms of the Shimonoseki treaty, 1200young proposed aboutterms learned the ofShimonoseki they the ter 140

Japane - strengthening be observed as “a leading idea of those concerned with China’s fate in a h for Modern China,

se War 1895 “shamedthat in disheartened” and theChinese educated ( substance,( essence) and learningwestern for yong . See. Joseph R. Levenson, Confucian China and its modern fate: a trilogy, A MosaicA ofthe Hundred Days:Personalities, Politics, andIdeas of ained intact.

(London:Routledge and KeganPaul, 1965), 60; and Wang Xi, 141 rgued for fordevelopment increased taxes, the a of Second edition These men, These A. as KuhnPhilip notes, notwere in hang,the negotiator forthe Chinese side, had not had been

59 Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 139 As already I’ve indicated, it the wa s (NewYork and London: W.W.Norton &

(function, utility). Ti utility). (function, 142 ved the Chinese negotiating eligible elite who had eligible elite who had

They ti/yo

55, no. 2 (1995). 2 no. 55, ng

examinations in dichotomy urged for the

was the was

“Ten “Ten –

and and

CEU eTD Collection 145 144 143 betweenandedicts June Hundred September came what 1898,launching the as known be to forcing Italy tosettle for part of the Ottoma demands provinces three the Onlythe in South. were made Italy successfully rejected, by influence sphereof a Additionally, FranceGuangzhouBaygained leased and valley. Yangzi the Britain forced a territorial lease of Weihaiwei and Kowloon as well as a the naval base the Port Arthur. Russia also gained permission to build a railway, after which five ye bribing Chinese negotiators, signed a military agreement with the Emperor and obtained twenty heavily after Then Russia, rightsShandongPeninsula. onthe base, railroad miningnaval and removed from Chi Japan the PeninsulaLiaodong Russia where coveted port ofthe Dalian. so This from forces the withdraw to its Japan her forcing in support to convinced Germany France and military andcontain economic offoreign power the fo rces. After theSino only Court Treaty afterreach the was signed. wa Guangxu Emperor and increased emigration enableemigrantstowould stop instead return China. to programs that forresettlement and a network, railway a system,for modern postal and banking Power, Third edition Third Power, Kor Michael and Corrin Jay Grasso, China weremade for 99 years, butthey were perceived leadingas to the annexation thef Chinese territory. June

Chang Hao, “Intellectual Change and the Reform Movement, 1890 138. Yü, Spence, 227. ar of lease the partsouthern of Liaodong including the Peninsula, port of the andDalian The period between 1895 and 1898 was marked by accelerated problems of China to marked to 1895problemsChina The period between byaccelerated 1898was and of Alarmed developments, bytheseshattering the Emperor Guangxu issued a series of

(Armonk and London: M.E.Sharpe, 2004), 57 2004), M.E.Sharpe, London: and (Armonk s “moved” with the memorial of the young scholars, but the petition did did the memorialbut petition the ofyoungscholars, the “moved”with s nese nese compensation mainland as 1898,a but in Germany obtained

t, t, Modernization and Revolution in China: From the Opium Wars to World n Empire. 60 144

145

- 58. –

8,” in Fairbank and Liu, 274. Most leases in leases Most Liu, 274. and in 8,” Fairbank - calledTriple Intervention

sphere of influence sphere of influence in - Japanese war, Russia 143 The young The CEU eTD Collection edition sinecure appointments. Spence, 229. For a list of edicts see Immanuel C.Y. Hsü, The Rise of Modern China, Third bureaucracy local Themilitias. of and discipline the training of improving the practices, to the Western armyaccording the drill 149 148 147 146 women themfact, respond. Thus,in discourage did doso. to wide a supply.” reformin butbetter proposals organization rather of available shortideas, by nomeansin dismisses Emperor’s this idea, and such women, groups, as social politically unrepresented might for had thisinitiative have that bao contributors Nüxue to all” to w ‘avenueof the opinion’ ofimportance “opening of and mechanismscontrol lack enforcement, for prestige.” coherent body of reform ideaspresented on imperial initiative and backe jinshi Days' that Reforms. the promulgatedaddressed Theedicts Emperor raised issues in 1895bythe be used for export. The military reforms envisaged the assembly of thirty silk and teaof and tothe increase th reforms production and agricultural commercial, industrial coordinate to theto local the emperor’s orders officials economic entailed The reforms and railways. industry mining, synergy of Western and Chinese learning, and the establishing of vocatio in that would institutes specialize nal medicala school to it, to converse the old academies and rural shrines to modern schools which were to offer a governmental problems asmajor a grading c according to their fine calligraphy and knowledge of poetry but, instead, to use the solutions for practical cy.bureaucra Educational reforms included the order to abolish “eight

Kwong, 178. Kwong, I 176. Kwong, Guangxu’s edicts interfered in four areas of Qing life and government: education, economics, military, and and military, economics, education, life government: ofand Qing areas infour interfered edicts Guangxu’s dem. Hsü words this initiative as “encouragement of suggestions fromprivate citizens.” Hsü, 375.

(New York and Oxford: Oxford Universit Oxford Oxford: and York (New appealers, about which Jonathan Spence argues, “there had never before been such a r populationr in the reforms, even notif did he women, specify did explicitlynot Even though the implementation of the promulgated policies was not ensured because of becauseof ensured policies wasnot ofpromulgated implementation the the Even though 149 146 Nevertheless, asmy discussion later shows, the Emperor’s call for theinvolvement of was to be strengthened by reorganization and aimed at simplifying its procedures, with abolishing

. 148

LukeC.K. Kwong, taking not into consideration the possibilities

writes that “what was badly needed then was not any increase riteria. He also ordered that the Peking College be upgraded and to add y Press, 1983), - 375 1983), y Press, 61 147 the Emperor’s theemphasison the need and 376.

- legged essay,” not to grade the candidates

- four modern warships, standardization of as of significance great for the d by imperial d by imperial

at would would at CEU eTD Collection about wasnotor the Dowager,she Empress phobic superstitious of Ascharacterized he kind. any theit, reactionary,”aboutbeingthediscredits “myth”,or Kwongputs Cixi against reforms he as as the creators of the image of t in 1976 identified the “radical reformers and their supporters” of the turn of the twentieth century to little had herdo with the antagonism to reforms. SueFawn to who already Chung, Similarly discuss in the fifth chapter of my dissertation, it is important to note th will I of appealforissue the important to Dowager,an support Empress reformist projects 152 151 150 Restoration. Tongzhi the his in detentionhe1908. Guangxu death wasput where in remainedPalace until devious views,” with decisions Court “influencing and “ganging” Youwei for gover Empress Dowager issued an edict in the name of theEmperor delegating to her his power in from generals for the a Twocoup. later, days the Reformwasperiod officially closed when the summer retreat on seeking September support informed reformersthe being were after that 19th of the Reforms, the of youngnotable reformers who were caugh China and escaped to Japan. Kang’s younger brother Kang Guangren and Tan Sitong were among “the six martyrs” f exiled he Kong, Hong - (1835 Hsi Chun also China bao Nüxue edict), imperial bao

Kwong, 153; Sue Fawn Chung, “The Image of the Empress Dowager Tz’u to ship British on the smuggled being after and coup, the before just Beijing left Youwei 178. Kang Kwong, bao Nüxue of issue eight in the publicized edict was This .

, ed. Paul A. Cohen and John E. Schrecker(Cambridge and London: Harvard University Press, 1976), 101. See

nmental matters. the imported technical devices, and had been familiar with various new projects since the However, the Empressto suddenly returned the DowagerCixi from Central her Palace In In g’s article “The Much Maligned Empress Dowager: A Revisionist Study of the Tz'u Dowager Revisionist MuchMalignedEmpress of article A Empress g’s “The Study Dowager: 1908),” 1908),” order to at least partly explain the motivation of the participants in women Modern Asian Studies irst to Japan and then to Canada. His famous and influential disciple Liang Qichao also fled 152 , no. 8, September 1898. From now on I will use “NXB” as the abbreviation for Nüxue 150

An additional edict was issued the samewhich day, accused Kang

he Empress Dowager Cixi as “a conservative, ultraconservative,

13, no. 2 (1979). Similar understanding of Cixi as “not as conservative as 62 t andexecuted. Spence, 230.

as well. See shangyu” See well. (Respectful as “Gonglu - hsi,” in in hsi,”

Reform in Nineteenth Reform in at the of end the reforms 151 and Emperor and

- oriented ly copied ly copied - Century Century - CEU eTD Collection additi 155 154 153 n106. 99, and Wu,77 people think” and the Reformmovement as radic actionsand facilitated the involvementChinese women of in the matters of the school, interrelated contributors to the reforms: Alicia Little, Mary Richard and Kang Youwei. wording, three “social portraits” of distinct, but, as Iwill show in the following chapter, following present actions.Linda the shortnarratives, sectionthree in In will P. or, Shin’s proper I invol historiography, reforms the not movement,rather periodwhich were unified a a of 1898 but country livelihood providea the to to and people.” for the of extreme the beginning the and of the moderate reforms “to undertaken bring we summer the promulgated in extreme “too 1898were of forabout planning self think was a reform Kunyi. Liu Hongzhangand Li writingsthe of contemporaries Chunas g politicalgain supportfor ideas. their As counterweight a to the bias of these“radical reformers”, whose accounts created thecommon negative perceptions of theEmpress Dowager in orderto Edmund Otway wellJohn Sir and Backhous as Bland jung, Percy Ibid.,104, 102

- 102 1976a, Chung, Shin employs this expression in her attempt to use the reconstruction of one person’s life onal light on particular social milieu in which the person operated. Shin, 265. ved variousved different with actors priorities, different their of motives,and interests visions In Chung’sIn Kangopinion, Youwei, Qichao,Liang Wang Yun Yuting Chao, and Lo Tun- Kang Youwei will be included as an example oftheChinese male reformers whose ideas already indicatedWu’sAs bydrawingcriticism I’ve onGuo ofReform the movement’s calls them,calls the author sugg - - oriented ruler, quoting ruler, statement her that“a pass donot momentoriented not thatI does 103.

103, 109 103, - 110. - strengthening She.” arguesthat the problemwas that reforms the

ests closeests examination of thecourt documents, as well as al way in which Kang Youwei directed it has been argued for in 63 ,” 154

identifying the end the ofidentifying the fall 1898as

153 Chung argues instead that Cixi instead Chungthat argues

e are the historical figures - alth power and narrativeto shed 155

CEU eTD Collection was regulated in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries see Guo Weidong, “Yapian zhanzheng qian hou waiguo Ch of TheWitch Ningpo, of Reason, J. and Mary Aldersay 1932) of Mary Press, Ann Aldersay The Livingstone (London: established. For see Miss and established. Aldersay’scharacter ed. work, Aldersay White, supporting colleagues. In the following decades, a system of missionary schools for England who opened her school without the resources or influence of any Missionary Society and without China was opened in Ningbo in founded schools for Chinese girls in Malacca, the East Indian Islands and Singapore. The first school for girls in - 102 1998), & Company, Norton who died in 1342. However, no writings of hers have been found yet As is known from the Latin inscriptions from her gravestone, she was the daughter of an Italian trader from Genoa and China, amongthem Vilionis. in central aKaterina was andwoman, tradingin Christian Yangzhou living young 156 womenChinese gi and women’s engagementChina. with It marked the beginning of,” “work their history Western turningfor the of point any significant towasa women,forbidden include this small 1842a to of group who foreigners lived 1842 made sure that Westerners were granted the right to reside in the Treaty ports. Since prior in Qingcourt the signed with treaty indicated, the As I’vealready on Qingcourt. influence the China in the first place if European powers did not exercise military streng in be to able be wouldnot Little Mary and Richard Alicia women.Protestant missionary Both in establishment of: layolved the Nüxuetang inv operation and Tongwei in women- Chinese a attemptsConfucianism promote his to as aboutespecially and, women, opinions Youwei’s betweencreated byreform discourses relation the impact on the later imaginat another maleQichao, influential reformer whose ofperiod ideasabout women the decisive a had association theand journal. I’ve chosen to discuss Kang Youwei and for not, Lianginstance,

Jonathan Spence, The ina

Alicia Little and Mary Richard are examples oftwo groups of women who were directly (London: Edinburgh Home Press, 1956). For a discussion of the ways in which presence of western women religion as necessary context for the writing and involvement of his daughter Kang ofdaughter and his involvement writing context for the necessary religion as oriented reformist projects I will analyze in the later chapters.

Chan’s Great Continent: China in the Western W.W. London: Mindand York (New rls. 156 104. 104. As midearly the as

he Englishwomen Mary Ann Aldersa Ann Mary Englishwomen the by 1844 ions of “Chinese of toa want ions “Chinese woman”. becauseI highlight doso I

64 -

there was a small Italian community small a was there Italian century fourteenth - in the edge the wasin southwestern ofEmpire the oriented oriented men and femaletheir kin. seeKangI .

Before 1842 Western protestant women women protestant1842 Western Before

- A Woman Pioneer in China: The Life ChristianWestern women and y, a member of the Church of Church the of a y, member

girls in China was gradually

as they called it, withas theyit,called th and political

CEU eTD Collection no. 2 (2008). 2 no. social movement in late among things, other tell story a about what w Christianize China through education. While Alicia Little and her anti Richard will tell a (part of the) story about Protestant women’s and men’s endeavors to Women’s Missiona in Women Chinese of Images Past’: Generations the Like Just are “‘They Ristivojević, Dušica in audience Western 159 158 157 shi yanjiu Jindai wenti” kouan tongshang Zhongguo jinru funü Disea ofrepeal Contagious writing in UK, feministthe pamphletsorganizingin lecturing, and initiatives campaigns for the Ellen N Alicia 3.3.1. “ Westernwomen to men, denied came given they be the of to status being of reliable source also but girls women; Chinese and attention to the fact Western that womenonly launched not works aimed “emancipating” at Western Emancipation in China and their Contradictions (master’s thesis, Central European University, 2004), 36 2004), University, Central thesis, European (master’s and Contradictions their China in Emancipation Women’s for Struggles Women: Chinese of Behalf reworked version “On of analysis. See Dušica Ristivojević, Macau Chinese Hoe, Susanna and 1989); Footprints:Pandora, Exploring Women’s History in China, Hong Kong and Daughters from Foreign Lands: European Women Writers in China knowledge

A part aboutA in part my myof Little appeared Alicia discussion MA Thesis. I What is present will here significantly On diverse activities of Western women in nineteenth - I’ve elaborated more on the ways in which missionary women represented Chinese women and girls to the (Hong Kong: Roundhou Kong: (Hong The vignettes about Alicia Little and Mary Richard offer glance into a thedynamics of Alicia Ellen 1870s wasborn sheAlicia Neva Bewicke Madeira. the 1880s and in In wasactive - women’s activities related to Chinese girls and women.

” on the subject onthe of “

1 (1999). ry Periodicalry Women’s Work in China

eva Bewicke(1845 eva - se Publications, 1996). Publications, se Qing China. ses Act, passage of Women’s Property Act and women’s Chinese women , by the virtue ofWestern women’s “access” to Chinese

(Foreign women in China’s trading ports in the Opium War period) 158 – The following accounts should also be read be with should accounts also Thefollowing 1926): 1926):

as perhaps a most successfully organized foreign 65 ”

for the audience in in audience fortheir the home countries. (1885 century China see, for instance,century for E China see, Mrs. - 1885),” 1885),”

Archibald Little Archibald

(London, Winchester,Sydney and Wellington: Sungkyun Journal of East Asian Studies 157 - footbinding activities will, My discussion My of Mary

lisabeth Croll, Croll, lisabeth - 44. 44. 159

Wise Wise

CEU eTD Collection natural, and Heaven, Heavenly, and it did not disturb the Confucian elite. 163 162 161 160 rolein creationimportant of the dominant images meaningsto and ascribed footbinding. ( antifootbinding Ko hui Dorothy implies,the ofis Tianzu modern history and footbinding history, in Shanghai 1903 wrote: for in China 1887. ( suffrage. Footbinding the fur coat that Ali was impression at wasdoubt alland aman, that she amandarin or official heoutrider.” the atand her of One this that, of reasons descr Croll (Westport and Shadle Robert Olson Stuart the society is an effective play with different meanings that the word tian that meanings the word playdifferent with effective societyis the an Julia Kuehn (Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 2007), 93. A Century of Travels in China: Critical Essays on Tr in China,” in Impulse:Little Alicia the Humanitarian and “Travel Writing Thurin, Schoenbauer Susan notoriety.” of “too and closely”characters events to the real Westerners working and living in China, and have “earned her a level after 1887 all written Hongzhang, Li about three novels about Westerners in China, five books in which she describes China and her travels, as well as a book Crimson Bud of aRose” 1885) being the most the popular. being 1885) Natural feet society) Martel,“Little, E.Neva Bewicke,” M. Alicia Carol For a groundbreaking study about footbinding see Dorothy Ko, Cinderella’s Ko, see Dorothy Sisters: footbinding ARevisionist about study History aof For groundbreaking trips,asDuring her outlook. masculine about Little’s Alicia detail interesting one adds Croll Elisabeth 92. Ibid., - “pre Someof her other Footbinding and its multilayered meanings will be discussed in the following As the chapter. in willdiscussed be multilayeredmeanings its Footbinding and China.”rousedinterest about as they are popular he hopes she willwriteagreat manymore, for to see he rejoices any s count. DrMorrison doesn’t husband Her moustache. black heavy a manner vivacious and very a has She hadon…! she lowgown a notice for somenot time did So that I skin. her sameas the exactly color has dresswhich yellow Mr. Gertrude Bell, a famous traveler to the East, after meeting Alicia and Archibald Little in ibed, “when she sat in her long fur coat, and her husband rode the pony, alongside, bystanders had no 160

(Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 2005). Alicia L Alicia 2005). Press, California of University Angeles: and Los (Berkeley

and and In periodsheIn publishedDarling! novels,Standishthis and nine (1883) Mother Miss Mrs.

Archibald Little were there – (1874) and and (1874) China” novels include , the anti , the

cia wore was “generally worn only mandarins.”by Croll, 31.

161 - Onwards! But Whither? footbinding society organized society byAlic footbinding In 1886 she married Archibald Little,whom John married with left 1886she she In : Greenwood Press, 1996), 673. 1996), Press, Greenwood : . Marriage in China, one of her novels was considered to describe some 162

Flirts and Flirts, or, A Season at Ryde avel Writing from the 1840s to the 1940s

66 in in Historical Dictionary Empire the British of Dictionary Historical y awful lady. She wore a mustard she isa Shewore y awful a trul lady. A Life Study (1875)

ays her books are pretty feeble, but but feeble, pretty her are ays books

has in Chinese: it refers to both nature, . Her literary opus also includes includes opus also literary Her ia Little has played an

(1868); (1868); ittle’s choice the of name of , ed. Douglas Kerr and and Kerr Douglas ed. ,

Lonely Carlotta: “A “A Carlotta: Lonely , ed. James, ed. 163

CEU eTD Collection Seeds of Change: Reflections on the Condition of Women in the Early and Mid Ch’ing,” Of An Erotic Tradition An Erotic Of China Ch’ing late Some of the studies that address hui Tianzu Ping, footbinding Movement in China (1850 - Chui Virginia instance, for see, to footbinding opposition On premodern emperors. Manchu by included works of scholars and poets who advocated issued thewere edicts one the other abo footbinding; lition of 166 165 164 China. Chinese more influenced it the England, in footbinding theto received opposition morethe publicity engagements with British and international audience were effective in an indirect way as well: hui fundraisingfor Tianzu in onher around as her travels well trips wasengaged England during as return she China, to where merchants as its first members and organizers. China. one China and to the anti between two there were formsWest, interaction opposition the of Kathleen Lodwick, ed.TheL. Kathleen Chinese Recorder Index: A Guide to Christian Missions in Asia, 1867 - Francis Lister Hawks Pott, Mrs. Se Bovey MacGillivrey, L.A. Little, Alicia May Gillison, Harris Elizabeth Edkins, Joseph L. Mrs. Cranston, Earl Adams, Mrs. Allen, Mrs. N.P. Anderson, Mary E. Barchet, Margaret Susan Cowen Bondfield, M. Baker Cornaby,

On On her campaign i The Index to the Chinese Recorder lists the following persons as the leading members of the Tianzu hui anti the Before

(Wilmington: Scholarly Resources Inc.,1986), 879.

Aching for Beauty: Footbinding in China 166 164 Scholars treat sent down sent by Bishop Moule, and happilyfor translated us into English verse by Dr. timidlyWe very poem began byrepublishinga bya lady written Chinese of Hangchow, committee. uponthe to serve eager and willing Shanghaiwhomwere ladies the asked I footbinding.prevent It quitewas, therefore, a joyful surprise to find thatpretty well all had done missionaries then, little,Up whonot foreigners but till were if anything,to April, 1895,In washappy I enough startto the TsuHui, NaturalT’ien or Feet S Writing about the establishment of society, the Little gave the following details:

diplomats and scholars, and in that waydiplomats and in that indigenous scholars, stimulatedback and in the movement was Thesociety in founded Shanghai 1895,wit in - (PhD diss.,Columbia University, 1976); BeverleyJackson, Splendid Slippers:AThousand Years footbinding ini n England see Jackson, 144. Jackson, see England n

(Berkeley: Speed Press,Ten 1997). Tianzu hui Tianzu tiatives in the nineteenth century, which were directly or indirectly influenced by by influenced indirectly or directly were which century, the nineteenth in tiatives aman, Shen Tun

and and - 1912,” (master’s thesis, Columbia University, 1966); University, Columbia thesis, (master’s 1912,”

as the first influential foreign anti rallied crucial media support for her cause. Alicia Little’s ar

(New York: Anchor Book, 2002). Book, Anchor York: (New e L. Charlotte Beahan,

- ho, Mrs. Wang, Pelham Warren and Edward Thomas Williams.

165 Little gave her anti- The Women’s movement and nationalism in h of wives the consulsand foreign

- footbinding society in Sings - footbinding. The first one footbinding speeches

2, no.1 (1976); Wang

tin Chau, “The Anti Paul S. Ropp, “The 1941

, ociety. ociety. Volume Volume : Mrs. Mrs. : - CEU eTD Collection 169 168 167 Taipings,the playing on the traumatizing experience of Chinese men The themselves. - numberof bound of great a ofdeaths the address to respect the ancestors and their obligation to continue the patriline. who not did bind feettheir claimsand it “often that causes sterility,” alluding to the men’s duty anxieties of theChinese men. tract, entitled “Why Foot thatwomenconcerns be would ladies bind their feet,” that “it preserves thechastity and modesty of thewomen,”well asthe as the “all “it class custom,”nice,”that that“itis high old an that looks ofi.e. footbinding, support Chinese men and their concerns. The first part of discredits thetext the m Chinese the in Recorder Confucianism membersthe predecessors. alive family venerated between and harmony provide the family with the son who would, by receiving the duty and honor of ancestral sacrifice, assures the support. Hence, present generation was perceived as connecting present, past and future, and one should never fail to of thefather family offer sacrificesto to ancestors that towould serve reunite the andpast remainedactiveand ancestors anof onhad entitling influence the thespirits lifeeldest of generation, the present Archibald Li Little Alicia [Mrs. so typeall label examined wistfully.” and we whose red the of little character booklet, one read not alas! Could ladies, the who, of style andat thelearning foreign marvel must beautiful at theleast literati that was hoped that “anti - “Foot When explaining the motif for translating the tract into the elegant literary Chinese language, Alicia writes that it that writes Alicia language, literary Chinese the into theelegant motiftract the for translating explaining When In China the death was not seen as a total end to one’s connection to the world of living familymembers. The binding; Two Sides of the Question,” whether] were we appealingwomen. were thewhether] to menthe or suffered byallthe ladies on the committee, we before decidecould [on question a whatofIt foris understand writer. peopleminddifficult to anguish English been had Rev. ChineseTimothyRi translatedcommittee, forbythe us than into English byPastorKranz, in written upon sat and somewhatremodeled whole bythe Afterthatwea Chinese ventured lady. tractthen poem onanother published byanother coul us difficultiesof one wasthatnot ofone initial our for Edkins, The first tract of hui Tianzu ttle], (Cambridge:Cambridge UniversityPress, 2000), 200- Intimate China. The Chinese as I have seen them - footbinding would be brought with as great decorum as possible before the Chinese publi - in December 1895, and it reveals that the society decided to address decided society address the to reveals that it 1895,and December in binding is bad a custom,” bringsin arguments that address might the

168 ridiculed if the they stop binding their The feet. second partof a The tract refers to thewives of thesages all and old ancesto , “Foot Chinese Recorder Chinese - binding; Two ofQuestion”,waspublishedbinding; Sides the 68

feet women

26, no.12, 1895, 551, 552. 551, 1895, no.12, 26, (London: Hutchinson & Co., 1899), 149, 150. 149, 1899), Co., & Hutchinson (London: 202. 202.

167

who were not able to escapefrom to able not were who

An Introduction to Introduction An Xinzhong, Yao 169 ain ain arguments raised in the present in their mutual What follows is the

d read Chinese. We chard’s Chinese c, and and c,

rs rs

CEU eTD Collection interesting conversation with Li in her book book her in Li with conversation interesting Empress Dowager Cixi and one of the highest regarded Chinese of that time. She described this meeting and very Moreover, her Western male connections ar collegeaddress students and schools.”boys’ “Editorial Comment,” Recorder Chinese so to address a public Chinese meeting to which Chinese officials and the leading gentrymay have been invited by Recorder Canton, Hong Kong, Macao, Shantou, Xiamen, Fuzhou, Hangzhou and Suzhou. As was 171 170 their should that“parents daughters protect andloving urge girls” the sufferingamongand young that: social consequences bad the relations,” in noted and “very characterized footbindinghaving as certain a to ofas abolishment road salvation. footbinding to China’s as we will see, be employed by the male and somefemale reformers, and will point to the daughtersand of all the other nations in the world have unbound and feet, are happy” will also, womenthat and wives make boundfeet unproductive, “the argumentssubsequent that Chinese forher cause, during her famous“anti me leading European official…But she is also most desirous to address gatherings of Chinese ladies… [and] to Ibid., The inIbid., 553. capital letters are arti the original - “Foot Husbands often engage slave girls and concubines, the cause often of great great of deal of a inflicts pain attack custom cruel great Nevertheless, the onfootbinding“a that as often cause the concubines, and girls slave misery, because cannotfreely. simply move wives about their engage often Husbands far cleaner. The houses of Hakkas Canton the in whose province, women bound donot feet, their are become and unhealthy. remain dirty houses the houses, us their th clean WOMEN cannot and watch look after childrentheir when they properly are playinginopen the air. do to duties unbound theywith able household as wouldbe MOTHERS feet. cannot quickly to carry out the orde Women boundfeet with are always dependent helpon the GIRLSof run others. cannot Nevertheless, the part of the tract that created a most negative image Chinese women of binding”, 552 binding”, , Little wished “to address a meeting of the foreign community in each place; also, it each wherever is community meetingin place; also, a possible, “to, address the foreign Littleof wished

- 553.

- footbinding tour” in 1900 Alicia Little visited Hangzhou, Wuchang, Hanyang, Hanyang, Wuchang, Hangzhou, Little visited Alicia in 1900 tour” footbinding The Land ofthe Blue Gown. ranged her meeting with Li Hongzhang, former closest advisor of the rs ofrs their father mother.and WIVES fulfill cannot their cle. In order to get and use Chinese and Western men’s support men’s support Western and to and get Chinese In cle. order use 69

170 171

announcedin the , 31, no.2 (1900), 104. (1900), no.2 , 31, Chinese Chinese CEU eTD Collection 173 172 Little Alicia describes ofone discussions more than lectures. meeting the in following way: and the took form wasinformeddialogues women,audience they of Chinese that the and aspartici to open women represented byWestern were meetings organized work. The Society men, meanChinese the fundstry women didn’t to oftheir didn’t that include in Chinese argument todifferent had employe be undertaken ladiesby the of hui Tianzu them bad against this fashion of centuries” later became aloudest argument in the actions

Mrs. M.S. Bondfield, “Report of the Tian Zu Hui for 1898,” for Zu Tian Hui the of “Report M.S. Bondfield, Mrs. “Fo

ot - flight ofbutterflies. flight broidered attire that the fewmissionary ladies among them looked a mothscaught in sober like remember… [and] theChinese all ladies laughed so gaily, and were so brilliant in their wasit amost brilliant affair. The wealth of embroideries on the occasion was a thing to intermarried, and did not bi intermarried, not did and where was of large roadChengtu a the to city on the a part population there all there! bind Andstrong theydon’t are – “they Nanking; from lady a yes!”exclaimed “Yes, near Nanking...” ofriver bank the interpreter. Then there was such eager desire to corroborate the statements: “On the north ladies] through an them[Chinese addressed up and actually stood …The hostess There was a drawing Nevertheles of Christian Socialism: “If onemember suffer, all the members suffer with it. as of those who feel themselves called to combat this monstrous evil by watchword that pity for millions of little now to girls forced suffer, quite helpless resist; and to as much of moved all those who byconsiderations are ethical, medical, or economic, by simply or Our aim is obviously a one; atChristian samethe the we invite help time and sympathy neededThe society ofand Christians, also and ensure theWestern Chinese to support a ,” ,” binding 553. s, the fact that hui Tianzu

- room meeting held at Chungroom at meeting held -

nd their women’s feet, being of Cantonese descent, Cantonese descent, Cantonese of being women’s feet, nd their

d. This audience was,hence, audience pleasedd. This explanations with that: . 172

skillfully addressed thesentiments, influence and very.” Then, when the speaker went say onto that speaker Then,when the very.” 70 Chinese Recorder king, in in king, the farwe

30, no.3 (1899), 149. (1899), no.3 30, st of Szechuan; and and ofst Szechuan; 173

pation of pation of

CEU eTD Collection 175 174 and ofcities inareas more Right China. remote from work, beginning of society the its the both ofChristianbig invaluable women,in help Chinese missionaries who,the operated with following ofthe mills factories areain and Shanghai’s way: 1898 Shangha

“Notes onthe Workthe of T’ien - 151 1899, Little, number of ladies went on went dinnerBut a number ofto party. the talked. ladies stayedand others present ladies ofChinese smartest the very the once meeting at and open, thrown …The wasthen thehad longer toin little any delight feel that suchfeet been prideto a once her. commente deal pipe showed the effect of binding some ofit…This part speech was afterwards agood india an the with fluentexplained circulationand in ofblood, Chinese lady the – nowoman arewhere parts binds there Hupeh, too, “In voices, dignity nomore, couldquit rose, andin bear with softHupehboastful, it but their said, rich where alike poor notand did thebind, two solitaryrepresentatives of Hupeh, the Szechuan dames aroun foreager interpreters in their turn to make by understood themselves great, the jolly noddedladies smiled, and moved and daintylittle hands with impetuous The way the Society tried to reach to the peasant women was through the help of peasant help the the wasthrough tried womenthe reach to to Society The way the illustrated papers were distributed. The meeting closed with afew words from Burdick, Miss and as the women dispersed, lady,Christian the held attention of theaudience while she delivered a graphic address. Mrs. De, Chinese speech,a then Dr.vigorous a followedwith together; Reifsnyder few a in translated words, byDr.Reifsnyder, women told the hadwhy gathered they been room…smalarge [where] numberthis workin the flocked women to of …all wasstopped,the girls, and 1000, hui Tianzu i’s Ewo Silk Filature meeting, the first in a series of announced meetings in the came forward to make aspeech in her turn…Then, as at an English meeting, a - 153.

tried tried reachto social women classes, all andproudly from on it reported the

d on. A Chinese lady then related ladyd on.A then led Chinese been to howhad ceasing she unbind,

tsu Hui,” tsu Hui,” d them. And when the speaker further spoke of parts of ofHunan further spoke parts speaker when the d them.And ll platform had been arranged for the speakers… Mrs. Alford, Mrs. speakers… for the arranged platform been ll had Chinese Recorder 175

29, no. 3 (1898), 149. (1898), 3 no. 29,

none.” Next a missionary a Next none.”

movements, as if 174

rubber rubber CEU eTD Collection political powers of their country. their of powers political the of and because military the that gained ILittles mention my literature not benefits does in use thesis Secondary 5, no. 1 (2002), available at at available 1 (2002), no. 5, 178 177 176 of disorders feetthe – benefited husband her which gainedused and China ways in she in opportunities the betweenand intrinsic the the link her speaki and problematize England donot China donot Tianzu discuss hui consult Chinese members, be done before estimating Chinese women’s reactions to foreign the ladies in the efforts they makingare to abolish this custom,” further research needs to little th toand desire thegirls, eir prevent willingnesstheir sufferingcaused to co meeting with the Chinese women of“several theladies, many hadofwhom tiny feet, expressed “thethat cooperation of Chinese willbe ladies more still gladly welcomed,” and a that, at teachers of missionary schools and with the wives of Church officers. femalemeetings with andorganized it missionaries to given be pamphlets free to provided Little's Little's

Beahan, 1976,65. Note,” “Editorial See The exceptionisThe anotable paper Rachelgraduate written by M.Bright “‘Irregular Unions’: Alicia Bewicke A Marriage in China Archibald JohnArchibald Little (1838- Scholarly analyses focused on Alicia Little’s writings and her reforming activities After Alicia Little’s return to England in 1907, the Chinese published the reports Recorder in the though Nevertheless, even

177 Chines and, unfortunately, the primary and secondary sources I had a chance to chance a had I sources secondary and unfortunately,primary and, the from the information that raised the speculation that his interest and support for and British and http://www.temple.edu/gradmag/volume5/bright.html e Recorder

the British influence Chines influence on the British the

after 1907. - Chinese Relations in the Late the in Relations Chinese

27, no.2 (1896), 100; and “Notes,” 204. “Notes,” and 100; (1896), 27, no.2 1908) 1908) as ofwas born son a specialist a indoctor congenital

72 ng and acting position, acting ng and do and Tianzu hui - Nineteenth Century,” published in

Society was formally turned over to turned Society was formally e court. e .

176

178 (accessed December26, (accessed

did emphasi did not probe into into probe not - operate with Schuylkill 2012). 2012). ze ze in in , CEU eTD Collection 2012). 184 183 182 181 180 http://cambridgelibrarycollection.wordpress.com/2011/10/31/archibald-and 179 merchandize could travel directly and deeply to the interior of Asia. whoand one why enabled the withthe trade British seventy millionpeople; reason the Little- wasbyhis country honored goods. of trading channelfor transport the probe Yangtze the inGorges February1883 (laterdescribed hisin used he book), his “pleasure totrip” Chinese).” for the prosperity trade hence, to firmlyChina he (and, employment to greater believed, and greater opportunities he writes Murray Caroline introduced that steam in “open Sichuan order to upwestern in boats writingsdeeds.” modernization their and of “promoted Archibald throughand China their fortune about, earned his inmoved and he wrote before China England 1906. to in back in merchant trading Westernthe Chinese entire province of He traveled throughout, Sichuan. Shanghai; a to business moved his after soon port; startedChinese he open an own yearslater firmJiujiang, company. his in Three tea a 1859 as in in China arrived he inBerlin, and England schooling Alicia’s anti- socialchanges inSichuan, 1891

Ibid., 8. Lu Yuanqian, 2011. Murray, Thurin, 93. and Shad in John,” Olson M. Archibald Martel, “Little, Carol Caroline Murray, “Cambridge Library Collection Blog: Archibald and Alicia,” (2011) (2011) and Alicia,” Blog: Archibald Collection Library “Cambridge Murray, Caroline

However, as Lu Yuanqian argues, when argues, Archibald Lu Yuanqian However, as Little went to his famous trip through Thurin claims that Archibald “had himselfdistinguished sinologist a as

footbinding had offamily the been result his society background. Chongqing kaibu yu Sichuan shehuo bianqian (1891 - 1911) (PhDDiss., Huadongshifan daxue,2003), 8. 182

fellows as“aBritish path breaker in Western China nd British 1887tobecame he sole in Chongqing,where the 73 183 After his trip, as Lu reminds as Archibald trip, us, Afterhis le, 675. - 1911 nian) 1911

184

(Opening of Chongqing and and Chongqing of (Opening -alicia/

- (accessed December 26, 26, December (accessed taster for aGerman ,”

and that Alicia 179 ;” After his his After 180

as being being as

181

CEU eTD Collection 185. no. 2 (1998): 107. (1998): 2 no. 188 187 186 185 port treaty a allowe which and forresolved years,until 1890Qingin government had sign to the treaty madewhich Chongqing Chinese workers. rumors about Westerners’ plans to mechanize themine mechanization becauseit fed exemplifying thatwouldreplace locals disturbed manual the labor, aggressive activities ofWesterners in the area.” Little’s steam Wyman about Observingarrival of theseJudith provinces. writes the Archibald Sichuan events, livelihood relied onthe operation of sailing ships/junks the on linebetweenand Hebei goods.trading move strong This provoked ofwho the number great se protest a of workers Chuanjiang Steamer Company used which the motorized steamers cover a to shippingroutefor events pertinent to the semi pertinent events Chongqing was to be “opened” in 1899, Little had great profits. See Lu’s dissertation for the chronology of the

Martel, b, 676. b, Martel, In addition to the steamer business, Little invested in a coal mine, hog bristles, and export At the time boats were pulled manually with thousands of trackers. Ibid.,107, 108. Ambiguities“The Wyman, Judith of Chinese Antiforeignism: Chongqing, 1870

as 1887,as theIn with supportofLu continues, thegovernment, British established Little spot.” China promote with trade gunboat“by British old policy the ofon seekingredress the Chinese. Becaus and the reforms and the commercial industrial force occupy Yangtze, to of to interests, protect its trade in this greatest of potential markets against vested Russian and German Liverpool, Littleurged Nothis writings only in butinspeeches also chambers to commerce of Manchester in and Martel M. adds portrait ofCarol to writes: when ofexploits Alicia’sshe this husband the 188 - powered boat Chongqingpowered in in March 1898 as the example of “the increasingly

186 The open conflict between Little’s company and the local people people was not company local the Little’s and conflictbetween Theopen - c e of the weakness of the central Manchu government, Little would Little Manchu ofweaknessgovernment, e ofcentral the the olonial history of Chongqing and Archibald Little’s significant role in it. Lu, 8, 184 -

d the transport of merchandise with the steamers. the Britishthe government to assert China,its predominancein to 74 185 s, jeopardizing further of further the livelihood jeopardizing s, Wyman thatLittle’s boat, argues - 1900,” 1900,”

Late Imperial China Imperial Late 187 - importtrade. When

18, 18,

CEU eTD Collection that reached the anglophone audienceseethe reachedRistivojević,2008, anglophone that passim. not could missionaries thethat areas to the teachings Christian spread taught them to read the Bible and sing hymns. After obtaining Western women’s approval, Biblewomen were sent to 191 190 189 fromforeigners survived China fever. North the Timothy amissionary Richard, famous whose of the villagesBiblewoman. with help a nearby Reverend B.contemporary a Reeve, Richards Mission. Presbyterian the of informsthat: us 3.3.2. M her activismwomen’s suffrage. continued for China to newspapers, followed the international affairs, travelled to Eastern Europe, and Afte health. Society searched for Chinese women searched for Society with the language barrier, missionary women of the Methodist Episcopal Church’s Woman’s Foreign Missionary 62. Ltd, 1911), Co.

Biblewomen were instrumental for the success of Protestant women’s evangelizing success. When confronted B.Rev. Reeve, Timothy Richard, D.D.: China Missionary, Statesman and Reformer 674. Martel, The Littles left China for Cornwall, England in 1906 because of Archibald’s failing failing of for China Cornwall,inThe Littles Archibald’s left England 1906because She took charge of the Christian school at Chefoo and started with evangelical work in work evangelical with in Chefoo school at started and ofChristian the charge She took until, 1876, in years, Edinburgh, remained there sheChina.and to went for six public, she became attach she a Afterwhich been had pupil. somein ofprivateteaching, and experience years atthat fourteen years of age she was appointed assistant teacher in the Normal School of Martin,Miss from herearly chil the as daughterin missionary Martinin Edinburgh the wasborn of 1843in United Mary a ary Martin (1843- r he died two years later, Alicia moved to London, frequently wrote letters Alicia wroteabout letters twolater, moved London, frequently died to he years r

1903):Mrs. Timothy Richard

almost ed to to ed the staff ofMerchant School, Company's the College

exclusively from lowerthe classes dhood, displayed intellectual great capacity, muchso so 189 75 191 Alicia Little died in 1926. After the great famine great Afterthe – (1876

reach. Formore onthe reports on Biblewomen

who towho willing learn read,were

(London: S.W. Partridge &

78), only three only 78), 190

CEU eTD Collection 195 194 193 192 read Englishto books they found many they religiouswords not could understand. Mary then began students families, when and the from influential tostudents the her English was teaching members oftheJapanes their to class acquire the language. Other pupils were theson of Minister theJapanese and some - Canton of Viceroy of a grandson a and Tseng, of Marquis the profile male students. As Reeve conveys, she was teach she period chargeofher ofwas in only twodaughters, education not thein colleges students and the science of Christendom.These were also delivered to many of theprofessors and mandarins who resided for a time in T'ai reader that “for years three Mrs. Richard gave Mrs. informing highpossessed, of the Richard the education praises Reeve level examinations. monthly for bythe attended Chinese scholars ofschool superintendant the She wasalso school theoperated boy’s for famine reading orphans, Chinesea with t marriage. cha the in following moredetails in Wuxumovement discussed be the reforminvolvement in would between 1884 and 1886. and 1884 between Mary alone when delivering three of their babi Forty

Ibid., 68 Richards had four daughters, all born in Taiyuanfu. Timothy witnessed the birth of only one daughter, leaving Reeve, 64. Her husband also saluted her for her theological and rhetorical knowledge and skill. Timothy Richard, Ibid., 62 pter, sent a letter to Mary to congratulate her recovery, and their correspondence ended in - five Three months after the monthsmovedTaiyuanfu the to and Three forcouple Shanxi, after Timothyleft Mary She continued with teaching during couple’sthe stay in Beijingin 1887 1888. and In this

years in China - - 192 69. 63.

Reeve, 66 (New York: Frederick A.Stokes Company,1916), 141. incity.” the e Legation.” e - 7.

193 195

es. The elder two daughters st Her husband explained her teaching methodology: she teaching husband Her her explained - - yuan 76 fu, uponthe religion, the history, the education,

monthly the lecturesto hundreds of expectant ing ing “two mandarins of high rank - mandarins“two of rank high in English, these being the first of first being the English, these in aye d in England upon the couple’s stay

utor, doing and translation. 194 but also of some also but - high the son the CEU eTD Collection 198 197 196 strategy of missionaries to promote the status of Christianity in China: missionaries’ Testament toDowagerCixi the in eventNovember important that reveals 1894,an specific a trainingsupervising and the classes, work of Biblewomen. Biblwomen. wivesmandarins “several Shewasvisiting and Mohamedans”,the of Bible teaching theof to wives workinvolvedherinfluential men Richard’s visits workMary her and with phraseology.” religious commended“re them to read the New Testament with her, so as to become familiar with the Ibid., 209. ofZeng Guofan, his brothers andsisters werewell a Reeve, 123, 124. Richard, 1916, 167; Reeve, 64. Richard, 1916, 207. This was the way her Japanese students eventually got baptized. In addition to the grandson family. and his Taotai including Ho attendedfunH. and E. officials the eral, foreign native Many music… high Chinese anpamphlet and on notation English bookintune native anShe had extensive knowledge of the theoryand practiceof and music, awrote Chinese When her that: sketching life, reports Reeve She was also one Inspector of the Chinese High Class Girls' Sch HymnCongregational - Hopes ofJew”'; the thewords of Handel's “Messiah”; and the Anthems the in Lord Living”; “Holy Northbrook's“ some Richard'stranslations. To them ofadded mustbe Mrs. partof Jeremy Taylor's MissionaryAssociation, exhibitShanghai great merits. Notice has already taken been of editionof ofEast Asia. English the O [with Finch],East became end Mrs. towards and the offirst numbers editor the of the Messenger. Afterwards, for some years, she was co Dr. Richard'sconnection the with Christ the beginningof near Dr.Edkins, colleague his of England in Duringfurlough the share. husband's her mandarins… In worksheactive an literary took interest important an and illness last she Engl Up her wasteaching to

198

196 In addition addition her thatinvolvedupper In to teaching

of the main actors in Western women’s presentation of the New

Book[…]Mrs. RichardBook[…]Mrs. was of one the Directors and sole foreign cquainted with Mary Richard, as Timothy Richard informs us. Sayings of Jesus”; Professor Goodspeed's “Messianic ne or two of her published papers, read before papers,read the twoofpublished or ne her 77 ian Literature Society, Mrs. Richard edited

ool, foundedool, by the Reformers 1898 in - ish in some of the families of the high ofhigh ish someof families the in the 197 -

editor of Woman's ofeditor Workthe in Far - class male students, 99. the the CEU eTD Collection 201 200 199 event. Timothy Richard writes: Empre women who assisted them received a caseof handkerchiefs and a roll of Huzhou crape from the each twocasesofneedlework and each;while handkerchiefs ofothertwenty missionary the the information that they received this “movement” had been taken by Mrs. Richard and Mrs. Fitch. This assessment was based on attitude Chinese and toward Thus,it Christians Christianity. a was reportedpartin leading that Dowager’s acceptance of thegift, as they saw it, suggested possi favor Dowagerreturnedtheto Empress the gifts theby sending women involved. Majesty' of occasion Her onthe of token loyalty a countryas the offering withMissions connection throughout “the in offemaleProtestant converts Chinese the gift a theto Empress DowagerCixi. TheAnglophone audience was informed the was gift that presented a Chinese translation of the New Testament, beautifully adorned in the silver casket acceptance ardent of in the Christianity China. about appropriation of thevoice of Chinese Christian women in communicating a fabricated message received the gifts from the Empress Dowager. Richard, 1916, 226. 90. 88, Reeve, I For a different reading of the event see Lydia Liu, 2004, 142- dem. Richard reports that that reports dem. Richard ss Dowager. Empress- to Bible t a present to subscribe to women ifChristian were Chinese fitting be the Fitch, Mission, Mrs. Presbyterian itmy would ofAmerican suggesting wife the that and theIn spring of 1894 RobertMrs. Swallow,of English the wrote Methodist Mission, to version ofsame offers different the us Richard left byTimothy account However, the The exchange of gifts ofcaught the attention foreigners since China in the Empress

Dowager on her sixtiethbirthday.Dowager onher A Shanghai, committee in of was formed 201

there were two hundred women who “had taken part in the subscriptions” and who

the most precious gifts of Nanjing silk, a roll of satin, a box of of boxof silk,a satin, Nanjing most roll ofa the gifts precious 78 146, 149 146,

199 - - 160 153, In November 1894 missionaries In November 1894 ble improvement ofofficial the 162. s sixtieth birthday.” sixtieth s

200 The The , as as , he he CEU eTD Collection the present to the members of the Zongli yamen, and they passed it to the Empress Dowager. Ibid., 225, 226. 203 202 good as for China the missionaries work in served of evidence convincing a of events the sympathetic and more interested to Chris make mayinterpreted aiming moveas Cixi a to DowagerCixi, Empress be women the that to interests. This occasion was utilized to represent Christianity as zealously accepted by Chinese onearth.” China any behind maynation that be not so the toindividualprosperity nation and ofthe possession secret truehappiness get of this may Household also membersof Imperial the the all and “that Majesty your praying were added, copy a Princesses with bookof occasions this onhappy in their lives.” women,Christian was as Empire who had heard “itthat a is custom in theWest presentEmpresses, to Queens, and Christian women poor” Protestant “mostly and “fewf thousand”

Richard, 1916, 225. 1916, Richard, Timothy Richard also mentions that writer, Mr. Tsai. Chinese my of Chinesetheable with help suitable me into and by Richard, translated birds, and lined with old gold plush. A presentation address was by prepared Mrs. characters. The bookwasenclosed solid a casket in silver in same of the bamboodesign Therelief of bamboo birds. name and of the bookwere solid inscription and in gold bound silver waselegantly Introduction, in made solid boards Canton design in a in i with together the and, of style paper, onforeign best the Testament wasspeciallyprinted The New byhand of written and former bya teacher Dr.Medhurst. translated and ofLondon Mission, by the was Dr.Muirhead, prepared An Introduction was subscribed. provinces various collect theto money, altogether and sumthe dollars hundred of twelve instead of the whole Bible to Her Majesty. Branch committees were formed the in Mrs. Fitch as Secretary. They decided was it better to send a copy of theNew Testamen Mr.which Stevenson, of C.I.M., the actedas Chairman, Mrs. Richard as Treasurer, and The presentation of the New Testament the to Empres As Richard also informs us, the letter of Mary Richard was presented as being written by

202

British Minster O’Connor and American Minister Colone Minister and American O’Connor Minster British tianity. same Atthe time,contemporary positive reports 79 203

s Dowager had served multiple rom the various provinces of various the rom the l Derby handed l Derby

n t CEU eTD Collection 205 204 “he image developedan childhood of Confucian a sage.” himselfas Yintang 3.3.3. Kang Youwei (1858 - historical material: apoor Chinese Christian woman iserased inthe very words ascribed toher. primary available the male is whenroaching app invited female. and A caution missionaries, both appropriation manipulation and of the voice of poor ChristianChinese women bythe What these instances ofmultiple ends that the event served well reveal the is discursive Cixi, thought if they convertssubstantiate regarded Chinese themselves how the th ChinesethatEmpress to women proving Dowager,byaccepting as eventwhole wasrepresented report meetingWestern Chinese discussRichard’s ofand on the ladies 1897,the will Mrs. in wom work(for missionary of and in (women’s)support interest continuous back the ensuring home, thus audience e New Testament, showed her appreciation Newe appreciation Testament, showedher to Christianboth traditions women. missionary and

Chang, 1980, 283. 145. 2004, Liu, H. Lydia Kang Youwei was born into an educated family educated an wasborn Guangdong Kang into in Youwei Richard Shanghai1903. in Mary died H.As Lydia notes, Liu “there nois existing testimony or independent any source to xiang , Dunren li , Dunren

en). Finally, as it will become clear in the following chapter when I in1858. Having a strong sensemissionin1858.moral from strong early a of Having his

1927): Visions of Confucianism, women and racial eugenics 80 205 His education education His onl not province, Nanhai xian Nanhai province,

of all.” herat 204

y ,

CEU eTD Collection K’ang Yu K’ang Thompson, “Biographical Sketch of K’ang Yu and accomplish bigger spiritual clarification. After his stay on the mountain, Kang went to Hong Kong. Laurence G. and to books, theMountaintomeditate studyDaoist to Buddhist he retreated Xijiao it and hetook seriously: sage, And you seemed to be obsessed with your own reputation.” Ibid., 75. modest three words: the and practice understand really to failed “you that Kang to writing 207 206 doctrinand mythic,philosophical al,or the the ethical and legal, the institutional and social, as model for defining religion: the practical and ritual, the experiential and emotional, the narrative As Cole suggests,lives. Confucianism allthe dimensionsfulfills proposed byNinian Smart’s inherent inwaysthe inwhich the practitionersimplement these“religio portions contain which considered traditions may large “philosophy” of what functionally be century. nineteenth and China in expansionist politics, reveals the is central place “religion” that oc period the myWhat debatedquestion.whichof investigation, heatedly during began thisdebate, womenthe - will discuss I as chapters, in following provokedfrom strongthe a response participants the in that, issue West. wasan This for the Christianity is what China for Confucianism become should who alsoWestern knowledge it 1880s –bothand included Christian secular. neoincluded - 69. Jing Yuanshan, a main sponsor of tang Nüxue

For the negative feelings Kang provoked, not only beca only not provoked, Kang feelings negative the For Chang, 1980, 284.Kang wastwenty disapproved of hisinterpretation of Confucius as reformer and his insistence that Kang was not particularly popular time, particularlypopular atKang not wasnot the amongliterati especially (older) the Keri Cole notes that the problems with defining religion in Asia lays in the very nature of - wei , translated byLaurence G.Thompson(London and New York:Routledge, 1958), 12. oriented reformist projects. Confucian classics, but also Mahayana Buddhist teachings and from theearly

- one, when, during hismeditation, hehadthe reve - strengthening - wei,” in Kang Youwei, 207

Whether Confucianism not religion a or is still ais also did not approve Kang Youwei’s behavior. Jing is quoted quoted is Jing behavior. Youwei’s Kang approve not did also cupies in Chinesecupies in 81 use of his ideas but also because of his behavior see Wu, project initiated in the final years of the

Ta T’ung Shu, The One Shu, Ta T’ung - Westerns encounters, imperialist 206

ns” inns” their everyday lation about him being a y, tolerance and caution. - World: Philosophy of

CEU eTD Collection ( 211 210 4- 2011), 209 208 Confuciaaccommodate unity commoncultural a and which wasconceived cosmology broadly flexibly and to enough Judith A. Berling who explains that least at from dynasty theHan there was adeep sense of dealing rituals,devotion, with practice a describe religious adequately not in Chinese), it does life context.” the Chinese thefact, wordzongjiao importeddefinition from post with and systempractice ofchurchlikedistinct a organization thought afrom that is, society, meaningcurrent of religion, translation ofGermanthe the Religions meaning.modern meaningIts comes from theJapanese term shukyo , the zongjiao is modern Chinese interested in am I rather not. religion whetheror toquestion Confucianism is answer the provide an to well asmaterial dimensions all are addressed by Confucian doctrine.” Meeting of Minds: Intellectual and Religious Interaction in East Asian Traditions of inAsian East Traditions Interaction Religious and Intellectual Minds: in the Meeting Earlyof in Ch’ing,” 19 Prentice Hall, 1993), Cliffs: (Englewood 2 (2006): 309. (2006): 2 (Boulderand London: Lynne RiennerPublishers, Inc, Chicago: OpenCourt, 2005) 5–

Judith A. Berling, “When they go their Separate Ways: The Collapse of the Unitary Vision of Chinese Religion Religion Chinese of the Unitary Vision Collapse of The Ways: Separate their “When they go Berling, A. Judith Vincent Goossaert, “1898: The Beginning of the End for Chinese Religion?” in in “Religion Asia Pacific,” Cole, Keri ThomasDavid DuBois, As Thomas David DuBois explains in his book,in wordfortranslated his “religion” in the DuBois David explains As Thomas Nonetheless, as Goossaert emphasizes, there has been a distinct field of thought and 5. For the meanings of zongjiao

the issueof the howfor defined religion got argued theand in Wuxu reform period. n, Daoist and religious local teachings. Religion andthe Making ofModern Asia referred essentially to C 25. Seealso Furth,360.

- Renaissance Europe; although it applies easily to Christianity (in zongjiao intellectuals, amongChinese is cohere a

word .

Understanding Contemporary Asia Pacific

in Im in

that did exist in Imperial China but withmore a narrow nd salvation in China. This has also been discussed by discussed China. been in has This also nd salvation perial China see Anthony China perial C. Yu, ubüng

2007), 356, 362 356, 2007),

82 . 209 hristianityin the earlyphases use ofits in Vincent Goossaert reminds us that, “The - 363. See also Ninian Smart,also Ninian See 363. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 211 Buddhism wasthe first Buddhism major The Journal of Asian Studies , which, 208 , ed. Katherine Palmer Kaup State and Religion in China My study does not aim not My does study in turn comes from 210

Religions of Asia of Religions nt, exclusive 65, no. no. 65,

CEU eTD Collection 214 213 212 (New York:Columbia University Press, 1997), 209. of Wing in Honor Essays Thought. religious foundat Chinese unifying a China. teachings movementThree South 1774of in in ban the legal a doctrines, included which ( Qianlong’s in allof attitudes, climaxed which orthodox advocated and strictbehavioral furthercodes explains,promoted they Berling as Hence, but notapparatus, did intellectual independent want groups regime. that could endanger the practices, myths,and profuselyideas, symbols,borrowing deities another. from one nourish competitions between its teachers and disciples, but they all referred to thecommon Three teachings.”the of one as Chinese and claimedby the was eventually itselfsoil in Chinese succeeded in rooting Confuci deities, acceding into local - absorbing teachings Taoist terminology, deep “it unity,through and,accommodation towasonly Berlingwrites, – challenge this as Goosaert, 310. See religious life of China is not their synergy, and “they are expected to coexist but not mingle and lose their identity.” spir diviners, i.e. specialists, their and cults, traditions ritual local with cooperating and though these coexisting three religionsbeen emphasizes Goosaert,have nevertheless, thateven ideas.” a liturgical for they cooperate because isolation strict (scriptures that define orthodoxy), a liturgy, and training centers (monasteries, academies), yet they do not exist in th elaborates further He Confucianism. Buddhism,of religions Daoism and three system”asof comprising institutionalized religious contested als benevolence, rightness, etiquette, wisdom, and trustworthiness. Ibid., 213, 232 n14. son, and husband and a wife, perceived as the most basic of human relationships, and Five Constant Virtues, i.e.

o involved a variety of popular cults. Ibid., 210, 211. Goossaert also defines Chinese “pluralistic and internally The The reason thatgiven was the teachings thethree neglected bonds Three betwee After explaining the relation of the Three teachings, Berling briefly mentions that the history of Chinese religions, I dem. 214

Manchu rulers needed Confucian scholars to enable an efficient and an/cultural values,an/cultural blending and with patternsChinese of practice– Hence, as Berling as Hence, the concludes, unity of the Three teachings that could have served as

212 Confucianism, Buddhismfurther Daoism, and Berling as - tsi tChan andWilliam Theodore de Bary at these three“precisely religions are a by defined clergy, acanondistinctive ion was lost in the eighteenth century. In the author’s words, author’s the In century. eighteenth the in waslost ion

nd devotional purposes and openly share texts, values, and 83 1736- 96) campaigns against heterodox against campaigns 96) , ed. Irene Bloom and Joshua A. Fogel n ruler and a ruler n and subject, a and parent

it mediums, leaders of the sects, of it leaders mediums, loyal bureaucratic that Buddhism that Buddhism 213

conveying notes, didnotes, rooted rooted

CEU eTD Collection 218 217 216 215 of age an in religions.”competing world organized propagation,” and intended to “transform brand of his Confucianism jiao into comparative of view and indigenous religions foreign and educationfavored as its means of Da popular assuming persuasion,activities systems and religious as pedagogic such China Buddhism in and readilynot whatapparent” Kangby meant thatwouldshowreligion. Confucianisminstitutions China’s that is Confucian thought which wasdistortedby generationsofthe interested and createofficials, to T Christianity. behind started to argue that China was civilized and that it had her own spiritual tradition that did not lag standards of civilization, Chinese intellectuals, of whom Kang Youwei anotable is example, of “civilized individualallocating cultures and societies by developmental a designated in scale the categories Suzuki’s argument, complemented taxonomic a standard of InternationalSociety European in of “civilization”“superstition” producednew a definition ( grand religio “by the time of the cultural crisis of the mid death Yuandeath of 1916.Since Shikai in the Kang interpreted separation of state and church of akey as the Western - Mei Mayfair

Ibid., 106. Kang’scampaign 106. Kwong, - Mei Mayfair Ibid., 231. As As As Kwong writes, Kang c Kang writes, Kwong As Mayfair Mei

hui Yang hui oism. - -

cultural vision that could inspire and unite andcultural visionthatcould people.” inspire unite the ofChinese whole the hui Yang, “Introduction,” in semicivilized 217

(Berkeley, Los Angeles and London: University Of California Press, 2008), 8. 8. 2008), Press, California Of University London: and Angeles Los (Berkeley,

When Kang talked about Confucian jiao Confucian about When Kang talked he move that was necessary, though, was to return to the “original” the to “original” though, return wasto movehe wasnecessary, that - hui Yang writes, “Thehui Protestant Yang writes,

to inaugurate a to into inConfucianism religion state started and 1895 it lasted until the - uncivilized.”

onsidered Confucian teachings to Confucianjiao teachings be onsidered Chinese Religiosities: Afflictions of Modernity and State Formation State Modernity and of Afflictions Religiosities: Chinese 216 As a As - nineteenth century, was there nowhere turn forto a jiao 84 : itmoral comprised: neo/Confucian precepts,

218 way to cope with aof with new cope set imposed way to

- informed categories of “religion” and , “he appeared to have in mind a in have to appeared , “he wenmin g) ,”

, even though, “it is “it though, , even which, to reinvoke reinvoke to which,

for modern China,

215

, ed. ed. , CEU eTD Collection 222 221 220 219 needed. Goossaert , 366. monarchy satisfy the needs for the secularization of government, but that the “second wheal of morality” was pol pluralistic moralitya social in to uphold success thesameedict state sacrifices) into schools, the Emperor was so happy with this suggestion hethat issued an all to proposal turn academies temples and (with China the in exceptionfor registered of those institutes was not accepted. But, after Kang m becould sent to missions abroadthe spread to Confucianthe message. they worshiped. wouldbe Or,alternatively, Sage immortal the which temples in into the shrines Empire all supervise the dispatched to the be could over c either they choice; forscholars.thesescholarsa Afterreceivingwouldhave instructions, training junior multiple purposes. would It provide advanced studies of theClassics ofas apart specialized civilization is civilization, just as herWestern counterparts. jiao jiao Confucianism a became if religion a wasthat, promotion of the Confucianism into advocate thatmotivatedKang to logic full progressive staterate with a mere half not decide whether this will whether be en decide not because of the rumors that they will have to return to their secular lives. But, as the report informed, the officials did

Goossaert, Ibid.,106 Ibid., 110. 110. Kwong, s s ofand, notably, Christianity China, in it would but also demonstrate thatChinese Foreign opinion had it, as Kwong elaborates, that “unconverted China was but a second a that“unconverted- wasbut KwongChina opinionit, had as elaborates, Foreign In 1895KangIn proposed establishing institutean for Confucian which studies would have - 107.

307.

day supporting Kang’s proposition. supporting day N - j ü iao xue bao xue

Western nations and backward colored races that nojiao that had Western races nationscolored backward and

reported that after the edict got promulgated, Buddhist nuns were especially scared especially scared nuns were Buddhist the after edict promulgated, got that reported forced. “Nigu shoujing,” shoujing,” “Nigu forced. - jiao , not only would it contain and control the spreading theof spreading and“heretic” control wouldit contain only , not

and situated midway in the civilization process between the ity, he argued that the new school system and the constitutional the constitutional system school and the new that argued ity, he emorialized emorialized the throneon 10, July 1898 with the 85 N 222 ü xue bao xue

, no. 6, September 6, 1898. 220

221 onversion of localonversion the Kang’s plan Kang’s for the

at all.” 219 A

CEU eTD Collection 224 223 established in society another Guangdong, same using the as name set down rules and byKang endedsociety without any accomplishments. great In 1895 younger his Kangbrother Guangren Y 1883, Kang different reactions. circulate among the participants in women throne the to that Improper Temples Be Suppressed” asfollows: Religion and Church a Be Established, thatYears Confuciusthat Be Worshiped as [the Founder]Religion, ofNational the of thata Ministry and perceive China to be one of the barbarian countries because of the Chinese worship of animals. Goossaert, 313. argumentation: foreigners make photos of the statues in the temples, “show these pictures to each othe 104. 2010), AsGoossaert Philosophy, comments, Kang’s Memorialagain employs the ridicule of foreignersin his in Nation,”

Wei Leong Tay, “ Tay, Leong Wei Ibid., 331. Wei Leong Tay summarizes Kang’s suggestions presented in “The Memorial Requesting When comes it to hisideasand activities that specifically related to women, as asearly Vincent Goossaert, citing Huang Zhangjian, claims this that Memorial submitted not was Confucianism. the institutional strength of Christianity and replace its theological content with calendar emperor’s based movementcurrent on the reign. The Kongjiao w wouldreplace the Confucian a calendar and holiday as national a celebrated would be Confucius birthday worship. during Sunday the to people classics the wouldread they evenand villages. These national churches would officiated be byConfuci set up to China,Kang proposed Confucianallover churches allprefectures, in counties Secularization, Religion and the State

. However, as myin. However,as the following reveal, discussion chapters ouwei organized the hui Bu chanzu organized ouwei Kang Youwei, The Martin Luther of Confucianism and his Vision of Confucian Modernity and

223

, ed. , ed. Haneda Masashi Haneda ( - oriented oriented reformist and endeavors, provoke did 86

(Anti- Be Counted from of Confucius, Birth and the Footbinding Society). Nevertheless,the Tokyo:The University ofTokyo Center for 224 theseideas did an clergies and and clergies an anted to adopt to anted r and laugh,” laugh,” r and

CEU eTD Collection 227 226 225 a more exalted position. He writes: the newreflecting divisionmilitary, Western places ofeconomicpower, women political and in commu memorial also asserted that the practice was causing China to lose face in the international The race. Chinese the of future the turn, in and, footbinding women’s damages bodies, that of anti two lines up set inwere Fuzhou. Hunan,and Jiading Youwei. In Society’s headquarter1897 the moved fromto andShanghai, Guangdong branches of the Century,” the of Hangz Publishing,Inc., 1966), 72.

Quoted in Wang Ping, 33. Ono, 32, 33. The firstChinese anti Quoted in Howardstory Hi The of S. Levy,a Curious Footbinding: Chinese Erotic Custom hou in 1903 by Gao Baishu. Julie Broadwin, “Walking Contradictions: Chinese Women Unbound at the Turn perilous.weak offspring is havetherefore strongoffspring.we Nowmust that compete other nations,with to transmit Americans,stro so With so weakened, posterity how we engagecan in battle? I look at Europeans and nothingmakesso which ofis objects muchfootbinding. us ridicule as Foreigners us laugh at beggars. for thesethingsand criticize us barbarians.There for being Now andseclusion. is China ha narrow crowded, the slightest error the others ridicule and look down on Oursit. is definitely not a time of so internationalrelations, countries have All thatifcommits one known “barbarians”… as nations other theof slander those invites it of customs, our of beauty perspective the perspective of increasing military strength, it weakens the race hereditarily. From the From theperspective of human health, it gives rise to needless sickness. From the nity. In Kang’s words: Kang’s In nity. Kang also introduces a comparison between Chinese againstThe memorial footbinding thatKang submitted to the throne in 1898 explicates Journal of Historical Sociology - footbinding c

ng and mothers vigorousbecausetheir donot bind feet their and

ritique formulated at the turn of the twentieth century. It argued 227 - footbinding society founded by a woman was Fanzu Hui

10, no. 4 (1997): 421. 4 (1997): no. 10, 225

87 s opium addicts and streets lined with

and Western women which, 226

, established in established , (Taipei: SMC SMC (Taipei: CEU eTD Collection ofCalifornia Press, 1999), 36 n2. (1888). S (1888). 1960), 725. Wang Zheng speculates that Kang was inspired by an American experimental novel Looking Backward Ch’u, Chester Tan and John Meskill), ed. TheodoreBary, de Wing other participants in late thepaved way for more drastic and direct interventions into women’s bodies. 231 230 229 228 completed 1902. it in in 1887, and it during 1885, revised Humankind]) 1884and of the Principles [Universal the position core over at ofconcerns the of his future womanthe world. is would tooideas be experimental even for the mostliberal social thinkers of times. our Notably, future ideal worldthe did find its not practical application in modern becausesome China of his rulefootbinding fullywas not the until eradicated of Commu Party.nist matter that “themovement” tried to developed different sorts of coercive mechanisms, Laurence G.Thompson. 51 2004, Ristivojević, See book. material on old Chinese jinlian women Jueshi Li see Nan, feet withbound contemporary imagination, both in text and visually. For a recent example of the book that features excessive visual the ideas which became the basis of his two most famous works, shu tong Da 146. 50 2005, Shoes,” Shoes,” “theexpression phantom of modernity” in essayher “Jazzing into Modernity: High Heels, Platforms, and foreign (white) women’s curiosity and corporal comparison that is often captured on the photographs. Ko used the implicationsof the exposed poor, old,female body for ourperception of the (Shijiazhuang: Huashan wenyi chubanshe, 2005). An analysis of visual materialmay begin with probing into the

- Wing Bary, de Theodore The followingreading of Nevertheless, footbinding as “the phantom of modernity”, to use Dorothy Ko’s expression, continue to haunt See, for instance, Dorothy Ko’s account on the anti

(The book of the Great Harmony) in which he develops his vision developshis he of Harmony) which Great in bookof the Tong Shu(The Da Kang’s Anti in China Chic: in Chic: China East West Meets - Kang Youwei wrote the first draft of Datongshu ee WangZheng, 68.

- footbinding rhetoric of male reformers, gradually accepted bywom gradually reformers, footbindingmale rhetoricof

- tsit Chan, and Burton Watson (with contributions by Yi 231 Women in the Chinese Enlighten tsit Chan and Bur Kang’s ideas expressed in Datongshu Datong shu - Qing intellectual life, even its life, Qing intellectual though because, mplete co text was not -

57. I consulted both the Chinese version of text, and its edited translation made by

, ed. Valerie Steele (New Haven and London:ed.,(New UniversityHaven Yale Steeleand 1999), Valerie Press, is andsectionamore extracted revised of treatmentdetailed Kang’s of Sources of Chinese Tradition ton Watson claim that by 1880s Kang “already formulated in his mind - footbinding practices in early twentieth century Shanxi. Ko, 88 ment: OralandTextual Histories (at the (at time named

(New York: Columbia University Press,

practice, as well as as issues well the practice, with of must influence an on had have

and and - pa o Mei, Leon Hurvitz, T’ung Confucius as aReformer as Confucius 229

(Disappearing goldenlotus)

228

(Berkeley: University University (Berkeley: Nevertheless, no 230 en themselves, Renlei gongRenlei li

. Wm. Lotus - tsu tsu

CEU eTD Collection which are perpetuating suffering. Ibid., 75. The character Kang use for gender is existence of separation between man and birds, beasts, insects, and fish”), and the erasure of suffering occupation,disorder (i.e.“the existence of unequal, unthorough, dissimilar,and unjustlaws”), kinds (i.e. “the family 237 236 235 234 233 232 writes: Peace- platforms from which all sufferingemerge, will World the humankind live in One of Complete eradicatesboundaries family, which the ofandamong nation, are gender race the others, their and abolition will result in Harmony.the ofworld Great He asserted thatwhen humankind, differentiations and kinds areof there nine divisions that claimHis is ( the reachthem. way to proposed Equality. Age of Increasing Peace- the Three Ages ( familiar book’sand daughters, draft the may his whoall outline. with with were surmised, be in lifetime, Kang’s published complete version was published in 1935. published was version complete Hir Friedrich universal and Europe America that was that “in their men’s women are they private far fromare possessions, with][according America reached the final stage of development. Interestingly, a main supporting reason for the imperfection of

Each the of jie nine Ibid., 63. Kang did perceive China and India as “not escaping” from the first stage, but he did not thi 72. Kang, 327. Furth, He reportedly refused its complete publishing, even when his students and a Columbia University professor - boundaries,and gender and

Kang’s starting premise is that “the whole world is but a world of grief and misery.” of and world a grief “thebut is that world whole startingpremise is Kang’s book the eIn Kang doctrin adopted Confucius’s of Three ( Governments the principles, and as to the Way of finding happiness, they hav it.” eattained I likewise not 234

Equality. th insisted on it. Laurence G. Thompson, “‘Ta T’ung Shu’: The Book,” in Kang, 1958, 27, 34. The Being born born Being in Age ofthe his KangDisorder Youweihighest described ideals and

san shi san

had been discussed in a separate chapter. In addition to nation 237 Kang expresses Kangcritiques expresses seemingly universal of women’s and position, ), believing that after the Age of Disorder, the world will change into the thewill change world ), thatafter into the believing Age of Disorder, - boundaries, Kang suggests the future without the divisions in terms of class, and 232

- Equality, and finally into the Age of Completed Peace Completed of Age the finally into and Equality, he shared his views with his disciples and collaborators,as disciplesand and, views his his with shared he 235

89 xing jie

(form, shape). shape). (form, - boundaries, race boundaries, ) which cause which suffering, ) dem. nk that Europe and san tong san

- - boundaries, boundaries boundaries - ) and and ) - and 233 236

CEU eTD Collection 240 239 238 the fromparliament, family. in lackindependence and of women’s the women to directly participate offor the opportunity in lack men identified he women’s inequalitywith that Kang criticized from different not women.”men;men different not from are are same.Women things, see to stop door [doing] the same, is handle ability affairs to use their to and reasonis the temperament is the same, their morality and immorality is the same…their ability to go about, their [men’s and women’s] intelligence and wisdomis the same, their disposition and I dem. For more on Kang’s visions of women’s future see Lü Meiyi and Zheng Yongfu,

As a remedy Kang suggested the establishment of girls’ schools that Ibid., 150. Ibid., 149- In urging for the equality of the sexes, Kang explains equality forofsexes, the the urging In happiness of ofGreathappiness Community equality, the of and independence. theto longing: incalculablebring inconceivable numbers of future women the of womenmy of ownfromthe timein sea suf drowning hundred million eight save desire: to the great now I one past. have women the of nowI have task: a to outcry the grievances ofnatural the incalculable numbers of m victims offeredhelp or to them. most is This the unjust, appalling, unequaland thing, the andlooked considered them be to ofmatters course,have demandednot justice for the men, r thepastthroughout world, and present, for thousands of years,those whomwe good call Such inhumanity.punished. theAnduniversally actions been worst yet than have worse tatto themforced distort and to their bind waists,veiltheir faces, compressfeet, their and gosightseeing, or entertainment, or house. leave the Andeven men worse than that, have discussions, themhold or let study, not men worse, have meetings. Still public participation in prevented have themMen from officials, from being citizens, as living from enjoying women, restr whomintimate, most. loved he the men Yet have callously and unscrupulously repressed human moreover, intelligence; each man some had has whomwith woman wasmost he to earth ofwhole the allnations taking human ofhistory, thousandmore years ten than In ost inexplicable inexplicable heaven. ost theory under gether, incalculable, inconceivable numbers of people have had human had andform have incalculable, ofgether, numbersinconceivable people

150. o their bodies. The guiltless have been have oppressed, Theguiltless universally innocent o their the bodies. ighteous men, have been accustomed sightof men,been the sat to and things,have ighteous have such

or make a name for themselves, or have free social intercourse, or enjoy ained them, deceived them, shut them up, imprisoned them, and bound them. boundthem. them,and them, them, themup,imprisoned ained shut deceived

in in public affairs, i.e. to become officials, scholars or members of 90

would be the s

uman beings, that “having become beings, human fering. I I fering. now a have great 240 ame as that of boys’ school.

Zhongguo funü yundong yundong funü Zhongguo 238

239 For this reason, CEU eTD Collection 243 242 241 Lianbo, Zhang (1840 interracial propagation, clarifies, and estimates that, under the influence of certain types of climate, food and white race is assuredly superior, while the yellow is race more numerous and also wiser,” Kang strength “The of smelting and the the amalgamation of anis races. d unity equality humankind in andthetogether bringing boundaries inracial abolishing step to first Kang,According the surface colors are completely different, and their spiritual constitutions are very dissimilar.” abolish].” male on relying and seeof fromnumber a will of examples Nü publicized texts in the we as were, onwomen discourses that mapping the also for but century, oftwentieth the turn category of race ( of racial differentiations is of a great importance not only for theorizing the ways in which to women utterly was racially selective. A chapterofshu Datong gender as the intersecting categ under the process of “natural evolution which cannot be escaped.” Ibid., 141 itsnon of extinction eminent the and predict Emperor race,” Yellow our of posterity intelligent be blamed their “fierce and ugly” appearance. addition,In Kang talks about China’s southern developed by “the brown race Pacificof the and South islands.” Sea areIndians addressed as “allin black color” theirand landhot is to Literature intersectional perspective. intersectional liberation in early Modern China) (Henan: Henan Daxue chubanshe, 2005), 62 environment, weather, food and drink, daily behavior, housing and exercise. Ibid., 144.

Kang includes the follow As Kang perceives, “we have the white racethe andrace Europe,theAfrica,of yellow black Asia, theof race Ibid., 140. For the way in which - 1921) In Kang’s view, racial boundary is “the most difficult [of all the boundaries to to boundaries the mostdifficult [of all “the is racial view, boundary Kang’s In However, when an of analysis Kang’s version of equality brings together the race and

(Stanford: StanfordUniversity Press, 2005), 43 241

(Chinese women’smovement [1840 There are four races in the world Zhongguo jindai funü jiefang sixiang licheng jindai jiefang sixiang funü Zhongguo ) had been introduced by) introduced zhong been and had Chinese conceptualized intellectuals at the - generated hierarchies. visions modern/izing its rolein ofand equality

243 ing as influencing and factors “men’s color and appearance bodily characteristics”: race, it will “golden itone - will yearsfortake the less than hundred Datong shu Datong ories of power -

1921])(Henan: Henan renminchubanshe, 1990), 68- treats the issue of race Jing see Tsu, - allocation, it becomes that clear Kang’s approach 91 -

whi (Historical development of the ideas about women’s - 47. In his reading, Tsu is, however, not using using not however, is, Tsu reading, his In 47. te, yellow, brown, and black - yellow, black te, brown,and - 143. - 67. xue baoxue , significantly relating that elaborates the elimination

Failure, Nationalism, and and Nationalism, Failure, colored” races races colored” - Han inhabitants inhabitants Han 71. See also also See 71.

and “theirand drink anddrink

242

CEU eTD Collection 247 246 245 244 earth. “transmitable to kind their to newthe of Era One World” and wouldprobablybe from swept the the “natural inclinations” of racially selective white women’s desire, black people will not be by human whichneverdesired nature.” be is [toforwill hope something] race uglinessmonstrous of negro supremacy.reinforcing its “with Nonetheless, refined the of beauty womenwhite the and race,thus white the reproduce to womencontinue white view, will Kang’s In world. ideal the to inr the actors controlling as envisaged not women are black and time, brown world.same Atthe bearers ideal of future symbolic as the becomewhite) eventually who women would women of and of yellow is, white yellowand women (that of selection, theywill be decimated. throughWorld, after amalgamate”,of passing to Era thousandsof One difficult bythe years and, brown and soblack people, “being di contradictionthe any with celebrated Without seeing conceptof equality, Kang deemsthe that perfected,been yellow the will already people have changed completelywhite into people.” amalgamat enablethem be disparatewill to very not being to become “silver long, and all the offspring of these unions will be completely changed into whites. Ibid., 144. them be]to equals, will eat with them”, Kang admits that there are such incases Ameri them,[consider will with mutual love toa “share wish will woman white sophisticated a that his doubt expressing pig, front view like an ox, full breasts and long hair, their hands the men like exampledescribing “iron After black having as faces, silver slantingraising America. teeth, a jaws of

Ibid., 148. Kang explained his argument about a bea Ibid., 141- 144. 141, Ibid., 247 Kang’s argumentKang’s eugenics of racial theposits power reproductive and ofthedesire white The only chance for black people to approach this process is to become brown in a

143.

- colored” ones. The ones. colored” talents and appearance ofwhite the yellowand people men, between forwill hope intercourse themwhich transform to the

245 utiful white woman and the impossibility of her desiring a black man by

stant [in color] from the white people, will be really 92

and feet dark black, stupid like ship or swine”, and and or swine”, ship like stupid black, dark feet and acial politics of the desire that would lead ed, and “before the One World has “beforeOne and ed, the ca but that it won’t pass too it that ca pass but won’t

246 Hence, due to due Hence, 244

CEU eTD Collection of darker people] of darker ugliness idea [aboutthe this “soon the people, with they lose darker forwhile racesa lighter live there aprospectis of seeing “countless marriages between light and dark races” becaus 250 249 248 Thus, through the envisioning Kang Youwei’s of miscegenation aiming to re/establish the white race asthesole standard in the future One World.. will beof decoration ‘race the reformer’ decorationthe of of ‘person ren all[yellowand white] and mate women can brown with who men conferred have will onthem the “lower”races,and [yellow “allwhite] and men yellow and to become suitabl years theytwo food,them wouldneed hundred three nurture drinkexercise, suitable and to with and Marriages,” of Mixed Method “The skin, wouldshade of timethe that with their alter though:races if we apply “The Method of i.e. Migration,” move thespace themto geographic impossible.”to “extreme people’s and ugliness mixedmarriagesblack stupidity… promotingwith them next is way similar brown which in going people are to ‘improve’ their complex becauseion, owingto whites in a period from seven hundred to a thouyears.sand I black people will become brown, and they would then continue “to merge into lighter shades”, only to become Norway, t

Ibid., 147. Ibid., 146. Kang also has one additional “solution” to this issue: “to remove them wholesale to Canada, Sweden, and Hence, the vision of racial amalgamation Kangthat offered basicallyis racially selective wasa survivalchanceThere forof slight the of) (evenslighterone black brownand a o occupy the empty lands there”. After three hundred years in new environment and intermarriages the

- to - become 248 .” e for Kang’s racial eugenics. Intermarriages are more acceptable between white

249 As the author projects, in order to encourage the marriage of marriage the the encourage “higher” orderto projects, in author As the - white superior and races brown

’ and will [be treated with] a special kind of etiquette…The name .” 250

dem. the United World, as the racial borders are to who can mate with who black can brownand women,

- skinned people, and, as Kang notices, Kangskinned notices, people,as and, e, whene, CEU eTD Collection 252 251 - geo nineteenth limited and of destabilization by late century redefinition acknowledged China late onthe which ways in my investigation following chapter will stay in this dynamic ideo werethat taking place in the world of ideasand realities of nineteenth Confucianism religion. for Chinese promote and monarchy restore the to endeavors engagedand withstudies Shanghai, his therefused byinvitation Yuan Shikai becometo member of the a government. he 1913but China to popularrevolution. He increasingly returned than alternativethe better the “constitutional - monarchy propagate to continued he of exile, years his During wasonthehe Hong move, in Kong, living Japan, America, Penang,England, Singapore,India. whiteness. blackbrown and people/women got but only itsultimate– it not shape be erased Republican China, Volume one

For anFor informative essay about Kang Youwei’s life see Howard L. Boorman, ed. Thompson, 19 civilizational nei Af All the issues that I’ve tackled in this chapter point issues of in the the of that I’ve tackled to level changesAll this chapter complexity Kang fled to Japan, and during several years several 1899 years following during and Japan, to 1898Kang fled in ter the d'état coup –

by extinguishing or whitening of the darker races - whiteningofdarker by extinguishingor the –

21.

- wai ordering. ordering.

(New York and London: Columbia University Press, 196

252

Kang Youwei died died 1927in KangQingdao. Youwei in - Qing women embraced the opportunities born out of out theborn opportunities Qing women embraced 94 - political contextual f the hierarchy of white, yellow, hierarchy of the white,

ramework, but will refocusramework, will but Biographical Dictionary of of Dictionary Biographical the uniformity superior in 7), 230- - century China. The The China. century 233. 233. plus 251

He lived in He - reform” as CEU eTD Collection Wuxu reformers. this view the formed was the in by the as about already century twentieth I’ve discusses, activists but, talks early 253 political matters in their poetry and during their gatherings, and for first situation the time ofEmpire. history Chinese Women the past did in the address in concerned actions the and with political discussions engaged the in women becomedirectly to as accomplishments. we will see, Moreover, it cannot be that stated the Wuxuinspi period were exchange artistic of focused onthe women’s thesewomen’s and groups form groups, country. ofposition level womenwithinternationalstanding and the ofthe with of civilization the value ofthe advance position in China the reinstate to desires reformists’ sanction not did which men’s propriety unlimitednorms neo/Confucian of access to women, and reformers to organize, argue and act in the socio power,its two important conditions empowered female relatives and acquaintances of the China nei whenperiod the thanorder.” theof rather foundation ills public public of the as source domestic the attention“to the shifting unproductive,” thesediscourses and were education, mostrudimentary economically and denied the inner quarters, the to confined state, 1600 state, zhi sheng (I): Jindai Zhongguo de funü yu guojia (1600 guojia yu funü de Zhongguo Jindai (I): sheng zhi Cha

Gail Hershatter, “Making the Visible Invisible: The Fate of “The Private” in Revolutionary China,” in Wusheng pter thenei 4:Extending As I wi I As As

- 1950),

Gail

ll discuss in ll in discuss this womenChina chapter, communicate,did gather imperial in and ed. Lü Fangshang, Taibei: Institute for Modern History, Academia Sinica, 2003), 259. Hershatter

Hershatter observes, women in the reformers’discourses were “footbound, came to be perceived as the source of Ch the school and thejournal the schooland

- : Chinese women’s: Chinese association, 1950) 95

(Voices amid(Voices silence [I]: Modern Chinese women and - political arena. These conditions were the 253 In the context of the Wuxu reformWuxu of context the the In ina’s weakness rather than of

there was a tradition of - system that related the red red CEU eTD Collection together and analyze multiple visions of theseevents presented willbring to and try and/orsubjectsactions of thatinvolvedwomen discussions objects as events materia historiographical under and accounts historical interpretations, again disclosing the once of issues historical and into the political life of late thesphere. “outer” within womenwhich - its as involvedin actors well creation, ofreconstruction various ofnetworks the involved in Wuxu the reform accommodated. In period so, doing focus I ontheboth l “outer” stand for theproscribed differences organized along the gendered in lines terms of space, inhabited. In the present chapter, after discussing the notions of nei decisively influenced the expansion theof Chinese future and China women.influence changeand wouldsignificantly political should as head; they to that began agentsofact changes their they directions Chineseideas aboutand exchanged which women’sthe future; in socio- actors.political Theybegan form alliances to - the relied which onsocio becomewomen did a empowerto century chapterthis will demonstrate, the sense of acutecrises in the closing years of the nineteenth celebrated womenwere praised martialwho for their skills and political wisdom. Nonetheless, as abor and discourse, proceedI to an analysis of newly this accommodated “outer” space women l and historical literature and their diverse investments and interests. My narration of the willIt become in clear the course of chapter this that the entrance of women as agroup - analyzed ideo the I’ve chapter previous the In oriented reformist projects functioned after their operating space was marked -

and overrepresentation,and well as full our dependenceon historical - Qing China has been a matter of contesting and contradicting and matterof Qing a been contesting has China and delimitingand ofsocio- the

distinct and group and - of acknowledged fully socio distinct 96 political context of late politicalspace late- by the participants themselves and political visions of China

wai

when “inner” and ason the ways in - Qing China that Qing China Qing women Qing women CEU eTD Collection 43. Culture and Hai politics, literature, and daily life.” For a brief introduction of Yijing of a introduction brief For and daily life.” literature, politics, profundity is by no means limited to divination…[since] the ideals of traditions. The book has been usually regarded as a divination book, but, as Wang points out, “its philosophical explanation ofthe hexagram Womanhood in Lienüzhuan (Biographies of Women),” in Hershock and Ames, 95. This is an excerpt from the 254 organization had been conceived as nested ordering of units which atare the same time it and Book ofreads: Changes), comeexplanation ofthirtyto the the is 4.1. collective ident motives in involvedingetting activities which contributed to creation ofthe a socio- men these processes, what in and can they tell aboutus the cooperation of participants and their established, how did these three projects oper the establishments ofwomen’s school, women’s association and women’s journal?Once laterand by historians. guided analysisMy by is following the questions: Who wasinvolved in

Translation from Robin R. Wang,“Virtue (de), Talent(cai), and Beauty(se): Authoringa Full - ming Wen and John Trowbridge, “The Classic of Changes ( Nei Nei Discussing the ordering of space in early China, Mark Lewis explains that its ritual Thecrucial description of and and , e d. Robin R. Wang (Indianapolis and Cambridge: Hackett Publishing Company, Inc., 2003), 25 - this isthis thegreat wai ity of Chinese women? ity ofwomen? Chinese and the properplacefor the the manand ( outside is The proper for the ( The proper place woman inside is : Gendered divisions of space, labor, and discursive genre discursive and labor, space, of divisions Gendered : When both man and woman are in their proper places, When their manwoman in both are and jiaren jiaren appropriateness (

(family).

nei

and and

Yijing Yijing - seventh hexagram, wai as tex a philosophical yi

ate? What were therelations amongwomen and domains that inspired centuries of interpretations 97 ) ) of ( heaven Yijing

and the entire text for the hexagram jiaren Yijing Yijing ),” in Images in ),” of Women in Chinese Thought jiaren tian nei wai t is cherished in Confucian and Daoist have also been employed in ) and earth and ) ( ) the family, ) the family.

(family), from the

). 254

Yijing the areas of areasthe of political - fledged 28, 41 28, (The (The

see see - CEU eTD Collection 256 255 that: of divisions proper the gendered through both character its asafragment wholes oflarger andinternalits divisions which conductedare or the city,and kinship state, the andregion world, that: concludes orde as conceived orfragmentof a family.turn, larger household Thefamily was,in and mental aspects) as the smallest spatial unit that gets absorbed into a larger spatial unit of the ondepending influenti and (2000). (2000). EASTM Medicine,” 17 in Early Chinese Distinction ‘Inner/Outer’ Pass’: A Nei/wai ‘Inner the Neihuan “Crossing

Lewis, 77, 78. What Lewis discu Lewis, 10. More on nei

produced oneproduced offundamental society.” of lines the Chinese fault early ld househo and the structure of the state lineageand that toattempted encompass it history]…Thus, of period[ofChinese tension theof the structure between the early of female historyreality house the ofruling defined theinstitution power and the imperial the which place in curious the defined phenomenon of produced power the and imagery spatially broader it, of structure ChineseThe physical house, spatial elite the the distribution of within power As in the case of the body, Lewis further reveals, the ideas about the household stressed world. formed progressiveoutwardofunits throughextension the that m court. the and And element the empireone world itselfwasonly cosmos vaster a within culture ofcapital toencompassing goods the centripetal flowthe menthe tribute ofand cosmos.All regions were treated as fragments ofagreater whole, drawn toget culminated in an imperial capital constructed as a ritual center for the regulation of the became element one within a world empire formed of network bya cities such that structures of the empire or lineage. The divided city, or specifically its political likewise was amicrocosm ofthestate, and it became aunit for order within the larger a Theperfectedbodycosmos state ontheunity. world wasfashioned imageor the of Ultimately, all these forms ofordering space were aspects of an encompassing vision of nd culminated in an influence an that in nd culminated to edges reached Thehousehold of earth. the the 255

- wai mapping the body see the first chapter in Lewis’s book. See also Vivienne Lo,

of converged.Indeed, placeof this the authority womenhidden and al He for eacha other. identifies human body(including its physical sses is the power of the mother.

space and behavior of men and women, and concludeswomen, andmen and of and space behavior 98

256 ade up the Chinese upthe ade

her through her rs ofrs the half, CEU eTD Collection renegotiated, unique socialcontext.” dependingmakeup onthe ofpolitical and its Rosenlee’s use boundary wording,to between “the nei 262 261 260 259 258 257 Rosenlee argues, and identifies familymain as a generator, sustainer and justifier of gender author in “a series of concentrical circles.” and envisaged large, thethe at by the family,all between community,world state of influences compliance maintainingof the separationbetween these two (and spheres the two is sexes) the lack of Ebrey Buckley notices, wasimpliedwhat in the Confucian visual physical further and accentuationrequired of nei muchbetween“individuals for maneuvering norm room ideal behavior” turnthat in actual and the ambiguityof ofconcepts itinstructs, wasprecisely nei the Brynamutable,” GoodmanWendy L and divisions gendereddifferentiation and of theoreticallyspatial workwere spheres of activities. ritual boundaryproblemthe of of the nei

Rosenlee, 2010, 176. 25. Ebrey, Buckley b 1994 Ko, Goodmanand Larson, 4. Rosenlee, 2006, 70;See also Ko, 1996, 144 Rosenlee, 2010, 180. As I’ve already indicated,As nei I’ve theTherefore, problem disparity of gender in Chinese society is, as Rosenlee pointsout, a Rosenlee perceives that arelational self Confucian in thinking participates an in exchange , 145. 145. , totherules.

257

261

and and - 145. wai 262

and theand arson remind us. arson The “focused center of relational self” theis family,

are notare static and strictly defined binaries. Instead, 99 wai wai and and as gender - moralists’ underlining of importance wai wa 259 i

distinction. is constantly movingis being and But actually, as Butactually, as KoDorothy - based of divisions and labor and and 260 wai more rigid and less more less and rigid And, as Patricia

which allowedwhich 258 “Ideasof CEU eTD Collection 265 264 263 Chinese loyal participants in educationmen’s shape of wasto Thepurpose (government). sanctionedthem ritually engageme the to key a inculcating pattern role in played ofthe male authority to loyal female and future subjects. system.”kinship that it delegated it almost exclusively “on their roles and responsibilities within the Chinese way ofa behavior in governed women the code” was“ansocial that extensive It examinations. for the sit or government publicoffice,hold posts, not to appointed could be ofcontinuity moral culturalimperatives becauseitpoint and of isofof the disparities junction the Aristotle’s Political Animal,” Aristotle’s Community Kwong Nation Walte Larson, 2005, 3. and Wendy Larson,“Introduction: Axes ofGender: Divisionsof Labor andSpatial Separation,” legally barred from public service and, ideally, from serious scholarship and outdoor occupations.” Bryna Goodman

Walter Slote,H. “ Walter Tamara Hamlish, “Calligraphy, Gender, and Chinese Nationalism,” in Rosenlee, 2010, 176; Rosenlee, 2006, 121, 122. For more on relational self in Confucian thought see, for instance r H Slote and George A. De Vos (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1998), 38. , ed. Tamar Mayer (London and New York: 2000), 217 2000), York: New and (London Mayer Tamar ed. , - Confucian Ethics: A Comparative Study of Self, Autonomy, and Autonomy, Self, Study of A Comparative Ethics: ed.Confucian B. Wong, David and loi Shun disseminated known and all to structured of intensely values common core itsmembersbrought to complex bya highly but effective extended family system assignment; generational sequence The Confucian familyhasvalue traditionally definedsystem: been byits grading age WalterAs H. Slote summarizes: The Confucian Four Books Four The Confucian Fivemen’s and constituted Classics education directed that Tamara Hamlish notices that there were no legal statutes which dictated that women

(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, University Cambridge 2004)(Cambridge: and Yu Jiyuan, “Confucius’ Relational Self and the family name, filial piety, and and worship. familyancestor name,piety, filial the

265 Psychocultural Dynamics within the Confucian Family,” in Confucianism in Family,” the Confucian within Dynamics Psychocultural andthe Family discipline,elevated positionindustriousness, the and given to learning.” Gendered social codes were learned in one’ History of Philosophy Quarterly Quarterly Philosophy of History ;

the dutiful siblings dutiful betweenand bonding parents the ; roledefinitiona which in everyone specifie a had

nt in the in worldnt of wen 100 ; an ethical code and a morality widely code morality a and ethical an 22, no. 4 (2005). 4 no. 22, . Yet, Goodman and Larson write that “women were thatLarson were and “women write Yet,. Goodman Gender Ironies of Nationalism: Sexing the 263 s family, where the education the family,s where

(literature) and

; in Goodman and and in Goodman the s the ; the the ecurity

zheng 264 the ; the civil , ed. ed. ,

CEU eTD Collection 10. Pu Discourse Tang in Politics Gender Patriarchs: 268 267 266 potentialities”: her light and studied modernthe a of heritage essayChinesein “The womanher her world in in w has H. Chen, Sophia name of the under known Hengzhe, also Asaccomplishments. Chen endeavor to become , a for acainü herwoman wasadmired talents and who artistic them, embroidery. most household,the ofa and, among important sewing, supervising household arts weaving, the merchants and artisans were schooled by their mothers, elder sisters and their female teachers in China, were completely illite had been scale, much allottedorthodox wider the to women’s education. harmony the “ while and political and intellectual life who would safeguard the orders of culture, civility and the state, Changein China’s Social andEconomic History, 1550 duties as were thought pr kinds of skill. Vocational standards were set high and the instruction which she received fitted the girl for such illiterateThehome were responsibilitieswomen notuneducated. the andmany calledfor theywere of heavy “In in society, Lloydtheir out, station Eastman itas spite of true…that inferior was whpointed Nevertheless, Imperial and Early Republican China,” Late China,” Republican and Early Imperial Imperial China

blishers, Inc., 2000), 190,192. Chen Hengzhe(Sophia H.Chen), Belle LewisIda

See See “FemaleEmbroidery a as Grace S. Field Fong, Hands: Knowledge in Women's Life Late in Everyday in thein eyes of herintellectual male friends. gift of scholarship or literary a considered the essential achievements of Chinese aperfect lady, though the additional thirdly artsand lastly, chess; and the These of painting. and calligraphy fourwere arts the Chinese seven They [TheFour Arts] firstly, are, music, particularly with reference to the art of playing In late -

Qing Qing China peasant women, comprising at least 70 per cent of all women in in women all cent of at70per least women, comprising peasant Qing Qing China , Education of Girls in China in ofChina Education , Girls 267 Daughters were also instructed in Family, Fields, and Ancestors: Constancy and Constancy operly Ancestors: hers.” Seeand Lloyd. E.Fields, Eastman, Family, good government” of the family, and, in extension, of an order on of extension, order a an family,in and, the good government” of - Chine; secondly, the art of playing difficult of playing art Chine; secondly,the the called stringed harp,

rate.

The Chinese Woman and Four Other Essays 266 The girls frommiddle theupper and families class of the bility or both would make that lady even more admirable more evenmake lady admirable that bility would both or

(New York City: Teachers College, Columbia University Columbia College, Teachers City: York (New (Lanhanm Boulder, New York and Oxford: Rowman & Littlefield

101 - 1949 268

25, no. 1 (2004) and Jowen R. Tung, R. Tung, Jowen and 1(2004) no. 25, (New York,Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1988),

Qin hua shu qi

(Peiping: b.n.,1934). (Peiping:

(The Four Arts) in an Fables for the

, 1919), 14. 14. 1919), ritten ile

CEU eTD Collection by male literati Wang Xiang (1789 Xiang Wang maleby literati Angeles and London: University of California Press, 1994b Society in Late Imperial China, 1600 1994 New York P York New Humanism”, in the husband overthe wife.- Wei Tu the authority of the theover late ruler prescribed offici A.D. which (in relatively 75) problematic Confucian of is ethics concept legacy the of that Bondsthat Three idea the is, (sangang), emerged 271 270 269 elite men conferredwere onto their women long as the as latter fulfilled their filial duties as women gets if she adhere to ethical codes. throughlargely women’s own promotion” consentand because were they about the that power worksSun Chang theorizes, instructive for womenChina m Imperial in widowed compilerWangmother,by the Madame Liu. Xiang’s Nüfanjielu and of XuMing; byEmpress written Neixun ofTangdynasty; the reign during Song Ruozhao Nüjie ( Women appropriate forms of that literacy records.historical This createdinstructive amaterial new meaning onnei extended ofinstruction and girls women Women’s into Books,the Four particular of types literature, and of orders extension,the family,in and, ofsocio- the larger Yu, 242. Yu, Society Chinese in Inequality Mid inthe and Wives Brides Marriage: for a Daughter “Grooming Mann,

AsTu Wei Kang More on the role that women’s education played in preparing young women for their marital lives see Susan a ), 213 ), (Admonitions for Women); (Admonitions -

The ethical project of educating ofa sonsThe ethical project educating maintain and woman wouldbring upfilial who These works are problematic when read fromegalitarian perspective, of Books Four for corpus men, cannon the ofclassical Paralleling formation for the the I Sun Chang, “Ming Nü si shu si Nü - ress, 1998, 214. See also Susan Mann, “The Education of Daughters in the Mid - - mingpoints out, whenobserved a most fro and liberal perspective, m egalitarian modern the Walter SloteH and George A.De Vos, ) was) for created women bywomen. and four These are: books Ban Zhao’s 122, 135. 122, - Qing Women Poets and the Notions of ‘Talent’ and ‘Morality’,” in Huters, Wong, and , ed.Rubie, S. Wats

–

1852) in midthe 1852) ming, “ wereused be to men distinctivelyby women. and - 1900 N ü lunyu , ed. Benjamin A Elman and Alexander Woodside Probing the ‘Three Bonds’ and ‘Five Relationships’ in Confucian on and Patricia Buckley Ebrey (Taipei: SMC Publishing Inc., Publishing SMC Ebrey (Taipei: Buckley on and Patricia 271 - Qing period. Rosenlee, 2006, 103. 2006, Rosenlee, period. Qing (AnalectsWomen for As Dorothy Ko As Dorothy explains, “all the social of power 102 Confucianism and the Family (A BriefOutline of Rules forWomen) written ). Women’s FourBooks polit

(Instruction for the Inner Quarters) 269 ical units, ical was conductedbythe

) written bySong Ruoxinand written ) - Ch’ing Period,” and in Marriage Ch’ing Period,” inEducation Period,” Ch’ing and

are organized as the anthology al, the father over the son, and , Albany: State University of of University State Albany: ,

anaged to “triumph, “triumph, to anaged 270 but, as but, Kang-

(Berkeley, Los(Berkeley,

and and wai : I CEU eTD Collection suasion,” appropriation ofneo/Confucian propriety. the norms gendered of 277 276 275 274 273 272 ofmostwidely textsone circulated ancient the in China. it was less learning for makedemanding younggirls, intention to asauthors’ the interpreted the simple style of writing, brief twelve chapters compo Song Ruozhao. It waswritten annotatedsister byher Song Tingfen,later and Tang literatus male political power. won’trp usu endanger and ofcourt Emperor ladies the male the and that the thepersuade officials other words, Rosenlee suggest that Ban Zhao was compelled writeto in this fashion so as to their loyalty to the patrilin conservatism” oftheNüjie history. her brother, the Imperial historian B 1930s. wife,and mother 103. Mou (Houndmills: Macmillan Press Ltd., xviii Ltd., 1999), Press (Houndmills:Mou Macmillan frontier that she took when accompanying her son to his new impe the memorials written to the Emperor and the Empress, three poems, and an essay about her trip to the eastern

Rosenlee, 2006, 107. Ban Zhao tutored the Empress Deng (d. 121 CE), palace ladies and numerous male historians. Rosenlee, 2006, to addition In Sherry Mou, “Introduction,” in Kang Dorothy Ko, “Rethinking Sex, Female Agency, and Footbinding,”

274 - 120 AD) Nüjie–120 AD) (45 Ban Zhao’s Nü lunyu I Sun Chang, 242. Emphasis is in the original. 275 Ban Zhao Ban celebrated is for completing the Hanshu 273 and was persistently used as an instructing material in women’s education the until Rosenlee follows Rosenlee ChenYu Nüjie 272 was originally by written eldestSong Ruoxin,the offive the daughters of a

and and and it was the educational material that played a significant role in women’s

276 , Hanshu

eal Han courtunder the watchful of eye their male counterparts.” In

as “apublic statement by Ban Zhao and Empress Deng to display Presence and Presentation: Women Tradition in the Literati Chinese Presence Presentation: and

the material she authored that is available for contemporary consultation include include consultation contemporary for is available authored that the material she an Gu, in the midst of his compilation of the dynastic of dynastic the midst ofcompilation his the in Gu, an

was a symbol“tremen of - shi and interprets the“excessive humility and - xix.

103

sed of four characters lines which may which lines be characters four ofsed rialpost. Rosenlee, 2006, 127. 277 Jindai Zhongguo funüshi yanjiu funüshi Zhongguo Jindai

(The book of Han) after the death of death the after Han) bookof (The

dous dous power

of [women’s] moral moral [women’s] of

7 (1999):102. , ed. Sherry J. ,Sherry ed.

CEU eTD Collection r the pastempresses, the ways to treat theservants in thePalace, how to dealwith the empress’s of characters and behavior praiseworthy theon narratives realm also included familial it but its t serve purpose: modified to thus, royalfamily - ofMing the members for the the texts written to educated general female public, these instructions were written exclusively 280 279 278 (sage intelligence); renzhi exemplary women. T (Biographies of Women) Exemplary in 18c.a. BC, composed and sketches 125 life of of these instructive storiesmade was by the Han dynasty scholar Liu Xiang’s zhuan Lienü relati social complementing the moralthrough precepts, sanctioned limited strict opportunities and situational and bythe women from later negotiategenerations to the meanings the ofshortstories so the navigate as the fostering in cultivationwomenpreoccupied the ofhistorical and who with virtue exemplifyit. that naturalizes the lowly position of women” characteristic for Ban Z does nottext in discuss detailmanagement great a house “excessive uses nor humblerhetoric China: The elatives.

Nanxiu Nanxiu claimsQian that there was a parallel Rosenlee, 2006, 109. Rosenlee, 2006, 108. Neixun Neixun Lie nü (Exemplary Women) played nü tradition additionIn toFour the books, Lie Nüfan jielu 278 Shih

- shuo hsin shuo was bythewritten Empress dynasty. Xu ofMing the

particular sense of morality among ofparticular morality sense wome was written by the compiler Wang Xiang’s widowed mother Lady Liu. The The widowedWangmother LadyLiu. compiler by the Xiang’s was written

he virtueshe that Liu Xiang praised were - yü yü and Its Legacy Its and

(benevolent wisdom); ons, and their personal andinclinations. ons, their

he manual was not concerned only with female virtues in the with in only female virtues concerned was not manualhe

(Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press, 2001). xian nü

empresses and high court ladies. The content was, tradition. See Nanxiu Qian tradition. 104

zhenshun (purity and deference); jieyi n and in creating the opportunities the to creating in and n muyi muyi 280 (maternal rectitude); xianming The earliest compilation of

, Spirit and Self in Medieval in Self Medieval , and Spirit Unlike Unlike hao’s hao’s Nüjie Nüjie

Nüjie 279 and and . Instead, it is. Instead, a criticala role

Nü lunyu,

(chastity CEU eTD Collection 285 284 283 282 281 civilization itself. also exebut have gender, engineering” - of feat “a physio as footbinding, women, to transmitted bywomen – of instructionscultivation women’s andpointedto virtue andvisual textual four arts, shoujie weihuan daughters), “ being women for primarily biographies,record sectiona the onwomen’s from Qingdynasty to celebrates introduction the Hence, themarital in fidelity. piety,chastity and virtuesfilial advocated of thus, represented, the centuries. biographie included of their roles of afilialdaughter, chaste wife and self waspraised changing over the time. and appropriateness); and audience.Rosenlee, 2006, 99- the dynasty illustrated Ming when of the institutionalization of the chaste widowhood. An additional development in the genre happened during the dynasty. Rosenlee speculates that this happened because of the ge about

About footbinding as accentuation of Fairbank, King John Rosenlee, 2006, 100. conta compilation Han later The Rosenlee, 2006, 97. lie n In the later dynastic biographical sketches of sketches chiefly biographical women, were applaudedfor they later dynastic the In Just like Just the afore ü

varied from 16to 55; while we see a sharp increase to one hundred eighty seven accounts in Yuan liefu 284 282 not only physically only not and visually accentuated

(protecting chastity before marriage).” The texts and itsaccompanying and Thetexts illustrations in Qing the period that I observe (daring wife), 285

The Great Chinese Revolution 1800- A mother A or an older female relative would do the first binding usually s s thein dynastic histories was gradually but persistently increasing over 102. - discussed formsof education - mplified self biantong

ined eighteen stories; in Sui, Tang and Song dynasties the number of the stories the stories of number the dynasties and Song Tang inSui, stories; eighteen ined

zhuan Lienü xiaonü shoujie nei 281 - (skill in argument), but the virtues for which wai

, see Ko, 1994 see Ko, , (filial daughters), discipline, cultivated beauty, Han ethnicity, that is, the (protecting shunjie chastity), appeared, blurring the boundaries between lit 105 1985 - b sacrificial and widowednumber mother, the , 145. neral increase of the population, as well as because

(New York:Harper Row & Publishers, 1986), 72. 283

the the education in household arts, the the

xiaofu

the the nei (filial wives), - wai

(dying for chastity), and(dying for chastity),

distinction in terms of psycho erate and illiterate illiterate and erate

lienü women were were women - sociological that were (daring

CEU eTD Collection 289 288 287 286 upper Jewish Korean and the with their together feet, binding were socioeconomic backgrounds population. Ming (1368the - - (1279 footbinding was performed among familiesthe that claimed aristocratic lineage; during the Yuan termsin spaceand duringclass the ofsucceeding- dynasties.Song period (960 Thus,in accepted palace ofimperial spreadgradually century,ladies custom the twelfth it the and bythe started in the Imperial har Tangem late The dancers. custom the a dynasty as of during trained favorite concubineof Li Yu at the end of the tenth century AC. NorthernChina, In footbinding claims the that first woman who bound her feet was afamous beauty and a dancer Yao Niang, a classical poetic and prose works about it. ornament and cherish wouldbind, girl byherself.on a smallshoes and feet her footbinding. her mindful bodythrough means a wouldbe cultivating footbinding of C. speculates, Blake ( girlwhen the wasbetween seven fiveand yearsold, when sheunderstand became“to t able 2001). and see taste Ko, Dorothy skills Appropriation of Female Labor,” andrestrained, his textual education Fredbegan. C. “Foot Blake, - 459 dongshi

About regional and class variations in undertaking footbinding during the late Qing see Turner, 445- Turner, see theQing late during footbinding in undertaking variations class and regional About For an example of different interpretation see Wang Ping, 29 On women’s shoes and the ways in which they served to show women’s industriousness and sophisticated artistic At the approximately the same age, a disciplining process would also begin. His mother’s affection had to be 464; Levy, 54. Levy, 464;

1368) dynasty 1368) dynasty it fromwas transmitted north to the the center and of and south China, in In terms of ethnicity, by the end of the seventeenth century Han Chinese women by ofseventeenthHanall end century Chinese of the termsethnicity, the In of remain obscureof vague of still from only The origins references footbinding because ) and) accept constraints and pain as ameans of self 289 286

The pain was agonizing, but it would vanish in would in wasagonizing, it Thepain vanish but

1644) and1644) Qing(1644- Every Step a Lotus Step Every a Signs: Jo

urnal of Women in Culture and Society 19121) erasit wasaccepte19121) 288 : Shoes for Bound Feet Its more do 106 - 30.

cumented, but still inconclusive history - bindingin Neo- - discipline (Ber a fewa point from years,and that d by amass of theHan Chinese keley: University of California Press, California of University keley: 19, no.3 (1994): 679,680. . From that point, as Fred Fred as . From point, that Confucian China and the the and China Confucian 287

453,457, 453,457,

9) 1279) hings” - CEU eTD Collection University Press, 2002), 468 2002), Press, University History of China, Volume 9, Part One: The Ch’ing Empire to 1800 in Relations,” Gender Families, and “Women, Mann, Susan see accomplishments” literary with along morality Confucian displaying asociety, as of embodiments ‘civilized’ “who themselves saw in Qing high women significantly contributing to China’s self gender roles, politicalritualized culturaland with interpretations of the of boundfeet Chinese surrounding part A neighbors. constitutive its ofnei the previous assumedthe chapter, unquestioned the superiority ofneo/ Confucian the tradition over 292 291 290 monopolized China that of civility .” the Footbinding got demarcated as the “necessary ‘attire’ of avirtuous Chinese woman” and “a sign by history, the building of Confucian schools,and bythe canonization of virtuous women. inhabitants were to be incorporated in the Chinese civilizational realm production bythe of local them to civilize their customs), the uncultivated area peripheral to the Chinese empire and its feet. thei Muslim and in invest not Tibetan, Miao did women Hakka,Mongol, shoes, while designed were forbidden to do so, but they were trying to imitate the small feet with the help of specially class ladies, male prostitutes and the male actors of the traditional Beijing opera. Manchu ladies Manchu dress. Allthese edicts were not successful. we to start women Chinese urged it and that prohibited edicts issue to started court Qing 1636, with starting Chinese cultural identity. Manchu Emperors understood footbinding as a marker of loyalty to the Ming dynasty, and, Angeles and London: University of California Press, 2001), 254. For a Confucian Eyes: Writings on Gender in Chinese History Emma see Ji ‘savages’” the History

Ko, 1997, 10. A different setof documents alsoimply that footbinding represente J 53; Levy, Dorothy Ko, “The ShiftingMeanings ofFootbinding inSeventeenth - 290

8, no. 4 (1997): 10; Mann, 1997, 44. On a point that Chinese woman served as “the bearer of civilization to

Pre Hence, as Dorothy Ko credibly claims, in the Chinese projects ofsu claims, KoChinese huaqi you Dorothy credibly the as Hence, in - nineteenth century world observed from the Chinese perspective, as discussed as perspective, in observedI’ve Chinese nineteenth world century from the ackson, 97. ackson,

nhua Teng, “A Brief Record of the Eastern Ocean by Ding Shaoyi (fl. 1847),” in 1847),” (fl. Shaoyi Ding by Ocean Eastern of the Record Brief “A Teng, nhua - 471; and Mann, 1997, - 215 1997, Mann, and 471;

292

107 216. - understanding ofcivilization. the , ed. Susan Mann and and Yu- ed.Susan Mann ,

, ed. Willard J. Peterson (Cambridge: Cambridge Cambridge (Cambridge: J. Peterson ed. , Willard

consciousness of upper - wai Century China,” Journal China,” Century ofWomen’s

civilizational relations were d a constitutive element of of element Han d constitutive a yin Cheng (Berkeley, Los Los Cheng (Berkeley, yin - class Chineseclass women

ge ge Cambrid The (to entice Under Under aring aring 291 - r

CEU eTD Collection 295 294 293 per culturalvital resources thatare needed for the cultivation ofconsummated the Confucian nei the along is roles t on gender boundaries engagement zheng in proper. ordering, and, process.gendered turn, civilizing a in sericulture, the division of labor at the same time defines and reflects the proper nei nei andwithin operation division body, use and space, possession of and ritual items, byand defined the defining symbolic all civilization start withs a of properdemarcation gender norms through the regulationof of use the industry, and filial servitude expressed.” are virtues of throughthe which owndiligence, of person moral one’s thecharacter constitutes weaves). nangeng nüzhi defined expression of bythe labor was gendereddivision discuss thediscuss precepts, not “real” practi

Rosenlee, 2006, 113. This sharp statement may be a good place to emphasize that I am quoting the authors who Rosenlee, 2006, 80, 81. Rosenlee, 2006, 81. . sonhood As yet another constitutive part of civility created constitutive another partofnei As yet civility displaying byand Grace women’sDiscussing writing Fong notes: of and literacy civility, display Asource supreme The relation between gender, labor and civilization may be schematized as follows: Wen As the texts published in published texts the As ”

295 and and (literary learning), as Rosenlee explains, leads to exclusively male appropriate

wai

lines reduces women to reproduction and denies her “alegitimate access to

(governance). Hence, as she concludes, the imposition of the imposition the concludes, she as Hence, (governance).

ces ces of menwomen and in late- he root of gender disparities gender premoderndivision rootdisparities he ofin China: gender - wai

Nüxue bao spheres. Allocating the men to agriculture and women and men to the agriculture Allocating spheres. to 293

108 reflect, “in symbolic terms, 294

Qing China. and writing, are the parts of the the parts are writing, and

(man woman and plows

- wai nangeng nüzhi nangeng

nei

boundaries

and and - wai wai wai

CEU eTD Collection Writing Women of Imperial China Women Imperial of Writing compilation of women’s work collected and contextualized in Wilt L. Idem 299 298 297 296 late by literati of Imperial China that were of a great importance for the emergence of journalism in genres. culturallyofand valued discourse andlove affairs.” boudoir thoughts like,female loved romance, an focused onhidden sorrows, spring longings, autumn parting andauthorship readership. women boundarywen which the trespassing posits is she Critical Discourse Analysis Discourse Critical genres see, for instance, Teun A. Van Dijk, “Discourse, Power and in Access,” Readings and Practices: in Texts Writing Women in Late Imperial China inImperial Late Women Writing ed. Chang, addition to Ko’s, Mann’s, and Fong’ and Mann’s, toKo’s, addition 109 pp. 2003, 2, no.

On the importance of analysis pointed to the access to particular communicative events and culturally valued toFemale Chinese Modern Literature,” “An Introduction Yanli, Guo Rosenlee, 2006, 102. This point is made by almost all the authors with whom I am aligning with in my study. Grace Fong, “Introduction,” in Fong and Widmer, 9. - Qing China. In the of In Qing China. thegenresbywomen, context beginningofmy usage these thesis, , through their writing and presence in the literary world legitimized both female writing, especially in poetry as the genre appropriate for women’sself Daughters in liberal families in the Ming and Qing received training in reading and According According to Andrea Janku, were there several categories of genre created and consumed Rosenlee contends that a writing woman in Imperial China subversive is persebecause were women’swritings published male that preserved. and kin, effortsof and encouragement, mosthusbands, others, fathers, other close and notably support, indispensable is through the only write...it to wouldcontinue woman or could general environment of his family were often crucial factors determining whether a amongwomen fami among and greatly varied manner sustained and engagewriting regular to in a in opportunity the marriage and her domestic role as wife (daughter but,communication, with fe - 122.p.110, 111. Scholarship on women’s literary pursuits in Imperial China is abundant. In , ed. Ca , ed. 297

(Cambridge and London: Harvard University Press, 2004). rmen Rosa Caldas Nevertheless, women’s literature, in Guo Yanli’s words, “mainly

s work I’ve quoted so far, see, for instance Ellen Widmer and Kang and Ellen Widmer instance see, sofor far, s I’ve quoted work 298 w exceptions, w exceptions, the average women’s life led to inexorably to Men, on the other hand, had the access to different to hand,access forms onthe had Men, other lies. The attitude of the husband, his parents, hisand Theattitudeofhusband, parents, the the lies. 299

(Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1997) and the impressive

- Coulthard and Malcolm Coulthard (London: Routledge, 1996). 109

– literary culture, into the wai - in Sungkyun Journal of East Asian Studies Asian East of Journal Sungkyun - law) and mother…After marriage, Red Brush: Brush: ed.The BeataRed Grant, a and 296

- that that and sphere, expression and - i Sun i Sun

CEU eTD Collection 301 300 sends he serve persuasion. the the toletter is while to ruler doesn’t whom he inminister the government of in c different a man, submitted but situation”. That is, memorial may thesame be asaletter text of persuasion, written by the same communicative of of on“the memorial to genre letter depends or the persuasion belongs , ordu…hou shu…hou and “expound the correct meaning” of the text and are mostly called xu genre. conditioning the not necessarily mean the that text is orit not is . lun It is rather the content (panegyrics). However, as Janku adds, the presence or absence of these words in the title does genreof this have theirin headings ancient the philosophies and whenof Classics opinion. The the representingauthor’s the writings between ofwhat true is and what false is and bet proposals). policy (memorials and e particular forms ofdiscourse and genre. These genres are: lunbian destabilization of nei that is, their appropriation by the contributors to Nüxuebao of), ssays),

Janku, 115. Janku, 114. Janku, bian The essay of judgment, “the most authoritative genre,” served to make adistinction xuba ( argumentations), argumentations),

(comments on texts), shushui - wai (comments onreading), or 300 Comments on texts have the basic function to to the havebasicfunction “explain origins” the on texts Comments

relationships in termssocially in relationships - of gendered

jie

the ruler, the letter he wrote and sent

(

apacity of a writer to the sovereign. That is, if the writer acts a explanations

lun

(judgments), (judgments), someand are identified as

110 ), (lettersand speechesof persuasion) and ween right and wrong, and rely on the authority onthe rely and wrong,and ween right yi

lun

(proposals), (proposals), or or bian may as understood be an additional (judgments on). Whether Whether on). text a (judgments shui shui (judgment argumentative and

to his master is memorial, (persuasions) and song and (persuasions) sanctioned accessto 301

(prefaces),

ofthetext that is yuan (the origins ji…hou,

zouyi

CEU eTD Collection 303 302 China.Imperial Wong As R. Bin explains: undertookwereproject wider framework the ofstate embeddedin the - men Setting thein4.2. networks Chineseand “public”, motion: press cooperating ref journalistic and educational contextpolitical extended an toinvitation women organize, to and discuss participate in advancedcan byand their state hence utilized the literacy justified,” be talented and learned women have no legitimate access t when, Qingof male thetheir literacy, “unlike period expansionofcounterparts, early female wai the order within demarcated social structures, not to facilitate women’s direct participati theon in development,” submissionperfect personal not

Rosenlee, 2006, 113. 52. Hong, Fan

realms certainof and of government Nevertheless, literacy. types contrast toin the Ming and

Thus, altho imperial China, c claims government…In identitypursues their establishan and the could against late acceptable. Withinsocial spacethe of sphere, groups thepublic with shared interests place to create g express their claims against states. Processes of formal and informal bargaining took publicsphere which arenain populationsEurope’s was an politically could engaged The modesof actionsand discussions that participants in the women

ugh it would a be generalization to say that “women’s aimed education at

laims were far less important than commitments. Officials and elites overnment policies and political practices that social groups found socialfound overnment practices political groups and that policies

ormist projects.

111 302

women’s education was expected to perpetuate o the wai o the

realm where their talents can be society relations in 303 - oriented reformist late - Qing- ideo CEU eTD Collection States 306 305 304 developmethe in leader “the lithography was introduced in the 1870s by and 1890sthe movable lead print.type Shanghai was ofpresence missionaries thatprovided models technology and for the late guanbao Jingbao its had Qingperiod the Eventhough 220 b.c.). own (589 Sui - the in with inventionworld, inLater the of- the paper (25 Han Dynasty state in order to alter the principle of power.” of the inconstruction complicit becoming the ofrules more and the one toruler opposition the socio priorities of their elite social positions. important point for appreciating the ways in which contributors to order. neo/Cofor maintainingsocial agenda nfucian the shared a with and claimingpurposes, political voice, formal late China which in eliteseconomic,century local formedwith organizations politicaland social

Wong,1997a, 126. Judge, 1996, 11. 1996, Judge, Recasting Citizensh in Recasting History,” in Chinese “Citizenship Bin R. Wong, See also Ibid.,164.

official presscalled dibao , ed. Michael P. Hanagan and Charles Tilly (Lanham: Rowman and Littlefield, 1999), 100- - political dynamics of space in which late Bin Wong argues Bin Wongargues that, contrast in to sociothe - strategiesand formulatedorder.” construct social to principles the bycompetingcommon to not claims connected were bycommitments but Late (Political gazette) in 1907 and - Qing press, to according Joan operated th Judge, in

618) and618) - Tang(618

nt of China’s new journalism…precisely because it was the treaty

- (25 mostsince gazettes) (metropolitan Han dynasty probably the 907) and movable type - type Song movable (960 and in 907)

Neige guanbao - 306 112 - Qing elites used institutionally less implicit ways Qing press operated was one “less of theruled in China’s own print tradition is the oldest in the (Capital gazette), renamed into political landscape of early (Cabinet gazette) (Cabinet 1910,in it wasthe 304

220 C.E.),printing woodblock e “middle realm,” is, that the Nüxue bao - 1279). China had its its had China 1279). Qing Chinese press: 305 102. understood the ip, Reconfiguring This point is point This

- twentieth Zhengzhi Zhengzhi CEU eTD Collection the processes of forming imagined communities, shows that: processes ofimaginedthe communities, forming showsthat: 308 307 authority the oforthodoxThepress was perceived texts. represented and the providing as the assuming ofjournalists quasi guise the new study, reformist educational and journalistic enterprises. As I will show in the following ofparts my the reformers whose female relatives and acquaintances will become directly involved in the ofin the ChinaAnderson’sfamousissue press through Benedict the claimsrole about late printed and culture,” cosmopolitan Judge machinery, a and explains. port city per excellence, offering enclaves of extraterritorial protection, access to imported paper

Judge, 1996, 18. 1996, Judge, 18, 17, 1996, Judge, - - Qing social history through the prism ofWestern style newspapersstyle exemplified. journalsThese were written in the classical style by “literati Nüxue bao

The first new themsel politics thatmade itpossible for the publicists to challenge old truths and foster, for new China. wasthe between connection Rather, it century madethat a ofprintunfolding Chinese history. It wasnot betweenthe capitalisminteraction print and with coincides the story of Anderson’s endpoint the beginningnor …neither At this point it is importantreemphasize to that,Judgearticulates, as the attempt to read ves and their readers, nascentof their a and collective ves sense identity.”

adopted the ideas about the journal’s authorship and genres that theseearliest genres and authorship journal’s the ideasabout adopted the

new political community imaginable in late - style journals emerged after the Shimonoseki Treaty and and Shimonosekifounded journalswere by emergedthe Treaty after style

- icials loyal to the throne,” the icials andloyal to throne,” off aspired had inherit to 113 - generated theory, i.e. to try to approach the

- nineteenth 307 - style printing and reform

308 -

and early

twentieth of print in in print of - - CEU eTD Collection style reform political press did. Judge, 1996, 22, 23 22, 1996, Judge, did. press political reform style governments. reprint of some of the articles from earlythe reform in press the pages of official organs of the central and provincial theincrease popularity. to became with reformist wasthe It proposed alarmed number press officialof and gazettes theappeal for since bureaucrats, and, they itpreferred theto centralprovincial and governmental the gazettes, 313 312 311 310 309 no similar estimation about the number of women actively involved women. active hundredpolitically eightyfamous and around were three there century refo readers of news,” asdid, BarbaraMittler tells us, “women aintroduce as topic discourseof public and impliedas influential reformistjournal the reformers were quick to replace Zhongwai jiwen of self Juedun: hui thoroughl confirmingtruth, the claims,rumors, Janku wereread as be and, correcting they to or such, “as hundred and eighty three women politically active from 1898 to 1911 see Chang Yu Chang tosee 1898 1911 from active women politically three eighty and hundred Chuanshan century), twentieth early Xuekan high thousand one approximately the world,” so he organized the free circulation of shortly. Kang Youwei was convinced that the Qing elite needs to be reeducated and informed about “the things of 1911) (Taipei: Academia Sinica, Institute of Modern History1982): 83 geming tuanti late the of (Revolutionaries

Chen Wenlian, “Ershi shiji chu zhishi nüxing de nüqu in the an of female thought sixiang” (Feminist intellectuals 248. 2004, Mittler, 21. 20, 1996, Judge, jiwen Zhongwai 153. 112, Janku,

rm period. (Self - strengthening Qiangxue launched publications earliest the byQiangxue amongHence, were reformist the journals ChenWenlian writes that it has been estimated that at the beginning of the twentieth

- Zhongwai jiwen y from end.” the to beginning Strengthening led Society) byQichao,Study Liang Xu TangKang Qinand Youwei,

These measures These successfulthe were not and manyas officialnot attract gazettes could as new readers

was originally named named originally was 312

the need have the to a distinctive waswomen’s journal recognized in Wuxuthe ) established in in established hui ) 1896. Qiangxue (Sino Sh - level subscribed Qing governmental officials. Early reform press had a strong

iwu bao - nched innched 1895, Foreign News),lau Wanguo gongbao Wanguo - Qing period: an analysis of groups in revolutionary movements, 1894 2 (2001): 114. For the list of names and basic information of one one of information basic and of names list the For 114. 2 (2001): 309 (China progress) in progress) in (China 1896. August

Zhongwai jiwen Zhongwai 114 , just like Young Allen’s journal that that bementioned will journal like, Young Allen’s just

and and together with together with

was down closed January1896,but in - 92. Qiangxue bao

310 o Jingba and and - fa [Zh fa 311 , the the , official gazette by read

(Journal bao(Journal Qiangxue with one of one with most the in in 1898the Reform Thenew Qingji de de Qingji Yufa], ang - 313 style pressstyle There is Court Court - - CEU eTD Collection womeninthe Wuxu period), Shuwu 315 314 Emperore th orderedthat lessthanemphasizing “no eighty - Society, to the which Chinese literati “freely acknowledged their indebtedness,” great China, also reported that was there “an active correspondence” between thereformers and the for Society Literature and knownChristian Diffusion Christian as General Knlater of owledge, demands “in closewere accord” with the advocacies of theSociety. when andstudents, thousand that ten students for Emperor reforms,who petitionedthe their Diffusion Christian had of KnowledgeamongChinese Societyfor the the wasreported, Reformmovement1898.As it in formingfor the the of notably, Timothyliterati, and Young Allen Richard. reform ofChinese as the recognized collaborators already andeducation who were the had female whoexperience already with invitedengagementWesterners had the school of of fema content and assumed organization new reformers’ idea of desirable education for women, as Iwill discuss later in greater detail, Chinese girls and women occupied a significant place in the reformists’ plans. Since the learning, institutions, and modes ofThe government. creation of broaderWestern understanding of wouldentail the way a that in change to needed China foreignThe and of elite. andaround mennetwork foreign the wascreated Chinese idea that and active were supporters promotersof women- menwhowomen more and were twohundred there than that claims Qian Nanxiu but movement, of the Story of the Christian Literatur Christian the of Story the of

Christian Literature Society for China, Christian China, for Society Literature Christian Literature and the Reform Movement in China: A Brief Resume ü fun Wuxu ‘Xianyuan’: “Chongsu Nanxiu, Qian Missionaries themselves proudly claimed the that knowledge they propagated was crucial A feature notable of the Wuxu intensive reform period is cooperation be

12 (2007):46. (2007):46. 12 e Society for China

ziwo 115

le learning, le the establishment- ofChinese (1911), 10. (1911),

oriented reformist projects. jiegou” (Remolding ‘Xianyuan’: Identity construction of

been focused strategically on Chinese nine specimen copies of the Society's

educational institutionsfor 315 TheSocietyfor the 314

tween Chinese - oriented oriented led girls’ girls’ led CEU eTD Collection Wanguo gongbaowasWanguo among the most successful foreign Allen’s discussionsthe published, readershipincreased. the Young in John topics secular Chr Chinese community outsideof warmly tiny a received Attheassistants. beginning, thesepublications preoccupied were with spreading the faith not and Chinese their bymissionariesand foreign publications the and/oredited written language body separate of waspresented the knowledge to educated elite through Chinese the Chinese wasreadwhich mostlyforeign societies missionary and bythe membersChina ofin abroad, a reach the Chin Chinese reform the to gongbao 316 channel for Christianspreading beliefs Western and secular knowledge but foruma for social becomea only “not gradually had and Chinese, literary in published d, theInstea magazine was serve the needs of treaty 1889.Wanguoin gongbao nameChinese 1874, gongbaoin Wangguo and in itsEnglish name into intheestablished name 1868under xinbao of Jiaohui late in journal most missionary popular gongbao, a covering a period of several years.” set of Review the ofthe complete a and publications, Times,

Ibid., 10, 11. The press and publishing enterprise played a decisive role in missionaries’ endeavor to missionaries’ rolein decisive a andplayed enterprise publishing The press Young John Allen (1836 - (1836 Allen Young John (Review of the times) and its owner Young Allen in introducing the Western learning Western learning introducing the in Young owner Allen its oftimes)and (Review the

ese elite. In addition ato wide ofarray missionary literature published English in - oriented elite is undisputable. is undisputable. elite oriented - port businessmen, it serve did nor for Christian church communications. was different than existing missionary newspapers in that it did not

316 1907) was an American m American wasan 1907) Missionaries’ self 116 - (The News), Church it but itschanged - - Qing gongbao Wangguo China. satisfactionaside, ofthe role W ledmedia inlate istians. But with the inclusion of issionary who founded Wanguo who issionary including the back numbers, numbers, including back the The Review of the Times - Qing China.

angguo was

CEU eTD Collection 320 319 318 317 for wouldprovide called, came Home, China.“The be words, it to Heidi as In Ross’s arrival the elite Chinese families, the school was ameeting point for femalemissionaries upon their name wasMcTyeire school School 1892.the nameforGirls of , March TheEnglish establishing ofWomen’s the Missionary Society. Haygood was agraduate of Wesleyan Female College in Georgia who was active in the ofschool. the principal a be families.to AllenAskewrespected proposedHaygood Laura Societyinsisted establishathat the should school thatwould as From that period Allen coordinated MECS Woman’s Missionary Society in China and had of Methodist Episcopal Mission of China the byBishop South N. Church the McTyeire. Holland Western reformerslearning. bibliography bythe compiledon knowledge the who had four thousand copies,and gongbao Wanguo proposals.” public criticism and Papers on China China on Papers Western knowledge and discussions on the Society for the Diffusion of Christian and General Knowledge Among the Chinese and continued to introduce the - 210 China: From the Eighteenth Century to the Present

had died just before its opening. Ross, 214. printed monthly for circulation amongst the governors and mandarins.” Christian Literature Society for China, 10. movement, should be adopted as the official organ of the Chinese Government, and that 10,000 copies should be the Times Review thatof the Society's suggesting publishing work was so immense that “Viceroy Li Hung -

The sc The “Cradle Female Theof Ross, Talent: M Heidi Chi The newspaper was suspended from 1883 to 1889, when it resumed its publication under the auspices of the 212. Laura was a a Laura was 212. - yun Chen, “Liang Ch'i- “Liang yun Chen, nüshu Zhongxi In 1881 In The s The hool was named after Bishop Holland N. McTyeire, who supported the establishment of the School, but chool that Haygood established with Allen’s ardent supportstarted ardent operation Allen’s thatHaygoodwith established its chool in - 16 (1962):111 Young known Allen, China in Lin as Lezhi,appointed was as thesuperintendent sister of Allen’s old friend Atticus Haygood. Atticus friend old Allen’s of sister (Chinese ch'ao's ‘missionary education’: a case study of missionary influence on the reformers,” 112. Cited in Chang Hao, 279. Reportedly, the importan Reportedly, 279. inHao, Chang Cited 112.

- Western educating Women’s to gi addition School). In 317 The circulation of circulation The

world affairs to the Chinese readers. Chang Hao, 279. cTyeire Home and School for Girls, 1892 Girls, for School Home and cTyeire , which had borne so large a part in the genesis of the Reform , ed. Daniel H. Bays (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1996), was strongly recommended as the source of new 117 chang was petitioned to address a memorial tothe throne, 319

Wangguo gongbao Wangguo

pireto recruit the girlsfrom - in the in 1937,” in 320 ce of Young Allen’s Allen’s Young ce of with its Chinese

1890s reached1890s Christianity on on Christianity 318

rls from

CEU eTD Collection twenty nine girls number 1897,droppedtwenty by1902. nine in the to one girls oftwenty while students nineteenth wascentury, massive a not project. The school sevenenrolledhad students in 1892, 324 323 322 321 language, literature and beliefs as a “part of the move to ‘seek the worthy’ in China” and to member a as of the British Baptist 1870.Missionary Society in He started his study of Chinese and ofcreation operation the dynamics ofand Chinese Western c significant andNüxuebao but support Nüxuetang hui, of Nüxue Wuxuinvolvement ofand, the Reformmovementgeneral, we in will in as see, his rather indirect model for the first Chinese girls’ school. claiming thatthe schoolby wasunanimously perceived the Chinese administrator the as best imp an program played ortant role in the establishment of tang Nüxue Methodist ministers. the imperial telegraph, a well- efamilies fromwere of girls th toRoss,the two Heidi “mandarins,”According manager aof important for the missionaries was that it attracted the girls from influential Chinese families. off of an stave threats theenvironment.” perceived alien foreign unmarried educators touchstonea of familiarity, a Education Journal

Ross, 214. Ross, Shanghai Nightby and Day, Vol 213. Ross, See, forinstance, Liu Xiaoyi,“TheRise of Women’s Modern Schoolingin LateQing China (1840 , likeotherwomen nüshu Zhongxi - In addition to Young Allen’s initiatives, Timo

37, nos. 1 nos. 37, 323 As willbecome shortly, clear – 2, (2009): 101. (2009): 2, . women’s school, association Richard arrived school, and China women’s journal. in

1 known Shanghai’s and editor, newspaper’s five Episcopalian and

(Shanghai: Shanghai Mercury Limited, Printers and Publishers, 1902), 155. 1902), Publishers, and Printers Limited, Mercury Shanghai (Shanghai:

onnections preceded, which enabledand influenced the 324

oriented oriented institutions insecond the halfof the 118 Zhongxi, itsstaff nüshu educational and 321 thy Richard’sthy advisory roleand active

moral and physical and moral preserve that could

in 1898, some with authors in particular reveal the 322 – 1911),” 1911),” More More

CEU eTD Collection by Li Hongzhang and the so Richardin 1894 republished histexts from 328 327 326 325 B in resided was very close with the leading Chinese reformers: Liang Qichao acted as hissecretary while he anti and women’s advocating were education diplomats who the educated Chinese elite. to undertake the position of its General Secretary. This role further accelerated his contacts with Knowledge DiffusionandGeneral Christian ofSociety the invitation the for the influentialofficials. governmental intrigued hadsalvation “ the r proposes he which in texts Chinese thathis published estimated and Allen’s to journals missionary to numerous contributor a

Sciences and Missions Sciences Garb,” Buddhist in Christianity Reading and Religion, World Richard, “Timothy Adam Scott, Gregory death ofthe emperorTongzhi in 187 sensation, that he shaved the front part of his head, tied the artificial queue, and wore the Chinese clothes. After the http://www.buddhiststudies.net/Scott_Famine_and_Political_Reform.pdf Garb." Buddhist Additional Section for Gregory Adam Scott."Timothy Richard, World Religion, and Reading Chri pamphletsthat her and Bell) emperorthe inXiduo “almostin 1895 verbatim” adoptedexplicated Richard’s reformist suggestions of the“Kingdom necessity a God also in Scott that of on Kang Earth.” writes toYouwei his memorials emphasized was seldom named and did not irr texts: Christianity these of feature important very a explicates Scott Japan, inwith the war the defeat after reforms pproach the non- the pproach

When See, for Richard instance, See, so wasRichard Zhang Zhidong, for instance, had asked Richard to send him the copies of He was the editor of Tianjin’s Shibao, where published he numerous which texts In addition nnected addition co beingIn to well with male and female missionaries, merchants and discussing Richard’s texts which suggested that China should undertake the educational and governmental Xin zhengce eijing in 1888, while Kang Youwei consulted him 1888, 1898Reform in Kang Youweieijing consulted the while period during the most onthethe political marked history impact of China.” eager to be accepted by the Chinese, or, in his explanation, to be free to move without causing the Tianzu hui Social Sciences and Missions53 (2012): 25 orthodox culturalelite religiousand of the QingEmpire.

25 (2012): 61 (2012): 25 (New Policies). Gregory Adam Scott, “Famine and Political Reform in China,” (2012): 4 (2012): China,” Reform Gregory in Adam “Famineand Political Scott, (New Policies). n ofZeng Guofan.Richard, 1916, 215,224.

’s account on his promise toAl wanted to disseminate for anti tofor disseminate wanted

itate the Chinese readers. In contrast, his texts written for the anglophone audience

- 64. See also Richard, 1916, 80. 5, he imitated the people and left his hair to grow as a sign of mourning. Shenbao

under the titlefor Times” under was “Essays written preface 119 - footbinding propaganda in Richard, 19 227. 16, 327 icia Little that he would translate all the tracts and and tracts all the would translate he that icia Little In October 1891Richard accepted October In

.Accessed December , and it has been been gongbao has Wangguo it , and - footbinding initiatives, Shibao 326

- to Wuchang,and, when 75. Available at Available 75. 325 eforms for China’s eformsfor China’s

26, 2012. 26, He was aregular

(Guangxue hui) (The Western Western (The 328

stianity in stianity Richard

Social the the - 7. 7. CEU eTD Collection 331 330 329 didJing not manage exams pass to the office forin Qinggovernment. the the He “learned ofYuanshan,audience Nüxuebao,wasJing the directorofTelegraph the Office Shanghai. in Qing governmental the whose correspondencewith officials was regularly shared with the Shanghai, in opened projects. women’s supported also Dunhe Shen and Sigun He Zhong ZhangHuanlun, Tianwei, Yuanyi, gongbao, Li Baojia, the of owner bao,as Youxi well leading educators and scholars Zhao establisherShiwubao, ChenofbaoShenYugui,editor Jitong,the Qiushi Wang worldKan menfrom publishing the Famous Yanand Xinhou. industrialists and HuangZeng Guangjun, Zunxian, Wang Jiang as Biao, Kangnian, well as Shanghai’s Wu Baoch Chen Sanli, DiBaoxian, Long Zehou, Mai Menghua, Qichao, This supporting wasinitiatives. group formed Kang scholars of Youwei,Liang Kang Guangren, certainly not conclusive list of men who were directly or indirectly involved in modernizing todonations Nüxuetang spread network of of supporters women- d’état tookplace just prior tohis scheduled audience with the Emperor. butcoup the to Palace, He advisor. wasinvited him Emperor’s invited had and becomethe to Chinese women’s school, but I could not find any additional information about this school. Xia, 2004, 4, 30 n2.

Xia notices that the Republican press addressed another school based in Changzhou as the first established 126. 2010, Xia, 265. 263, 255, 1916, Richard, When it comesWhen it Chinese men, to Xia Xiaohong in her recent article reconstructs awidely The manThe who initiated the establishment ofthefirst Chinese- 330

entrepreneurs Zheng Guanying, Sheng son ShengXuaneldest huai’s Changyi 331 who was among the organizersof Nüxuehui the whothe meetings wasamong of , and taking the names of women as amain lead, Xia creates a long

oriented reformist enterprises. Writing about the 120 operated schools for girls for girls operated schools 329 u, Wen Tingshi, Zhi Rui, Rui, Zhi Wen Tingshi, u,

gnian, the the managergnian, of - in - Wanguo Wanguo of chief

, but and and CEU eTD Collection 335 334 333 332 manager ofelectric the company who “western scholar” ( representative work for inpreparatory theestablishment the participated Duanhui of the XiaohongXia claims Liang that wasQichao Changsha in at the time, his wife Li that and while Talabot?) , and (Marie attendedmeeting the the wifealso ShoupengXue ofShaohui Chen steering committee were men, Nanxiu Qian claims the that French wi diplomatveteran his and younger brother Chen Shoupeng. establisher of Shiwuribao in all women involved wasactively Youwei ofwho brother Kang time),younger Guangren, Kangprosperous women’s education in his influential reform from colleague Jing’s meeting the byZhengGuanying, was attended Amongothers and supporters. Chinese foreign establishme eightcommittee forty Hememberstheir forgathered and girls. ofschool nt the of thetrustees ShanghaiCloththeand ofShanghai Cotton chief Bureau. Mill Telegraph the inbusiness” Shanghai w Zuojia n2. chuban19 1995): she, 188. 2006), chubanshe, jiaoyu Shanxi (Taiyuan: of Chinese girls’ school) (1897 [?]), in (Wuhan: Huazhong shifan daxue chubanshe, 1988), 181 -

Wu, 44, 50. For a very detailed list of the participants see Jing Yuanshan, “Zhongguo nüxuetang yuanqi” ( Xiaohong, Xia 403; 2003, Qian, Xianjun, Xiong 405. 403, 402, 2003, Qian, On November 15 On November

. - 334 ian, the Wang the LiangZiying,Kangnoriented Shi ian, reformist Qichao, projects,

Four foreigners were listed as participants: Young Allen, TimothyRichard,Allen, Young participants: wereas listed foreigners Four xi ru xi the Shanghai Cottonthe Cloth Mill who already had 1893 in advocated th ) from) England whose namewas transcribed asFei Lisi and Danish hen he wasseventeen, he hen had and aacted as member ofboard of the

1897 Jing initiated the first meeting of the Steering Committee for the newspaper, Yan Xiaofang, the aide of Hongzhang,Chen Li Jitong, a

Wan Qing wenren fun Jing Yuanshan ji Yuanshan Jing se Chinese namewas La. Mai Zhongguo nüzijiaoyushi

121 (Collected - 182. weiyan workShenshi oriented ü

guan

writings ofJing Yuanshan),ed. Yu Heping (Lat

(A History ofChinese women’s education) e 333 - Qing literati’s view view o literati’s Qing Eventhoughmembers of the the 335 fe of Chen JitongLai Mayi

n women)(Beijing: Th (Warnings in a a in (Warnings

school as his as school e establishment e establishment 332

CEU eTD Collection 337 336 (male) steering committee met second fortime, the Jing Yuanshan addressed the of operation. the plan school’s Whenmembers for drafted the seven detailed a wife Mayi Lai women within reformist enterprises in which they participated. days six wouldheld later reveal the shadowed of limitations proclaimed of Chinese agency the mere imitation of theWest. However, the second meeting of the (male) steering committee emulate made clearthe intentionof reform what inthatthey useful practices defining wouldselectively foreign in is women’s agency ( it” follow goodand is what “choose to and meetWesternwith the teachers and directors of schools, girls’ to hear about their experiences, during the first meeting that the participants agreed that their present female relatives need to arrangements, their but of regulations main wasdraftingthe the concern school. It was already across Chinaten years.” within School within Girls’ten the or government;use of approval and local fift the support seek days; een as positions, well call meetinga of Chinese Western both and womenfurther deliberationsfor budgetmaintenance); forand construction detailed women staff recruit only and for faculty solidfinancial a break ground footing; establish goal large to the Xinwen bao,assumed “gain

Xia, 1995, 19. 1995, Xia, bao Xinwen

The participants of the The participants meeting cameplan of the which, upwith action reported as in After the first meeting of the steering committee, Chen Jitong’s well- discussed participants informsthe As Xiaohong us, Xia to train more faculty, with the expectation that similar schools would be established established similar schoolswouldbe with expectationthat the morefaculty, train to - 403 2003, Qian, in 1897.Quoted 19, November ,

336

- oriented participants that these projects wouldnotoriented be 122 ze er shan cong). for the school building within ten days (with a days ten (with within building school for the - scale financialscale supportthrough fund- 404.

337 This emphasis onChinese emphasis This various school various educated French

participants, - oriented raising; CEU eTD Collection official seal of school the bore the name 339 338 responsibilities asimplying Chinesethat reform reformists and foreigners. Takashi form assignments of and relations, authorities thein spheres of women’s education between male reformers’Bu chanzu (Anti hui - of any communication between Alicia Little’s Takashima under my period investigation. the notices the Ko startling contrast between the lack activities Wuxuthe in period. socio- recognized the to late ofwomen’s aspect entrance wouldargue,important an Chinese I process of women’s recognition as legitimate soci momentChinese women’s of history. Men’s interference and decision steering committee between Chinese reformers andtheir western supporters. ofauthors the was so authoritative that theplan was revised, an as beingschool venture a for mastering both Chinese and learning. Western visionof the betrayed it saw it, plan. Aspresented Jing main the to problem the of pointing al reformers’ women plan. But it seems that for Jing Yuanshan it was very important to emphasize the distinction between Chinese 4, August 20, 1898. ], “ ],

Xia, 1998, 62. 1998, Xia, Xia, 1998, 62. Unfortunately, I could not detect the source that would allow me to analyze the content of Lai’s Nüxue tang Nüxue There are There two extreme interpretations power of women’s toof act menindependently in What this, as Xia puts it, “significant episode” from thesecond

bing Nanyang dachen Liu gao” (Amemorandum theof

- oriented projects projects oriented revised plan,their joint

political actors that be should carefully traced women’s throughout and debates 339 reveals is the reveals that power men did and exercise could in this important

and foreign missionaries’ enterprises. The distinction was the reason that the Chinese women’s school women’s Chinese ma interprets this dynamics of assigned activities and footbinding society), as well as the intensive, yet specific signatures 123 Tianzu hui Tianzu - - co signed as were Mayi Lai d ShenYingand o- oriented men subordinated both Chinese and Chinese both men subordinated oriented political actors cannotoverstated. be is, This

additionally symbolizing

Yuanshan [Jing See xuetang). nü (Zhongguo

Girls’ School School Girls’ ( Natural- foot society) and Chinese - to the Official toNXB, the Official Liu),

making authority in the in making authority meeting ofschool’s the - Qing 338

Jing’s criticism the cooperation the cooperation wai

sphere as et. et.

no. no. CEU eTD Collection manuscript, 2003, 17. I thank Professor Takashima for sharing his writing with me. 344 343 342 341 340 ofminds theas civili bodies,behaviors and signals their SchoolGirls’ to women.” “[women’s]own logicas well as circumstance forced the men reformers to relinquish care of the to power transferredof“convenienc the womengradually organizational the because demarcated by men. ambythe I convinced not existing interpretations thatassume thatmen the school, ofmotives men empower women to become to involvedinorganization the of directly the negotiated within the framework ofthese relations. been musthave constantly aspirations and andplans all” women’s it “do not menunstable, could Thus, while therelations between and amongmen women and certainly were complex and men and partners the both conditioning partywith women which negotiate to moves. needed their that it ruled theout possibility for it be to independentan movement. and Wuxu period, in the men women’srole ofwascrucial organizing the in understanding that selfcultivation for achieving strengthening.”strategies national and had 1890s owntheir agenda, their own agency,own their and organizations, their own specific powerstable men of women, states over Qian “Chinese that Nanxiu women reformers of thelate Western women.

Qian, 2003, 2003, Qian, I 14. 1996, Xia, 400. 2003, Qian, Ko Takashima,“Tianzu hui yuBu chanzu hui” (Natural dem.

Yet, my of Yet, reading The explanations that we read from the existing scholarship which speculate about from the existing speculate thatwescholarshipwhich read the The explanations

association association the confirmand journal, thatwomen operate did within the boundaries 407. Qian does not specify what she assumes under “circumstance”.assumes under what she specify not does Qian 407.

340 In contrast to Takashima’s interpretation which implies the existence of

344 sinophone and anglophone primary sources supports Xiaohong’s Xia primary sources anglophone and sinophone I conclude I rather that male reformers continued to view women,

124 - foot and Anti foot society

zational standing of China, but that zational that they standingbut of China, 341 - footbinding society), Unpublished

342 This rendered reformist e,” 343 or that CEU eTD Collection 345 deemed they doit womenalone. necessary, Chinese not could changingthe - world China in highly which andsawas the position relatives way in activities they a to acquaintances as understood of self creations the in ofmapping processes civilizational and the in civility, and China. semi the civilizationwasto understanding of their adjusted what world. women use to Ann as, Towns’expression - toposition placedChina the ofstandards semi Europeanto according defined civilization notionsof Butdifferent world. the mapping of als Themodern world Society. new, international self multipleon levels. First, China’s self of civility in the tianxia cultural supremacy, literatiChinese positioned neo/Confucian Han Chinesemeasure womana as changeable and contextual. clearly if relates“woman”with “civilization”, it even becomes these twoc contents thatthe clear of it essay because her Iuseful find state, civilized aof marker was that inclusion their than rather life political the 15, no.4 (2009): 684. Even though Towns argue that in the nineteenth century i

Ann Towns, “The Status of Women as a Standard of ‘Civilization,” - reinterpretation amid the forced inclusion of East Asian polities into European International 345 As I’ve already indicated in a discussion on the established relationbetween footbinding established onthe discussion a indicated in already As I’ve Hence, for China, the ni the for China, Hence, It was It rather historicala moment ongoing whenof the process redefinition of was what

civilization instructed Chinese men the involvement female propose to of their order and value and order

domain. The nineteenth multipledomain. Thenineteenth destabilized century nei

neteenth neteenth wascentury thenot beginningof the treatment of - systems. However, if the reformers were to - fixed nei -

125 civilized entity and treated it accordingly. entitycivilized treated and it “a measuring rod” orderingin the international

- geo o introduced civilization as ameansofWestern civilizational position was in the process ofcivilizational position the wasin process EuropeanJournal ofInternational Relations - t was the exclusion of women from colonial context of late colonial do it in waythe - wai - ategories are are ategories

images of meanings - Qing , CEU eTD Collection on December 6 December on 349 348 347 346 event atthe expressed freely and women which exchanged their ideas. In to addition LadyWu’s report described which t (1898)invoked he ShenHeqing’s women’s education) for women’srelevant the education ofdaughters . ChenShenHeqing Jitong,and women thepresent at meeting who were actually asactive directors, recruiters and teachers: two ( were addressed as “inner directors” ( Wei and Ji. Wu, Ying(Heqing) Lady Lady Li, Shen (Cha daughters Chen Qian Chen and Jitong’s her Mayi, Lai follows: as namesofthe participants 1 of womento 4.3. The timefor getknow to each other: The p participants. Qian, 2003:405. the of nationalities members specifying attended the by committee,without fifteen of femalebeing steering meeting. Foreign women were not mentioned as participants in the text its ji, women’s education) (Shanghai: Privately publ jiyi chubian Nüxue Jing’s compilation in is published text originally This femalethe dir jiaoxi but, thewere), proclaimedreality discloses, Xia the and there three as differedand only st

196. Even though Jing mentions foreign women in the title, it is questionable whether they participated in the Xia, 2010, 122. 2010, Xia, Jing Yuanshan, “Nei dongshi Guishuli huishang gongyan zhu Hu Zhong Xi guanshen n The names in bracketsthe are women’s courtesy names. See the table in Qian, 2003, 405. Nüxue tang’ 1897, and it gathered fifteen female committee members. xian) When Jing wrote about this meeting in his compilation found of documents compilation the he meetinghis in about this wrote When Jing The 347

ectors in Shanghai Guishuli: The third meeting of Chinese and Western ladies), December 1, 1897. third preparatorythird meeting of the female steering committee placetook onDecember or and Chen and Kang or Chao (Banxian), Tongwei,LadyPeng,Wei, Sun, Lady

Nüxue hui committee,s steering female Nüxue th , 1897

Nüxue jiyi chupianNüxue jiyi Jing Yuanshan Yuanshan inJing reproduced it has been and 1898), author, ished by nei dongshi 349

126

), “supervisors”), ( 348 Women who participated in thismeeting (The first (The first edition of collectedopinionson 346 Jing Yuanshan, however, records

elf, and and elf, Qian thisdescribes meeting as (First edition of Collected opinions on on Collected opinions of edition (First

and and reparatory meeting reparatorymeeting tidiao the ü

grand meeting meeting grand ke ke san di (Meetingji” of )

and “instructors” his meeting as his meetingas CEU eTD Collection (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Pre Hawaiiof University (Honolulu: 352 351 350 family. and the fameappraisal beyond burdeningparticipated in upper excelled andmediocre whowas .” ex would wouldcousins meet“thepoetry thing”thatthe about. select poetry be and Their wouldbe startedcomparison competition and when girl a began read. Atsometo family competitions, education was then family competitions as being a sort of apressure for agirl born into the elite family “where and fulfillments that the poetry compete.” and “communicate for women to due tocircles poetry their prose. and Xia states that women’s poetic clubs started to be formed members couldofildren, becomethe ch literary their instructing theirand husbands helping already in the late was addition women’s In China. to it groups existedwhich Chinese, throughout religious history later detail chapters. the analyze in hervision will in I detail. waspublicized ofdaughter view oldest KangYouwei, the Tongwei,of Kang wom Chinese and foreign extendedto invitation concluding ofdiscussion to Chinese need and combinemedicine,the insights and the Western from the writing and criticism see also Grace Fong, Fong, Grace criticism also and see writing and University of California Press, 2011), 21. 21. 2011), Press, California of University and History

changed, or “linked”, published together in family collections, so the reader could judge “who “who changed, “linked”, couldor together familyreader judge published in the so collections, Mann, 2011a, 21. For a discussion of fulfillments that women obtained by forming communities through poetry Susan Mann, “Biographical Sources and Xia, , ed. Joan Judge and Hu Ying (Berkeley, Los Angeles and London: Global, Area, and International Archives 1991, 138. 1991, As I’vealready indicated, women’s were groups not exclusivean feature of modern/izing

- Ming period when women in Jiangnan region, when, in their free time their after region,when, in Jiangnan when womenMing period in orm and poetic the expectation.” talent orm poetic and

- 121 2008), ss, - - writing brought to educated women, Susan Mann describes these describes writing toMann women, educated brought Susan class girls because it was up to them to de Herself an Author: Gender, Agency, and Writing in Late Imperial China Silences,” in BeyondSilences,” Exemplary Tales: Women’s Biography in Chinese

Additionally, the anthologists of women’s poetry also poetry of anthologists women’s the Additionally, 352 During the Qing dynasty’s Kangxi- (1662 the During Qingdynasty’s - 123 especially 158, 350 127

While Dorothy women’s joy Dorothy While studiesKo’s reveal 129 and 142 and 129 en to en participate in the jointmeeting, 351 As Mann reconstructs, the - 158.

cide who deserved cide the 1723) and and 1723)

CEU eTD Collection China “Lady New Perspectives, Past: Imperial the Grant, “Little Vimalakirti: Buddhism and Poetry in thePoetry Buddhism and “Little ChuVimalakirti: Chiang Grant, of Writings (1764 (Abingdon:Routledge, 2007);Idema and Grant, 471- Negotiati in China: forGentility Quest The for instance, Daria Berg, “Negotiating Gentility: The Banana Garden in Club Seventeenth Poetry Banana Garden The Gentility: instance, Berg, “Negotiating Daria for Anthology ofP Universityof HawaiiPress, 1990), 84 in the Shadows: Women in the History of Chinese and Japanese Painting,ed. Marsha Weidner(Honolulu: Xiaoluan. literary pursuits, like the wife of Ye Shaoyuan, Shen Yixiu, and her daughters Ye Wanwan, Ye Xiaowan, and Yan women, in and outside their their homes, in outside and women, 1988). For more on women painters in Imperial China who were instructed by and were instructing both men and Johnston Laing, Irving Yucheng Lo, Christina Chu and James Robinson (New York: Indianapolis Museum of Art, 354 353 contact. and onlystemming individual relationships existing as the from structurespolitical and Empire, wereinstitutions of Chinese women’sparticular, networks the the bymen networks within sustained formalenduringpolitical and the from However, differing audience,create and to themgive circulation wider a acknowledgmentand of their achievement thatreveals thesenetworks allowed them receive to and to provide instruction each other, to Tamara Hamlish remin their literary endeavors. Wuzhong [ poetryclub) and yinsheGarden Qingxi (1736Qianlong - Chinese Painting,” in Painting,” ViewsJadeTerrace: fromChinese Chinese Women’s Artists, 1300 relatives,i.e. motherand her daughters,mothers

Hamlish, 225. See Marsha Weidner, “Women in the History of Chinese Painting: Women and Social History “Womenof Women History and Social Painting: inChinese the 225.SeeHistory of Marsha Weidner, Hamlish, In the final year of Ming dynasty, to use the examples from Xia Xiaohong’s research, small groups of female , e - Scholars at the Door: The Practice of RelationsGender in Eighteenth d. John Hay (London: Reaktion Books, 1994 Books, Reaktion (London: Hay John d. Women also met each other as a result of their involvement in painting and calligraphy. involvementcalligraphy. and painting of in result their met a otheras Women each also Hamlish takes Weidner’s thinking further and claims that: 354 Xia,

Wuzhong shizi Wuzhong - 137 oetry and Criticism and oetry 138. See also Kang 1796) eras the most erasthe 1796) famousclubs were women’s ds us about us ds Weidner’sMarsha study of Chinese women’s painting which 353 ]), which of evolvedhad fromtalented gatherings women the pursuing

(Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1999), 266 see Ellen Johnston Laing, “Women Painters in Traditional China,” in

ed. Harriet T. Zurndorfer (Leiden, Boston, Köln: Brill, 1999); and Dorothy Ko, - 87. - I Sun Chang and Haun Saussy, ed. ed. Saussy, Haun and Chang Sun I

ons Beyond Gender and Class and Gender Beyond ons

(Clear Brook poetry clu - in - a law and theirlaw daughters and ). 498; and Ko, b 1994 Ko, and 498;

128 Women Writers of Traditional China: An Writers China: Women Traditional of - 234 , - in law, sisters, law,in sisters,

b, also ofb, also known TenPoets as - Century Suzhou,”in Boundaries in , ed.

long aslong women remained in - 240. For Qingxi yinshe 1912

Jiaoyuan shishe - - 283. For For 283. Daria Berg and Chloë Starr and Chloë Berg Daria 1804) , ed. ,

,” in in ,” Marsha Ellen Weidner, were famous for their Jiaoyuan shishe - Century China,” inCentury China,” Chinese Women in

Flowering Flowering (Banana see Beatasee

see, see, s. s.

CEU eTD Collection (Amherst:Cambria Press, 2010), 41. 358 357 356 355 women’s historic the Imperial past intheir poetic works.While Li Wai- Wuxu momenthistorical of the reforms.Womendi sociofeature rootedin the socio to the wai throughShanghai their men.” theacquainted to formaprior group’s togetherwomen to came advocate commontheir and ideals goals, and not were necessarily andliterary endeavors, aesthetic as the were previous Instead,women’s groups. late women’ssources, late in groups “utterlydifferent”words terms in ofaim the women’s gatherings. of late members, female only had and bywomen organized

Ma, 2010, 41. 2010, Ma, 13. 1996, Xia, 225. Hamlish, I dem. Yuxin Ma confirms this view in her book Women book in her Journalists view this confirms Ma andYuxin Feminismdem. in China, 1898- - political actor Even though the poetry clubs from the seventeenth and eight from seventeenth poetryclubs the the Even though recognitionthe among of men individuals scholarly the comprised the who elite.” production social ofthe calligraphicthat style in took the place distribution of and images existing communities of artists and calligraphers, but theyeffectively Alternative networks for the circulation of their work allowed women to participate in Women’s preoccupation with the the with Women’s preoccupation domain, and in that way they began to form acollectivity that became recognized

- political expertise, experience,interest and the in period of between transition in modern in Chinese history. - cultural milieu of Imperial China that was adjusted to the specific 358

That That is, women their connections from used nei the - Qing [primarily] not formedbase were China of onthe shared tion. wai 357 129

As MaYuxin As observes, these women “met in

sphere sphere of public/political is additional the one d reflect on historical and political changes in yee persuasively argues for theexistence of - Qing women’s groups were, in Xia’s in were, Qing groups women’s 356 As Xia extracts from her eenth centuries were excluded them from realm to 355 -

Qing 1937

get get , CEU eTD Collection Violence, and the Metaphor of Blood in in Blood of Metaphor the and Violence, with the heroines successful in their careers, family and love - of a ‘Minor Literature’,” in Fong and Widmer, 381. peaces written by women and about womenabout womenand written by peaces Widmer. Also, Hu Siao 363 362 361 360 359 political engagement.” direct - for some women to authors devoted to sharing, and print tutelage/coterie/manuscript public of from women’ssite authorship familial expansionof or the transition gradual a resource, waiting action.”untapped called be to into the militarization of local administration,” creating the self pa as defense, well coastal and trade foreign involving conversations and malewriters their relatives belonged “brought andwives daughters directlyinto under polity empire a siege.” as of the consciousness a had [women]into devastatingTaiping “drawn rebellion the and powers Chinese Classical tradition, and claims the that endangering presence of thewestern imperial political andmilitary struggles, social issues and state policies. shi Qing, and Ming 283. Widmer, and Fong Maureen Robertson, “Literary Authorship by Late Impe 312. 311, 2010a, Mann, 313. 311, 2010a, Mann,

Susan Mann, “The Lady and the State: Women’s Writing in Times of Trouble during the Nineteenth Century,” in See Li Wai See

(moved by the claimstimes), and thatafter increasingly women 1840s wrote poems about Mann reveals “seemingly that modern political consciousness ofwomen” roots has its in As Maureen Robertson suggests, starting with at startingwith and suggests, Ming “there Qingperiods, As Robertson least Maureen w - yee, “Women Writers and Gender Boundaries During the Ming 359 Susan Mann draws our attention to a distinctive style of women’s poetry gan of style distinctive poetry a draws attentionto Mann women’s Susan our -

chen in her article published in the same volume shows that a considerable number of tanci

363

Robertson further claims that some“in respects, Ming Qingand 361 Tanci Mann further explains that the social circles to which women -

u Narratives by WomenAuthors,” twentieth century by twentieth century early Qingand late the followed in sually observed as domestic and romantic to due their preoccupation

130 rial Governing 362

do address the issue of war. Hu Siao

even commercial circulation in a series - class Chinese Women theand Emergence 360 - image of elite women as “an

in Fong and Widmer. - Qing Transition,”in Fongand cification campaigns and

- chen, “War, “War, chen, as as CEU eTD Collection 365 364 nei significant issues. reveals It that particular meanings ofrelations andbetween China crucial historical moment for Chinese women’s socio ofpresence women, foreign (Western) both in women- educational reformers’asin and enterprise.Chinese cooperatingtheir partners The agendas, women,foreign bot from discourses theexisting and practices of women China in Imperial wasincluded it that di in the Wuxu reformsrecognized were as legitimate socio socio- recognized political interests and competency, w did and to ofEmpire andtestify that womenthe Chinese relate politics express did possess historicalcomments “rich of record do create ‘inner’ events on‘outer’ issues,” and of early the lady)culture the decades twentiethin (cultivated century.” and theliterary formsand fading political rejection outright abrupt and of ideals, and guixiu speak out. It allowed womenmeet to such challenges asthe urgen to education, laterto rapidlyseek and ability the to many adjust, in the generationswith authors women’s authorship can be understood as ahistorically transformative process that prepared experience, and interest at the pe Century,”in Lü, 200.Li Wai

Susan Mann, “Womanly Sentiments and Political Crises: Zhang Queying’s Poetic Voice in the Mid- I

dem. and and scussions andactions realm the in wai of late

An additional remarkableAn featurewhichsignificantly ofWuxu additional the distinguishit period e in women work of poetic the though even Nonetheless, wai

domains destabilized, were and that the refo political actors. In contradistinction, as we see, will women who participated in h as adiscursive trope that served for articulations and legitimizations of - yee, for instance, demonstrates existence the of women’s historic - riodtransition of between Mingand Qing.See Li Wai

omen did not have have foromen not the did space allotted action theto 131 - Qing China. - political empowerment signals at least two - political actors and invited to participate related discourses and activities i rmers used a “foreign woman” to arlier periods of Chinese history t need t creation offor the new 364 - yee, 179. yee,

political expertise, expertise, political - designated designated 365 Nineteenth and do and n this

CEU eTD Collection 369 368 367 366 Lu LadyZhao, Suqiu, Wu LadyXu Kang and Tongwei. Ruonan, LiWei Ji, Duanhui, Liao Yuanhua,Liu Jing and Jiang Lan; Mayi; Lai and ShenHeqing of school female superintendants the operationand of the china. operationand of as women recognized socio the establishmentabout of Nüxuehui acknowledges thatshe had yet not managed to locate documentany that would say more details December 6 Deciphering 4.3.1. modern Chinese part a reveal ofpicture of the the relationship troubled between Chinese westernwomenand in women and address sinophone anglophonewhich sources of wom involvement and presence articulation of Chinese women’s collective identity of socio articulate and treat this destabilization. Furthermore, it draws attention to the fact that an initial in the school’s arrangements, and their activities were not fixed. Xia, 1996, 14. 1996, fixed. Xia, not activitieswere their and arrangements, school’s the in Shaohui. that these were women who signed the letter published in

This division is not as neat as presented here because some donors were at the sam female listdirec the to complicated it pretty is admits, Xia As Shen wasin charge ofthe issues relatedto Chinese womenand Lai was responsible forthe foreign women. 121. 2010, Xia, 366 Writing about women’s organizing in the Wuxu reform period, Xia Xiaohong Wuxu reformXiaohong period,Xia organizingthe in women’s Writing about

She, nonetheless, assumes women that who were actively involved in the establishment

history.

school were the active members of Nüxuehui

th 1897 , en from China and abroad. My parallel reading of reading selected parallel My abroad. and China from en e association that signals the beginnings of formation formation of beginnings the that signals association e , th 132 - political actors in the Qiushi bao tors ( tors nü dongshi 368 on behalf of Nüxue hui - oriented reformist enterprises will as well asthe donors to the Sch

- 367 political actors assumed the

369 ) oftheschool, and she speculates as well. These women were: the dir the Huang Jinyu, the Huangwife Jinyu, of e time more actively involved involved moreactively time e

wai ectors of theschool

sphere of modernsphere of

in response to Xue Xue to response in

ool , CEU eTD Collection Chicago, Toronto, London and Edi were women suchcapable of achievements.” Margaret NotableBurton, Women of Modern China toaccessible the American public, after she “found thatmany people were surprisedgreatly to learn that Chinese students and their life accomplishments. As she herself explained, she decided to make these women’ who spent “somemonths in China in the year of 1909” when she got deeply impressed by the Chinese female Women in China Burton Margaret studies. (Qing dao: Qingdao chubanshe, 1999), 486; and Ma Gengcun, jindai Zhongguo 373 372 371 370 and ofwife Sai, daughter ofKang Tongweithe Youwei. Zhang XuWu the of Baochu,Lady daughter Wu the Ruonan Ceng Guangjun, wife of Lady Zhaothe Yuanshan’s wife, Huixian Li was the wife of Liang Qichao, Lu the Suqiu wife of Mai Menghua, moreways to the glorious future: Lai Mayi was ChenJietong’s wife,Wei was Ji Jing involved operation ofsociety. the in the person important an Huang as have not significantNüxuehui a did role in brother popularKang Youwei’s contrarythe Kang Guangren to understanding, according Xia, to much fo numberEnglish of - chubanshe, 2003), 40.Seealso shehui ban bian tian and LiWu theed.Run theYan, Huixianas association. Cong of the initiators for establishment xiaojiao nüren dao history) (Qingdao: Qingdao c Qingdao (Qingdao: history) movement: New democratic period) (Beijing: Chunqiu chubanshe, Women’s Federation), ed. also notethat Huang cus of future research, not only because of the rich factual insights this material has to offer, but also because of

Xia, 1996, 14. 1996, Xia, from the authors unsigned The 41. 2010, Ma, Xia,1996,14. The second half of the nineteenth century is the period when Western women started to produce a startling - needed analysis of historical development of gender task task of est necessary funds.the Thecommitteethus ofladies, confronted thewith Chinese executionthe of their it to wives and daughters, giving their own raising effortsto turnedover soon very plan originatedthe menwho the theirhad to purpose True Ernestine Burton 1911Margaret Writing in womenwere related to the male intellectuals who participated in rethinking the China’s

(1911) and and (1911) language publications about China and Chinese women. Hopefully, this opus will become the ablishing and determining the policy of this pioneer Chinese school for Chinese pioneer of and this determining policy the ablishing (From the small the (From was one the of directors theof association. See wrote two books about Chinese women which are still regularly cited: The cited: Education still regularly are which women Chinese of about books two wrote Notable Women of Modern China hubanshe, 1995), 71. Zhongguo funü yundongshi: Xin minzhuzhuyi shiqi Liu Shisheng andLiu Yang, nburgh: Fleming H. Revell Company, 1912), 2.

- feetwomen to the ones who hold up half the sky) (Chengdu: lianhehui funü quanguo Zhonghua

. 370 133 Yuxin Ma disagrees with Xia, - specific writing within the field of anglophone Chinese 373 (1912). Yet, we just know that she was an American Zhongguo funü tongshi states:

1989), 25. Wu Yan also lists Huang Jinyu, Li Li Jinyu, Huang lists also Yan Wu 25. 1989), Zhonghua quanguo funü lianhehui funü quanguo Zhonghua

371 funüshi funüshi

JustasHuang, almost all 372 (All China Women’s Federation) Federation) Women’s China (All (History Chineseof women’s

(Chinese women’s history) (Modern Chinese women’s

and reintroducesand

Sichuan renmin

(New York, York, (New

(All China(All s stories s CEU eTD Collection 4 (1982): 357 (1982): 4 “The Making aMulticultural of Lazo, Man: Missionary E.T. The ExperiencesWilliams,” of Pacific Review disappointment with faith and the condescending attitude of his colleagues toward Chinese in 1896. See Dimi D. tri was a minister and missionary for twenty years, but he abandoned conventional Christianity in a deep other China General KnowledgeAmongChineseGeneral the the name remindsmissionaries’us to the that name ofNüx the onwas held Zhangyuan in Ankaidi 377 376 375 374 and the reformers’ desire toshow the parity of their capabilities with th ofinfluence educational missionaries’ campaigns before and during the Wuxu reform period, wa (or at least interested) in the counterparts. workforeign their of and Nüxuehui descriptions suggest that this was involved womenmeeting byChinese t he who attended were for confidentsufficient historical opereconstruction of its of and Chinese foreign availableprimary sources though Nüxuewomen.about hui Even once again the direct relation between the imperialism and sinology departments at highly from 1898 to 1901. Williams ended hi U.S. Consulate in Shanghai from 1897 to 1898 and as a translator at the Imperial Government’s Jiangnan Arsenal butto women’s press which followed the activities of reformers did not report that the meeting was related to women’s

Xia, 1996, 14, 1996, Xia, Yu Heping, the editor of Jing Yuanshan’s collected works, reminds us that some reports in latepublished Burton, 105. Edward Thomas Williams an American was serveddiplomat an as and who interpreter consul vice in general the s not mentioned not s in the first nine of issues the journal I consulted) may both is the imply Dr. E. T.Williams The grand gathering ofThe grand December 6 morewere versed in undertaking kind,of this once at turned for cooperation and adviceto those who them wouldfit training as or for an feeling and the lack of experience girls, such inplan. who particularly interested wouldbe the Shanghai - encroachingnations’) Universities.Before undertaki - 358, 374. 374. 358,

hui

(association]. (association]. ue hui hui ue was the Society for the ofDiffusion Women Knowledgeamong Chinese

374 Jing Yuanshan ji, 199. Yuanshan Jing

the methods of woman's education. Dr. Young J. Allen and and Allen Dr. Youngmethods J. the of education. woman's were asked to furnish them of alist the foreign ladies in

s careers a as professor at the CaliforniaUniversity at of Berkeley, revealing , Arcadia inthe ZhangHall Shanghai’s Garden. The English . 377 th

What theEnglish name oftheassociation (which 1897 has been1897 has consid 134

The The Society Diffusion for the of Christian and ng his diplomatic and academiccareer, diplomaticWilliamsand his ng ration andration innerorganization, its 375 ered to be a historical meeting

e foreign missionaries. - esteemed American (and 376 The meeting tang

- are not (school) (school) Qing Qing

51, no.

CEU eTD Collection Shanghai shehui” (Zhang’s Garden and the late (Zhongguo Guohui). For more details about Zhang’s Garden see Xiong Yuezhi, “Zhang Yuan yu wan Qing 382 381 380 379 378 one.” in “madeit familywords, a gathering, poetryclub a meeting,busine a and and twelve Western men. was awestern It thousandone people. host to more than Shanghai in andcapacity the had building tallest the 1893, in as stood meeting wasorganized, wascompleted building Hall, the the where Arcadia became a“criticalurban public space for political speeches and organizational activities.” political meetings not allowed elsewhere in Qing controlled Chinese territory, the gardens gardens the 1878. in merchanttransformed had into Settlement English an International the which was farmlandin ports onwome ofTreaty and inhabitants the the life of social influence those changes onthe changingthe had urbanand the landscape, China, inaugurated to the high position of the school’s superintendent, adding that Lai could timely discuss the issues the issues raised thattimelyadding could Lai discuss to the of superintendent, the position school’s inaugurated high there were sixty five foreign women present. Xia, 2004, 22. shehui kexueyuan chubanshe, 1998). 36 - (1854 Fu shehui, kongjian chengshi jianshe” (Foreign concessions and the construction of modern Shanghai), period and the influence of imperialist expansion on this process see Lu Xinglong, “Zujie yu jindai Shanghai 123. Wu, photographer’s studio, tennis courts, amusement facilities, and bota itsrestaurants, with twenty years, in Shanghai for center recreation largest public “the in it, Guo words, made Wu’s

- 407 2003, Qian, tableinSee Qian, claims Xia 2003, 405. there morewere rn Weste that thanChinese women:according to her, For an informative account on the urban devel Ibid. Zhang’s Garden was an autonomous space to such extent that it hosted a meeting on July 26 1900 when Yan Zhang Shuhe was a protégée of Li Hongzha The location of themeeting attests to the interplay between theWestern encroachment in The meeting of Nüxuehui

382 1921), Rong Hong (1828 Hong Rong 1921), This meeting long -

style building with its namewritten in English at th (Modern Chinese City Enterprise, Society and Space), ed. Zhong Zhongli (Shanghai: Shanghai 408. Xia speculates that the organization of this joint meeting was the reason why Lai Mayi was 378 Being located inforeign located Being the concession, the Zhang’s couldGarden host 381 It was over It presided by Mayi Lai who, ShenHeqing and in Qian’s 383

started with a discussion of founding and curriculum issues, and with discussioncurriculum a and started of issues, founding - - (1867 Caicheng Tang and 1912) –

47. and itsforeign guestsgathered one hundred tenand women

ng. After he boughtthe Gardens,he openedit for publicin 1885,and - Qing Shanghai society), opment of Shanghai from the late thirteenth century to the modern 135

n’s lives in particular. Originally, Zhangyuan nic, art, and even electric products expositions.” Dang’an yu shixue yu Dang’an 1900) convened “China Parliament” e entrance. in in Zhongguo jindai chengshi qiye, ss conference combined

12, 1996. 12, 380

379

CEU eTD Collection Nüxue bao of secondNüxue issue the in thatappeared text ofaccompanying and event illustration the home the number,furtherdirectresses at a of of of one for discussion their plans.” 386 385 384 383 411. 2003, Qian, 123; speak Chinese, and her daughters served as interpreters at the women’s meetings with Chinese women. Xia, 2010, in the speeches of sixt downplaying the involvement reformersmale of emphasizing and that the meeting wasforemost thus visible illustration, readily meeting, not this at were in the Men, present though gracious. and elegant common of the being feature women shared hats. and However,the hairstyle dress, women’s the through wascommunicated difference Cultural women. the relationships between egalitarian image an of conveying the involvedin discussions, areactively shown as illustration Western wom in of one draftingplan cooperation a with the depicted One table. the in Chinese Westerndiscussion a otheriswoman woman; involved with the is women. womenpositionedforeign are the in center TheChinese of the at illustration, theof head of center the room,helpedof the the significance convey seriousnessand meeting. which to years. The illust gathering mostthathadtwo theinlast meetingthe described happened the as glorious thousand event. participantsmoving for its sincewomen compose ended with “a banquet and a literary composition.” Qian characterizes themeeting as deeply the merits of women’s education, both in China and in the West.” Qian, 2003, 408.

The illustration was ori was illustration The Burton, 107. See Ibid, 408 As oneChinese participantconveyed, women “spenta whole dayin pure conversation, discussingin great detail 384 The meeting contemporary wasa s Around the central table in the illustration, there are two Chinese women and eleven Soon after the banquet, as Burton informs us, Western women “entertained the school“entertained women the informsWestern Burton banquet, as the us, Soon after

- 410. ration depictsration many women interacting around huge a tableworking placed in

y five foreign inwomen a“western language.” claims, as However, Qian Lai Mayi did not ginally published in Shanghai’s pictorial ensation with coverage in the local press. The local the in coverage with ensation 136 d and publishedd and their poetryto celebrate the Dianshizhai huabao en. Almost all women the in Almost all en.

385

386

CEU eTD Collection 388 387 of commonality assuming sense Western be muchthiscontext. a might with women in too what suppose Chinese However,to that Wuxu the women period. experienced emotionally was been must have was occupied,womenoverwhelmedimaginationsin of new possibilities bythe to untapped resource of“an potential thea feeling being eliminate practiced roles, to the wai aspirations to widen the space of their actions from their primary mid mentioned already engagementhave workon I important an unarguable. for their is opportunities their transnational alliance. of idealizing theuncritical communication between wom becauseofoveroptimistic must twoaccount least takenorderthat be into at issues in avoid to language, culture, and nation.” reformers in Shanghai, whether Western or Chinese, seemed to transcen the spatial wai other some in as observers bythe crowded not were meeting washeld the roomwhere the windows of interestingHuge message. also gathea great another conveyed of Theillustration women. ring chubanshe, 2006),15. in Chen Pingyuan and Xia Xiaohong, Qing wan ed. Tuxiang difference by comparing the above

Qian, 2003, 411. 2003, Qian, Unfortunately, my study did not allow me tosystematically study - Qing Dianshizhai Nanxiu QianNanxiu claims “the common thatprevailed that among understanding women First, First, the excitement of Chinese women in the face of historically poetesses published by Susan Mann which discloses the persistence of women’s sphere, sphere, theynot did

huabao realms of politics and government. and realms fo actionr Whenspace of the politics hadthat illustrations, persuading the audience that even wom though that audience illustrations, the persuading

discussed illustration with the one of the W the of the one with illustration discussed 388 lose However,I find this interpretation potentially overly their respectability as the objects of thepublic gaze. 137

(Depicting Late Qing) (Tianjin: Baihua wenyi wenyi Baihua (Tianjin: Qing) Late (Depicting en and celebratingand the establishment en of Dianshizhai ,” estern merchants’ meeting published nei to to repeat Mann’s expression,

, that is, kinship is, - , that pictorial. Still, I’ve noticed this this noticed I’ve Still, pictorial. d the barriers of - unprecedented en were in en based and

387

CEU eTD Collection political choices of Chinese women particularin this historical moment emerges. We left are their respective cultures - imperialist West, between foreign and Chinese male intellectuals, between womenmenand in theof in context late found themselves Chinese which a consideration complex within relations the web of power necessarily went with a sense of identification or enchantment with Westerners. If we takeinto goals.educational foci and inherent intellectual inabilities, but because of thelack of experience in the transformed W they needed dois, alone. not That could it for Chinese women’s eagerness to cooperate. We seethat, practically speaking, Chinese women other anglophone writings about this period,we find at least one rather compelling explanation we put aside for themoment theimplied superior competenceand ofWeste Burton’s in rners ofwomen seekingWesterners’ Burton’saccountofmotives Chinese help,we in if reread and the s this new education were not uniform, advocated reformers the introduction (of at least some of the a problems.the of content as though visions women’s education remedyChina’s Even for f the cooperating with power to launch as well as to stop educational and journalistic initiatives were closely altruistic aspect of its initiation may be seen as over resultingthe relations, power and, my in interpretation an view, egments Western of) education as being necessary to amend the current crisis China faced. If The contact between two of groups women wasconditioned by moment the historical and Nonetheless, there is no is there to evidence Nonetheless, thiscontextconfirm in Chinese that women’s “need” oreign men; further, these reformist men considered the promotion of promotion the men men;of thesereformist considered oreign further,

at at theleast his about question one - Qing - China 138 esterners’ help certainly not because of their - romanticizing. Chinese men who the had

between semi torical agency, strategies and

that puts emphasis on the - colonial China and and China colonial nd Western womennd Western CEU eTD Collection 390 389 women’s social status within their own contexts. Mary Richard’s report on this meeting, as well legitimizationmissionary of women’s w China. in missionary one girls’ in twelve schoolsfor of girls third Shanghai, represented all which schools the center ofmissionary educational activities directed at Chinese were and girls, by1897,there worldWestern did so on the basisof gender part indispensable civilizing an workand non - as aimsthemselves ofmission its the the in transnational women’s sisterhood. the celebration of encounter, this but not necessarily because of theidealistic vision of cooperation, forestablishment ofbot this explicit and messages implicit they There convey. was muchcertainly be to gained from the attending the to different Little, RichardAlicia ofand Mary the analyze texts I of women. visionscommonality willtwodifferent sincerediscuss and I ofgrand friendships. gathering the the romanticized pictureinto of transnational women’s cooperation based mutual ona sense of rela women event, this about as well as their reminiscences of cooperation in the wider matters interpreting the testimonies of Chinese women. womenWestern men? and - question the with 1937: One phase and its characteristic), its characteristic), One and phase 1937:

- “1843 Xin, Zhao My attempt to bring in the accounts of foreign women is meant to complement ted to the school that I will discuss in the following part of my thesis, shed additional light light additional shed part following my the of in thesis, discuss will thatI the to school ted As I have mentioned in chapter posit Protestantwomenthree, managed to mentionedchapter who have in As I mainly upherthismeetingbyusing argumentsand about builds Qian NanSecond, xiu 390 The cooperation of ChineseWestern and womenmay be read asthelong 1937 nian de Shanghai nüzi jiaoyu: Jieduan yu tedian” (Education for girls in Shanghai, 1843

could Chinese women in fact achieve their goals without the cooperation with cooperation with without theirthe could goals women achieve fact Chinese in

Huadong Shifan daxuexuebao (Jiaoyu kexue ban)

h groups of women, and they all had a good reason for goodfor a h groupshad of they reason and women, all ork in China, which significantly elevated missionary elevated significantly which China, in ork - segregated work “other” with women. was Shanghai 139 389 Close reading of the writings ofWestern

Qian’s analysis. Qian’s

28, no. 3

(2010): 90. (2010): - awaited

ion ion - CEU eTD Collection 392 391 fork,and handlingknife while ladies awkwardin functionsomeChinese were atthat this of observed the behaviors and appearances, Mary Richard recounted to the Educational Association that “it was Association. Educational circulated in foreign women’s circles that Richard repeated it in her official address to the widely wasobviouslyso ofcolleagues impression her Butthe didit. attend not therefore of)(lack ability useto knives.forks and She Europwas in e at the time of this meeting and gardens present. pleasure more hundred with a Chinese persons than foreignRichards, invited women to banqueta “served i advice and co movement Richard stated that “the Chinese ladies in Shanghai the at head this meeting. of reading significantly different the power The second examplewill be Alicia Little’s representation of theevent which offers for framed this event the anglophone audience financiallywhich supported worktheir abroad.. thein W the womenin educationalinitiatives foreign and played she other that ofrole address the her as American Presbyterian Mission Press, 1900), 155. 1900), Press, Mission Presbyterian American Third Triennial Meeting of the Educational Association of China, held at Shanghai, May 17-

I Timothy Ri Mrs. dem.

Tellingly, Richard’s first commentabout this meeting was related to Chinese women’s meetingthe of the at Talking uxu period,may considered be asuxu an ways example the women of in Western which several handled them asdeftly as any foreigner.” -

and among them the daughter of the modern sage, Kang Yeu- ofmodernsage, the daughter amongand themthe

- operation offoreign ladies in the matter.” chard.“History and Working ofthe First GirlsSchool Opened bythe Chinese,” Hence, instead of highlightingother details about the Chinese women’s

Educational AssociationChina of Educational

- relations between Chinese and Western and betweenrelations Chinese women in 140 n English style” big a in restaurant in the 392 As may of the As tone interpreted, be 391 Chinese women, according to women, Chinese according

of [educational reform] wei wei in May 1899, Mary 1899,Mary May in -

20, 1899 were seeking the Recordsthe of (Shanghai: (Shanghai: a CEU eTD Collection 395 394 393 had foreign First,victory achieved. proudly missionaries separated not Chinese women were of female theChinese elite h women.prominent Chinese ofoutbursts missionary women’s anxiety frustrationand with inabilitytheir to gain to access report printed her of readers anglophone the as well ladies saidbe to be the first step towards bridgingthe of the chasm had keptformerly that Chinese natural held feet prominent the a position, which finally bearstarted has to fruit. This reinforced her message missionary that goals and Western women’s engagements, among daughte feet of the their natural ofproudly displayed rank that“Chinese ladies conveying by so did commenting Little’s onAlicia attendance this to theand following meetings,by and as women’s education, footbinding wascentral see, the will not concernofwomen, not Chinese least at in the same way the Prospectuses of the school and had asked foreign women to make suggestions. While, as we her fellow Richard use ofWestern cutlery), and ofmarking the Westerners’ advanced the effect of (re)asserting the “civilizational” distance of the two cultures (by emphasizing the has (even when praising) women’s sophistication evaluation andofChinese the other Richard’s

See, for instance, Ristivojević, 2007. Ibid., 156. Emphasis is mine. I dem. proudly

When expressing her satisfaction over this meeting, Richard writes that it “might almost continues theby Richard report informing t , perhaps surprisingly, not detailsread the ofencounter further the as ofandevidence her - Westerners’ Chinese, most and the Westerners’ mandate uplift importantly, to women.

separated from their foreign sisters.” Mrs. Mrs. Richard stressed the anti

395 ad finally been compromised. It celebrates two dimensions of the compromised.celebrates been twodimensions It finally ad

Richard’s communications thus reveal a pleasure that the “pride” the pleasure that a reveal thus communications Richard’s

141 he Association that Chinese women presented 394 - , were most likely familiar with regular Richard’s audience theat conference, as footbinding stance ofeducators. She the

position asa

civilization.

rs.” 393

CEU eTD Collection 397 396 desire to Their ofplanned school. the women support someforeign their least in at ofto the tha reveals Jesus, Confucius, not and of 2449.” year the viz., Confucius, of from birth the was“dated changes ofundertaken announcement the noticed that wasit “somewhat peculiar” to see that the letter of the school’s committeewith the representations and practices of women’s reform in in chapter,veneration discuss the educationalproject. will sixth wasAs ofthe I Confucius missionary power Western the women againof to influence prospectus to was changed, alluding same Confucianism.way as become directresses of the school unless Christianity was to be introduced to the students in the women foreign to refused conveys, When Richard wasrevealed, inschool. the worshiped this women w foreign women, Chinese with of school the studied representations by Nanxiu Richards, AccordingQian. to when the prospectusdiscussing amongChinese and Western women, which missingis from theChinese participants’ promoted allalong. women needkind shows that Chinese women they the ofthatmissionary change realized Chin anymore.from foreigners And second, if their been pridehad diminished, it happened so because December 27, 1897 in Little, 1899, - 555 1899, in Little, 27, 1897 December was disclosed that Confucius would be worshipped, but for other reasons. Alicia Little reproduced their letter of deed not not School’sprospectus,deed mentioned the in had but significantto a continued rolein play

I Ka Ida 155. 1900, Richard, dem. ese women realized that womenfact need change,nowese the that they to and gettingare together realized

This briefThis accountof women’s foreign alarm prospect the of at students’ veneration of Nonetheless, an issue we glean fromRichard’s report is t 397

h n

and Mary Stone also refused their participation in the educational projects when it 396

Richard’s narrative continues with her claim that the school’s 559. t in fact conversion to Christianity was still a critical motive

142 - oriented activities. Nonetheless, Richard ere not informed that Confucius would be Confucius wouldbe informed not ere that he ongoing ideological conflict ideological ongoing he CEU eTD Collection 398 huge impression that themeeting had onall its participants and observers. Little writes: womenand meetings. onthe Whenthe meeting inZhang the discussing Garden,she transmitsa mutualand respect. wom culturaltransformation) religiousand forimpose Chinese own(read: their visionof “change”

Little, 1899, 551 1899, Little, en undermines a moreromantic a meeting ofbased undermines reading en encounter this an as onequality guara various however, quite ladies, themselvesthe could to European never satisfy as all funds. The the seize might Government their there Europeanwere shareholders unless that feared said, money,but in shares Theytheir they e want the not tak school. did should At thesubsequent meetings some oftheChinese pleaded ladies earnestly Europeans that Chinese ladies such as had never occurred before… dinnerThat wasthe beginning of interchange an of civilitiesbetween foreign and - ground “What lovely embroidery!” whilst the Chinese ladies very earnestly pointed at their bracelet!” or that me admire to allow “Oh, do off saying, breaking and always were serious. Fo ladies Chinese whofrivolous, English the were it But onthat occasion wasthe were what itwas all about. of highereducation Chinese wethe youngbegan understand gradually Andto ladies. thus ladies to Chinese began exhibit move about, Then us. ofChinese, one greeted and smilingly twoof those or talked the whous could bow each to lady turn, afterin the Chinese onefashion, another after stood up and At first the Chinese ladies did not exactly rece butive us; when we began go to round and manners. womankind of, none whom knewways English, anythingof any nor spoke English and Chinese gentlemen’s faces as they saw us leave themand advance to join their off the hall to the left, and I still remember expression the ofon anxiety intense the where our Chinese hostesses were. They were already assembled in the rooms opening – so encouraging them dinner, do to arrangement the the of superintending wraps in a room torightthe - invitation was, and why we were selected... [A]fter the English ladies had laid aside their one with another go,to wondering though gooda dealthe what real meaning of the neverhad heard before…I found allmymost i I of ladies, whom Chinese the ten in name of publicdinner a receivedto invitation …I an Alicia Little’s account reframespower the ntees necessary.

plan -

554, passim. r r they were so elaborately dressed, so covered with ornaments, English ladies , and look interrogations… look , and

398

one or two or one 143 - relations between ChineseWestern and men Chinese gentlemen, who had evidently been evidently gentlemen, whoChinese had - ground theing ntimate friends were invited. We agreed

plan of proposed a school for

we asked we asked CEU eTD Collection scholarly articles as the mentionedcontempo in rary frequently is name that the educational association). of Theuse (Chinese women’s school) orZhongguo shushu nüxuehui Nü Hence, usedname first newspaper reports the the called. be school should the what discuss not did they the establishment ofwomen’s school, suggest the 1897to menNovember in oriented 4.4. following focus of the the section. myin analysis be 1898will in established for girls it. Theschool to sustain parties for enough both gratifying further and questioned motives and This, commonalitymustthe of politicsofQingcourt. be reformers’interests the about is additionalmotivethink an Western for establishing Chineseand reformers’cooperation: beautytheir and confidence, devotiontoeducationalgraceful the plan. What we also come to men of the triviality “English and standing ladies”, in contrast to the Chinese women’s tang xue

Announcedpractices of Nüxue tang onMay wasestablished 31,1898. When Yuanshan reform Jing gathered Hence, what Alicia Little’s interpretation of the event transmits is the anxiety of Chinese (Women’s school), in some newspaper reports it was named

explored, but thebenefits of cooperation were, as we may assume, name ofschool the Nüxuetan Jingzheng 144 g

nüxue

(The School of Chinese women’s School(The ofwomen’s Chinese

(alluding toYuanshan) as Jing a Zhongguo nüxue tang tang nüxue Zhongguo - CEU eTD Collection the way the theto Arsenal.” Chinese formed in a semi Richard explained to his readers, showing a different sense of spatiality foreignersthat and 402 401 400 399 following day the the opening way: in describes establishment bothforeign, for its and and school supporters,Chinese male onbythe completely female, and funds rely gathered to had establishment of theschool. However, their lack of success in attemptthis meant that theschool 1898. ofedge the additionalcity, an branch ofschool wasestablished the Taoshachang in Octoberin according to Xia’s archival research. name appears that in the historical records only twenty years after the school’s establishment, inner for instance, the expenditures of the school in the sixth month of the Wuxu year were 441.94 yuan, while, in the regarding the money school received and spent. Xia addressed this question to such a detail that she informs us that, issues have also c boarding school, while the school in Taoshachang was a day Taoshachang organized classes of the lower primary school level.

Xia speculates that, in addition to the political turmoil that certainly influenced the closure of the school, funding claimsXia that centralthe branch in Guishi atLane thewas level of higher primarywhile the school, inbranch 261. 1916, Richard, 121. 120, 2010, Xia, - city branch of the school, as Xia calculated, it was 466.96 yuan. Xia, 2010, 125. 401 Foreign womenForeign actively involved were thein ofoperation the school. Mary Richard The school was located dormitories. The arrangements in these, as in the school room, were very much rooms and waitingroom, dining theshown and the building over We taken were everything. included moderate which atfee of the $3.10, boarders and pupils as enrolled By this time [June 1, belonging1898] girls sixteen to higherclass famili government his and to the Yuanshan colleagues tried get Jing

ontributed to the end of school’s operation. See Xia Xiaohong’s article for her calculations articleher for calculations See Xia Xiaohong’s theoperation. end of to school’s ontributed

400 - colonial city, “it was situated a little beyond St. beyond little a on Catherine Bridge, “itwassituated s city, colonial Because

in thein Southern partof atShanghai, as lane, Guishu or Timothy 399 Nüxue tang

the everyday expenses of the school’s operation. everydayexpensesofschool’s the 145

was inconveniently positioned at the southern - school. Xia, 2010, 121, 122. The branch in Guishili was a

al funding for the the funding for al es had been after the 402

CEU eTD Collection 405 404 403 lessons.its She writes: as anschool would institution, thattheand school mainly use Western educational materials in Chinese women, contrastingly, emphasizes Westernthat schools served as them women donationof the missionary Chineseinformation donations. about the provoke to Chinese Westernany both and learning, to without reference Christianity, fact, in and, it as providing Zhongxi Nonetheless, School’swasrepresented nüshu the thistext building. in even the of readers informed which its note short exceptiona is school. Thenotable the for establishing the sixth chapter, represents it as an alarming threat to Chinese values and a significant reason bao See“Xi fu kai juan” (Generouscontribution of Western women), NXB, no. 3,August 15, 1898. thatin the future Westerners would not thebe only ones who deservethe praisefor supporting this worthwhile e 157.Xia, 2004,25. singing of the Christian songs did not necessarilymean that the school introduced Christianity. Richar of this “advance”. It is also interesting to read how Xia Xiaohong tried to convince her audience that students’ students sang Christian songs during one of her visits to the school and conve Miss Zee, who was educated in Miss Haygood’s school. It is interesting to note that Mary Richard reports that the edu who Ting, Miss was women: Christian Chinese Chinese ladies received from Young Allen’s daughter Mary Allen, Richard emphasizes the involvement of two

The closing sentence of this short news piece expresses the hope that Chinese will donate more to the School, and Nüxue bao 155. 1900, Richard, Zhongxi nüshu not onlynot neglects the connection school’s to Christianity, meet thesalary of aforeign lady teacher. be to were taughtbyan Chinese educated lady. first Thefundswere at not sufficient to girl pupil ofChinese (a Haygood) to Miss daily.teach English bookstwo hours Chinese member of theNorth Gate church, had been secured, and also the services of aChristian adornedroom. Association walls Chris of school The Educational the A the ofSocietyforGeneral Knowledgeand theofand charts and the Diffusion Christian Maps model of themission school for higher class Chinese girls, namely atthat McTyeire. Mary Mary Richard’s text, as arepresentative piece ofmissionary women’s writing about Nüxue the school. about writing in employed were tropes strategic Once again, different silenced the fact that some of the Chinese teachers were Christians. In addition to the help that to the the help addition In Christians. were theteachers someChinese theof silenced fact that

and a and

bout the women’s missionary society’s donation for reconstruction of society’sdonationmissionary women’sfor reconstruction the bout

cated in St. Mary School in Jessfield [Shanghai’s suburb], and suburb], [Shanghai’s inJessfield School Mary in cated St. 146 403

404 but it instead, as I will discuss in ys to her audience the content because

tian matron, a odel for the for the odel 405

used the the used d, 1900,

ffort. ffort. CEU eTD Collection 407 406 1897- Lands Societyof forinform Heathen America to about Woman’s them the UnionMissionary with the tutelage of the Chinese women. As Marietta Miss Melvin wrote to theheadquarters of those immensely.” ladies Chinese character classics and history, astronomymathematics and “astonished and pleased the similar self visionofher Chinese cooperation between westernwomen,and written in somewhat milder, but

The visited schools McTyeire Home, schools were Bri visited The Richard, 1900, 157. Burton reproduced almost all celebratory parts of Mrs. Richard’s report. Burton, 105

closing exercises of the girls’ missionary schools, where the students’ expertise English, in 98 period: 98 period: The staff of themissionary schools visited b versa. when wasnewmoon wouldcourse it it full China be vice in and moon England in moon and China,sun that theyin when have and itremarked assured wasso, of that wri and who reads ladies, plain from thefact that thesecond at lesson one of theotherwise intelligent Chinese only for the girls, but for the Chinese ladies always present on these occasions, will be earth, and the cause of seasons an it waseasyexplain different to umbrella, the motions uplikean the of shuts which Globe, Taking staffme the give. with Betel'sPortable which then not subjects native could in progress examined E them their in At the request of the directresses I, for some time, visited the school once aweek, has been one been has of best…The semi our The last year brought has us to little perceptiblebut change, the agreeable feeling that it What Educational Conference wethe 1899is to also read in address Richard’s Mrs. - satisfactory tone. According to Richard, Chinese ladies were and Richard,joined AccordingChinesehad to ladies satisfactory tone. invited 406

407

tes Chinese well, gravely asked if in England we had the same dgman Home and the South Gate. Richard, 156, 157. d eclipses. That such explanations were necessary not - annual examinations in was June long- 147 nglish, geographyother and lessonin a nglish, gave y Chinese women also expressed satisfaction

filling three - 109.

CEU eTD Collection 410 409 408 bao “outer directors” ( thethat readers did not receive information about thenamesand activities of theschool’s twenty agencywomen and in initiative women’srepresentative voice, - However,whatjournal’s issues. contributed to engaged thein operation of the school had been regularly reported in the opening section of the affairs related to the “inner” school affairs. wi dealing in directors the help to and ofcoursework the supervision oftenimplyingenthusiasticallybao were or announcing. claims womenthat problematizingthe ofthus organization model foroperation, the school’s the a domain servedas womenunderstanding equates which the with innersphere men’swithouterand the activities superintendents. and donors, reports female fundraisers, ofits exclusively for Women’s Learning), NXB, no. 2, August 3, 1898. 3, 2, no. August NXB, Learning), Women’s for “ Thirty Knickerbocker Press (1899): 10,11.

Nüxue hui

Theposition ofthe “inner director” (justlike the oneofthe “outer” director” was unpaid. See [Liang Qichao] This information was regularly published on the first page of the journal. Miss Marietta Melvin, “Report of the Bridgman Memorial School, September 1897, to September, 1898,” received was asection from “Provisional - Eight Annual Report of The Woman’s Union Society of America for Heather Lands C Nüxue bao days Among rare information about the male the informationinfluenceAmong about schoolof that the rare onthe readers Nüxue Twenty female donors were called “inner directors” ( hinese ladies who came learn to methods for their school, recently established.

shushu - and difficult,and but satisfactory especially and attended. well Among visitors the were

chuangban zhangcheng” (Provisional regulations for the Girls’ School affiliated to the Society wai dongshi - constructed the image of the school the school imageasthe exclusivelywomen’sconstructed an enterprise of via oriented reformist projects were wo

) who) men.were

410 148 R

egulations for the Girls’ School affiliated to the The names and actions of women who were the sensethe of having an authentic and men

- only enterprise as as enterprise the only oftexts Nüxue nei dongshi

oriented reformistprojects was th th miscellaneousgeneral ), said to be undertaking be said to ), 409 , New York: The The , York: New However, the However,the 408

in in CEU eTD Collection 413 412 411 appropriate for utilization in handling the outer matters. We can also see that the role of women’s served as promoters and guarantors that women’s abilities practiced in the inner space would be nei onthe depended and used their teaching abilities. The Zhouteachers, Yuanxiang Zhang and Jingyi(Yunhua), who showedtheir poetry proof a as of thispoint. noted mustbe at two Hong Xia, prospective teachers According Shuzuintroduced to the in reformist projects Wuxu period. These details further indicate theindispensable role ofmedia for thesuccess of women teach in th through introductions, and emphasizes that the prerequisite for gathering educated women to were receive to salary a for financial overseeing of the administration the school. expenses. Men were also appointed as secretaries, selected by the schools “outerdirectors,” and They were to be consulted in decisions about the school’s courses and to supervise the school’s were in charge of collecting the contributions; recruiting the school’s teachersmanagers. and publicized, Thesesection education. bothandmen,the about Chinese knowledgeable western as who of were donors brothers women managed or tohusbands bysons, supposed be forWomen’s” Society Learning fifth, and the eight issues.

Xia, 2010,123. Xia, no.2. NXB, Regulations,” “Provisional in the for this of serialized firs set will be rules used Regulations” “Provisional abbreviation The The implications of Xia’s note on way note of the Xia’s The implications Xia Xiaohong speculates that more than half of theschool’s teachers were recruited e school was dissemination Jing Yuanshan’s of information through the press.

cases of only ZhouZhangillustratenot and thewomen which way in

to get to the wai getthe to 411

which pronounced which t 149 , that is, how their reform directors “judged” the suitability of the hat the“outer school affairs” were - orientedmale kin 412 t, second, third,

- oriented 413

CEU eTD Collection Se and expenditures of the Chinese Girls’ Schools until of the end of the sixth month of the Wuxu year), NXB, no. 6, “ in listed were salaries Learning), NXB, no. 5, August27, 1898.The namesofthe teachers, as wellas the prec 415 414 place needlework.Insecond (taking in semester the students the was instructing Chen who Zhang Yunhua, as well asXu Xianmei who was teaching “western languag and Ding Suqing, Liu), Jiang JingLan(Lady Liu (writing)teachers: Chinese Cheng), (Lady supervisor theof school, with the of women Four as help Madameappointed were Zheng. di chief a as was acting Shen Ying July 181898) lasted31till May (which from first semester the thatduring Sheexplains work theacademic year. 1898/99 during school’s was delineated as follows: may ongoingan reveal ofprocess reevaluation of particular kinds of The knowledge. pay scale wai the poetic achievements, practiced and mastered inthe nei was invited to teach, but she could not unde

ptember6, 1898.

Xia also mentions the example of “ Nüxue huishushu domain as the leading reformers claimed. Relying on the school’s monthly reports published in the press, Xia reconstructs reconstructs Xia the press, published the monthly in school’s reports onthe Relying will salary monthly a of physics .” ofreceive yuan forty advanced thoselike teachers who will teach mathematics. [Ladies] who possess the understanding language and to fromlanguage foreign the teachers; yuan twenty [also] get who can teach the translation from Chinese to the foreign elementaryteach] knowledge of the foreign language,spelling and essay writing will astronomy get geography and [teachers]t will classics,history, month; a elementary western per forofand teaching knowledge Chinese who can teach writing of letters and argumentative essays [will receive] fourteen [women] who can teach children’s primers [will get] twenty every yuan month; [those] Educat ed ed

Chinese gaobai,” (The announcement of the Girls’ School affiliated to the Society for Women’s Women’s for Society to the Schoolaffiliated the Girls’ announcement of (The gaobai,” Zhongguo Nüxue tang ladies were invited to apply for a teaching job and the salary proposed salary the and job forteaching a apply to ladies invited were

Wen Tinghai who recommended his older sister Wen Jingfang (Yunying) rtake the position because of her two children. Xia, 2010, 123. Wuxu liu yue di zhi shou fu qing zhang” (A detailed list of income 150 414 Chinese will have thirty

sphere, was not perceived as irrelevant for wenty wenty yuan per a month; [those who can per month; a who [those can 415 ise information about their information ise

yuan es”Madame and

per month, just per rector and

. Wen Wen . yuan

CEU eTD Collection bao 419 418 417 416 and happy parentstheir gratified.” are and [they] a raised and a female in students], with spirit, good health, admireschool, [the praise the text states the following: from home womenback going see neighbors students “whenthe arguments aboutthe ofthe bodilybenefits exercises that girls are doing in the school are where success. the justifyThus,in part servedto subject school’s imaginedalso the gazing the who disturb workofthe the of school. Actually, the there was a need for the officials to issue were watching the girls, disturbing the workof the school, and thatthey damaged even the roof gaze. Hence, we thegirls read that were disturbed by the “hool theunderstand perception ofwai the Joan Judge calls theschools they attended as the “quasi Xianmei DingMingyu and . (Lady Lan,Gong Huiping by Jiang daughter Mary Allen was amain teacher for “western knowledge;” Chinese classes were taught “comprehensive/ miscellaneous course”, with Lady as Zhengacting supervisor. a Young Allen’s herfrom resignation posi after teachingand, the Chinese also (whowas school was directedJing byLiu the 311899) January 171898and August between Goodman and Larson, 122, 134. 122, Larson, and Goodman 188. Ding Mingyu is the Christian teacher Mary Richard mentions in her 1899 Conference address.

See theSee 6. text that no. tu”NXB, accompanies “Ticao s), (Calisthenic 3. no. in NXB, Mr. Huang and Liu Mr. officials high the of announcements reproduced the See Xia, 2010, 123,124. Xiong Xianjun lists Ge Ruixing and Xu Xianmei as foreign language teachers. Xiong, 2006, Joan Judge, “Between Nei suggest is that the school was placed in the spatially Writing about the female students in Japan in the first decade of the twentieth century, decade oftwentieth the infirst the female students Japan the Writing about and and

416

school should severely be punished.

Wai : Chinese Women Students in Japan in the Early Twentieth Century,” in Century,” in Japan the Early Twentieth Students :Women Chinese

domain as hosting both both endangering public hosting legitimizing and domain as 419 Wang) and Western/English language was taught byXu Western/English languagewastaught Wang) and

151 - wai wai

- defined defined zone.” tion of the director in early 1899, a 1899, a early ofin thetion director 418 igans,” these that local people an order that all “idle” people Nevertheless, the presence of 417 wai

What thepages of Nü

sphere, helping us to

listed, listed, xue CEU eTD Collection 422 421 420 and government, medicine, and law history, in followed bybooks be to were These books.” classesall were to start by the study of writings characters, grammar, by thestudy and of “basic language foreign Chinese in in and conducted wouldbe Classes school. offered bythe attend the “normal education major”. They were supposed to major in all three streams of classes wasThere an additionaleducational option for students of medicine and law were expected to have basicknowledge ofmathematics aswell. weremedicinemastermajors, the andone tobut Thestudents mathematics, law. supposed of the boundaries itsexpanding prior proper insofar asit extended the sociall scale project in terms of size. It was however highly important and socially transformative schoolsgirls’ established insecond China in the halfofwas century, large the a nineteenth not reformers girls’ , educationin Nüxuetang interest that proposed. closed. The relatively low numbers of students can be misleadingly interpreted as alack of in school twentyenrolleda in enrolled, additional sixteengirls opening, were there students school’s seventh issue of the depictsjournal, Han andboth female Manchu students.

(At c obtaining through the map of the world visible on the wall, and the globe placed on the teacher’s table. See

The announcement did not specify which foreign language(s) would be employed. 3. no. NXB, Regulations,” “Provisional on the of illustration This lass), NXB, no. 7, September, 1898. - space. The school’s significancespace. Theschool’s also lay new kindsin offor itgirls, promoted knowledge The illustratio As the As the announcement indicated, students choosecould Taoshachang - n of on an , while, reportedly, there were seventy graduates before the school was - going class also sends the messages about the “global” knowledge that the students are

of use social y

going class held in the School which was published in the waspublished thewhich in School held class going -

acceptable women’s physical presence in theout- .

152 the students who were preparing to be teachers: to just like otherwomen’sjust the and

between three majors: 420 On the On the ofday the of s Nüshu tu Nüshu , - 422 family

and and day day 421 -

CEU eTD Collection suggest suggest that gynecology wasdiscussed in the school. obtain the sch 425 424 423 femalewouldacquire andteachers.ofrelatives knowledge t other Thegirls instruct female students in theway latethat - moment,it w fine skills. arts foreign and students Chinese instruct the in teachers who hirethe would to needed funds were ( philosophy. did thatit the ofdiscuss myriad so. ways reorientation of expectations social for Theremainingpartof women. my will dissertation wai a media platform at that the same timefacilitated and represented the entrance of women in the wai the would add should eat the food that “increases the blood.” The advice for having a daughter was not presented. may influence the gender of the baby by taking certain kind of food in pregnancy: if she a she wants toson have readers about a new theory developed by a Chief of the hospital in Ao guo (Australia[?]) who claim that a woman fangzhi

“Provisional Regulations,” NXB, no.3. NXB, Regulations,” “Provisional “Tai yun xin shuo” (New insights about pregnancy), NX no.3. NXB, Regulations,” “Provisional

sphere ofsocio

I will discuss the content of the proposed education in more details in chapter six. For the six. the chapter For more in discuss contenteducation details will the in ofproposed I the ), drawing), andthe were skills painting which 423 ill sufficeill sayto that thewhat announced curriculum is an discloses intention to It was not specifiedwhat wasnot of kind It medical education ool, but the publication of a short report “New insights “Newmay pregnancy” report about insights the but publicationofool, short a 425

to the nei the to - political actions and discussions, played a crucial role in a far

space oflegitimate women’s interests and expertise.

Qing girls were instructed by their mothers, female 153 B, no. 9, October, 1898. The article is informing the “women must“women master”,but additional 424 As added, spinning and weaving weaving spinningandadded, As the girls were planned to he he wai

, as as Nüxue bao,

dom - reaching ain

that CEU eTD Collection 428 427 426 explains: journal recognition.Aspolitical textwritten the byPan in third Xuanpublished and the assumed in the process of extending the spheres of women’s expertise, action and of their socio outer sphere]. outer issues] and points out, it challenged the ancient precepts of nübuyan wai [women should not thediscuss N 4.5 womeninthe Wuxu period), Shuwu Progress than using the baothanof words üxue using PanXuan,acti an

Pan Xuan, “Lun ü fun Wuxu ‘Xianyuan’: “Chongsu Nanxiu, Qian Pan Xuan, “Shanghai . Nüxue bao: Nüxue hui through] the old wall [which divided] thewall through] outer speech. old and inner feel [overwhelmed with this] new and strange ( [at look foreigners wereThere no [Chinese]in women’s journals the past. Thatwhy [Chinese] is men and Nüxue bao their minds freshness? feel feel passersby’seyes pleasure, at fromLooking and tree. them,hanging the wouldn’t greenin journal,published be] the [andlike and leaves blossoms these newswill red just first observe its leaves and blossoms? All thebe matter will the and school ofsociety s the of tree it is kind towhat want see blossoms. and leaves people the its and If journal itsfruit, school perhapsthe explain wayrelationbetween is to nobetter There Nüxuehui

and the mutual assistance between and Chinese Western 427 Nü xuebao Nü xuebao

The journal thus exemplifies the critical role that the modern(izing) media buchu yan nei , made public women’s activities and and Qian made Nanxiu women’s activities discussions. as By so, doing public Its issues nine Its first - Nüxue tang

whether it is kind promising,what whether and ofit may fruit - breed Nüxue bao nanchu Zhongwaihe nüzi xiangzhu de Nüxue bao] with curiosity (

yuanqi (The purposes of the 12 (2007):46. 12

and and [the words from the inner chambers should not be hea be not chambers inner should the from words [the 426

N üxue bao

ziwo jiegou” (Remolding ‘Xianyuan’: Identity construction of 154 are like a fruitarea liketree: thesociety ve to contributor wrote: the As she journal. ChineseProgress Girl’s xiqi

w omen),NXB, no. 3.

xinqi ), and we [Chinese women] cannot but we and ), [Chinese women] but cannot lifa” (On the problems of the )

situation [when getting we are 428

in in Shanghai), NXB, no. 1. and and , Nüxuetang

is its root, the shouldn’t theyshouldn’t Chinese Girl’s Chinese Girl’s issue of the rd in the in rd

CEU eTD Collection 431 430 429 of belonged. womenlanguage highto the Chinese culture, which themselves guanhua argued that guanhu a journal, contributors the to PanXuan, ofmain one journal. should the used be the in languagethat aboutviews the first edition the the initiativebefore at of Xue Shaohui. wasGuanhuabao journal nüxue “worthy ladies” to contribute their writings for the publication. isTheannouncement of journal communicated. publication women’s forthcoming invited the journal. presentation of “biographical” data about the establishment, organization operation and of the fifth will the in mycontent be and focus media which site reveals some primary oftheir representational strategies. theandinformation of actors about the the But Wuxu events also seeI it an period. invaluable the reasons why, as indicated earlier, perceiveI meant bring together to women highlight to and commontheir interests agenda.areand These audience femalebroad ofanticipated the Nüxuebao readers, Jiping) and offered to contribute her six thousand characters’ essays everymonth, without rem Xinwenbao

Qian claims that Xue responded to Nüxuehui See the advertisement about the establishment of the school, the association, and the journal published in 413. 2003, Qian, In addition to bringing together “the inner and outer speech,” by being available a available to speech,”bybeing and “theouter inner together bringing to addition In On 17 May Nüxue bao

would diminish the journal’s“elegant diminish the andwould appeal,” theof literary use urged elegant on May 17 May on

th th is the central empirical focus of my dissertation; a detailed analysis of its

1897 reproduced in Xia, 2012, 25. 2012, Xia, in reproduced 1897

1898 Xinwen bao

(“Vernacular” women’s journ published the announcement the byNüxuehui published ’s announcement about the launch of the journal (through Chen sixth chapters. This chapters. provide will, thus, sixth section brief a 155 Nüxue bao

should be used, while Xue Shaohui argued that argued used,Xue be Shaohui while should 430 as only not as important an of archive There were indeed There was a mediumwas a al), but the name was changed butwas changed al), name the 429 Theplanned name for the

431

that was primarily

uneration. Xuealso two two

in which the which in competing competing the the CEU eTD Collection (July 19 zhi houguan Xue nüshi Shaohui shu (Lettershu Shaohui nüshi toXue Xue Shaohui houguan zhi from the Women’s Learned Society), bao Zhixin vern language of the literati, by the literati, and for the literati.” “confined conveys, to the largely homogeneous community of the culturalelite…a written 435 434 433 432 hui addressed high and official popular, periphery. between and low,and and center would be inaccurate to describe its relation with language,” people’s was it and “the it not people, numerous understand” “easy be to bythe to bor regional Beside officials, monks and merchants also used communication. for oral the barriers inbypass attemptto officials an bygovernmental was used from its affinity to the patter ns to the cosmos.” legitimate language,wenyan of perception prestigiouslanguage as written and divine,and, Zhou Gang as “as writes, the sole spokenand perpetuated language. Abetween and distinction written Chinese spoken the as theprestigious cul December 26 117(2002): 4,7. Available at Press, 2001), 16. 2001), Press,

Shang Wei,“ Gang, Zhou Out Liangyan, ofGe the Margins: The Rise of Chinese Vernacular Fiction The Patric Hanan, Chinese Vernacular Story

responded with the text published on July 19 acular approach, the journal might lose its elegant appeal, and you are absolutely right!” ZhongguoNüxue hui th Literary Chinese, “the main vehicle of t Guanhua, onthe other wasahand, languagebased primarily on northerna dialect and

, 1898): 8b 8b 1898): , Nüxue hui , 2012. ders of the Empire. But, as Shang But,as ofEmpire. the ders Placing the Modern Vernacular in Transnational Literature

Baihua, Guanhua, waishi Fangyan Rulin of Reading Fourth May the and

– via the general press with her suggestions about the journal’s language issue, to which Nüxue

9a, quotedin Q tural meaning of writing necessitated a clear http://www.sino was believed to have derived its potency not not but to havefrom to its potency speech derived was believed ties ian 2003, 413. 413. 2003, ian

(Cambridge andLondon, HarvardUniversity Press, 1981), 15. th -

in platonic.org/complete/spp117_baihua_rulin_waishi.pdf Accessed . This bao Zhixin text read: “Now you advise us that with such a

emphasizes, even though even emphasizes, 434 156

guanhua he cultural legacy,” cultural he

wenyan 433 because helpedbecause it them move to across in terms of the distinction between It used It was not for everydayspeech,

(New York:Palgrave, 2011), 19. - cut distinction between written (Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Hawai’i of University (Honolulu: 435 432

guanhua was, as Ge Liangyan ,”

Sino was consideredwas - Platonic Papers,

59 59

CEU eTD Collection 26. (1840 of intellectuals female mobilization Chinese women and of Girls’ Progress) 438 437 436 and announcements were written inthe elegant elite wenyan. mostly in the news reports, while a majority of theeditorial essays, essays sent by the readers, percent vernacular the page of twothat wouldbeseventy cover theannouncedjournal The first journal onthe issues name ChineseEnglish Girl’s Progress allow de did a for languages Nüxuebao that ofproposed highlight to neither the important it is intellectuals, 4th vers vernacular.” “vernacular”, then it fanyanis boundaries the Nanjing, BeijingMing’s to ofQingSecond, the guanhua reign. – through withchange movedcapitals of history center along the China’s for that: first, JindaiZhongguo nüzijiaoyu zhishi yu nü in twenty roles jinbu English name.Hence, according to these works, the name of the journal is not people,” people,” language uniformity and the usage of different dialects were, in Sun Yun’s words, a “matter of ridicule of cultured

“Benguan gaobai”(Our announcements), NXB, no.and 1 no. 2. are re who authors areChinese that to note there interesting is It

Ibid, 7. us us

or or wenyan Zhongguo nüzi jinbu nüzi Zhongguo Guanhua When the fanyan

To use fanyan use To 436 - century China) (Tianjin: Tianjin renmin chubanshe, 2008), 26; and Qiao Suling, nüxing: yu Jiaoyu , was not an option for the women’s journal. - guanhua , no. 2, August 3, 1898. 3, Nüxue August 2, bao, no. Hence, if we acknowledge Shang classed massivization of communication.

as low versus high, versuseliteadditionalmyth an ofMay high, is yet the vernacular lowversus as of local dialec cann

journal was launched, the chosen Chinese name was Nüxuebao, with its

( su ot be called vernacular, as Shang ) was considered too impracticalfor women’s communication, and, since the lack of is by definition the spoken language spoken the bydefinition is

. See Jiang Meihua, . Jiang See and thirty percent elegant percent thirty ( and

ts, and, Shang ts, as (local dialects or topolects), not guanhua,arethat closer to the xing juexing (1840 juexing xing printed at the cover page together with its Chinese title. 20 shiji Zhongguo nüxing jiaose bianqian jiaose nüxing shiji Zhongguo 20

157 ’s ’s thatposition the coupling of baihua/guanhua -

See Sun Yun, “ Yun, Sun See 1) 192 maintains, “if we insist on using the term ya - 1921) (Tianjin: Tianjin guxiang chubanshe, 2005), 2005), chubanshe, guxiang Tianjin (Tianjin: 1921)

further argues, and there are two reasons tworeasons are argues, there and further )

(Education and women: Early modern education education modern Early women: and (Education texts. - translating the name of the journal from its the namethe journalfrom of its translating

of the officials whosegeographicalof officials the 438 Nüxue bao Nüxue (later called Nüxue bao Nüxue However,

xu” (Preface toxu” Chinese the

from Yuan’s Dadu, to Dadu, to Yuan’s from but rather rather but ) crossed crossed putonghua) guanhua

(Changes of women’s Zhongguo nüjie was used 437

CEU eTD Collection 441 440 439 men the wai about and in respectabletraditionally genreswere that theritually related to present 1898either. wasnot in ding groun social wasnot becausethere groundingpunctuation for but it.” waslacking, However, thisexperiment failed,opinion in Janku’s “not because the necessarytechnology for spaces indicating greatly. reader phrase which the wouldhelp text within the and sentence breaks daily) which tried to reach a mass readership. The editors of bao Min recognition. needed perhaps well, punctuationas becausesuch was notconsidered appropriate for a journal that used wasnot for the reader) crucialoftexts highlightparts (used to the punctuation Emphatic works the gLan ofwere Jing Liu Jian (Wangfang). (Keqing) and Western ladies (which was, mentioned,as I reprinted from huabao ), Dianshizhai the illustrations gongbaoWanggong and), the second issue’s of illustration the great of gathering the Chinese and first issue’s illustration of the young Empress (which was borrowed f have I issues consulted elaborateillustrationssecondhad onthe of pages. theWith exception the perceivedas“too vulgar.”Janku, 124.Only after 1900 did journals

Ibid., 155. Janku explains that since Song times, cheap commercial prints used such punctuation, so it is possible that it was claims Xiefa Xia Chen that The journal eight had printeddensely typed pages onone panel large sheet.All nine The journal, as I emphasized, allowed women to express their thoughts using the allowedthoughtsusing their the express emphasized, to I women as The journal, wereThe texts not punctuated, following the conventions of styles. writing contemporary

440 Andrea Janku that writes Andrea in bao 1876 Shen ng wanted to include more illustrations, but that expensive. too but it was to more illustrations, include ng wanted

sphere. Thus, we published amonthe texts, read politicalg discussions,

158

start to emphatic punctuation. use start 439 - sanctioned communication of

launched included punctuation rom Young Allen’s Allen’s Young rom Min bao Min 441

Suchsocial (People’s (People’s CEU eTD Collection 445 444 443 442 Chang Yu- in her research and thus emphasizes the central role of this extraordinarily educated woman. women in engaged reform garnered projects. for their that support choice to employ both dynastic time and the Western calendar may been asavvyhave wasConfucian option calendar an not for appropriate Nüxue bao. notand birth Confucius’ from beginning of the theyear rein the Qingdynasty, using a 1895bannedin Qiangxue reformist journal bao marking Zhangthe timethat,since Zhidong may However,one documents. certain speculate in system dating. of as a“religion” and to emulate Christian toloyalty the dynasty. politically charged issue sincethe usage of officially sanctioned dynastic time was related to the dynastic calendar mode“epistemological of factuality.” forms of propositional and, letters journalistic following oftrends the times, the annews as Transition, Circa 1800 to 2008: Introduction,” in Brokaw and Reed, 13. acknowledgment of the Chinese Court. See Suzuki, 49.

For the ban of of the ban For 107. Kwok, Christopher A. Reed, “From Woodblocks to the Internet: Chinese Printing, Publishing, and Literary fields in Suzuki follows Ronald T The publications dates ofThe publications Nüxuebao There is an ongoing debate a an debate is ongoing There fa conte fa

Qiangxue bao 444 , and nds thatNüxuebaonds As seen earlier in Mary

443 were printed at the first page of the journal. The issue of calendar was As mentioned, Kang Y oby and discusses the issue of the calendar as a sign of Japanese (lack of)

- see Judge, 1996, 23. 1996, Judge, see oriented Scholarprojects. Nanxiuoriented has Qian focusedon Xue Shaohui

442 bout the distribution of leadership and power among the among power and thebout distribution of leadership was established and led by Shen Jingying; while Xieli Li and byShen Jingying; led was established

Gregorian calendarGregorian adaptation suggested of Confuciana

Richard’s

were given in the Western calend 159

because the journal used dates calculated from ouwei inouwei his wish reconstructto Confucianism

speech, the reformers did use this of style

445 In contrast, theeditors’ ar and Chinese and ar

decision CEU eTD Collection 448 447 446 foreign. implications of the interaction of Nüxuebao feeling of the authenticity of the journal as a women’s initiatives. contributors. Such an omission may be read as a strategic choice to create and reinforce the Renqiu. Jiang and Zhong Qianjun, Wu Xie Cheng ZhuXiangheng, Qinfen, Pengxian, Moqing, Peilan, Xie Yiqiu, Pan Yanglan (Keqing) Jingying, Shen (Peiqiong), Huiping, GongDing Suqing, Shen Dun, (Wanfang), maincontributors (zhubi of the issue,with beginning every names removed and added to fromofissue. Thelist issue twenty zhubi around operation. It justjournal’s claimed published the in journal. from numberoftexts the her in her MA Thesis speculates Pan that Xuanmust have been acting as the chief respectable title respectable press, from the first page, but someauthors continued to use it when signing the submitted texts. (Research of early modern Chinese women’s press) (master’s thesis, Sichuan daxue 2003), 6. Xieli, Li 1982):79; 32, no. series Monograph History, Modern period: an analysis of groups in revolutionary movements, 1894- the general Chinese press.

While sometimes informing the audience that the short pieces from the news section originated in the foreign In the first two issues women were signed by their maiden names, their hometowns were written before and the - Yu Chang 2010); 2007, (2003, Qian Nüxue bao Nevertheless, There has yet to be a thorough study of “migrating” texts a authors, and thorough a study be of to “migrating” yet has There 448 , Zhan Wangxiang,Wen (Yunying) Jingfang However, it is certain that men actively participated in the textual that production is the participated certain in ofmen However,it actively the nüshi (Xuan) did not announce that several articles published by their main contributors were reproduced from

(lady 447 ,

Nüxue bao itself

What the journal did not publicize, however, were t were however, What publicize, journal not the did (editorial/main writers). The namesofmajor writers were written at the Di Wanjia, ZongZhangJingyi(Yunhua) Hengyi, - sc ) first for the issues Xuenine includes Pan Shaohui, Daofang, Jia holar) after the name. From the third to the ninth issues the afterthetitle third issues to the name. Fromninth holar) the , Zhu Shilan

fa [Zhang the lateof Qing Yufa], (Revolutionaries tuanti de geming Qingji

to haveto an all does revealnot the hierarchicalpower structure behind the QiuMeilü (Yufang), with the general contemporary press, Chinese and press, contemporary general the with 160 - Zhongguo jinxiandai fun jinxiandai Zhongguo woman board editorial which ofconsisted 446 , Kang Wexian (Tongwei), Liao Yuanhua Liao WexianKang (Tongwei), Li Duanyang,Sui Sh Nianqu,

1911) (Taipei: Academia Sinica, Institute of Institute Sinica, Academia (Taipei: 1911) Shen Heqing (Ying),JingShen Heqing Liu

ü ,

baok Zhou Yuanxiang, WuZhou Yuanxiang,

he names male its of

nüshi anyanjiu (1895 - editor, judgingeditor,

was removed s well as the en Cuiying,en ng Lan ng Lan - 1919) 1919) CEU eTD Collection 452 451 450 449 of leaders of the Wuxu reforms removed were from cover of the Nüxuebao,while the name of Cixi’s school. the to contribution law in ofson contribution her acknowledges the tang send their contributions, and the letter of one female reader namedWei Lady sentto theNüxue ontheirbased experience comparable with in own journal their national contexts. and pr to the tojournal support fordonations financial appealed were women suggestion buy the to share theand journal other with families. their Western members of of journal. the ofnumber of the availablefor circulation, copies journal as well the for furtherneed funding numberlimited the of problem a submissions, concerning PanXuan highlights journal, journal. Mary Richard’s writings indicate Nüxue bao As Xiajournal. Xiaohong Nanxiu and Qian inform us,

“Wei Gongrenshu” (Letter fromLady Wei),NXB, no. 1. I 3. no. NXB, Xuan, Pan 157. 1900, Richard, 2003; Qian, 281; 2012, Xia, dem. reveals that they used the help of their male do to relatives Lady so. coup coup

In elaborating threeIn the Starting with the eight (September is, and asit witheight issue 1898), interpreted,Starting the

449

was conducted by Jing was conductedbyJing Yuanshan; d’ 450 ét

at Thus, women were specially addressed in the call for submissions, as well as in

the

journalemphasized its relation to 452

main issues she identified as the burning concerns about the main about concerns identified the she issues as burning the , involved involved been had Young Allen

161 Liang Qichao’stextwas publishedLiang as and, also ;

who helped her to send the letter the hersend to helped who communication with officials published inpublished officials communication with foreigners. The

in names of closerelatives

the operation of operation the the ovide assistance

451 responding to to responding

Women did Wei, thus,

and and

CEU eTD Collection 454 453 these certain a authority reformersover motion. held in set Male theseproject to together brought g a in this chapter, As demonstrated women’s history. significant a modern developmentrepresent Chinese Nüxuebaocertainly and in corrected or in byadditionalresearch. reconstruction recordsfilled ofoutline be an 1898provides historical to eventsfollowing for our speculative and brief 1900.This of the1899and until beginning operate managed to after the twelfth iss hui 1898 wasalso the beginningof the ofend Chinese projects going, neverthelessit appears that forquest “more auspicious qi Nüxuebao of suggest aset of circumstances us to at point. this women certainly need access to theremaining issues of Nüxuebao Daysreforms, after would journal theone ofOneand end Hundred the and the association learning.” Young Daughter Allen’s Young Mollie was th added, of noting her as being inarge ch clearly the(all) names the signedof

Xia, 2012, 28. 2012, Xia, Xia, 2012, 28. Unfortunately, the copy of the ninth issue of the journal I can consult is not allowing me to

probably dissolved in September 1898; Nüxuebao 1898; September in probably dissolved - Notwithstanding their short their Notwithstanding For instance, as Xia reconstructs the events fromSeptember 18 is operation neededclarifyresearch to the Further scope full in a of ofschool, changes the oriented projects adapted to the new political situation. Nevertheless, available resources 453

moved from

ue; and the branches of branches ue; the and Xiamen

zhubi .” 454 .

wai wenyuanfang to the vicinity of the school in Guishuli in a in a Guishuli in ofschool the vicinity wenyuanfangthe wai to lived operation, the establishment of operation,Nüxue theNüxuehui, establishment lived tang Eventhough their foreign collaborators tried to thekeep roup of foreign and domestic actors, male and female, were female, male domestic and actors, and were ofroup foreign the the end violent of Reformfall the of in period 162 , though with, though changedNüxue tang leadership,

- led women ceased its publication in October 1898 publicationin ceased its to understandwaysto the which in - Nüxue reform Nüxue oriented projects. 98, the 98, the officepublishing e “Western see see CEU eTD Collection and exclusions of particular groups and characteristics of Chinese women political collectivity of Chinese women.The fifth chapter will examine the strategic inclusions peri was intrinsic to the women’s entrance into the wai women servedperhaps foreigndiscourses rolethan women more actual’s important engagements in six, chapter foreignin inclusiondiscuss women of“(Western) woman”the the into - women to undertake the reforms in theway reformers deemed necessary, but, as willI further The limits. of womenpresence foreign the in Chinese opportunities and Western particular men, camewith and and between Chinese communication political actors was their cooperation with Western women. These encounters echoed the ofneo/Confucian definition socio women- stagein elite educated initial recognized as the participant in the reform recognized political represented was collectivitywhich of that women of group a formation wasthe ImperialWuxu Chinese past the from moment reformparticular ofperiod the their andchannel to continued projects had od wasnegotiation multivocal meanings and sociothe ofboundaries - recognized the a nei nei - The chapters that follow will look closely into of into Nüxuebao. theThe closely content look process follow will that that The chapters wai the in positioning women’s Chinese specificity ofAn additional oriented reformist projects implied. c onnections to gain an unprecedented access to the wai - oriented discussions and actions.

women’s communication. Thus,women’s women communication. Chinese used

163

sphere in the context of the Wuxu Reform ofWuxu context the the Reform in sphere

- led social project did allow

domain: what distinguished what domain: a within this process.

domain, that is, of is, domain, that as legitimate

Chinese related

CEU eTD Collection political collectivityofwomen.political Chinese - meanings theof and newly a borders e of process th multivocal defining displayed bao, as women collectivityof ofpolitical formation “Chinese forthe the venues .” as understood oriented reformist projects – women- Thethree undertake. women Chinese and should ofChina that directions change asperiod, they so did - recognizeda socio that thatNüxuebao Wuxuand that the reforms allowed process crucial on one focus chapter This will journal. about “biographical the data” available 455 isit essential to relinquish the idea ofmonolithic a and metaphysical idea of collective actors, Alberto Melucci’s argument about theapproach to the analysis of collectiveMelucci, For actions. limits of what that content can consist of.” tomediumor represents and setattending the both that content helps to communicates that Because, as Lisa Press, 2006), 7. 2006), Press,

Lisa Gitelman, Lisa collective recognized identityas ofwomen socio-political Chapter of 5:Nüxue the ofboundaries baoand defining When stepped women spatialdiscursive and into the wai Of crucial importance for my dissertation in general and for this chapter in particular is Nüxue bao, as reform

a specificmode of communication, exchange and community building enabled and

Always Already New: Media, History, and the Data of Culture Gitelman “ us, reminds -

oriented women themselves attested, had no historical precedent. the associationthe school, and it makes nosense to think about ‘content’without actors political collectivity invited to act and discuss the 455 164 The previous section of my presentethesis mediated asboth its facilitator and display.

the journal

(London and Cambridge: The MIT sphere – in in the Wuxu reform may, allbe thus, emerging Nüxue Nüxue

d CEU eTD Collection 457 456 assist China in its return to power. That is, meanings Nüxuebao in ated cre well ashistorically and culturally specific experiences ofmeaning,” Approaching the5.1. collectivity respectable socio What announcements thea arguments? tellof dothe process about reports us creating and “Chinese women” conducted by the participants in women concluded about the process of “internal” marginalization within the socio How group? did womana from past Chinese the figure in the texts of Nüxuebao Or, Nüxue bao? women of intexts groups praised characteristicsofthe and questions: the What Chinese were Chinese women as adistinct socio theof explore dynamics t will I analysis and to understand instead the processes through which a collective becomes collective. problematic explanation about this distinction between the present and past formations of social actors. Ibid., 84. of in inunity less theand/or Seemy important Melucci’s, either maintenance view,rather were past visible. addresses contemporary social movements and claims that the processes of formation of socia Press, 1996), 70, 80. I find parts of Melucci’s work especially rewarding for my own study despite the fact that he

Gitelman, Gitelman, Challenging Melucci, Alberto codes: Collective action in the Ifmedia are understood as “very particular sites for very particular, importantly social as 7.

in other words, who was understood as representative for the newly for representative the - as who words, wasunderstood other in - politically active collectivity of Chinese wome

was theidentity of therespectable Chinese woman who to is - politically active group. by doso theI will asking following he formation of meanings and boundaries delineating boundaries meanings and of formation he Nüxue bao 165 information age offered ofa set contesting representations - oriented reformistprojects in their n in late

(Cambridge: Cambridge University Cambridge University (Cambridge: - Qing China? 457 - political cat one ofcentral one the ? What may be

l actors and and l actors emerging 456 egory of In my In

CEU eTD Collection 459 458 contestation thesignals agre varying social category has which twovariable dimensions: content contestation. and The Herrera, Alastair Johnston Iain and Rose McDermott define collective identity as an unfixed and the formationdisplaying - ofwomen’s socio Chinese explore leadership. by formsand constituted organization of contradictory. And consistsit of anetwork of active relationships between the actors which are andoften interactions are members’ whichconstructedthrough the ofare field action” themselves partofa community. It also involves cognitive definitions of “ends, means and the emotional the ofthat involves investments feel its contributors enableindividualsto which and their actions takeplace. For Melluci, collective identity is not a static entity, but rather a process and which andin of opportunities individuals’of setting groups’ action, limitations the or the collective identity assumes “an interactive and shared definition” of orientations of the respect others; to and the ability to recogniz variations in time andits adaptations to the environment; the delimitation of this subject with over alwaysnamely, three refers ofto beyondidentity subject and features, a these continuity the who,his of in elaboration Melucci collective and action that“t maintains actors actions for social change sphere of the the1898 Reform in wai era. which defined Chinese women as legitimate participants in the discussions, and imaginations

Ibid.,70, 71. Melucci, 71 Along the similar lines, but with added clas of approachtheI notion a theoristAlberto identity in bysocial collective manner defined Nüxue bao .

as a a as modern/izing media key a platform played which facilitating role in and ements and disagreements of memberscontent over group thethe

e ande be to recognized.” 166 politically active group. sificatory tone, Rawi Abdelal, Yoshikosificatory tone, Rawi Abdelal, M. 459

With these processes in mind, willI 458 Melucci’s definition of

he notion of notion he

CEU eTD Collection Rose McDermott (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009), 18. 2009), Press, University Cambridge (Cambridge: McDermott Rose 463 462 461 460 China because the insights about internal marginalization within the women’s group reveal that a practices distinctive and boundariesthe ofgroup. the actions that lead others to recognize an actor as having a particular id particular identity.” group,” thatis, the membersthey of “identify ‘proper’‘appropriate’behavior and the for a McDermott specify, constitutive norms meanings “fix and set collective expectations for starting to be recognized as direct political/public actors. As Abdelal, Herrera, Johnston and ways of the defining me formationthe of collective identity of analysis women. will examine The the explicit and implicit groups. identity ismembers’ not groupit particular onother a what by views defines which ways in goals that are shared by members of thegroup;” and it entails relational comparisons, or the thatdefinerules group’smembership; social purposesof the ofgroup,formation the thatis, “the will addressI my in It analysis. constitutiveinvolves norms represent which formal inf and meaningunderstanding, describes the of identity, it severaland interlocks collective features that shared category and its meanings. political and material conditions and interests that are shaped by a particular Measuring Identity:AGuide for Social Scientist collective identity. However, the cognitive modelsmy of scope mustout cognitive the of the remain thesis. However, identity. collective

Ibid., p. 21. Ibid., p. 20. Ibid., 18, 19.The authors also include cognitive models which subsume “the worldviews or understandings of Rawi Abdelal, M. Yoshiko Alastair RoseHerrera, and Iain Johnston inMcDermott, aVariable,” as “Identity I aminI of the boundaries women identity interested late of group in emerging norms” discussion of“constitutive the to the dedicated be primarily chapterThis will 461

462 More importantly, as theauthors suggest, these norms “thevery are mbership mbership in earlythe stage of creating collectivity a of women who were

460 The content of collective identity, according to the authors’ the ofto authors’ identity, according Thecontent collective , ed. Rawi Abdelal, Yoshiko M. Herrera, Alastair Iain Johnston and 167 463

identity” as important for a content of entity,” thus defining the

ormal ormal - Qing

CEU eTD Collection 465 464 established would what become the commonin modernizers’ a suggestions for the trope reform narrative. initiated the removalof the cultural capital of thediscloses which waysin Kang mostfamous LiangYouwei’s disciple, (1873 Qichao - of transformation of the social ideals from cainü reformers were onesthe who, the in yearsofnineteenthclosing the century, initiatedprocess the chapterin positioned three, Chinese woman as linchpina of decay the of These China’s glory. women’s activities anddebates thein reformist projects. activities around 1898 aas women’s movement, thisobs Melucciit,” observes. movements preceded formsof that experience,the and symbols, action organizational of the Still unable to define itself in terms of an identity of its own, the the new uses collect actor ive published Nüxuebaoannouncements in . andinclusions exclusions ofg particular articulated in women actorpolitical modern in Therefore, China. willthe discuss I expectations imposed onwomen womenof those occupying women position by the ofwere recognized a whospeaking socio- groups of erasure certain marginalization, silencing and/or spherewasmarkedpublic/political by historical moment of women’s initial self

See Hu Ying, 2000. Ying, Hu See Melucci, 207. Male ofWuxuMale reformers the I’veindicated in period, as myofdiscussion Kang Youwei “In its formative stage, a ‘movement’ always adopts the language of previous struggles. 465 In In hisessay Lun nüxue

- 464 oriented reformist projects and publicized trace in Nüxuebao. I will Even though though remainI reserved Even when it comes to defining women’s

(On women’s education) published in 1897 Liang 1897Liang in published (On women’s education) - positioning within wai the roups ofwomen debates, Chinese and in reports 168 to to

xin nüxing. An study important of Hu Ying c ainü

ervation is useful for the approach to from the modernizing nationalist modernizing nationalist from the

domain of reform - oriented oriented 1926) 1926) CEU eTD Collection 467 466 bao around changing world them.rapidly wome seeing amin WuxuChinese I interested Qing China. how,the in period, particularly reform exceptionally are and forgenderimportant my about thinking asstudy, well asJoan Judge’s works, articulate the of role these two “others” of theNew woman, modernity.Ying’s women’s Hu Chinese and Chinese ofproposed the ideas exemplified the intellectuals drew on the figure of the xifu explains, Liang Qichao created an image whowas: ofcainü addressed was “useless” kn individuals.” independent economically producers; fromto whocreatures helpless lived off laborof the their fathers or husbands to of gendered practices. As Joan Judge summari 9. he shehui xingbie excellently researched book of Sudo Mizuyo, Late

Jin Feng, Judge, 2002,36. For discussionsabout Liang Qicha - offers is the way in whichc wayauthors in the offers is Qing and early Republic) (Beijing: Shehui kexue wenxian chubanshe, 2007). sentimental tendency and their lack of contactand concern with pressing social realities. excluded summarily them ofmodernizationfrom project Chinese the on basis the of their flowers grassmakes dit the and …who moon, the windand onthe ditties with woman “who toys of the type traditional essentially n themselves embarked on the project on reimagining themselves and their “others” theirin and themselves “others” a onreimagining onthe project embarked n themselves Among the most significant insights ofAmong a mostsignificant the published texts the closereading Nüxue that in the to discarded addition cludes, in con Ying perceptively As Hu The New Woman in The Twentieth New Woman Early

(Historical changes of the concept of “women’s China:in rights” andGender owledge and artistic of skills the “talented women”. Jin Feng As

Zhongguo ‘nüquan’gainian de bianqian: QingmoMinchu renquande - 466 Century Fiction Century reated a specific discourse about historical time.I As

What Liang andWhat like his Liang o and his thoughts and actions related to women see an zes, “women had to be transformed from parasites 169 , a particular type of Western womenWestern which of particular, a type ties on spring sorrow and sad departures,” and sorrowties sad and and departures,” on spring

(West Lafayette: Purdue University Press, 2004), University Lafayette:(West Purdue

- related transformations in late

- minded colleagues also

human rights in , Chinese , Chinese cainü 467

- CEU eTD Collection 1911 Revolution organized at Tokyo University in December 2011. Chinese conceptions of timewas published in the proceedings of the Conference Commemorating the Centennial of 469 468 theof outcomes change byfamiliarizing perspective culturalfunctiontemporal a in this out in forming identities. xixue 5.2.1. Framing the past: Non- the past from Chinese Benefit the 5.2. the of inclusion Astate: precondition exemplaryof for women exclusion of selected women from theChinese pastand present into the socio oriented discourses. This chapter will look closely into the principles of the inclusion and foreignof about narratives womanand general, in Western woman particular in into the reform politically act groupive recognized and have ofand stage set women; the inclusion for strategic - newly into the past exemplaryfrom womenChinese of the the inclusion allowed will show in the following section, a particular temporality women at created the same time dissertation. of Nüxuelogic bao ’s internationalized imaginary will ReformThe collectivity of the period. employment of women figures in women foreign the in Intercultural Debate,

Jörn Rüsen, “Int A part of this subchapter that elaborates the elaborates that this subchapter of A part zhong yuan (Chinese origin of the Western learning) As Jörn RüsenAs Jörn explains, historical memory historical and are operationalconsciousness

roduction: Historical Thinking as Intercultural Discourse,” in Western in Discourse,” as Intercultural Historical Thinking Historical roduction: Thinking: An ed. Jörn Rüsen (New York, Oxford: Berghahn Books, 2002), 1. 469 Historical memory and historical thinking, as he further elaborates, carry

linear historical time, Three Dynasties and the notion the of notion and Dynasties linear time, Three historical

literature with concerned the differences and between western 170

be be the focus ofsixth the chapter of my 468

- politically active forming- socio - CEU eTD Collection 473 472 471 470 which have progress long cyclical coexisted the with theory ofchange. historical that the primacy of linea the perception changethat cumulative is and irreversible. i.e. of conceptualization emphasis progress, its linear the of and thought is time/past historical historical Burkethinking, argues that crucialthe mo and evidentst characteristic ofWestern and group individual historian.” byregion, found be avary ofthemselves to elsewhere, which period, social pattern emphases, series of unique characteristics but rather asaunique combination of elements each of imagined. temporalflowsbeen vision has are,There however, numerous and culturally historically- past and expectations of the future for creating the comprehensive image of temporal advance. of the experiences memorythe collective and byusing through individual the identity produces human beings are constantly faced Historical with. consciousness, as further he elabora See Khalidi, 54. Khalidi, See and is teleological the between view, In difference is Khalidi’s history understood. possibility of spiral historical thinking, i.e. the coexistence of both recurrent patterns and evolution in the way out that we should not think in terms of a strict binary linear vs. cyclical view of history, and argues for the “Western Historical Thinking from an Arabian Perspective,” in Rüsen, 122, 123. Contrastingly, Tarif Khalidi points Historiography,” in Rüsen, 87, 90. c linearity, progress, and Al Aziz Tradition” volume, especially Tarif Khalidi’s “Searching for Common Principles: A Plea and Some Remarks on th Islamic e see tothe articlesfrom Burke’s inventory, same Forcritical though. responses the of western historical features progress and claims th that progress

- Al J. Sadik 19. 18, Burke, Johan Galtung adds the concept of closure - Burke, Peter Historical a Global – Thinking“Western in Perspective I dem.

Western historical thought, as Peter Burke aptly puts it, should not be understood “a as understood shouldbe not it, aptlyputs PeterBurke thought, as historical Western

umulation and irreversibility. See Johan Galtung, “Western Deep Culture and and Culture Western “Western Deep Galtung, Johan See and irreversibility. umulation - Azmeh’s “The Coherence of the West”, as well as Burke’s reply at end the of the book. e idea of cycles had been present in allin pre present been had cycles of e idea rity and development is historical as well. There were different ideas of Azmmentions the European Renaissance as the beginning of history of the idea of

471 In In his schematic representation of the features of Western

the existence of a beginning and an end -

171 472 spe Burke wants to wants Burke emphasize, however, cific wayscific in which ofthe creation a

- 10 Thesis,” in Rüsen, 16. Burke lists ten modern societies. See Sadik J. Al

nonteleologicalnotions of history.

to Burke’s statement about about statement to Burke’s 473

of which is of is which -

Azm, tes, 470

CEU eTD Collection been the key concern. Iggers, 104. the Chinese of histories the actually cyclical should be taken with a grain of salt. Chinese historians did start to write universal histories which were c1968), 476 475 474 pre the factuality past timegiving “the toargues, iswith Chinese thinking reciprocal, in cosmological Change was considered desirable if it promised a return ancientto ideals.” past had presided over an ideal order; in later times menmoved further and further from that idea. ofdistant sage kings the the age: golden asfrom “devolution vision ofa a history inspired which Wright viewthat the explains Chinese of history past. F. the byreturning to ideal Arthur rather progressthebut future, toward straightforward progress was not linear but rather was circular in a sense that ideals not are to be reached through onnewto modehad their ofrethink own this reference existence” past. new their of point various“placed explicates, which Sato ofworld regions the As Masayuki the way of life named ‘Western system”Western historiography circulated th history. concept the in Rüsen, 107, 108. David L. Sills (New York and London: The Macmillan Company, The Free Press and Collier

Arthur F. Wright,“Chinese Historiography,”in Historiogr Normative and Historiography “Cognitive Sato, Masayuki to Contrast that of China?,” in of the West the about Historiography “What is Uniquely Western Iggers, G. Georg sent, the present giving meaning to the past, mutually corresponding, going back and forth forth and past, mutuallyback corresponding, the going sent, thegivingto meaning present 401, the401, Nonetheless,claim and Iggers viewof 402. as warns, timehistory Chinese thatthe neatly are As G. Georg notices, Iggers Burke what calls is inWestern argues modern,and fact that Furthermore, in contrast with western historical between understandingphilosophical ofrelation the A Chinese 474 In the second half of the nineteenth century, as a part of politics, thought, culture partof a and as politics,thought, century, halfofnineteenth the In second the ualization of coherent historical process invaded the non- invaded process the of historical ualization coherent

world, where the transformation of nomadic cultures into urban civilizations has International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences - 172 generated oflinearity time, Huang Chun as - heavily reliedheavily on the indigenous view world aphy,” in Rüsen, 130. 475 Western conceptions of

476

roughout the world. -

Macmillan Publishers, , Volume 5 Volume

time and chieh , ed. , ed. CEU eTD Collection 480 479 478 477 seasons. It was theGarden of E flourished according the everything to and obedient, loyal and people were the thoughtful, and rulersbenevolent were the order: perfect a wasin world the Zhou, when Shang and chapter of my thesis: “there alwaysis theGolde described as consisting of factors. several isIt theinitial one of is thesethat crucial for this may argumentation which patternbe recurrent a of Confucianscreated historical classical historically familiar tothe presently novel and uncertain. implies the arousalby the pastevents to realize something,and xing twoconcepts: the in time.” E.J. Brill, 1995), 77. in Dynasties,” Press, c1977 [2001 edition]), 190.

Yi Ibid., p.80. For other factors of which historical argumentation consist, see Ibid., 81 I Chun Huang dem. - fu Tuan, Tuan, fu

As the author further elaborates, using elaborates, histor modes ofin authorfurther operation As these the not postulatenot and to the rites that sustain it. Their tone is not sentimental or nostalgic. The Chinese do in accordance with an idealized model. They call for the return to a former social order references to a Golden Age in override tendssensecumulative to any ofof as history change. things, Theconstant conforms nature in the world, society to which image traditionalthe China In ideal an of the abstract and rather austere rules of harmony. social merit hence complimentbe to the ofWhatimitated imitation. perpetuated are and ought

477 As Huang also reveals, Chinese historical thought has been exploring time through exploring been thought has historical Chinese reveals, As Huang also Time and space Space and Place: The Perspective - chieh, “Historical Thinking in Classical Confucianism - Confucianism Classical in Thinking “Historical chieh,

that the furnishingsofthat the material more were life gracious the in past and (to arouse, to excite arouse, (to in Chinese culture Chinese in

den in Chinese history.” Chinese in den

the past are exhortations the restore harmonypresentto the to , ed. Chun ,

Experience of bi bi and ) 173 - n Past, the Three Dynasties of illustrious Xia, chieh Huang and Erik Zürcher(Leiden, New York, Koln: (Minneapolis and London: University of Minnesota of Minnesota University London: and (Minneapolis (to analogize, to c to analogize, (to 479 478 Or, in Yi in Or,

480 Historical Argumentation from the Three Three from the Argumentation Historical

- means to analogize from the fu Tuanwords: - ompare, to relate). 83. 83.

ical thinking the the thinking ical

Xing CEU eTD Collection

482 481 women’s gradualglory: about the readers fadingof Chinese China’s civility. of Chinese neglecting the culture, ofsignals equation (Confucian)the education with the glory of of schools and educated men women and China in in the Qin/Han periods marked the beginning beginning BCE (206 Han dynasty the or –206 BCE) The Qin(221 women periods of these whose heroic reveal acts women that were highly ethical and capable. thr the periodof the in toward the past accomplishments. was It noted therethat are no historical records about women movement bethe which to via accomplished ofis progress idea ofan conception time and September 1898 September Qianxi Village, Longdu Town, Yaoping County, Chaozhou Prefecture), NXB, no. 2. 1898;and Xu Fu,“Chaozhou Yaoping xian Longdu Qianxi xiang Nüxue tang ji (A note about the Girls’ School at

Kang Tongwei, “Nüxue li bi shuo” (On the advantages and disadvantages of women’s education) NXB, no. 7, See Liu Renlan, “Quanxing nüxue qi” (Letter about advancing women’s education), NXB, no. 4, August 20,

By adopting the discourses on the th dynasties, onthe ree discourses the By the texts adopting from herKang Tongweiin article published in the seventh issue of the remindedjournal the tradition of tradition women completelyeducating not had vanished. excelled in the debates in laid the fact that in those ti past people whyfrom the the the reason thought that proprieties;they the maintained startedgradually to lose itshigh esteem. Butit washard to influence people the who auspicious.so [However] during the Spring and Autumn period,women’s education will theconduct improved. be is This atmosphereinancient reasonwhy the times was palace could be well Because the education within the palace was well aspirations. women form teachings.education] ancestors’ helped to [The in their rituals, classics, in instructwomen to the hired towomen’s in were guide instructors behaviors, In the ancient times, the ladies from theroyal palace were well of thedecline of Chinese cultural accomplishments. The claim decreased that number .

ee Shangdynasties (Xia, Zhou), and but that “we have heard” about the - done. If women are encouraged to foster good morals, the good the foster social to morals, done. If womenencouraged are

174 - administered,

–220 A.D.) were perceived as the mes women’s instructors and the 482

the matters outside of the - educate Nüxue bao Nüxue d. Specialized employ a employ a 481

CEU eTD Collection 484 483 sciences, technologies, music, parliamentary system, economics, religion (Christianity), and law explained:Shaohui have heart cannot they have see; they earsbut they cannot have they headshear; but they cannot think; they ofconsequence neglectingas women’s education, Kang argued, “womenhave China in but eyes teachingsancient bysaying that it i womanmoral is if she doesn’t have education. Afterwards, as Kang narrated, critics distorted the she gentlemen. vanity, learned maycommunicated explains, have to society Such in others thata understanding of talents, lacking ofteachings theancient their with the proud monarchs and did not that Noblewomenteach them integrity. showing poetry,were their very offwith being new toknowledge women pass and education generationsof Kangreceived women, thought, theappreciate moral education uprightness, the of wasnoreal decreased. women There government).

Xue Shaohui, “Nüjiao yu zhidao xiangguan shuo” (On the relation between women’ I dem.

the significant Kang highlights change. She thatwhen peopleexplains ceased to However, the glorious tradition ofwomen’s tradition educationAs not glorious Chinese did vanish. However, the Xue Xue’s claim resonates with the notion of xixuezhongyuan Wes of traveled westward] became the institutions ofZhouthe which the institutions Chinese Western parts [and were] gradually transmitted toward the west. At the present, [the E Chinese Western [of borders the the to went Laozi ofZhou dynasty, fall the After the mpire] and became theSage. The institutions of the Zhou were preserved in the s ( NXB, no. 4. no. NXB, tern countries.tern xin , heart

- mind) they but have wisdomdon’t ( 484

s a disaster to allow the hen to announce the dawn. As a a announce disasterthe a to the s hen allow dawn. As to 175 , spirit).”shen that claimsthat 483 s education and the

that “Westernthat CEU eTD Collection For a history of the notion prior to the 1890s, see Lackner, 186 488 487 486 485 representing amaster narrative, but rather asfragmentary. The practice of “ascissors and past by pre explains, observed Chinese historynot Iggers is Westthe along goes with the techniques of writing history pre in new. dangerously institutions mostofWest in the the acceptable way elaborate more in thefollowing chapter, allows theintroduction of the desirable practices and existing threatenedaccomplishment and the of Chinese and will China women, I as and, i zhongyuanBy ofappropriating discourse. xixue wasundoubtfully part a legend had he - Daodejingeducate once completed,to his knowledge.realmWestern ” of every “ininflationary manner wasapplied almostnearly an to it 1895,and within war Japan the in defeat popularity Westerngreat origins knowledgeChina’s the Chinese gained had after that waysto classical originatedin and had China somehow their Europe.” all fou had nd Asia Major

Ibid, 185. Ibid., 183. Scientia? Michael Lackner, “Ex Oriente 139. Yü, Moreover, the lack of elaboration on what happened to China’s glorious glorious while in culture China’s on to of happened the what elaboration Moreover, lack widely apparently “an use Xue did granted granted one’s own position that power a society or cultu which in frequentlyemergessituations in It that one manyis locales. found and in epochs one of ofvariant the is, course, autochthonousmyth,This countless culture to known

21 (2008), 190. Yü Ying Yü 190. (2008), 21

- is underthreat such is mustplaced that it defended. be re re is confronted somethingwith new thatis of such overwhelming

486 - shih estimates that the popularity of the notion decreased after 1900. Yü, 139. 139. Yü, 1900. after decreased notion the of popularity the that estimates shih

Writing xixue about zhongyuan Michael Lackner explains:

Reconsideringthe Ideology ofa Chinese Origin of Western Knowledge,” -

or perhaps better, one’s sense of what has been taken for taken for been sense of better, has one’s what perhaps or - known legend about Laozi having gone to the the having to West gone Laozi about known legend 176 -

189. as well as civilize - -

by cl

- aiming that they are not foreign and not and foreign are they aiming that modern historians as a continuum a as modern continuum historians - modern China. Asmodern China. G. Georg 487

the barbarians.”the t, Xue defends t, 485 The claim 488 The The

CEU eTD Collection civility ( Chinese nowadays observe thepraxes ofWest and the Japan, aprocess is it in which China “lost received these originall 491 490 489 An additionalsequenceof past. yearsofthe re article China’s thousand new a as ofgenuinely but return the practices indigenous were which perverted in last the two ancestors played Chinese women’ performers roles the modernity, but the of alluring destabilizingmarkers or of andeducation, women’s accomplishmentsoutstanding. are cities and villages are educated, wo the situation in Western countries now is as if inherited from China’s past. WomenWestern in establishing women’s in China” school further claims that theWest is far from China, “native” civilizational environment. details about whilethe ideaswent go into throughtheprocess which Chinese fromremoved their feel callsneed not toas explanationauthordid the approach,” mayan why Iggers as the it, serve no. 1.

[Liang Qichao], “Zhongguo chang she nüxue tang qi” (The call for establishing women’s school in China), NXB, Xue Shaohui, NXB, no. 4. Iggers, 106.

Narrative about the return of traveling Chinese culture continues with the idea that Japan

institutions of the Western countries, and to handle the things according to the theto countries, to and things according the Western handle institutions of the has vanished.Wefromnot antiquity recover the to [just]it, need to adopt Japan and States today. down] the [passed The tradition in United [thesituation] than flourished, different times it and wasnot of antiquity, the women’s learning In [China’s] wisdom it allcountry, from [equality ofpeople, of starts here education the and women ]. became strongbecause of wide the spreadof women’s education. Flourishing of the The United States became strong because of the equality between men and women. Japan li) now is and re

in thewhile past; theeducation of women was not perceived as foreign and y Chinese institutions ofy institutions through Chinese the education sincethe West. Further,

trieving it .”

489

men areteachers in charge of medical and children’s 490 T he unsignedhe article of Liang “TheQichao, for call 177 491 Hence,Western women notare the confirms that :

[useful] [useful] but thatbut s CEU eTD Collection 492 internationalcommunity ofthe the modern/izing world. in position disgraceful China’s perceived forto their contribution present and past women the of Nüxue bao As have I indicated, the leading male reformist voices and, discussas I using the articles of the the in 1898Reform multivocality ofreformistexposes discourses contestation period. and the 5.2.2. “We all know them”: Women from the past thein actors 1898Reform period. normse socio of- constitutiv of formatting women the identity recognized of collective as women were discussed in the texts of will examine I Chinese remainingpartofwhich embark. waysin the this women In the should conveyed contradictory messages the about directions in the of which future and China its part of entailed thisprocess using the figure of foreign the woman as which, I will show, a pastfuture, and the the with modern/izingsuggest, thatwasin making. its I China, world As

I dem.

plan for our for our plan country. instructions of the Sage [Confucius]. [We must] promptly start conducting this long conducting instructions this [Confucius].of Sage promptly [Wemust] start the The presence of celebrated womenfrom pastin theChinese the discourses of Nüxuebao Chapter six will analyze bao the ways Nüxue of in which s the text in a later in later of a section this one chapter, of group f 492

Nüxue bao 178 . analyzeI the characteristics they embodied and

emale reformers sharply criticized integrated late political - - Qing term term CEU eTD Collection 495 494 493 moment a- because in nineteenth of China’s past, their accomp women sense celebrated oftemporal linkthe the and community continuity and with from contributors who celebrated the tradition of (particular types of) exemplary women created a should played womenof exemplary values.” unchanging complexitiesmore aboutof the enduring thatmomentabout the than of influence of set a at tradition biographical a contestedlar“deployed or the particu actors moment in time reveals with their own aspirations. com discourses of Nüxuebao womenwith selected exemplary women from theChinese past, one of notable features of the state. This move led to the creation of acommu creates temporal continuity of women’s abilities and achievements that are beneficial for the - (1866 Xue Shaohui matters ne involved of the and both that the abilities aspirations partsselected ofpastuse and the them their contemporary support women’s to claims about zhuan buzhu (1812),” in Judge and Hu, 69.

Harriet T. Zurndorfer, “The I Joan Judge and Hu Ying, “Introduction,” in Judge and Hu, 4. dem. pilations of Biographies Women’s

Nevertheless, there wasNevertheless, there parallel a voice within reformist group the that wanted to keep Acknowledging Harriet T. Zurndorfer’s argument that purposes various argument that the Harriet the Acknowledging T.tradition Zurndorfer’s With its “rich interpretative possibilities,” women’s life stories, disseminated through the 1911) are among the most elaborate examples of the discursive move which move which most examples ofdiscursive elaborate the among1911) the are 494

. Lienü zhuan Lienü lishments, aspirations aspirations lishments, abilities.so,and Theydid may as speculated, be 493 Judge and Ying maintain that the ways in which various historical various maintain thatthe which ways in Ying and Judge

century crisiscentury find to reinstate whenneeded China awayto its

tradition and Wang Zhaoyuan’s (1763 , offered the means women for to link stories from thepast be explored, be 179 nity that related reform

495 I argue that Xue other argueand that I Shaohui wai wai and i –

1851)Production of Lienü s pheres. The articles of - oriented late - Qing Qing

CEU eTD Collection contemporary by her requests, raising of the examples Weiji, wife the of Huangong Fanji,and past Xue itsborders. Chinese historicizedwhich narrative, begins within her Shaohui legitimized ide forming collective represented as crucial for thepower of thestate. womenfrom thepastwhose abilities, gained through what Xue “cultured calls education”, were abilities crucialthat were for the good government ofstate, the thus creating a community wit highly appreciated. What Xue’s text addresses is thetemporal persistence of Chinese women’s wereand in, invested skills, Xue considered, developed, further as women’s which in desirable did theof not education that womenvalue examples with successful rulers ruling ofand periods ofdynasties the fiascos the history.bycontrasting so knowledgeChinese Shedoes ofelaborate issues fourth the ofj and third the the in was serialized the ofactions within and a collectivityas de that who were perceived as assets to lateof ofreform representative line one importance of historicity in traditional Chinese thin supreme civilization. and thatChinese roles women creating displaying pastthe and China’s assumedChinese in civilizational of supremacy, group a female reformersdiscard to want the not pote did Xue’s texts treated the state’s benefit asone of theconstitutive norms of thenewly In her essay relationbetween “On the and women’sgovernment education the mentionedConfirming by previously - points Huang Chun

ntity of women and positioned selected exemplary women selected exemplary from of ntity women the positioned and serves to be recognized as a legitimate participant in the discussions and wai sphere. sphere. - oriented argumentation, examplesraised of historical women Qing women’s ongoingof their project fixing new position

180

king and Xueking Shaohui, argumentation, a ournal, Xue shows her impressive and and impressive Xue showsher ournal, chieh chieh criticalabout the ntial of the ,” which which ,” h CEU eTD Collection that states ofthat the Chu Qiand powerful,Xue became continues: reasons twowomen ofthe were these behavior and character highly ethical thatthe concluding 497 496 from the tribes who “pacified Gao Liangxi, Guo,Qiao Lady wife praises of the Xue also people. ofandwestern regions the managedcountry theupheavalof resolve political the to Wuxun who travelled Han dynasty, the from LadyPing to about the we read envoys, China’s be to with which they helped govern the state. Hence, asan example that implies womenthat able are accomplishments, with the dynastic and states’ success orfall. education theabilities greatcultured in creation nourishmentand and women’s character, of for the necessityeducation of argues , and byrelating thezhuan women’s roleof indispensable selected examples “that we all know” from the thejournal, narration the author continues ofhistory. Chinese Xue discusses Significantly, the t government), NXB, no. 3. he wifehe of morality. Zhuangwangfor ofChu,their praised both the whom were

Xue Shaohui, NXB, no. 3. Xue Shaohui, “Nüjiao yu zhidao xiangguan shuo” (On the relation between women’s education and the have culturedhave education, [in such whobelieve claim]? can a therelated to goodgovernment ofstate. the If someone thesewomen not claimsdid that Yan… GongfuWenbo, the wife of Gonggong, LadyJing, Lady Juan, LadySu Lady Liu, Wu minister Ningqi. addition good these examples,motherIn to [also]the of have we w the state of Qi was preparing the attack. The maidservant of theminister Yanzi of the Qi, had saved the of state Lu because she deciphered the clues[secret messages] and thatsaw Chunqiuperiod, Lu the from of ofState minister the the motherWenzhong, ofThe Zang Xue highlights numerous historical women who were praised for their wisdom for skills, their and praised were who women historical numerous Xue highlights second ofwhich the issueofIn Xuin fourth Shaohui’s essay, waspublished part e the ith the help the Songs fromith ofBook poem a the Clearly, the realization of women’s aspirations, their plans, their speech [are]

181

Historical records , had helped of state a helped , had the recognize Qi to

( 497 Shi jiShi

) and) Xiang’s Liu Lie 496 After After nü nü CEU eTD Collection fight the enemy. I the fight wall to resist the enemy’s attack, for defeating the army of the enemy, and for bravely coming to the fr 503 502 501 500 499 498 pe the to simplicitypropriety and of promoteideals whotemperance, could the Empresses historians, exempl women possess awide range of skills that are beneficial for the state. Hence, Xue opts to present newly fromthat is, ofChineseregions, andEmpire. edges the cultured the civilized implicitlymarginalizingwomen theseexemplary women’scontinuing legacy, “pacified” from the maintaining the Empire. In d and building of the in project who involved exampleswomen were ofemphasizes the movement, that the writer, a prolific writer who represents one of the voices of women active in the reform andHainan” brought them influence of the under ru the Liang, the wife ofShiz Han the wife Liang, mentioned recorded from her memoryfour hundred lost essays (the essays were written by her father, but this was well as Cai who,Wenji as we afterread, being bought back from Xiongn the receiving thesereceiving modelmastering classics: by the features Empress Ming Dema was to able recite Zhou yi spending, and Shun Lieliang for observi donated their familymoney to the poor and recovered from lostthe public issues behind t mother wanted to hear that the unjust imprisonments were addressed, while Zheng Shanguo’s mother supervised his Tang period. As the readers were reminded, Juan Buyi inspected the prisons in “the subordinated provinces”, and his

ople. Mentioned Mentioned Madame Kong, the mother of Gu Chen, and Madame Liu, the wife of Liu Lica The examples raised were Madam Han, the mother of Zhu Xu; Miss Guan, the daughter of Xun Song; M The example was Xuan Wenjun from the Qin dynasty who instructed the offici Examples of women who were meant to prove Xue’s point that women can be historians included Ban Zhao, as She talks about the mother of Juan Buyi of the Han dynasty and about the mother of Zheng Shangguo of th Sui e - forming women’s group of the Reform period, Xue proceeds to examples Xueto proceeds forming show ofReformwhich that women’s group the period, ary ary women from thepast who possessed deep sense of justice; 503 After positioning women w in the text). text). inI the Xue also brings in the women who possess a deep appreciation of literary work and appreciation deep a of literary who women possess the bringsin Xue also 499 exemplary Empresses are Ming Dema, praised for her prudence, He Xideng, praised for her modest teachers dem. hescreen, to surebe that hisrulings were just.Xue Shaohui, NXB, no. 4.

Zhou guanyinyi dem. 500 hong; asas hong; Shathewell wife Lizhi, of A Lin.

andmilitary officers;

- newly the defines she so, oing . Idem. ng the rules of propriety. Every Empress was, in turn, represented as ho were complicit in the Empire volunteered for the country. I

182 501 women philanthropists and volunteers; and philanthropists women ling Theseling two dynasty. examples show dem.

These women were praised for erecting a u chieftain u bychieftain the Cao, Han official Cao

forming group of women as womenforming of group as - i were mentioned as women who building projectbuilding within the als in in als 498 women who acted as Zhou guan Zhou

, the text she , she the text ontlines to 502 , read read , adam adam

and and not not - CEU eTD Collection I who were praised for following the teachings of their predecessors and helping the Em as the models for her behavior. Xue also mentioned Tang Empress Zhang Sun and Song Empress Xuan Rengao, embroiderers andsilk 507 506 505 504 additionto reading booksabout history, understood Chun qiu ofvirtue the dynasties.” womenprevious the from Shang dynasty in battle, Taixi and of Zhou dynasty “who the continued the tradition of high of the the ruler for helping dynasty, praised Youtiao ofShang Southern tour, the onhis Emperor desire forfollow the to their praised Shun,Nüying,were Ehuangand of Empconcubines the eror introduces women helped their who husbands practiceto government:wise the two Imperial politicalcreated body - of socio women’s education, and t introduces more women from past the literary commentators; as act to talentsabilities and the skills, endowedwith literary being thus developedtheir have Renlan,NXB, no. 4. emulated, were be to modelswhich became essays, fem the these two women to the famous male writers from Bao Zhao and Wei Heng. The author also points our attention to as Xue writes, read books about history, she understood understood she history, about books read writes, Xue as are national treasures and their skil as her famous style of poetry writing and knowledgeable li announced her great talents. Xue goes on with to describe Shanguan Wan’er’s appreciation of good poetry, as well dem.

Liu also starts her argumentation with the lament over the lost glory of the period of the Three dynasties. See Liu The author mentions Su Ruolan, the wife of Dou Tao and Lu Mei, “pe theLiu Ladythe of Lady and raises Xuan examplesChen, and Xue wife Xie,wife Wang of Yi, compares the of Xue brings in the example

ale writers Ban Jieyu, Zuo MadameGuipin, Jieyu,Guifei, Palace Zuo Ban Xu the to whose Rui, and alerelated who were writers Hua In additionIn womento mentioned byXue Shaohui, signedthe essay byLiu Renlan

and and , , ci while Chu being especially knowledgeable thein interpretat

- picture 504

of Shanguan Wan’er, whose mother, while she was still in her womb, had a dream that hese women who were excellent writers ls deserve to be celebrated. I - weavers.

women joined other Chinese female exemplars in the newly politically active womenof Wuxu the period. The author to supportto 506

useful for good government.I Han shu 183

terary c terary the reformers’ the argument about the us Yi jingYi 507

and used dem. The text also introduces unnamededucated Thetext ommentaries. I

and and Lienü tu (Illustrations ofExemplary Wome culiar girlfrom Donghai,” whose works Lun yu Lun ion of 505 , while Empress Shun Lieliang, in, ShunLieliang, while Empress dem. dem. Zhou guang Zhou aswell as

perors in their good ruling. ; Empress He Xiding, the exquisite exquisite the efulness of n) n) -

CEU eTD Collection remains and to receive the title the the of tothe general;remains receive Xu, wife of Lady and the founding years of the Qing dynasty entered the fight to revenge her father, managing to return her father’s after herself killed and who herbattlefield, husbandwas murdered; Shen Yunying,the wife of Gu Wance, whoin county in Longdong, dying soon afterward; Lady Liu, the wife of Zhou Zhongwu, who followed her husband to the army of her husband after he was murdered in the battle for saving the Emperor, and who recaptured Xi Zhou robbers who eventually left their region; Lady Zhan, the wife of Li Qi, who took the commandeering place of the praised for organizing a community whose members built a sheltered space when their town was attacked by the after his death, who lived modestly with her son during the Songwas and dynasty, county, Ninghua Ningzhou, in when Huanglongfu was attacked, making the rebels retreat; Lady Yan, the widow of Mr. Ceng who did not marry feared even by the high of 1140 fought against Jin army and won; the princess of Ping Yang who forced the rebels to back up and was protect 510 509 508 enemiesto repel end rebellions.local and to helped armyand rulers as their or succeeded helped or husbands fathers intruders, commanders, this article is a rather long list of historical examples of women who repelled won battles, the defending for communities.the and sentences, their Except introductory concluding devotedly the involvement. the arguments about women’swomen expertise beyond support aspirations and cultural examples of women skillful in martial arts whose inclusion into the newly allchant Qiaochu who “could women.” of Jiangnan poem “Tao the allrecite yao,” jing Shi whofrom “could period fromwomen Xiqi the Leizhou who was in the period of Five dynasties pronounced commander managed to free her husband when he was seized by Shi Jilong and surrounded by numerous people; Lady Li from defend Qiping county town; the wife of Liu Xia, the daughter of Shao Xu, had come to rescue them, lead her familymembers and other women, and helped her husband Zheng Baoying to thwith disputes resolved and territories to traveled the Western asand Lady a who envoy Feng diplomatic the as Khitan territory; in general acted Qi Wang Qian who served as a commander; Lady Hou fromWeizhou, Lady Tang from Huazhou, and Lady Wang from who was recruited by Wang Qian to serve asminister of war during the reign of the Zhou dynasty; the daughter of so famous that the readers did not need to be reminded of her martial arts skil not read even a brief introduction, which may be interpreted as a sign of the author’s perception that Hua Mulan was no. 6. military about NXB, “Sui affairs), shi lun Sui’s discussion (Ms. Sui Nianqu, bing” neglected.” culture, butin are [these abilities] years the last the pityin thousand asmi two It well. great that a is affairs litary while the main point of the text gets explicated at the end: “[We can see] that Chinese women can excel not only in

ngzhou who were praised by the Emperor for their sacrifice at the battlefield; Bai Jingya from Chengzhou who The list of historical exemplars includes exemplars listThe Mula Hua of historical inaffairs, military are of were there womenwho outstanding examples many the that point with starts text The I dem. ed the people from the loathing of the leaving government of the Southern Han; Lady Liang who in the year

The The text 509 Significantly, the author,justlike praisesXue Shaohui, womenrole for their in entitled - ranked military of ranked e Wusun people; Lady Xi who, when the enemy surrounded their town and no army

“ Ms. Sui’s discussion about military a

ficers; Shalizhi, the wife of Alin, who participated and directed battles and directed participated who Alin, of wife the Shalizhi, ficers; n (as the only woman mentioned in the text about whom we do 184 510 This long list of celebrated women from listwomen long ofthe This celebrated 508

Xu Xiangyi, fought against the enemy and died - in ls)Lady Kong,the mother of GuChen - chief and who ensured the peace and

who, summoning few cavalrymen, ffairs” adds more historical - forming group of forming of group

, and CEU eTD Collection example of a woman who was (posthumously) would be enough to send a person in red clothes on a white horse, and they would run away. Lady Wu was one more western Hengzhou, and who, even though she died in the battle, was such a great fear for the minorities, that it in the died battle, army the lead the minority against rebel leader managedHuang Chao, expel to the rebels from called Army of the Lady [Niang zi jun]conquered Changan; and on Lady Wu from Yuwan, who, after her husband their property to summon the army and help her father win the war against explanations; on the Tang Princess, the daughter of Li Yuan, who married Chai Shao, with whom she sold off all “persuade and console” the mirebelled awarded the symbols of the governmental officials – role in endin worshiped by people for more than a thousand years, who was admired by both the Emperor and Empress for her supplies went out; on Lady Xi from Gaoliang, the wife of Ping Bao, who had templeerected in her honor and was inhabitants to be persistent in the town’s defense, being the first one to eat weeds and rats surrounded by the Wutu people (wutuyi), who were eventually defeated after she encouraged the soldiers and sick electedto father towho was replace her and expedition against Shen Chong whom she managed to defeat; on Li Xiu, the daughter of provincial governor Li Yi, promoted after she spent the entire family property to organize and lead her husband Zhang Mao’s army in punitive that he appointed Lady Huan Hua to administer Gao Liang; on Lady Lu, whose late husband’s official title got impressed the King Zhao Tuo during their discussions on current political affairs and military strategies so deeply brief narratives on Lady Huan Hua from Gaozhou who defended the border from the minority trib who and es, in the battle, inspiring the Emperor to award the inherited official title to her second son Yongnian. alsoWe read Chinese past imply women arenot suitable discussto the affairs of thest from thepastand explicitly introduces them assupporting her argument against the claim that interest and involvement in thestate affairs, but the author this time examples raises of women Qing China. will be beneficial for the endangered state, precisely in the way that may be of assistance to late should be banned to import French [clothing] goods f [clothing] import to French goods banned be should words]: “France despicable, is [and] wenot use shouldFrench clothes materials.and It of Spainhelp France to the One in war. woman Hotel (Ba in womengathered Bieneibi thousand who participate in battles the Spain. against And, in New were York,there more than two to and brigade, to Cuba militia requested goto formed themselves, a women organized the present situation, [at a] recent war between Ame Spain. and AboutsixtyAmericanrica [And] is hesitation. lookendangered, herselfdynasty bounded without at had and please, the Zhou that wasworried who wasalsowidow a There danger. may ofin Lu State be the in invest need further this messagethe to to about ofThe article Lu Cuiadds county of Qishi during the Warring Period ofduring thecounty Qishi States who cried affairs. [But] please look at the examples fromthe ancient past: there was awoman in the is thought that,becauseweUnfortunately, it arewe women,cannot the discuss state g the rebellion of Wang Zhong, pacified the entire Lingnan (Guangdong) area, and who, after she was

to the reader to the

that women and their inclusion wai the their in that women and norities, who were all willing to surrender after they after Lady all who to heard were Xi’s surrender willing norities,

awarded the honorin

the seal, her office and bureaucrats and office her seal,the supervise the town’s army and government when they got 185 ate. The text reads: g title. I g addressed the audience [with these rnaby Hotel [?]) to discuss secret dem.

the Sui dynasty, whose own army was was army own whose dynasty, Sui the or two years!” More than two than two More twoyears!” or

loudly whenloudly heard that she

– sphere were, are, and

was sent by her ruler to when the town’s grains women’s women’s -

CEU eTD Collection participants inthe be - to continue recognized legitimate socio should as forgr a identity continuous common and of create sense to a also novelty the of demandsin their acceptableway an - 511 texts presentWestern and potentially equal Chinese and Western What isfuture. observable thesein pastby smoothChinese proposed changes making the connection Chinese a past,between fix their place within the into the newly s past of display China’s glory, and so,by doing considered the inclusion of predecessors their texts and their authors continued to position selected historical womenas creators, bearers and of opinions reformers whothe criticizedChinese “traditional” womenFurthermore, argue. these we see, the understanding ofwas what beneficial for thestate was considerably wider than the understand the benefit of thestate as measurea of broader historical importance. Nevertheless, as, types of exemplary women from Chinese the past, similarly to their male contemporaries, did oftexts Theauthors ofstate. the power the the and actualizations, their and itsabilities resulting between emphasizedinterrelation properwomen’s an education, that

Lu Cui, “Nüzi aiguo shuo” (On women’s patriotism), NXB, no. 5, August 27, 1898. 27, 5, August no. NXB, patriotism), women’s (On shuo” aiguo “Nüzi Cui, Lu

is a discursive fascinatingly effective move allowed which the authors not only to introduce love theirlove women country[just] likethe from West! the the governmentabout ofstate! the is [It impossible that] women from East do not the womenthousand cheerfully agreed. [You that] see women have the do ambition to think As theexcerp These sections reveal voices within the forming collectivity of reform - forming ofdemarcate into asset endeavors an collectivity be their women and to wai spherewai of late- t fromt Cui’s Lu texts implies, the examples of selected women from the wai sphere ofwai - late

Qing China. Qing China. 186

by arguing that is not a novelty at all, but political actors by the power- 511

oup of women who were and and were who women oup of

which celebrate certain - oriented women owning CEU eTD Collection concern theconcern in fol women their representing themselves withQingdynasty, aligned production the politically 5.3.1. reform female rulers into the socio called, “frivolous” Chinese women. will I first discuss the strategic inclusion of the Manchu “us” “them” and between and about brought indiscoursewas used on, critical maywhat be the same time, as Iwill show, the discursive treatment of proper education as a crucial distinction - forming socio the in offemaleinclusion Manchu rulers of andstrategic Dynasty” the theand creation employeddiscourseenabled Qing on“Our the dynasty” employment: and its ProperRuling Qing education “Our women of 5.3. education and proper its employment. norm- newly the of the reform messages requirements and of womancontested the who conveyed offoreign of figure the the jo urnal interrelated the geo

- The following chapter will deal in more detail with the ways in which the texts of the Nüxue bao Proper the Court Courting oriented voices male the voices to oriented -

oriented contributors. contributors. theoriented In followingwill tur I section

education aseducation constitutive a identitynorm ofwomen collective Chinese the of lowing section of this chapter.lowing of section this - forming socio contains a number of articles which reveal that the reformers involved in its - political - political category of Chinese women, while the supportofpolitical of the certain category while women, Chinese political collectivity of late nei nei - generated discourse on “frivolous woman” will be my be will on“frivolouswoman”generated discourse and and wai wai 187

of the Chinese Empire through the introduction introduction through Empire the of Chinese the . At woman group At political . of Chinese - Qing women, that is,the to issueof that Qing women, n to an constitutive an n to additional - CEU eTD Collection and the “goodpracticeof “our” which dynasty the endorsedConfucianand way”in rituals. tothrone, the ascension practicedfrom that Qingdynasty its the praiseworthy governance way of infifthpublished the of issue the journal, contains brief a but important remark on the 513 512 Not like the forbookis all. having beneficial curriculum bookinschool’s would be the this bookwasonly the found that like of help their the with curriculum, even the but, in the greatest colle quanshu EmpressSiku (Thein the included Dowager,and Imperial Collection of Four Treasures), 1656, by in Shunzhi QingEmperor dictated by bright” “intelligentand compiledthe edited and emphasized, conspicuously toQingofficials the the as notes classicsforand, women neo/Confucian reformers anticipated that girls enrolled in the schools would be instructed in “western learning”, reformers the and ruling dynasty proposedwas the curriculum for Nüx endorsedneo/Confucianproperly as principles foundationa for the strategic ofcommonality the followers. Youwei his and women of thesupport Empress group a DowagerCixi, aroundof gathered Yuanshan reformers Jing and asking for in the thatis, Court, andthe addressing praising thatin here emphasize to important oriented reformist endeavors as resulting Official Liu), NXB, no. 5. [Jing Yuanshan Wu, 76, 99 n106. - M the their reformersOne loyalty wayarticulate which to Court, used the and highlight to oriented e oriented emorandums Neize yan et. al ction of books endorsed by the of bythe Qing Dynasty. ction endorsed books

nterprises significantlydepartednterprises directed from reformist plans byKang the ], “ ],

Nüxue tang

yi to Liu Kunyi Liu to

(Annotations to the Inner the to (Annotations 512

The The available in the Imperial library. As

bing Nanyang dachen Liu gao”(Amemorandum of the memorandum

repeatedly explained that womenrepeatedly explained that to wanted this include text

from a desire to help empower the dynasty. It It is dynasty. empower the help from to desire a 188

and Kunyi, Liu byJing to written Yuanshan and Principles [of the Record of Ritual]), the book - mindedmale relatives and friends,

it wasexplained, include to it .Hence, tang ue the Girls’ School School Girls’ 513

to the they they CEU eTD Collection 515 514 accidentally, theopening article of th employment. and education its Not discourse through onproper the womenManchu wascreated 5.3.2. Empress, Empress Dowager, youmin (vagabonds) andtufan (indigenous primitives) for appealed supportand forming and group, involvement reformist causes. the in women’s education: female rulers of theQing dynasty were addressed asmembers of anewly membersthe ofruling an the Manchu dynasty, addi importance of ancestors’ recovering “our learning,” especially oftext the compiled by edited and be advantageous for the success of the Emperor’s reforms. and wouldnot audience broader reacha it ofwouldnot readers thelibrary, Imperial the to only available bookremains if the added, was as and, go,” to not dark, knowingwhere the in “walking Girls’ School School Girls’

I [Jing Yuanshan d em.

ancestors. of Imperial certainly]the actions [ou with intention [Therefore, our are r] accordance in books edited educationand fortwohundred ancestors women’s fifty years ago. foresaw the establishment of theeducational system for women and ourgirls, Imperial established, itis in accord with the institutions set up by our ancesto standable to upagainst the intruders.Even women’s though education is newly- empowered and were countrywouldbe the admonitions studied, be to If these ancestors. studymeticulously inst the do not people nowadays seems[It that] The note A sense ofA commonality sense community and between reform byemphasizing the supportofCourt the thegain reformers’effortsto Besides to the Official toNXB, 6. no. the Official Liu), et. al also 515 ], “ ],

explains: Nüxue tang

dier ci bing Nanyang dachen Liu gao” (Thesecond memorandum ofthe e first issue of the journal was an elaborate praise of the

189 tional wasstrategy employed promote to 514

- oriented women the and rulingoriented ructions of ructions [our] rs…As if they

CEU eTD Collection See “Nüzhu shihao” (Indulgences of the very smart move because, when women learn how to hunt, they learn how to use the guns and defend themselves. hun spendwomen their free time, it was reported that genteel women in Japan are becoming especially interestedin hobby into a state benefit. According to the news that informs the readers about various ways in which foreign royal 518 517 516 Wei, the wife ofmandarin a fromGuilin. The letter was also reproduced in the first issue of the within the emerging of collective Chinese women is a letter sent bysixty four yearsold Lady establishment ofwomen’sShanghai. in the school wellas an observation thatthe neighboring countries’ admire respect and China becauseof the Japanese Empress and her supe the around well world claims all Thearticle that ofjournal. the issue ofinaugurating article the the in opening present also is chapter, following my focuse of th be will ofimaginary,which internationalization the admirable moral character havingis a good influence on the ladies of thePalace. that the Empress is treating the Empress Dowager with the sincere filial obedience, and that her marital ofon the union the Emperorvirtuous, the with intelligent, knowle and when Empressdeciding byclaimingthatthe Dowagermadechoice dynasty of ruling good a the figures strategicallyd an linkedtwopowerfulfemale The unsigned author(s) respectful. virtuous shouldEmpress admired be by and the nobles out and commoners, in sheof is because China, XiaoEmpress DingJing (1868 China. The choice to disseminate her portrait complies with the opinion of of opinion Kang with the complies portrait her disseminate choice The to China. the Emperor until 1912 when she signed abdication which ended two thousand years of the monarchical system of Empress Dowager Longyu and adopted the Em chosen her for Guangxu’s first wife. After the death of the Emperor in 1908, Jingfen received the title of the “ Sullivan, R. Lawrence see suggestion, OnKang’s trust. popular tofoster measure as a possible population and disseminating the copies of reform decrees, perceived the distribution of the Emperor’s picture to the wider I ntellectual and Political Controversies over Authority in China: China: in 1898 Authority over Political Controversies and ntellectual

I “Huanghou ci rong xu” (The portrait of the Empress), NXB, no. 1. The Empress’s name onbirth was Yehonala Jingfen. She was a cousin of the Empress Dowager Cixi who had ting, and that the Empress advised that women learn more about hunting. According to the author, this was a dem.

Another exampleAnother ofneo posits textwhich a /Confucian educated Manchu female rulers Japanese Empress was also mentioned as an example an a as mentioned Empress wasdecision also wise Japanese of - educated Empress promotes women’s learning. The example of the

rvision of the Japanese girl’s ofJapanese rvision the women’s and education wasraised, -

1913). royalwomen), NXB, no. 6. peror Xuantong (Puyi). She ruledChina together withthefather of 516 The texts which Thetexts joinedthe portrait explained thatthe 190 518

– 1922,” in Hershock and Ames, Ames, and 175. in Hershock 1922,”

Youwei who,along with publishing - making

that transforms women’s dgeable Empress,

517 The The CEU eTD Collection 520 519 the Empress Dowager’s political abilities andconcludes that: edufor the launching cation used of women, Lady Wei turns from a rather detailed narrative on haspowerEmperor the establish to educationalsystem,ancestors’ bethe “our learning” should introduce to the used Qingdynasty theis that,since and to Manchu request loyalty respect pursuing morals rigorously ofEmpress.” the (tianxia), the “calmed down disaster,a great revived the ancestors’ endeavors, created peace in thecountry reality, she adjusted the administration, - open Cixi officials and created the order [in the] dynasty.” According to Madame Wei, Empress Dowager calm turning Qingdynasty, not ha a the sober, Dowager of and withcontinues description a ofEmpress the DowagerCixi as modela “Our ruler: Holly Empress shewisdom which ruledChina during with the political turmoilof the times. She history. argued that it was the education that receivedCixi her in youth that gave inte “her mother’s house,” and she decided to share her impressions about Empress Dowager’s wasin when Cixi Dowager ofEmpress the neighbor a Wei wasreportedly projects. Lady their for the Qing Court’ssupport howreformersinduce it important wasforto the revealing journal,

I “Wei Gongrenshu” (Letter fromLady Wei),NXB, no. 1 dem. lligence, diligence, and admirable ruling abilities with the audience of with and abilities thelligence, ruling diligence, admirable audience Nüxuebao.

Similarly to the afore MadameWei recollected that Cixi was educated in her home in Confucian classics and mindedly accepted others’ suggestions, acknowledging their opinions and observing and their others’ observing suggestions,opinions mindedly acknowledging accepted

- mentioned note ofmentioned note Ji

launched Tongzhi restoration, and she had, from 1861 on, from had, she and 1861on, restoration, launched Tongzhi 191

ng Yuanshan in which the expression of expression of the which in ng Yuanshan 520

ir, eliminated the [evil] high 519

LadyWei birth to the CEU eTD Collection 523 522 521 the dichotomies. barbarity/savagery and “ collective identity. Nonetheless, an important distinction was worded in terms of culture/civility wome Chinese amonghierarchies legitimate as ofgroup women- recognized socio group a positing requests, for their ofcourt the support the reformersgain to by the move strategic a as read may be Qingregime the mind key in had rolein Empire. Cixi’s the Hence, the texts of Nüxuebao Dowager’s character and her admirable ruling skills and accomplishm Gender in Late Qing China’s Global Context.” See Karl and Zarrow, 2 translating

“The call for establishing women’s school in China,” NXB, no. 1. I Because couldBecause I thenot find term tufan interrelation of gender, civility/barbarity and the state. dem.

country if she hasn’t had hasn’t country if she learning.[such a] profound achievements finding big waythe Dowager]in to Empress such the have strengthen sent indeed toThe Heaven Goddess throne a our blessand us! to protect But,could [the ( as v make of kind life]indolent up themas [This customs.household, tied bythe Alas! and allowed to become [Womenoff wise. cut are] from imprisoned in education, the the mindand devastated. ears covered, are s Their eyes are their are blinded, and are they not bodies of education…Women’s lack the be only [the problem] would sages. Ifancient passed down education the receive from to the knowledge, to[thetrue] gain chance the distant w [This[become] is] [had remain]ignorant. parents to if the as sons with and intimate women and wise, men become] to [allowed humans.Yet, are men are women Both and There are no articles in Empress about narrative the flattering a in the of importance Stressing education tufan tufan agabonds ( ).

as “indigenous primitives” I follow Rebecca Karl and her translation in “‘Slavery’, Citizenship, and 523 ith Fordaughters. thousands of years,in many so women families, have didn’t If two hundred million of its people millionofvagabonds If twohundred its are primitives, and is it )youmin and as incorrigibly obstinate as the indigenous primitives

Nüxue bao n that influenced dynamicsn that the offorming ofwomen’s the the

of Manchu women within the boundaries offorming the the boundaries within women of Manchu The call for establishing women’s school in China for in women’s school The call establishing as an entry in any of the dictionaries I had a chance to consult, in which directly address the ethnic differentiations and 192 political actors inthe wai

522 31. 521 The text reads: The text

ents, Lady Wei certainly domain. which offer tributes to tributesto offer which

” implies CEU eTD Collection 525 524 persuade themale and female audience they that have theauthority and cultural competence to exclusions 5.4. Who notwhatwe are and wedon’tTextualand actual to want be: self The assumed characteristics, aspirations and behaviors of women werethat excluded from the collectivity oflate Westerners. Xu recoverto female was education accentuatedby employing the trope faceof losing in front of villageQianxi strategically playedagain onin the onthe article women’s school that

Xu Fu,Xu NXB, No. 2. “The call for establishing women’s school in China,” NXB, no. 1. - defined emerging collectivity o [who barbarians. like]and vagabonds are horrif China in not who person is notable a there disappear...Is for to countrynot the possible At the historical momentAt the when women in the involved reformmovement to needed aspiresproce chapter the demonstrate, As this to [ of education lack why]is the us reason westerners consider be to primitivesindigenous sages flourish? If the education is not flourishing, the people will remain ignorant… [The does not situation change, how can the tradition of education inherited f with] about If [thesituation the women? talk need] a to [isthere educated, not are majority Nowadays the illiterate,of millions men [and twohundred are Chinese if] men The anxiety of theeducated elite audience over being perceived as youmin ]! tufan

ied with the decline of [thepower of our] caused country by[having] people the , established in his homefor thefemale members of hisfamily. This time theneed 525 writes:

Qing simultaneous women processes involved of inclusions and exclusions.

f women, will be the focusf the women,be my ofnext thesis. will section the 193 524

ss ofss of defining the borders the Chen Buchu,man a from rom our ancient rom ancient our and and tufan was was

CEU eTD Collection recognition. socio intheir of invested that washeavily group part a women’s considered be encouraged and/or initiated this situation, womenthe w Chinese to men sharp thatallowed, criticismpointed society changed the and be with who to need pr women’s vulgar, unrefined beauty and beautification; excessive consumerism; and a lack of for support the reformist requests. Theydoso byknitting together commonthree themes: ma as women, and, of Nüxuebao,willshow,as I texts humiliations. Some the overemphasize of the weaknesses of considersthat “traditional” Chinese women’s alleged deficiencies to be responsible for China’s - highly for women’s self aspirations that the authors did women reveals is the criticism pointed to assumed female dispositions, features, behaviors and media site with a unique role in the creation of asocio reform abilities and aspirations were represented as a long discard the legacy of accomplishments of historical Chinese women. Instead, diverse women’s Nüxue to bao group a of contributors China, and of to women forspeak the oper education.oper - educated and able Chinese women Even though some oftexts, these as willshow, I interrelate thenarratives about women Hence, oriented women wanted to sustain, enrich further and sustain, to wanted women oriented

, the medium that claimed to be a historically unprecedented platform mediumhistorically a be Nüxue bao,the thatclaimed to

- representation, at the same time testifies to the admirable competence of the y be suggested, reiterate male reiterate suggested, y be not associatedwith. not be to want and 194

contributes to the creation of a modernist view view modernist creationcontributes of the a to - - generated criticismmeans asaenhancing of existing and admired tradition that late ith depreciatedith characteristics were not to - politically active group active politically of Chinese

, as a Nüxuebao, what Yet, develop. did not wa not did political - Qing Qing nt to nt to CEU eTD Collection Wah Man, “ Wah color, the shape of the limbs and the body, the way that the body is ador meanstoday color, in Classicalwhereas Chinesethe character to also markersreferred the femininity:of skin the 527 526 beautiful woman was tall, pretty her face was dignified and sedated, her skin clear Thus, women’sin of beauty. wethe know that period Chunqiu Songs The Bookof a Qiang stories aboutthe beautifulwomen. Pre standards: beauty following woman embody the should desirable forA women. beauty the basic created criteria Daois and Confucian the female about beauty, Wah uncovers,when talking Kit Man tofrom believed emanate but nature, heart. ofthe visual is a women. beauty Female consumers unproductive readers and beauties,frivolous vulgar Women as exclusions: Textual 5.4.1. Zeglin Brand (Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 2000), 170. EvaKit Wah Manexplains, se

I Chinese word for heart dem.

gentle behaviors. When comes it to historical accounts, the material on women’s beauty is mostly related to seashell exposing eyebrows; clear and sentimental eyes; charming smiles; tall and straight nose; red lips hairpin;- thick withbluish and stylish dark thickhair and long ears; forehead; colorful andtightsilk underwear; cleanslender under smooth small;slim softskin young; drooping shoulders; white fleshly; bones; but Classical Chinese texts use theexpression re re the epitomesbuthistoricaldo of records the talkaboutphysical beauty, not their look. Female Bodily Aesthetics, Politics, and Beauty Ideals Femaleof inFeminine Politics, inChina,” Bodily Aesthetics,

( Shi jing) Shi xin xin 527 - connotes the hearthconnotes white and small teeth; relax

(color) is formed w

and and

The Songs of of The Songs Chu (Chu ci) - Qin dynasty women knownand (also Xi Shi Mao Xizi) as - mind, the cognition that does not separate feelings and reason. As qi in itsqi manifests thefeeling heart hen 195 (woman’s color) to address beauty to of the color) (woman’s nü se ed and elegant bodily gestures; and finally, finally, gestures;and ed bodily elegant and fingers; long neck; broad and white ned, female gentleness, voice, scent. Eva Kit EvaKit scent. femalevoice, ned, gentleness,

present the physical descriptions of thedescriptions physical present

period (777 – (777 period (vital force, energy). energy). force, (vital Beauty Matters Beauty - 476 b.c.) a a b.c.) 476 526 white and and white As Eva Eva As , ed. Peg Peg ed. , t texts black Se

CEU eTD Collection 531 530 529 528 accounts moral the ofare that reveal tension with beauty howreconcile to beauty” beauty.” from “outer historical and “inner is, memory,That of periods there earliest the that from the relative to political and socio narrating the of history beauty in that China, if we observe is, the changing ideals of beauty relateMencius beauty to moral virtue. inner over “the beauty of woman’s as a were onwhichserved interventions madeChinesebase and variations history. throughout and sedate, and soft and delicate – – of beauty These twoideals theircounterparts. noble but like appreciated not present delicate necks, gentle, flexible and delicate bodies with a notable softness. They were always vigorous, enthusiastic, and impulsive. These women and were described as having small waists women ethics,bold, of chambers.these Positionedsexual, household’s were inner outside the Thecourtesans). the sorcerers, femalemusicians, courtesans, and goddesses (who were theincarnations of the a ‘fair maiden’ ). This (shunü descrip addition, womensolemnly, beandIn tender. to act reserved like beautiful be placid to to needed stresses “naturalstresses ph

Liu, 9. Liu, Fora brief overview of Daoistattitudes on beauty, seeMan, 171 Ibid., 5 Jucai, Liu In contrast toDaoistIn the teachings that explicitly and address value sexual connotations Chuintroduce to of ,however, us The Songs one additionalkind of the beauty: beauty of

–

7. shi Xuanmei

period of the Three dynasty Xia, Shang Zhou and there is an issueof how relate to ysicality,” teaching Confucian accentuates control behavior or "inner beauty." se beauties were the antipode to the serene images ofthenoble women of the (A history of selecting the beauties) (Shanghai: Shanghai wenyi chubanshe, 1997), 5.

- cultural power of a particular philosophical cannon, then cannon, we see philosophical cultural particular a of power

beauty” of a woman, the Confucian teachings in in Confucian teachings of woman, a beauty” the rototypes of Chinese beauty, and they beauty, ofthey and Chinese twoprototypes the be came to tion came to be the orthodox came the be ofbeauty. tion to standard Chinese 530 If we follow Liu Jucai’s more historicized way of 196 –

175. The author concludes that while Daoism sexualized beauty.

Analects Analects dignified dignified 531

528 and and 529

CEU eTD Collection 535 534 533 532 She claims that: abilities consistently” becomemuch clearer. virtue being historically placed on a “pedestal virtues,” that“italldependsunderstand onthe possessor’s strong then for reasons female willwords, beautythe engenders and waysthat beauty if exploited.other we be leads In that Hence,pleasures. beauty is not inherently evil,but it is the possession of virtue makesbeauty men lose properfocus in their becauselives ofoverindulgence the in sensual ” is constitutive situation upon a of beauty. “the ofi.e. forpower agency, capacity making hence authoritative,and an transformative, impact character. and The traits revealedstrength disposition, through of andis the explains, female it sites of revealing and cultivating their virtue. prominent aspect of human a being,women’s with disposition, character and being behavior NXB, no. 7. no. NXB,

Qiu Yufang, “Lun nüxue tang yu nanxue tang bing zhong” (On equal importance of the girls’ and boys’ schools), schools), boys’ and the of girls’ importance equal (On zhong” bing tang yu nanxue tang “Lun nüxue Yufang, Qiu Ibid., 110. 108. 107, Ibid., RobinR. Wang, 94, 95. work. [None themselves. herself,about of they onmen’s andare them] useless support rely can good compose feeling they poemsessays, and of culture, understanding slight a have are they just preparing meals. Theyare confined their in houses and illiterate. T onmakeup, grow older, young, putting when are upand they [just] are dressing they they The As RobinWang R. explains, Chinese intellectual tradition posits virtue (de of itspossessors thatmakes beauty and beautification banal in the textof QiuYufang.

ears andears eyes ofwomen covered are in China [and] their bodies are restrained. When 535

534 Itis precisely the overall lack ofmoral and intellectual 533 But, as Wang out, virtue, joined with if But,as not points 532 197 y is a manifestation of inner virtue, Wang virtue, of manifestation Beaut a inner y is

to be be to byadmired, lived and championed,

or the lack of it ) as themost ) hose who CEU eTD Collection 536 disobedience overall and aboutof disrespect the readers authority sexuality,and reminding the for: abilities, the text continues with a detailed e same the thatwomen menhave notesbeginningofarticle and the author at the though and hand one ignorance the and lack of self

Liu Renlan, NXB, no. 4 no. NXB, Renlan, Liu

The text transmits amessage about the debilitating consequences of female beautification womengifted adopt to the uncivilized customs ( talent. To advocate this idea is to think that all women are the same [and this will why] literatiis the came the upto idea thatit is a good fortune have to a woman a without Women ar they live in the lascivious atmosphere in which the prostitutes live. It’s a pity, isn’t it? became care thatthey of[they care donot themselves men, that don’t that] playthings the their talents and abi may are limit nospiritswho wisdom, there and thatmay women’s world this confine nothing is in women]…There outstandingthesetwogreat women [like is ofmillions who difficultfind to is tens generationsandof in future household. one But it forthe outstanding as be Wenji,women Daoyun Xie and thatwould would Cai for helpful be are notthey that aware they fallen have down to lasciviousthe of level the prostitutes. If t like dynasty, Jin the Zhen from ZhuTheyand Shuzhen. that think theythe have talents likeMadam wife of the Chen, Liu lyrics theand seductive statements and ofthe feelings, study poetry style of Qingzhao Li of thehigher classes [just] about care th ( understandprinciples andthe don’t they even character single recognize one Theydon’t other. each friendly areto not married they brothers to are [and] they if parents, they maltreat their son buttocks.their Nowadays, women onseductive put and wiggle waists their swing hairbun.countrysidethey whenwalk women the black In doesn’t have acharming smile, who doesn’t wear make Ingold… two hundred millionChinese women, there is evennot a one single who Women expensive wear dresses, and their hair needles are asexpensive as apiece of l wear faces, their [they]playthings, powder yearspeople knowthousand education don’t is. women’s what Women became The tradition education of been had women’s discontinued, [and] for already two We read more details about most direct relation between sexualiz e not educated, not e [and that the reasonis why]feware good there women. [That

lities, but lities, but reasonwhy the women uneducated remain is that they

- he famous poetess Xie Daoyun from the Eastern Jin, Jin, and Eastern Daoyunthe Xie from famoushe poetess in - laws, they mak - xplanation of the evils that women toare be blamed awareness on the other in 198 e wind,moon,e flowers, and they grass write ipstick, pierce their ears, bind their feet. yeman zhi su

e brotherse over fight the inheritance, makeup donot and respect husband’s - up who and doesn’t wear jeta ) . 536 LiuRenlan’s essay.

ed beautification on beautification ed the li ). Women Even Even lead]

of of - CEU eTD Collection 537 bad for their notorious andmorals, thatthe school must strict enforce moral order in rules, to also of Theregulations withchastity students. the school contrasted from expected prospective the the harmful atmosphere of excess and extravagance. shouldthey not compete in who has more beautiful make andspirit physical strength), wasit should emphasized thatstudents stopfootbinding with and sincerely and honestly, study,loving to respectingteacher’s instructions, keeping up good the promoting the desirable practices and personal characteristics ( result of the reformers’ efforts to influence the character and deeds of its students. In addition to and the statements offeelings.” th unappreciated behaviors and aspiration, are addressed in terms ofintellectual abilities, since, as their atwiggle buttocks”),the while, same time,upper the bao ofgroup to women be who were reformed. “Womencountryside” described the in are Nüxue in furtherthe division textreveals within the correct way. Moreover, the in not least at educated, be These coquettish poetesses, “somewhat cultured” elite women l are ofwith bao remarks numerous cohort Nüxue in its criticism of educated womenof late bycontemporaryjoinsthe partofarticle and undignifiedsecond the protocols women. rules The

e text conveys,e text “they aboutcare the wind,moon, grass and flowers; they write seductive lyrics

“ Provisional Regulations, Provisional speci in termsin of sexualized ph their In In accordance with this of line criticism, beautification was supervised in practice asa fied that the women of Shanghai, and especially the women in foreign concessions, are thefied theespecially and concessions, women that ofwomen foreign Shanghai, in ”

NXB, no. 5. no. NXB,

ysicality and corporality (i.e. “they swing their waists and 199 537 At thesame time, sexualized beauty was - up, because this would increase the - class women, ofregardless their i.e. observing theobserving i.e. iterate but not considered to considered not but iterate li , speaking - Qing. Qing. CEU eTD Collection 541 540 539 538 bound accept with [But] to students unboundfeet. and temporarydecision both a after brought tha to others it.” abandon the [and], since it ais widespread practice, wise and cultured people must do the effort to persuade announced in theprovisional school’s announce theMayi stricter treatment offootbinding the thein school. As Lai and opening signed by ShenHeqin onits the ofschool regulations I’ve indicated, the as and, sightthe men,please of footbinding. T is e issues nin of had I thejournalthat achance to consult there no are essays whose main concern cluesabout women’soffer understandingsof important its meanings. Unfortunately,in Nüxue tang western gaze. Most of women who of modernization post iconoclastic modern China, accomplishment, racial/ethnic and civilizational hierarchies, gender regimes ofpre- politically charged issue which intersects the be to thein able to influencesof virtue bad environment. about order learn resist their the regulation majorasschool’s damage.Therefore, the emphasizesprevent th affiliated to the Society for Women’s Learning on its opening), NXB, no. 9. “Regulations onthe school’s opening.”

WangChunlin, “Nan nü pingdenglun” (A discussion of “Provisional Regulations,” NXB, no. 2. no. NXB, Regulations,” “Provisional KangTongwei, NXB, no. 7. [Lai Mayi and Shen Heqing], “ t] the school has just established,been [and since]old the waysdid vanish, not [the school] As I’ve already discussed in the third chapter of my thesis, footbinding hashighly a footbinding been of thirdmy the thesis, chapter in discussed already As I’ve and and he essays briefly address footbinding customas asocial performed women by to Nüxue bao 539 541

orasa result of superstitions and a la This rule of the school continues explanation that continues the with rule ofschool “[Given This the so their perspective so boundfeet, their had on the practice would certainly

Nü xuehui shushu

participated in the establishment and operation of Nüxuehui regulations, “footbindingregulations, is bad a habit ofwomen, Chinese 200 kaiguan zhangcheng” (Regulations for the Girls’ School

equality between men and women), NXB, no. 5. discourses disciplinediscourses on female beauty, and - - New Culture movement perio ck of knowledge about ofck about knowledge virtue

I will abbreviate this text as text this I abbreviate will at at the students will

it was already modern and modern and d, and thed, and 538 the first

, 540 ,

CEU eTD Collection off. Women of China a sportsma with equal and madeand livestockher the of the knowledge, knowledge, Her letter starts with a sharp criticism that letteracriticism with starts Her way. sharp telling that very but different, a

544 543 542 emphasizing women’s collective bodily discipline and strength, this illustration at the same time women’s group implies thatthe has Theemphasized feet. samenessunbounded hairstyleswomen’s clothes, bodily ofand postures strength: sports jacket, wide trousers, sportingand boots cover which women’s small but bodies, in pairs. exercising the illustration presents a joint exercise of eight women, the while lower level shows ten women exercisestogethe the doing othershowstwo the women exercising, while theIn upper of level the illustration are there twoseparate sections, woman showingone a id only not visually,textually, but participated in creation also ofthe the emerging collective journal.the The illustration itself interesting offers conclusions about the way thatNüxue bao that unsigned text acc the in was voiced distancingempathy offrom group drastic the and forming newly women’s small the school.” years,several the rulewill brought be thatno student with the boundfeet would be toaccepted her country, the text “ text the country, her entity of late of entity

While this illustration makes straightforward relation between the strength of wom a of the strength between relation makes straightforward illustration this While See “Ticao tu” (Calisthenics), NXB, NXB, no. 6. tu” “Ticao (Calisthenics), See I dem.

In fact, the fact, In textual only treatment ofwhich footbinding lack discloses of absolute 544 542

n to describe China’s situation: China is China situation: China’s describe to n the thesame neathairstyles and the same d that

Western men, make their countries strong and prosperous. The author then brings of inmetaphor the they are economic burden to men, and - Qing women. It consists of four scenes which depict womenQing women. which of fourdepict scenes consists calisthenics. doing It , thus, The of letter incoming Lady Di” 543

All thewomen representedare as having the same strong and vital came to represent the missing part of China’s body which made her easy to be enslaved Westerners.

See “DiSee

ompanied the illustration published in the sixth issue of sixthissue published the in ompanied illustration the already been formed and unified. Furthermore, by unified. and already formed Furthermore, been by like like nüshi interrelates a metaphorical body of the country and woman in a wrestler with the broken arm, like a runner with one leg cut arm,one with a runner like the broken with a wrestler 201

that

shu” ( shu”

the the like are not they ress ress that accentuate further their bodily “ The incoming letter of Lady of NXB, letter no. 3. incoming Lady Di), The women are not educated in the us Western womenwho, bybeing an’s body and the power of r; the middle level of - feet womenfeet has has eful eful

CEU eTD Collection 545 all the steps of thegymnastics/calisthenics. They can feel like [they are] their face,[and losing of Women boundfollow benefit “there calisthenics. the cannot is with feet additional the that one disease of the ute makesit motions of hands and feet agile, facilitates the good sleep, and prevents it all sorts of lively, makes position; upright it people the proper and into waist shoulders puts]the [it appetite, “many advantages calisthenics has to offer:” “[it] improves the breathing and increases the women’s schoolsin Shanghai introduced gymnastics/calisthenics. The textincludes of list a the useful strong halfvery the readerfor the obtaining body,” informstexts the that offifteen the [while] energy strength, calisthen and one’s consumes books reading ofperspective health, the second section which elaborates thebenefits of calisthenics. After explaining that “from the chapter, introduces womensixth ofancient Greece, Athena and Sparta and their practices, and severe way. It consists of two parts: the opening part of the text, to which I will return to in the wh newly- that by confirming emerging collectivemessage the identity about medium visual throughof the women conveyed the smallest details. for women’s involvement inthe military and in state affairs. vulnerability into backtalks to the common ofline critique that translates theperceived women’s corporeal

I o are“one” despite their differences. dem.

The textthataccompanied the illustration treats women boundfeet especially with an in the differentlyStill, illustrator portrays women’sand paying faces attentionearrings, to

the weak international standing ofChinese the Empire, supportsand arguments rus.” This accentuation of the differences among women adds complexity to the to complexity adds among women ofdifferences accentuation This the 545 The closing sentence of this text is particularly telling, since it reads forming collective is a group of admirable and state and admirable offorming is group collective a

202

- needed women ics isics CEU eTD Collection 547 546 international standing. relation and China’s beauty its to of power and physical understanding of role different the order, I want to emphasize o should take in this particular historical moment of China’s repositioning in the modern world thatreforms the and directions ofscope oftencontradicting and imaginations the multivocal is to show that Nüxue bao beauty as endangering morality and the state. Nonetheless, since one of the aims of my research sexualized beauty,with perceive and manyridicule, disrespect thefemale physical contributors femininity, taking and, stance neo/Confucian a thein dilemma reconc to how of targeted audience and anti journal’sleadership, the the of ineyes showing the clearly that, the andmay donations society, that offices ofanti handed be the the in Nüxue bao with girls and boundfeet. was byNüxuebao reformist that voiced view docalisthenics to tried boundfeet the with when woman a present practice of footbinding, for and instance, not painmentioning and the discomfort thatwas to emphasizeopting shame expected the main as for the motive students’ decision to abandon the makethat can them] on decide their own to untie the banding clothes from feet.” their

See, for instance, for See, I dem.

Numerous articles of Nüxuebao,demonstrated,as I’ve condemn unrefined sexualized addition In to treatments these textual the ofwe also receive footbinding information that wa s sold in the offices of the in sold s

“ Provisional Regulations, Provisional

to thesupporters- to women did notdid a have unified and view thatit servedas a platform for

ne short text that conveys adifferent message and reveals a ”

NXB, no. 8 Nichengqiao bu chanzui hui buchanzui Nichengqiao that categorically distanced itself from the women 203 oriented reformist enterprises.

and

“Our announcements, announcements, “Our , this text embodies a lonely a embodies , thistext - footbinding , a local anti, a local NXB, no. 3. no. NXB, - footbinding society, 547

advocates were

ile the moral - footbinding 546 By By CEU eTD Collection 550 549 548 international recognition. embracedwomen’s group women’sa beauty as means favorable of China’s representation and comparedfavorably with the modernwest and some Japan, within reform voices ladiesnot unnoticed,reveals in timesChinese could pass it w the that when China of the conviction beauty thatthe implied exquisite itsauthor’s pageantand international beauty proble be certain a itsexhibition and least of find at type beauty public examinationnot and reforms to did ( beauties the for choosing requests that Iwill further discuss in the sixth with their concrete reform pa Chinese offact women manythe beauty that Chinese laments and over women yet not had part thisevent. Thefinal taking in reaffirmssomeonefrom sentence fascinating was the China whether unknown it is organizersof that the but contest, photos/portraits the to their sent from who Italy lives in Germany, thatthe and author learned thatmore Japanese than ten women girl a winner further is Theprevious reader year. informsyear’s report the that next announced number of participant great a such Due to society. ( thousand photos/portraits twenty morethan sent have was written, third beauty contest which was going to be held in Paris.

rticipated in thiscontest. Lu Cui, NXB, no. 5. no. NXB, Cui, Lu I 5. no. NXB, contest), (Beauty saihui” “Meinü dem.

When suggesting Whenthat women suggesting should and gather compose petition joint a to the Court the about fifth published issueofjournal report the ership in the informedA short read the matic for women and the state. When read together with the report about the withmatic together When forreportthe womenstate. read the about the and

Xuanmei hui - 549 oriented manydemands, interesting Cui,amongtelling and oriented Lu other

550 This brief remark shows that some participants in the 204 chapter, proposes the establishment of theSociety s, as it was explained, the winner would be wouldbe waswinner the it explained, as s, 548

Women from allover the it world, ) to to organizingxiao) zhao the as all rarely too - oriented oriented CEU eTD Collection 552 551 women readingwho are xiaoshuo chuanqi andinclusion involvementin the reformist Pan projects, Xuan, also dismisses knowledge the of forchange a By arguing pride in their talents and poetry as a reason being singling ofway their in and are out change the women a which educated, women’s vanity surprisingly,not most of resonant the ones of her father Kang Youwei and his comrades, asks for certain types of literacy. collectivity ofenough and enter women to act inwai respectable the offorming out the readers group a “frivolous” of leaving thus ed, womenknowledge cherish Nüxue bao identity1898 ofwomenpublished collective texts the Chinese in ReformHowever,the period.

I KangTongwei, NXB, no. 7. dem.

a constitutive norm in the process of creating a a of process creating the normin constitutive wasa education far, shown so As I’ve Ironically, the author ideals women’s the Ironically, author whowhen describing proclaimed egalitarian ourselves that [we are doing something that is] useful. Isn’t this tragic? are shortsighted;they if we the break lame ofperson who leg the fool limps,we only then thishave kind of education, then it is really useless. But, if we get rid of theeyes because likeeducation to read novels, singto tanci aboutwriting feelings between men women and for entire days. Women who have some problemthat] is well- not [I]t is thatwomen China]read books donot [in do[The and knownot howwrite. to Thus, Kang Tongwei, the authorwhich utters the ideasand perhaps, ideals are whand ich

also voice concerns which sharply critical and dismissing of certain types types of certain critical sharply dismissing voicewhich and concerns also

in women’sin

ed ucated women indulge in writing poetry, in short essays, short in in poetry, writing in women indulge ucated education and not for its and education forshe its complete not discard, claims:

why foreigners see China as a country of savages. (romance novellas, or romance(romance novels), pe novellas, 205 , and they indulge the entire women days…If

sphere of government and 552

rceiving

551

CEU eTD Collection Chinese Girl’s Progress proper understanding oftheir meanings is notknowledge. See“Shanghai ive collect the of of women,body I have to add that she also thinks that reading of the proper books without the quoting Pan here for her implicit critique of what she perceived to be a banal reader who was not a part of imagined texts together, searching for common themes through various texts created by various authors. Even though I am a whole which meallows bring certainto types of conclusions about issuesparticular precisely readI because 556 555 554 553 and toneedleworkforservants, others them.” “[even] dothe asking made inheavily overly indulging as luxuries, represented - skills needlework insufficiency ofperceived onlyskillful needlework in and being content that.with devaluation, This deprec women inspired Sheday her criticize for skill. beingto informs this women’s needlework that us developments. in interest and of knowledge bycritique singlingin women’s out drawing painting, and ignorance fine well art,as lack their as , jing read Shi they had andnever Mencius; that lunyu Daofang. signed byPan Seven” Double about the article thevoiced named in“Talking is womenof beautiful ladies, all being insufficient to perceive them as properly educated. women havingthoughtsoccupied as their these byimmortals, ghosts, only giftedand scholars the directionsin which women’sendeavors andabilities should be developed. Nevertheless, I observe which, according to the studies of Nanxiu Qian, Xue Shaohui denounced by arguing

was followedbya critique

I I Pan Daofang, “Qi xi shuo” (Talking about the Double Seven), NXB, no. 6. The entire article of Pan Xuan is very interesting for the analysis because she presents the vision of the reforms dem. dem. (Analects for women); that they haven’t heard about C about heard (Analects haven’t for women);they that

Similar disdain for the content, or or for content, the cont forrather lackSimilar disdain the of proper a 554 Mu yi Mu about care donot women lamentingthat Panis 555 Pan wrote this text on the night of the Double Seven, the holiday related to related holiday the Seven, ofDouble on the night text the this Panwrote inShanghai), NXB, no. 2.

of again, womenwealthy householdswhoonce the were, from national and international affairs and social and historical social and internationalaffairs and national

206 women’s arthighly Li ji Li

and and . She continues with her bitter withbitter her Chun Qiu.Shecontinues - Nüxue bao d up an overdressed,mistreating onfucius, Yan Hui, Ceng Xi or Ceng Xior Hui, Yanonfucius,

esteemed in 556 (Exemplary Nü mothers)and

for afor to moreelitist approach yuanqi (Thepurposes the of

553 ent ineducation the

premodern China premodern China Nüxue bao Nüxue iation and and iation

all the

as as CEU eTD Collection 557 for blamed being be to are women the balances blame: author However,the financially. The critique also includes a common discursivetropeof women burdening as their husbands “naturally”quickly and accept equality, in the same accepted they way that the present inequality. situation mennot when this c to theybut, educated, are equal because horses. forand themdogs working like powdering, for serving men clothes, and food for amusing with them flowers and like birds,and to adds their women disadvantage. These also are criticized footbinding for ear piercing, a customs “notare which imposed by force,” are criticized for agreeing to please men in ways that them actresses like w the laws and regulations). Men are criticized for beating their wives when angry and treating themen allthepower in social embodied of(most allowingobtain and creation to significantly it. Society is to be blamedformisinterpreting the o to led development that ofhistorical the also but situation, ofpresent only the critiquenot sharp power the wasit rarely women alone who were to blame for their condition and its devastating influence on However, after a careful reading and interpretation of thesevery critical articles, we may see that humiliating foreign womenthe perception for - socio culturaland in proficiency and of interest lack dismisses indeed,and, PanDaofan embroidery as women’s skill and criticism,to contributing the creation of category a ofimage the of “f

Wang Chunlin, NXB, no. 5. no. NXB, Chunlin, Wang As I’ve shown published NüxueAs numberof I’ve far,a in so texts baoreinforce men Wang Chunlin’s Wang “A Chunlin’s article discussion of equality between men a women” and represents ofEmpire. the hen “Theby happy. and, customs,” extension, womenthese accept who

557 In Wang’s view, women do not know that women Wang’sview, are know In donot that they 207 of uncivilized, an as China uncultured country. political matters riginal idea of ofriginal the idea equality yin ;

and Kang Tongwei blames and blames Kang Tongwei rivolous” Chinese woman,rivolous” disapproves ofdisapproves women’s hanges, woman will will womanhanges, -

generated and and yang nd CEU eTD Collection 560 559 558 women, ofenergetic” and good fortune of all [i.e.old “mature young, and nian lao ], zhuang nian suggested practices and announcements, reported regulations, tang’s 5.4.2 women as recognized socio andsuggested, how theseconstraints process influenced the of foof collective a rming identity participation in women state is the result of the obstacles and limitations the other placedon s them. country.” understanding ofmattersclear the ofhousehold, not mention the to big of the issues the “We,that: women, spending [we] are days our thein dark, noculturedwith knowledge offrom Lu group underdeveloped textpublishing, the women very is Cui explains she bythe when talkingtheout ab conditionsdepriving in Chinesewhich women distancing herself but live, same time, relates it to the limits imposed by the women’s surroundings. Using the word “we” byLusigned Cuireinforces alarming Chinesethe women, ofat the contemporary while, image household. establish their own enterprises and to become involved in the matters outside of the donotthemto allow burdensome because men theysociety and but are only economic burden,

I 5. no. NXB, Cui, Lu I dem. dem. Observations Observations

Similarly to the text signed Writing about the establishm their and placed onwomen limitations the discuss will I section following the In 559 558 Nonetheless, the author emphasizes that women’s ignorance about thematters of the

about the boundaries of collectivity in practice: Reading Nüxue collectivitypractice:Reading of boundaries the in about - oriented reformist projects by the reform actualized practices, or - political actors.

by Wang Chunlin, the discussion Patriotism” “On Women’s ent ofent

Nüxue bao 208 Pan Xuan enthusiastically celebrates the

560

, with no , with CEU eTD Collection 564 563 562 561 woman andforeign other a - Chinese, the regulations of school pronounced thattwo the female - directors generational among gap women ey that th recognized and reinforced. ” post, suitable are fornot the stubbornly ideastoo old who the cherish fifth issue that invites applications for new teachers specifies “women that who too are old, and superintendants school’s the inauguratedbe into related to a woman’s (or her family’s) wealth since would thatfemale donors wasannounced it wealth,women’s and age, and social family background. The reformist leadership was tightly that restrictions onmembership in the emerging collectivity of late socio of boundaries the their actualizedin which, own suggested, way, or created reformist practices, challenge all tovisionofan additional Pan’s forming women. of An groups treatments of complicated textual specific demonstrated, by the already women’s group of and of inclusivity wide women- other.” wouldimprove discussions through they each [tolong which meet] whonot, have those have and also env and orwealthy honored humble,” and havepoor to opportunity an gatherto in N for Women’s Learning),NXB

“Guishuli Nüxue hui shushu gaobai” (An announcement of the Guishu lane Girls’ School affiliated to the Society 2. no. NXB, Regulations,” “Provisional I No.2. NXB, Xuan, Pan dem. - politically active group of late 562

What may be also concluded from reports, the plans, proposalsand of isages that Nüxue tang However, Pan’s- kind However,

, no. 5. no. ,

will allow “young genteel those whoreadladies, have andbooks, hearted joy and her visions equali hearted her and of joy internal

- Qing Chinese women.Qing Chinese

would be staying in school, thus disabling married stayingdisabling be school, thus in would 209 . 563 Tellingly, oriented reformist projects, were, as I have - inc

lusive group of women were the groupwere lusive of women the the opening announcement in the in announcement opening -

Qing Qing the be wasplanned one to woman

thus alluding thethus to 564 , the the additionIn , the reformers is xue hui üxue

were based on ty within the . 561 She She CEU eTD Collection states: 566 565 share of direct participation in the reformist women of late expertise and to directly participate in the process of defining meanings of thecollective identity and abilities their broaden employand to small children, youngmo with women,thers especially was thatwas they younghad children who their motherlyneeded care. See school because they could not abandon their obligations in their households. A main reason for women’s retirement hand multiple exclusions within the collective of late particular forms ofliteracy as recognized legitimate discussants andactors. wai womenthe intrinsicof the group into to entrance a process the complexities of the process of “internal” formatting of women’scollective identity as a collectivity whose creation the journal facilitated inconveyed the oftexts Nüxuebao. Being attentive to the multivocality of the emerging

“Provisional “Provisional “Provisional

- Qing Chinese women.Qing Chinese

It is hard is toIt neatly systematize and categorize therichness of intertwined messages I’ve shown of of process collectivityof a I’ve creation that the on womenthe one entailed school. became nationalexemplary models.[Hence] slave womenchoose thefrom goodfamilyonly who] who the ones [are background can thepropagate new trends to and foster the future to] The school is established Evento mamen [we] equal. though [want and women ke don’t Lastly, there were two categories of womenwho were expli divide people into differentdivide ranks,been [giventhat]school has the to established Regulation Regulation 566

- oriented projects, oriented respectable consideredbe get projects, not to and own able their s,” NXB, no. 2. s,” NXB, no. 2. 565

Xia Xiaohong noted noted Xiaohong Xia wai

sphere. sphere. 210 One of t

and voiced, in this chapter I’ chapter this in voiced, and some some - he he Qing women, strategic and alignments

women had to resign or not take positions in teachers and goodmodels Xia, 2010, 123. 2010, Xia, girls and provisional r provisional

prostitutes cannot enter the

sphere of governance and of governance sphere

citly excluded egulations of the the of egulations

ve tried to show ve tried show to , we have to

from the the from school school CEU eTD Collection 567 transmitted. for late unprecedented Other creation and treatment of the figure of the (Western) foreign woman, is, that of a historically society.” or Other “the if as accepted ismay seen own partofit always a be been one’s having only culture which comparison”in of process “peculiar a forcognitive a myth”asks culture autochthonous claims notion Lackner the that women’s imaginaryand the introduction of figure a of the foreign(Western) women. Michael wayessays of numerous the Nüxuebao Westin that the and glory. glory. result of ahistorical developmental process that may recover China’s and Chinese women’s representto proposed social changes not as a ofdisruption “ways the of the Sages,” but as a offered way a changes. nd, it Seco social for requested argumentation women’s underpinned turn late di two notion(sometimes), enabled significant the progress, zhongyuan with combined of xixue world. modern/izing the temporalscheme This calls forreturn a that to past in the order to herself position moreto a in turn were if to she should China which past age dynastiesthe as golden ofChinese Three the the discussed, the texts of ruling the dynastyselectedwith and female exemplar

Lackner, 183, Lackner, scursive operations. First, promotedscursive a it sense commonalityof and community, continuity of - Qing women a with very diverse group exemplary women from the past, whichImperial in

An additional legacy of framing the historical time communication and between China

567

184. Among the main issues my next chapter will address will be the discursive

Nüxue bao

favorable way in the- geo - of of Qing Chinese women, the messages and these p , or, as hexixue zhongyuan as it,, or, explains of variant a “the the upheld the temporal scheme which celebrated the period of

211 political socio and - s from the past on the other. As I've other.As fromI've s past on the the did, is the internationalization of cultural hierarchies of rocesses CEU eTD Collection present. relation to particular characteristics, aspirations and abilities of women from China’s past and to fromexclusions category political the of “Chines strategies. So far,I have elaborated on I what approach as the “internal” inclusions and pages throughof the Nüxuebao collectivity of women Chinese observable political collectivity. As I have elaborated, the process of definition of the socio- - newly the of boundaries this makingare the in wasalso thewhat and journal, school m legitimate socio reform ordered spatio civilizational superiority - Society, influenced the understood central rethinkinga terrain of as was what of Chinese semiunfavorably positioned tianxia figure of(Western) foreign thediscursive sitesof and woman Chapter 6:Gender and thewai ore accurately, in the processes of the establishment and operation of the women’s association, Nüxue bao -

As have I shown,when aspace for women’s actions the in wai As my demonstrated has study far, so destabilizationthe of China’s power to order the oriented women entered the women the entered oriented

and the initiation of the process of forcible inclusion of the Chinese Empire as an of and forcibleinclusion initiationan ofChinese ofprocess as the Empire the the reformist interventionshelped she todefine - defined a collective identity of Chinese women by positioning themselves in themselves in ofwomen collective a defined Chinese identity bypositioning civilizational center - political actors.

ritually ordered gender norms. As a result of gender ordered norms.result redefinitionsofritually a China As - civilized semi

- and their group domainsa relations, ofperiphery their and elite wai wai - sphere oflate - 212 colonial actor into the I the European into actor colonial e women”,e the ways i.e. which in contributors of the Chinese Empire: oftheChinese The Qing- socio political life asrecognized sphere got or, demarcated, sphere involved several

nternational political political forming - CEU eTD Collection 568 groupsocial is transformed observers into bythe a “s order in reinforce to ideological fortheir capacity As action. result,a this of propagated unity a le of Nüxuebao, texts the as well as a whole range of issues and demands she that articulated and about regularbrought occurrence of discursive the of figure “(Western) foreign the woman” in addressed as[late “the these traumain underwent of thatChina accommodation civilizational This accomplishments. Chinese way Huters ofwith, Theodore coping what of resultingfromWest evolution as originally uninterrupted an Japan ofand the strengths non- Importantly, this thethrough of revival gender creation of wasthe non- Empire a ofconsternating reconfiguration the betweenrelations - geo actions, of the legitimization. and argumentations, processes their representations, moves are, haveas I demonstrated, ofpart the wider rhetorical too distancing from certain groups of women and their assumed characteristics. These discursive from the Chinese past; alignment with the Qing Court and its female rulers; as well as the “types” theofwomen of with ones various exemplary abilities activities aspirations, and their women: communitymaking a ofChinese reform gitimized.

Huters, 3. Huters, I identifiedI se Alberto Melucci reminds ussocial that actors need to define themselves in a unitary way NüxueA that bao conclusion

veral features of the textual creation of thesocio linear temporal scheme was joined by an attempt to acknowledge the

- specific practices and institutions of theThree dynasties. linear vision of time in which the progress was to be achieved achieved be wasto progress the visionof time which in linear may offer is that a main strategy for dealing withmain for dealing may the strategy offer thata is 213 - oriented women by celebrating continuity of continuity celebrating by women oriented ubject” which becomes theobject of polit ical nei ls framed that women’s

- and and political collectivity of wai -

Qing] years” of the Chinese 568

CEU eTD Collection Qing China. Qing China. gender imagery of woman” argumentative inclusionNüxuebao of“Western the the the into regularlyincluded and contributors. the was introduced in argumentation In of journal’s turn, the Nüxue bao soil, which challenged China’s civilizational centrality, was articulated in the texts published in 570 569 same same women onthe the and time at grounds. together celebrated Chinese historical womenWesterand voice one within least thenewly facilitated by a non was not “hated as an imperialist aggressor and admired mastery.” its for - geo assuming political socialforwhich the change improvement Chineseshould and China women’shead. positions of served as a cr elaboratethis chapter will on waysthe which in discursivefigure the of “foreign woman” the whichchanges should be undertaken to Chinaaccelerate and Chinese Hence, women’s position. myof the signals study existence and ofnegotiations contested meanings ofgroups’aims, the Melluci implies, which as in the context research. evidence evidence movements and collective action. In his own words: “The observed unity is the datum to be investigated, not the

Huters, 2 Huters, thisMelluci observation uses reemphasize to need the for whattoexamining the be appears unity social of actor, - In In the articles of destabilization will argue, chapter the ofChina the As this specific way of cop from which to proceed. Melucci, 382, 383. 569 - 3. in a gender a in

What lays beneath What lays the multilayeredempowering are of representations unity itical enunciator of the reformists’ of directions competing visions in desirable - linear version of time joined with the notion of xixue zhongyuan, at which civilizational - specific, culturally Nüxue bao ing with the forced internationalization of ideas and realities in late

formed articulated, clearly group was brought discourse a that that I examined, the West embodied in the figure of a woman of figure woman a the in examined,Westembodied I that the nei - importance ofimportance of examination different ideasabout the wai -

sanctio

relationships caused by foreign presence on China’s presence caused byforeign relationships 214 ned way: the figure of the “Western woman” of“Western woman” figure the the way: ned n women, glorifying both of groups glorifying n women, - and its its orderand world defined 570 Rather, what was was what reveal -

CEU eTD Collection and rolethat the it. ofcountry power womenplaying in the are – woman of introduction about be the of been. thischapter the figure foreign once a Therefore, will suggestions will reposition China as the civilizational and political center of power that it had of foreign the woman a served as supporting explanation for and e Chinese (women’s) civilizational and political competence. Instead, as I will suggest, the figure in of confidence lack a reveal not did it and woman, foreign figure viaoccurred the of the contradicting, reformists’ aims andclaims. Ias will show,made theof figure foreign the woman a well Chinese ifempowering adopted themselves.by the ambiguousWest, This understanding of the potentially and overpowering both as acknowledged widely were foreign the modes of unprecedented power ascribed to and exercised by the West. As a result, the W member of the international community on the other, was created under the historically s of position civilizational culturaland destabilized a caught Chinesein neo/Confucian elite arguments: women’s education, its proposed content and envisaged utilization; marriage; as well of “f the remaining part of this chapter will look at the main sites of textual interventions where the figure gender to discussions related Chinese men’s travel writings which, with uperiority on the one one in onthe and position uperiority hand, imposed an of semi the and, notably,and, the “Western f Furthermore, this new imagined this Furthermore, world, from perspective the of a member the of Including it asa concise case study, willI first discuss selected pieces of late West through meetingtheNüxue bao with observable discursive argue, the will As I oreign woman” regularly emerged and served as a backbone for the reformists’ for the backbone a as woman” served and regularlyemerged oreign - relations in the final the decades The century. in relations ofnineteenth the oreign woman” -

their “factual” “factual” onWesterntheir women thereports broaden

215

as a reference point in discussions about the - use d tool for various, sometimes vidence that the reformists’ - colonized semicolonized est and est particular - civilized - Qing Qing - CEU eTD Collection the Opium War,” in Brokaw and Reed, 71. characters.”Ellen Widmer, “Modernization without Mechanization:The Chang 573 572 571 Similarly, a few late examples offoreigners’ poetry: “these foreigners mainly are Koreans, with a few fromDali.” back sections ofWang Duanshu’s collection shiwei, Mingyuan educatedthe femalepublic reading with poetryofthe foreigners. Thus, asWidmer claims, the and Vietnam asdiscussed topics of thesewritings. tribe the as Miao well as Islands, mentionsTurfan, Ryukyu many,” she Siam, and Hami,among China sitesmultiple Qing within (or the Empire) […and] ofone conception as a China countr in early nineteenth century fiction. The author defines it as “anew interest in action set in kind particular of a internationalizationidentifies that she relatesmodernization to and places it women signals a change in the referencing system of theChinese Empire. Ellen Widmer the Wr in Women Foreign 6.1. reform allowed. period preserved in Nüxuebao is cacophony, if not that polyphony, the textual attempt I depict will precedingto the chapter, as women’s religiosity, military engagements decision and 86. published in Chinese Womanhood:Representations ofForeign Womeninthe Writingsof Late

The author also mentions Ellen Widmer, “Retrieving the Past: Women Editors and Women’s Poetry, 1636 – amy is of myrevised part “ section of This essay dissertation

The inclusion of theof figure the womanWestern the of in debates and about Chinese Journal of Chinese Studies -

- early and Ming and thattestifiesand to the ofmyriad of visions social change thatthe Wuxu Complete Dream of the Red Chamber

- Zhongguo

- Late of itings Qing Kor Qing Yanjiu 216 , No.5, 2010. No.5, , 572 ean women’s poems also appear in a later

Widmeralso writes about the familiarity of Qing Male Travelers Male Qing An InitialGround forConstruction ofModern

- policy and

because it a because “contains few European ing Shape of Fiction on the Eve of published in 1667, in published contain - Qing Male Tra Male Qing

makingHowev . 1941,” in Fong and Widmer, and Widmer, inFong 1941,” 571

velers Accounts”, velers Accounts”, er, er, as in 573 y

CEU eTD Collection appear not edition, first in only the appear flourishing educationandflourishing for the that reaches everywhere.” people juan Hamiand Guangdong,Mongolian and Sichuan, Guizhou, of and ethicalfrom groups i.e. regions China, poetesses underrepresented Imperial Yunnan, and have served to emphasize the success of thecultural politics of Empire. Thus, after enlisting C whothe bywomen livedin collectionswritten poetrywere ofcentury women’s messages convey to to the audience. (literary) history and the narrat ives about foreign womenNüxue in published bao Nevertheless, theseinclusions of women foreign culturalcannon into the ofwomen’s Chinese 575 574 situation. troublesome realitiesof late Bin restate Wong’s wor emergence ofthat the category ofwomen” mucha also to “foreign which included, broader meanings. Nüxuebao different had terms, different and under happened and world to the contain of power Westthe a thatwritings Widmer discussed. In the historical moment China’s which power in to orderthe elaborated throughout created significantlydifferent a fromofmy context one the thesis, the compila thanks to editing of Yin’s two granddaughters and her daughter Manchu man.Manchu cultural politics of Empire is interpreted as being influenced by Yun’s personal experience of being married to a

Yun Zhu, “Liyan,” quoted in Widmer, 2 in Widmer, quoted “Liyan,” Zhu, Yun Theoriginal volumeof Yu also also presents four Koreans. These examples go thedynasty’sto show that literary culture is The poems of non- The poems However, military and political andadvancements ofWeHowever, military political the tion of poetry edited byYun Zhu edited of poetry tion

- Qing China and served to articulate different visions of way the ofout this

ding, “Western foreign women” thesame at time displayed the changed n’s collection had twenty juans, andxuji, sequel juans, twenty had collection publishedn’s posthumouslyin 1836 Han womenHan who were included in the seventeenth

in the sequel. Ibid., 87, 88.

010b, 90. The inclusion of underrepresented groups and support for the the for support and groups underrepresented of inclusion The 90. 010b,

(1771 (1771 217 ndJapan to interfere in it, internationalization – 1833) 1833)

- in - law, had ten juan. The poems of Korean women

Guochao guixiu zhengshi ji guixiuzhengshi Guochao women, Yun Zhu recorded: “The last “The Zhu recorded: Yunwomen, 575

st and st Japan, as I have implies, as Iwill show, -

and eighteenthand - hinese empire, had different different had

(1831). 574

CEU eTD Collection 2006.) ‘Comprehensive examination of the condition of women of the world’), (master Thesis, Shanghai,: Fudan University, Allen’s Young of Study A on: educati female (Mapping yanjiu” de zhongxin wei tongkao’ zhou nüsu da Wu ‘Quandi Lezhi Yi Lin ditu: de “Nüxue goujian Tianyi, Shi see inthe book presented content the about account power of the state and its dominance in the the civilization, religion, women, treatment of society’s of the of interrelation account audience a systematic Chinese tohere elaborate on Philosophic Study of Comparative Civilizations Comparative of Study Philosophic A Nations. the Among Place China’s or in Lands Women All as title printed its English with the world) of women between 1903 and 1905entitled Quandi wu da zhou nüsu tongkao Asian Studies Travel through a Woman’s Eyes: Shan Shili’s of Journal jiLocal lüxing in Perspective,” The Global Guimao and 109.Xia Xiaohong, 2009, 37 added new material, and, with the help of his Chinese collaborator published a multi 578 published on6 texts were us, the translated Xia As reminds because accomplishments. theirof scientific artistic,, and philanthropic translated familiarizedwere had by and the Wensi, readers womenthe with western Wang notable who were praised western women’s lives were published as serialized translations in gongbao Wanguo 577 576 impressions about foreign women toeducated Chinese audiences. and Unitedways Europe and States, theytheirin the which communicated looking in at lived and to travelled writtenmenwho byChinese of accounts written number a at ing bylook so discursive repertoire about foreign women availableto the contributors Nüxuebao to . I will do read womaners foreign is Chinese ascholarly to that task invites separate research. introduced the of(Western) figure that the mappingofdiscourses the Thus, comprehensive mighthave all informedlate century, Wuxu reforms;books the about the world that were in circulation since the early nineteenth of in foreign discourses the participants (Western) maywomen the the about that informed have information they presented about women. one female traveler included: Qian Qian ShiliShan (1858 one included: female traveler

In the collection of late of the collection In Unfortunately, I did not have a chance to consult these books and I am not able to say whether and what kind of When it comes to late When

It is possible to speculate about multiple sources of information a However, in the opening section of this chapter chapter However, inopeningoftryI to section the this will illustratepart of existing an 576 the foreign press, foreign the

65, no. 65, th , 9 th , 12 ,

4 (2006). 4 the amazing insights that this book offers about probably the earliest attempt to offer the th

December 1897 and in February’s 1898 number gongbao in Wangguo 101, 104, 107 and - - Qing travel writings published in the 1980s by the Henan Publishing House ther Qing press, Xia Xiaohong reminds us that most probably the earliest accounts a

- 38. Young Allencompiled t 577 -

Qing women men and thisbroader, about uncontrollable world. aswell as foreigner

geo - . political hierarchies of the of the and Foraninformative past the present. hierarchies political

. Unfortunately, I do not have enough space space enough Ancient have not do I and Modern . Unfortunately, - 1945). 1945). 218 On Shan Shili see, for instance, Ellen Widmer, “Foreign he texts about women published in gongbao Wanguo s s in with China narratives their practicesand

(Comprehensive examination of th 578

in 1897 and 1898. These texts texts These 1898. and in 1897 - volume piece inthe period bout the world and and bout world the

e condition of of condition e e is only only is e bout , CEU eTD Collection 585 584 583 582 581 580 579 coming, onfromgoing where youare why.depends to and where youare intelligible for the reader, semantically charged icons an that image in away of theforeign culture becomes asawhole meaningfulese and th of culture by carryingrepresentations arranging foreign out a travel writings are interpretative texts that aims at representing the truth about a foreign country practice and discur a explicates, ofsource forForberg investigation are howconstructed identities through “cultural form whose of storytelling main purpose is to introduce us theto other, to butprior contacts, are throughsustained them.” displacement lay in the fact that “cultural centers, discrete regions and territories, do not exist for dialogue. occasions a complex range of experiences: practices of crossing and interaction, difficult encounter “there” but rather a culturally significant event, ed. Jas Elsner and JoanElsner and Jas ed. am Main, New York, Oxford, Wien: P.I.E. Peter Lang, 2005), 13. 2005), Lang, Peter P.I.E. Wien: Oxford, York, New am Main, Unraveling Civilization: European Travel and Travel Writing- Schulz ed. Hagen , and Displacement UniversityPress, 1997),3, 12.

Melanie Hunter, “British Travel Writing and Imperial Authority,” in in and Authority,” Travel Imperial “British Writing Hunter, Melanie Ibid., 13 Hagen Schulz Blanton, Casey Ibid., 3. James Clifford, Jas Elsner and Joan As Elsnerand Rubies maintain, travel notis a mere physical movement from “here” to

- 15.

- Forberg, “European Travel and Travel Writing: Cult , ed. Kristi Siegel (New York: Peter Lang, 2002), 29. The Travel Writing: The Self and the World Routes: Travel and Translation in the Late Tw - - Pau Rubies, “Introduction,” in Voyages in and “Introduction,” Visions: Rubies, Pau Towards aCultural History ofTravel Pau Rubies (London:Reaktion Books, 1999), 7. sive networks of perceptioninterpretation.” and 580

As Clifford further elaborates, thefocal importance of apractice of 584 theway travel is represented, as Melanie Hunter has noted, heavily

219 579 581 James subsumes as which, Cliffordnoted, has

(New York and London: Routledge, 2002), 2. 2002), Routledge, London: and York (New He entieth Century entieth

nce, travel writing is not only an alluring ural ural Practice theand Idea of Europe,” in

Issues in Travel Writing: Empire, Spectacle, Spectacle, Empire, Writing: Travel in Issues

Forberg (Bern, Berlin, Frankfurt Frankfurt Berlin, (Bern, Forberg (Cambridge,London: Harvard 583 585 582 Importantly, although

but also, as but Schulz

s and - , CEU eTD Collection 586 zazhi taixi ji SuiFaguo shi Deyi’s [1849]), Zhang Zhen’s Lin century: nineteenth published and by travelogues following read the educated in elite the decadesof last the contributors of of modernizationgeneralwe in as see,strategies Chinese and, informedofwill discursive the the of ofcondition representations the visiteddirection countriesinfluenced women they the the in Zongli yamen.” the to werethey even printed commercially without authorization as as soon the sent diariesback were “were made available officially, - disseminated high among the then were further works return courtupontheir to these the and diariesChina, to their policy composed of primarily the audience wider a modern/izing accountsto world of“factual” the members of thesediplomaticmissions were the first modern Chinese travelers who passed their establishment to learn about thevarious aspects of theWest was apri Qing governing men Toreliable sendfrom abroad ofcourt. the the numerousprovoked decisions 2 (1997): 75. 75. (1997): 2

Hu Ying, “Reconfiguring Nei/Wai: Writing the Woman Traveler in the Lat Traveler the Nei/Wai: Writing Woman “Reconfiguring Hu Ying,

lu xin Huan diqiu you Gui’s Li West Shuchang, Li of [1877]) (Sketches from the -

making literati and their learned male learned female and familymaking their and members. literati Travelers submitted Travel writingTravel of Qing the Late period and experiences,understandi their ofThe endeavors the Qing governmentcome to thepowers with foreign had terms to (Notes from the Diplomatic Mission to the West [1871]) written by Zhi Gang,

. Therefore, for the purpos for the Nüxue bao.Therefore, 586

ranked Qing officials. As Hu Ying writes, these travel diaries Xi haiXi jicao you or printedor bythe through authors private means; some cases, in ji (Embassy Official’s Notes fromFrance [1871]), 220 (RandomNotes from the Travel to the West e of this chapter, I have consulted the consulted have I chapter, this of e e Qing,” e Qing,” Late Imperial China ncipal one.ncipal Themale ngs and Xi yang yang Xi Chu shi Chu shi 18, no. no. 18, (New (New CEU eTD Collection one year before year one in returning London Berlin to1878. and in China to the United Kingdom. United the to He embassy spent theStat with first Liues. Xihongwent Germany Li Spain. and Gui’s travelogue is the accountearliest of an appointed Chinese traveler aChinese with went Shuchang 1870.Li and Russia otherce, and Fran betweenEngland, European 1868 States,countries United the in stay threethe members of the first Chinese embassy toWest the and book the hiswas written during Deyi was a translator who accompanied the diplomatic mission to France. Zhi Gang was one of 588 587 numerousTravelersoccasions. UnitedUnited States and Kingdom to the thestressed leisur and space; public the in behavior travel accounts I’ve consulted: women’s education; women’s presence, physical appearance and There are several aspects of foreign women’s foreignness which are regularly highlighted in the streets, in the parks, officialat receptions orfrom recollected convers ations women. foreign with sawonthe withthey what “actual” encounters women, their bydepicting to is, by referring that published his impressions but was not amember of delegations sent by the Qingcourt. [1879]). England Voyage to fromRecord ar The Journals of Kuo Sung minister was sent abroad. John David Frodsham, trans submission. Between 1866 and 1976 China sent four roving missions overseas, and in 1876 the first resident conceptions ofthe the Qing court was unwilling to send their representatives abroad, considering it contrasting with the age the capital, of in the Western diplomats established presence (1860) had Convention the Beijing after Even states.

Under the tributary system no resident envoys had been exchanged between the Chinese Empire and th The second one was Rong Hong (Yung Wing) who went to the United States with the help of missionaries. The image foreign of women highly educated wasinvoked great with respect on mostly so Western did about conclusions they women their presented When travelers the ZhenwasLin of one the twoChinese men period of this who traveled to Westthe and ound the Globe [1878]), Globe Xihong’s wellLiu yao Ying ound the as siji

relations Chinabetween the and foreigners, and regarding it an as act of disgrace, frailty and - t’ao, Liu Hsi Liu t’ao,

- hung andChang Te e. e.

lated and annotated, TheFirst ChineseEmbassy the to West: 221 mission to England and France and had lived in lived had and France and mission England to - yi

- xvi 1974), Press, Clarendon (Oxford: 588

(Journals from the xxv. 587

e tributary e tributary Zhang

- old old CEU eTD Collection than the male ones.” 591 590 589 respectable andadmirable”. financial that capabilities byobserving professional organizational, and “American women are Li had thisWorld Exhibition, ended of praise American as women’s as independence well their the room ofat contents ofwomen’s the appearance and of eventssurrounding, description the theand utilities they in everydayused their professional and life. very Aftera detailed wellneedlework, as as the written books bywomen politics, onastronomy, geography, statistics, paint Therewomen’s books, were exhibiting women’s accomplishments. AmericanConsequently, the women raised fundsthemselves separate fora roomthe building for space with men’s because they thought that this revealed disrespect for thewomen’s work. American women were not satisfied with the fact that their work had been exhibited in thesame women.on American World Gui,when Li reporting the in that the Exhibition 1876, explained of one thereceptions. at diplomatic politics Chinese conversationabout a who woman started unnamed an European about even and Chinaabout Chinese and about writing, French a study to whoburning girl a desire had Chinese, more learned about American with Guiandwomen Li hear traveled to expressed wish who the wasaccounts foreign women’s curiosity about WithChina. thisregard, we read, for example, competency of thefemale teachers and hard without making further remarks about the specific part of E his source for this information. See also, for instance, Zhi Gang, 286.

When writing When theabout travelersUS, sometimesmake a distinction between American Europeanand women, but Ibid., 40, 41. Li Gui, 41. He even presents the number of “three, four million” educated American women wit Nevertheless,

when the texts addressed foreign women, a notable positionto addressed texts women,wasawarded whenforeign the notable a 589 Furthermore, what had been accented in very affectionate travelers’ 591

590

- working female students whoworking devote “more female students were 222 urope these women come from. Li Gui, 3.

ings, scathes, hout mentioning hout mentioning

d CEU eTD Collection 595 594 593 592 leisure. commented ondirectly. Instead, the foreign female bodywasnarrat theorwomen, bodywasrarely in actual foreign visual imagined the encounters the with crucial accounts of physicalYet, the the the appearance. thatreveal representation ofin role their parties, gatheringsservices. luxurious and in located royal religious audiences, publicasin paradesentertainment participants in as or middle for offive the to often in groups three women. Contrasting boats. went for rides in their cars at least once a day, or went to the park, or enjoyed their time in small demarcated. Thus, Zhang Deyi explained that (in France) femalemembers of thenoble families officials and theEuropean courts. Nonetheless, classed church galleries, theaters and music halls, as well as at the receptions organized by the high gatherings, as well as women’s presence in the respected public spaces of libraries, colleges, common women and men in public spaces, thepresence of “ordinary” women by “intimacy” the expressed reported and noticed observers places.Chinese the Hence, public esthetic site for the Chinese observer, in both reports on the ‘truths’ about women’s habits and appearances and in interes is It eyebrows. shaped presented by Zhang Deyi. He records women’s extraordinary beauty, their round eyes, rosy chicks, and beautifully commonBritish womenwho took partin street parades seeLiu Xihong, 7

The only account of women’s physicality I’ve encountered in the travelogues is the description of Italian women For the description of one typical party organized by a (British) wife on an influential man see Li Shuchang, 34. On the description of, for instance, women who perform acrobatics in circuses see Li Shuchang, 125, 126. On 193. Deyi, Zhang What is common for the descriptions of various groups of foreign women is a detailed a ofis women groups foreign of descriptions various commonfor the What is An additional “characteristic” of the foreign places was thepresence of foreign women in 595 Hence, late- 593 whereas the “respected”Western wives of officials the and influential men were

ly, as Zhang noted, middle class women strolled in the streets every day, most every day, the as middle in streets ly, womenZhang noted,class strolled Qing Chinese readers readQing readers Chinese exhaustive elaborations women’s onforeign ting to notice that the image of the Italian woman most often figures as a sublime

592 Lower 223 - class “ordinary” womenwere also present spatiality of thepublic space was clearly 4.

594

- class (male and f ed ed through and fashion in street emale)

- CEU eTD Collection and immorality: and devices oflines argumentation, and it informed Chinese readers onwomen’s sexualfreedom description of marriage the“Western” representative is of theChinese officials’ rhetorical duringLiu address this to WuxuIn Xihong’s regard, the reformcumbersome issues period. 598 597 596 him deeply” see his travel account, Zhang Deyi, 322. the notes theon actual encounters. theOn beautiful It mourning dresses. and wedding neatly women’sbeen had foreign recorded, of colors especiallythe attire white black and the necklaces were eye they wore hats of strange shapes and designs; and theirthat fans, shawls, earrings, bracelets and Readers had learned that foreign women’s hairstyles were not related to their marital status; that hairstyles, jewelry, and the shapes, colors and designs of women’s clothes and accessories.

Liu Xihong, 164. Xihong, Liu SeeLi Shuchang, 45; Zhang Deyi,254. See, forinstance Ibid., 83, 142, 151. As we will see in the following section, the issue of marriage was among the most wasmarriage of among the the section, issue in following see As we will marriage. in the official registry] the newly inclusion the and Church the in wedding together… the freedom[After greater goout to control the other party so that s/he will not look for someone else – All men and women select t will treat the other as no more than a servant…After their engagement – reports] one financial been has bythe [Ifcheated marry. someone they donot suitable parents Afterintervene. Their donot parents together. goout and intimately, awayfromThey oftentalk others wife yetshe blatant while men not.are When a woman likes aman, if she discovers that he doesn’t have a women entertain unchaste, to be him house him.that to encouraged her think to are I here . Then they inspect each other’s financial situation and if they are not [financially] not and financial are other’s ifsituation they . Theneach inspect they

598

- catching.

a long periodof long a acquaintance,if twolike otherthey the inform each their ly arrangely rendezvous.a The man dare not does maketo a first step. 596 597 Furthermore, the precise colors and fashions of fashions and (upper colors Furthermore, precise the

heir marital partners. When a woman a likes man, she invites - weds often travel distantto places

alian woman whom Zhi Gang met in Paris and who “charmed 224 the couple has the even couple

a ring is to consumeto the used to - class) class)

CEU eTD Collection 601 600 599 five “polite” Americ not does by lose respectability embracing andindependence mobility. physical Li Guimentions impressively for thewriters, women traveled without amale escort. attended various cultural performances, narrowed waist. man, hand one onhis holding while shoulder, man’s a hand waswrapped up around her woman foreign throughwas alsothe depicted ced, way dan woman standing face to face with a manners men. of despicable The elbows with shoulders, feet and rubbingand their torsos their Qing Chinese observers foreign womenmerrily dance in sleeveless dresses, displaying half of accou constantly alerted,been the bodies. womenThroughout their foreign expose andorganized attended byforeign women men and ofclasses, upper aswhere, the reader has appearan here at all.” daughter proper a as behave of seventyorpeople eightyare oftenwithout daughter the notes, Liu as family, since, Ibid., 172. ZhangDeyi, 195; LiShuchang, 36, 76, 77, 124; Zhi Gang, 325. See, forexample, Li Shuchang, 35, 36and Liu Xihong,79, 132. See also Zhi Gang, 314. of lack foreigners’ of the figure The In additionIn dancing,to women foreign and swam, skated were publicbaths, visited The reproving also tone is present in on numerouswomen’s foreign records behavior and What worried the Chinese foreignWhat observers worriedthe husband’s is womenthat neglected their

ces parties. at Almost all travelogues inform theaudience about thedancing parties 599

600

an an womenmet whom ship. ona he Lin Zhenspokewomen about travelers - in

- law and to nourish the virtue of feminine obedience is not known isknown not feminineobedience of virtue nourishthe to and law xiao was also implied in records about the public homes for elderly people. -

in enjoyed themselves masquerade at balls, and, most - law does not live with her parents her law livewith not does 225

children to to “how allin children serve them, and, all, to

. 601 Yet, a foreign foreign a Yet, woman

- in - law, even old law, old even nts of late - CEU eTD Collection 604 603 602 imperialism inChina. As Qiu 6.2 requests.and “foreignthe women” they needed, and them used and legitimize support to the will see, also be the case with the texts published in recorded their impressions regardingmiddle and on women jails in in mental asylums, of women French soldiers, with and factories bravery the French ofproductivity womenin the praising worked foreign who distantwith by to places or modern alone car ships without the parents. opposition of their ZhangWhile explained Deyi that Danish,German, and Dutch English, women Swiss traveled showtwowell and theatre young a Paris judgment. a discussed ladyto Shucheng enjoy Li British who to without traveled

LiGui, 53, 54.Zhi Gang, 268. 172. 166, Deyi, Zhang Lin Z 3; Gui, Li . E ducation, its contents andaims its contents ducation, To sumthough even brieflyChinese ZhangDeyi familiarized readership the up, by in hardship.in Western countries are encroaching onour country,[while] we just bear decreasing, is [and] live thegradually gradually wealth declining, people country is the able[should be to] proudly faceothercountries. decades But,in the last strength the of a has China territory,population huge big rich and resources. [Becauseof China this] The authors and readers and The authors of Nüxuebao hen, 36; Li Shuchang, 110, 160; Zhang Deyi, 220.

- 603 educated girls from a good family who traveled together for fromtwoyears. together good family who traveled girls educated a

and even though even and we readfew a thatpresented accounts information Yufang explained in explained Yufang heressay:

604 theChinese

226 and upper and were aware of negative consequences of western Nüxue bao -

travelers mostdescribedtravelers and frequently class foreign women.will, asweThis

as well, whose authors selected ir own arguments 602

CEU eTD Collection country poor, countries [sotheir country that] becomeuncompromisingly. can wrote wealthy,” she fabric wasnotChinese being bought. “Foreigners are cruel The Yungauze. Zhi stressedproblem is thatsincethe that started being fabric sold, foreign because the canpoor afford it, and bec explained, fabrics,Yun Zhi foreign made clothes people andwear of people rich Poor presence. mulberry trees 606 605 authors want to reinstate. As it will also become clear in thecourse of myanalysis, the that ideals an and counterpointto configured a uninterruptedas of ideas the evolution Chinese rather are emulated, be but the to not models they are my power. of China’s In increase reading, international community, power colonized/colonizer general,in and woman” the “Western particular, in is more of complex the reproduction than a the projectin imperialist China’s and exploitation. Theroleoffigure the of “for the Modern China. Jing Yuanshan in role animportant play thathistorically would aforce of female the formation work influencing companies, the British the with of Millpurpose competing with Cloth established Cotton was Shanghai in 1878 Consequently, was sold for more than 30 million teals per a year and had become one of the biggest China’s expe was already in 1876 that Li Hongzhang decided to establish a textile company because he realized that British cloth education, they would be able to support themselves, to trade with foreigners in the open ports and get rich. blaming the Chinese people, both men

Zhi Yun, QiuYufang, NXB, No.7

Similarly, Zhi Yun, in her text “A ballad about raising men? act ofthe humiliation observeand disappearing. howthis is China willIs ofthe IsHeaven? this As I will show, images of foreign women, embodying the modern of hierarchies the the women,foreign ofembodying show, images will As I anti the Nonetheless, “Can sang “Can ” protested against the economic damage suffered by becauseChina of foreign

ge” (A ballad about raising the silkworms and culti . 605 This explicitly bitter tone pointed to the foreign presence in China gradually turns into turns gradually in China presence the foreign to tone pointed explicitlybitter This

was among six members of the board of the Shanghai Cotton Cloth Mill. Wu, 43,44. figure as supporting proof supporting as are leadingfigure the the reformist ideas to that - divide may imply. - imperialist stance did not identifyWestern women as accomplices

andwomen, fornot beingeducated. Ifthe people ofChina would receive ause the rich “chase the new” and crave velvet and stiff

227 - hearted, [and they need] to make our vating the mulberry trees,” vating

the silkworms

and cultivating cultivating and eign woman”

NXB, no.9.

606

nses. It It

CEU eTD Collection on Women’s Association from Educational on France. journals, while the importance o emphasizes theimportance of thewomen’s journalby discussing the earliest British women’s onstage.Thefirst issueof modernworld Nüxuebao tothe powerfulactors considered be allexplainedwere by throughsupported and of the examples women from countries the 608 607 Xue writes: education. from past, theChinese proceeds with the description ofWestern and Japanese women’s inShaohui thewhich author,after dedicating thousands demand that attentionsupport “forei itscontentand and anticipated outcomes, it is the frequency and ofregularity the offigure the dissemination and of processesimbedded ofstandards advancement. the in formulation the with the treatment of its woman,without criticizing or questio of Nüxuebao discourses civilization and with China’s cultural supremacy. See Gimpel, Gimpel, 96. supremacy. See China’s cultural and with civilization of idea equation Chinese amalgamatedtheWestern with existing got the n language writings of missionaries,” but I think that we need a separate study that would carefully explore how this claims also Gimpel xiii. 2002), London, Femini Laqueu also Thomas See 120 n2. 95, Price, Ip and inChow, Hon, Century,” Nineteenth Bebel’s best later by years some hundred worldwide popularizes “doubtless idea the maywas right, be Laqueur though even that, Gimpel adds, Thomas Laque popularized by the German Socialist leader August Bebel and his best to or the modernity” civilization of writing French social refo

Pan Denise Gimpel traces the origin of the idea about “equating women with the state of the country, its level of

gn woman”, asthemessages aswell she was employed to convey, explain, justify and nities/Chinese Masculinities, ed. Susan Brownell and Jeffrey N. Wasserstrom (Berkeley, Los Angeles and Xuan Hence, women account foreign isabout women’sAn ofeducation example informative the texts of Xue - , NXB, no. 3; no. , NXB, seller.” See Denise Gimpel, “Exercising Rights:Women’s Debates Physicalof Culture thesince Late

“Faguo nüxue hui,”

- related reformist projects – u r argues that the origins of this equation originates in the Scott espouse the ideawhich equates the and status advancement ofnation a .

f having women’s associations was conveyed through the reportf women’s associationsthrough the having wasconveyed

that “this assumption was transmitted to China through the Chinese

(The (The Society for women’s learning in France), 228

rmer Charles Fourier, sheFourier, but rmer claimsCharles this view that was the association, school the the– and journal 608 In In thediscussions of women’s education,

of characters theto admired women - seller seller ning the unequal power the ning unequal relations eo/Confucianeducated women with Women and Socialism r, “Forward,” in Chinese Chinese in “Forward,” r,

ish Enlight ish NXB, no. 1.

of 1879. As As 1879. of en

ment, but 607

CEU eTD Collection 610 609 bao that refers women to from theIslamic traditions. Kang states: essay.Kang Tongwei’s Similarly, Qiu

QiuYufang, Xue Shaohui, NXB, no. 4. thatwomenam been heard have equal, menare women [both and meneducation.Western women] receive I’ve and that].Wo StatesUnited womenoftenseen [in happy public], are everyone is and [because of places].the In [in public seen be [for] to is]disgraceful women [it India and [In] Persia o Yet, trade, and that women areable supportto themselves. prosperous. The reason Westernwhy countries wealthyare is [W to be country [and the this] helps split, is burdenmakingprofits man’s a of living, they become merchants, or doctors, or teachers. [When] women educatedare to make a ( somemen, studies, from differing their finish women, becomeprofessionals not reach a certain age and do not theschool enter their parents punished. are After they countries developedWestern education for both girls, and boys [and] if [boys girls] and screened. that time Empress on,the wouldcome every time were school prospectivestudents to f why] the women children,[That cannotoverlooked. is is be the educate matter that this educate to ceremony, [on and that she]occasion stated: “To promote women’s normal education, to Women’s with start education when they In turn six. the monthyear ofeleventh the Mingzhi the must allboys girls and that ordered government the year of Mingzhi sixth month of the Mi of judges… be women who can get [all of] sorts expertise, with some of them to striving be selected to jinshi receive a title similar to music and painting. These students receive diplomas,they passif three exams they NXB, no. 7. . The number . ngzhi, ne of themost elaborate accounts that addresses foreign women’s education is Yufang, first ontheabilities Yufang,elaborates first of Chinese women,asserts then that: and men ofmen allthesecountries humans,are but statustheir different.is [So, justas] 609

Normal School was founded. The Empress herself commenced the opening the wasfounded. herself TheEmpress commenced Normal School unds would be ensured from the state treasury to establish the school. From the toschool. establish treasury ensured from wouldbe state the unds

Japanese record of politics record of Japanese Women’s schools started to be established in Tokyo, and that in the in first Tokyo,that and in established be started to Women’s schools

This article is the only text published in the first nine issues first published nine of only the in Nüxue the text is article This

ofwomen studyingwho are medicine increased, and arethere many

, ifhanlin they pass two exams, their title would be similar to our ong the students of literature, and that they study poetry, poetry, they study studentsthat and the of literature, ong 229 writes that in the twelft h monthyear fourth the of 610

estern] industry and and industry estern] jiuzhe

): CEU eTD Collection 612 611 detailed account of theeducational systems the in powerful states of the West: religion. and and power the internationalstatus mere(if the existence) not ofstate, the stat and reinforces theWestern as the inappropriate from departing conceptualization Chinese presence of existing inspatial women’s the wai only not stating argumentan about the setbacks of women’s and seclusion concealment ofpower thenon state, the when linking countries mention colonized and to “week” opted thatshe particularly telling care that she will, as we will see soon, the situation of women in the West and Japan, it is - 159 2002, used in almost every conceivable w examples of Young Allen’s 1896 unfinished essay, as well as several post

K Rebecca Karl writes that “‘India’ was inscribed firmly exemplar as lostness of and slavery,” and raises the angTongwei, NXB, no. 7. Even though Kang did not explore situation of Persian and and of Persian situation explore not Kang did Even though and decline. prosperity isthere areason whymen and women different,are [there is] areason for acountry’s [is received] thenormal at school, while [one can receive] education low level at education three high There of are progressive levels level education: women’s education. girlsand study together;when t punished. do parents When and school, their ofgoto are young,boys age not eight the schools theis reason [for all of this]. In their educational system, if and boys girls reach [and honest; and thatthey]can oth face the solid many [that people; their] wisdom talented developed; and deep [that] is customstheir are look [at them, we’ll see that] their systeminstitutions of is perfected, [that there are] are t United States bigger The strengthofthe power and and Europe a IndiaKang and Tongwei gives women passingremark Persia about in After this 163.

612

and dangerousof exposure women the to publicgaze - - Christian religio

- generated understanding of mutually beneficial or degrading features: generated beneficialfeatures: degrading or mutually understanding of

611 ay to pint to the ay the to to inactionanddirectpint complacency”. consequences of Karl, See

hey grow up, they are separated, and women receive receive separated, women and are grow up,they hey us us women’s and tradition Thus,Kang concealment. is 230 er states with The states er of] [existence dignity. - 1900 texts to show that “‘Indians’ were Indian women with the same same women the with Indian han [If inpast. the we]

but she also adopts

us of women,

sphere -

CEU eTD Collection

613 inwomen the involved establishment opera and remind again, to once Chinese and male onwhosesupport, Western, ofcounterparts, of their texts neo/Confucian intellectual elite in the long course partsthe of world the thatwere not of immediate concern to the Chi hierarchies broughtof modernworld the about engagement multifaceted a examples with from economic symbolic the integrationinto and of unfavorable and China Theforced hierarchies. modernfor mappingthe strategic and world of(re)positioning in China its symbolic and polit

KangTongwei, NXB, no. 7. other countries! [What a] humiliation! [What a]lack of aspirations! from areby people people the [our]educated educate to Our women. schools founded the Westerners [i.e. openedports,sharedthe The territory our the colonized country], and one Why? even not women’s school. ofthousand square m territory twenty Confucianism). descendants of the the are [We] on] [and,divinities, still, magnificent the schools.Ours a hundred is countrycivilized sacred [with] teaching perfected (i.e. more students,one than million female one newly is small, - Japan exampleof raises lamentsposition Kangthe ofand over China: then the Japan lawyers, professors, judges, in the UK women astronomers,are officials, telegraphists, secretaries, doctors, certificate of thesamedegree. So, in the United States and France there are women Every person has adifferent choice school. Women’s vocational Hence, w managementhome ( women’s precepts, moral cultivation ( con handiwork. to Education ethics associations. [Hence] women receive instructions wide in [a range of knowledge] from is fromexpandedknowledge by[the women’sof] quarters establishments the women’s hat may be concluded is that the figure of the foreign woman as a gendered may figure is woman gendered sitethat the offoreign a as concluded the be hat

missionaries, doing [all the missionaries,doing the men [all things] do. ), ), medicine, sciencejiazheng (

founded country. In the last have years,there over thebeen two ten In last founded country. major, after but, completing the they education all receive a

sists of sacred teachings (i.e. religion, Christianity), of their major is based on their own majorbased on their affinities. The is of their iles, [with] two hundred million was women, there twohundred [with] iles, 231 xiushen tion ofassociation, the the school and journal the

of China’s premodernAs history. number a in thousand female teachers, more than three morethan female teachers, thousand ), teaching, astronomy, geography, law, law, astronomy,), teaching, geography, gezhi ), music, fine arts and handiwork. and finearts music, ), 613

nese court and

ical ical CEU eTD Collection 614 not behind.” does fall States it terms United education, in ofthe women’s Japan, countrythat “consist[s]ofin a women’s islands education three if only but, compared to advance. Hence, the article about the school in was o sinosphereconductAsia, reforms thatmanagedto the East positionnewin and a power itselfas anxieties regardingmaritimethe admirations and China’s significant a in Japan. actor neighbor, mappi of process the that,in figure a Chinese women’s abilitiesdeveloped potential. and be emulat andpractices Chinese institutionsthisway, ofglorious past. ratherIn than the being model a to ofposition the modern but power, it sois due to steadyevolutiona of culturaland civilizational women. historical Chinese the thissche In womanfrom theChinese pastand Westerna woman who therepresents fulfilled potentiality of united: exemplary are twodiscursive tropes is, past. That inpagesChinese ofjournal the the to their celebrated female predecessors, and offered them of avision the related discourses. women will, as Joan understanding This Western prospectivecountries. of their of ofpower and the display source relied,

Xu Fu, NXB, n NXB, Fu, Xu ften, if not always, mentioned in the context of its geographical insignificanceand cultural geographical mentioned of incontext its the always, not ften, if Nüxue contributors bao ’s addressed the female examples from theWest as being the The second regular reference point in the texts on women’seducation is Japanese woman, At the same time, what ed, figure the ofWestern the woman becomes reminder the display and of fully o. 2. o.

Judge reveals in work, her to continue significant a be feature of women-

Nüxue bao ng the modern/izing world via the images of women, voices images worldthe of modern/izing voices via women, ng the helped to maintain were the ties of the female readers me,Western theofwoman figure occupy does 232 Qiangxi Qiangxi

has apassing remark about widespread future that relies on the 614 Similarly, a part of - CEU eTD Collection 617 616 615 the tribute system, was Korea asignificant cont existence.” China’s national of to challenge decade offinal Qingrul of civilization [that] rendered it invisible to the sort of cultural/national inquiry that marked the thus “Japan’supholding identity presumptive insubsidiary partofChinese as China sphere the transparent windowWest”: ontheythe studentsare ofWest the with.” “incapable of anything adding itsown to the complex of new ideasthatneededbe to dealt JapanWestern bringing knowledge as understood Huters be writes, as came to century which, halfofnineteenth in ofsecond the context intellectual the with wider the accord study to sericulture Japan re about the article that informs audience the aabout Korean woman who, her joining husband, for leaves quoted as saying, is her belief that in the future, she will be celebrated as an innovator in the sphere of sericulture. she expected to be ridiculed upon retur university. The story reads that a woman followed her husband on a trip abroad and decided to study, even though Korean w

I 19. Huters, “Han nü you xue,” (A Korean woman travel abroad to study), NXB, no. 2. dem. 616

Furthermore, as I’ve discussed in I’vediscussed when the elaborating as chapter Furthermore, third on specificities of The women established, been for women gotoabroad? had would[finally] study who possible goabroad. Is it that only countryopens after the up,[and] the schools after envoy’s family and the female students of missionary schools, there are afew women members women for the ofimperial who households.Except are the their leaving abroad.study [They] not like women are China in who are someconfined, themnever of Japan and Korea are small countries. [Yet], women [from thesecountries] often go to oman named Jiao Chunjia, who followed her husband Mr. Lin to Tokyo and studied sericulture at the local The Japanese woman, just as Japan itself, “seems to figure as nothing more than a

texts abouttexts Japanese women thatreveal the discourses formed in e, even as the newly powerful neighbor was posing the most serious themost powerfulneighborwasposing as newly the sort even e, serious

ning to her country. Her motivation to persist in her intentions, as Mrs. Jiao is ads:

617

233 ributorChina’s to self , not independent culturalagents, independent , not This was a piece of news aboutThis news a of was apiece - Nüxue bao Nüxue perception as the 615

to China,to were in

CEU eTD Collection status. 620 619 618 quests or spiritual development. While the ladies relatively rarely wrote about the pilgrimages, mo the untains wandering in furtherexplicates, foras waswomen’s Mann religioustravel, of pleasure in literarydrinking, compositionand teacasual w “most constrained” mode of was, travel Mann as Susan explains, “the ladylike visit,” when several legitimate modes of travel available to a respectable woman in late Imperial China. The worldoutside through thei Uppertravelers. ardent were China women Imperial of mobility.Genteel physical of scope women’s proper the reformers’ desire emphasizeto the importance ofvel, toreconceptualize tra purpose, its as well as normmore acceptable. foradvocated in future,the accommodates thecritiqueand possible makestheof extension the knowledge and activity for women that, as we willsee shortly, was respected in the past and choice to report on the case of Mrs. Jiao to study sericulture, an approved and desirable shiftfurther of power Chinese the alreadyelite concerned thewith changing status of by Japan, pointing to possiblethe civilizational center. 224. instance omen left their homes and gathered in the homes, gardens, and boats of their friends, taking friends, boats and of their homes, gardens, the in homesgathered and their omen left

Susan Mann, “The Virtue of Travel for Women in the Late Empire,” in Goodman and Larson, 56 1994 see Ko, travelers” as “armchair women On Actually, the authors whose works I had a chance to consult represent Korea as a “model tribute state

Rose, 9 or Zhang Feng, 91. What also needs to be restated is that tributary status did not assume subservient The short mention of Mrs. Jiao conveys an additional very important message about very important conveys additional an Jiao Mrs. mention of The short - class ladies were not only “armchair travelers” who communicated with the 618

relations within the sinocentric cultural sphere of influence. Smartly, the Raising the example of may Korea thus be read as an attempt to alarm r writings and the letters they received from afar;

b - 224 , 234 226. 226.

- tasting. 620

“A moreambiguous” form 619 there were also - 59; Ko, 1994 Ko, 59; .”See for b , CEU eTD Collection 624 623 622 621 borders the ofterritoryare they transgressing woman’sbut cautiously: a country’s as voiced physical mobilityw propositionsthatrelate Thus,the knowledge. about impressions travelling. their express and theandboth severing forming of women’s network and ties, and it gave women a chance to form duty.” “by far most pervasive, respectable, and vaunted travel for women”, that is, “a travel for family their native families, and, at least once a year, they travelled to their nativ native place. their families conducted examination Emperorby the court.After at the they receiveddegrees, their men and withfinal and the metropolitan toprovincial levels, then the level, from prefectural the civil service were organized on severa moving levelsl locations, and hierarchically several in educated male relatives on a numberof occasions around all the empire. Mannboth Koand all explain, elite wome lady.” activityof an “proper not a show pilgrimage descriptions fictional was that b 1994 Ko, n5; 317 315, Widmer, and 63 proper burial place. For a deeply touching account of this additional type of women’s travel for family duty see Ibid., Corrin and Kort, 23. official went back to his hometown when his parents died, and stayed there reading Confucian classics years to another post (the principle of “circulation”). Literati also had to travel for the period of mourning: the

- Li Guotong, “Imagining History and the State: Fujian guixiu (genteel ladies) at Home and on the Road,” in Fong Mann, 2005, 60. Mann also discusses how a woman, when widowed, escorted the body of her husband to the inThe officials did not serve law hometheir (“the of avoidance”), regions an 59. 2005, Mann, 68.

623 Men had to travel if they wanted to advance their scholarly careers because the exams for In In the articles of Nüxue bao This type of travel that women from the elite families would undertake contributed to 622

had had observe to the rule of did which avoidance, not allow a person to serve hisin When their onfollowing withhusbands posts, womencut their not the did ties

, 224.

travel becomes theepistemological prerequisite for the new n left n left homestheir actedas and the sojourners of their 624 235

ith learning do envisage travel learning travel doenvisage ith d they had to move after three to six

e families, which was 621 However, as However, . Grasso, Grasso, .

CEU eTD Collection in which her travels are depicted in lit in are depicted travels her which in Nan Nü Nan Women," of Foreign Biographies the in Vision Moral Qia Stefa Biographical Dictionary ofChinese Women: The QingPeriod, 1644 international community if allowed to go abroad. For Sai symbol of women as excellent emissaries of China and who would boost the Empire’s image and standing in the esteem i high the was kept thatshe weekends, having access to such influential political figures as Li Hongzhang and Sheng Xuanhai. It was perhaps time the that married Hong Jun and joined him onhis ambassadorial post to Russia, Germany, Holland and Austro - husba of her husband cited in the report, study,” NXB, no. 8. important and businessmen officials, British famous women. “Hua fuhaoxue” (AChinese woman wholikes to husband were planning to organize a banquet for the British elite in the following year, when they would gather 626 625 in Zhouestablished dynasty, when, the explains: Xue Shaohui as Western learning, emphasizing again the Chinese historical legacyof the educational system presence, requests) the additional destabilization of thespatial nei processsourceof a announces (andas knowledge, ofand women, learning conceptualized select study. the to send and ofmost themnew Hence, travel giftedfemale students abroad values; companion ofWestern aristocrat the women best the and to envoy represent China and its Eu diplomatrope, male to a where she became joined who woman respected and sought praise Chinese they a Japanpurpose; forvirtuous a woman Korean visiting whothe is praise gods whom r with he gods the loyalty realm, f “securing of through travelled his regularly idea from the Shang dynasty that the ruler organize his realm by moving through it. In the Shang period, the King Empress Dowager’s announced journey ta event in the ancient and present times, and that it announces the beginning of China’s openness. The applause to the would mobility and travel as the epistemological conditions for learning, the praise of the news that the empress dowager the foreign foreign the pleasure and knowledge; visited the theaters with her husband; learned to speak and write English and to understand imperial She saidChinese to in envoy. was be interested education; western women’s coach the by for traveled

“Taihouchu you” (Atravel ofthe Empress Dowager), physical of NXB,the interpretation with 3. Aligning The eighth issue of the journal includes the article originally published in Piping bao n, “‘Borrowing “‘Borrowing n, nowska; volumeed.Clara Wing nd’s family. She was leading a famous upper tour through the Empire explicitly claims that the tour made by the Empress Dowager was not a common 625 The suggestions for the content of the education of content foramalgamation forthecall an the education The suggestions ofand Chinese they suggest that Cixi, after herself touring the entire territory of the Empire herself, etiquette. She was also reported to be admired by the upper but strategically legitimized with arguments about its importance for learning. Nüxue bao The short text does not name the woman, Foreign Mirrors and Candles to Illuminate Chinese Civilization’: Xue (1866 Xue Shaohui's Civilization’: andtoChinese Candles Illuminate Mirrors Foreign enewed ties sacrifice.” through reproduced this text, Sai returned from Europe, she was widowed and abandoned by her n by powerful men that was among the reasons that Sai was picked to become a

but we may assume that it is Sai Jinhua weit maySai is but that assume erature see Hu Ying, 1997. Ying, Hu see erature - Chung Ho. For the way in which Xue Shaohui Sai represented Nanxiu see lked about the luxury of her coach and electricity, but it also resonate the - class Shanghai, brothel in where she herself clients received on Lewis, 288. 236

Jinhua’s biogr and, unfortunately I was notable to decipherthe name

ollowers who presented offerings and the aid of local the and of local aid offerings who presented ollowers 6, no.1 (2004): 96 (2004): no.1 6,

- , 1911 - wai - class British women, and that she and her and thatand women, she British her class aphy see Wan Xinhua, “Sai Vol. 1, Vol.

(Fu boundari

- Caiyun) 98. 98. ed. Lily Xiao Hong Lee and A.D. and A.D. Lee Hong Xiao ed. Lily AboutSai Jinhua andthe way es ofes women’s prope , afamous courtesan who abou t the wife of the of t the wife Hungary. At

Jinhua,” in

- - 1911) 1911) after 626 r

CEU eTD Collection 628 627 instructions; (Primary Learning), L Nülunyu Song Ruoxinand Ruozhao’s women), Song Xiang’sLiu Lienüzhuan Songs) include shu , they Shi Nüxue tang followingthe way:

Jiang Wanfang, NXB, no. 9. Wanfang, Jiang Xue Shaohui, NXB, No. 3. , Jiang Jiang Wangfan depicts the desirable amalgamation ofWestern and Chinese learning in Asparticular for the Chinese books were that suggested or reported as being students. and lazy punish diligent award exams,to monthly should hold Teachers cook. and shouldweave, to and fields]learn sew,spin these students specializing [inof one instance]medicine, mathematics, law, commentaries],their everyof student for havefield [such specialization, as, should her comprehend [After deepermessages. understanding the of meaning texts classical and to understand [and texts, shouldlater] the meanings first the general of Students after which the instructions should move in the direction of the student’s character. Teaching in the schools should start with the Chinese classics and their commentaries, organized one Twenty fivehouseholdswere in school. Two every hundred Five householdscompriseddang,and one Shang

thousand five and householdsmadehundred every, zhou one and Yili 627 shu 628

(Bo

( Book of Documents ok of ceremonial], and etiquette LadyZheng’s Nüxiaojing ü

(Biographies of Exemplary Women), Ban Zhao’s Nüjie Women), Ban Zhao’s of Exemplary (Biographies

Kun

’s ’s Guifan (Historical R ) , Li jineize (Paragons of Feminine Chen Hongmo’s Virtue), 237 zaxue ecords), ecords),

( (miscellaneous knowledge). In addition knowledge).(miscellaneous In Inner Teachings Inner Teachings (Analects for women), Zhu Xi’s forxue women), Xiao (Analects lü , and every, and lü Lunyu ( Analects dang from Book of the Rites)

had one one had primary school. had onehad middle ), ), Shi jing zhou

(Precepts for (A book of (A bookof had onehad big (Book of (Book of

- used in in used school.

to to ,

CEU eTD Collection 630 629 calisthenics in Sparta and Athena inspired the inclusion of the calisthenics in Western schools. instructingtheir on power future the loyal subjects c or strong mothers are important because bodies their thereproducers are of the and state because of interest. ofideal the mother sacrificial selfless, who places the common goodhigher than her personal them sacrifice and country,[and] “go forworryher,” their to about not says, when the children reach text the thembirth as thatenables healthyFurthermore, a give to calisthenics to offspring. doing strongbodies. had Theywere mothers bodies hadbecausetheir and Athena strong in Sparta These mothers fulfilled their roles as thereproducers of the calisthenics doing introduces mothers from Greece, thatis, ancient from Athena Sparta. and for thephysical education as well. Hence, the text that accompanied the illustration of women intolerable weaknessthe of bodies. The their for figure the Western woman to wasused andinappropriateness insufficiency of women’s intellectual haveengagements, but claimedalso included abovefootbinding, as and first nine ofjournal. the issues find in the donot of we which core readings which were to be supplemented by the new books translated from theWest, the list women school see his memorandums

“ see books suggested the For Calisthenics ’s filial’s piety) and Empress Xu However, as I briefly discussed about in when briefly talking I thetreatmentHowever, as fifthof the chapter In addition addition restatingIn argumentto thatnot the intellectually, physically, only but also

calisthenics implies, male and somefemale reformers asserted not only the ,”NXB, no. 6.

sent to the Official Liu published in the sixth and the eight issues

Li Renlan, NXB, no. 4. 4. no. NXB, Renlan, Li - mentioned description of the thateducational system Japan in

ed mothersed from wouldinstruct the ofAncientage Greece seven, ’s

Instructions for women for . Instructions For the books Jing Yuanshan re 238 itizens, the text claims the that practice of state in amagnificent way: children

629 Theselistedare books as the ported as being as being ported 630 thus reinforcing thus the .

used in the argue argue CEU eTD Collection 633 632 631 newmeaning “the ofbut t loan.” discourses about the twentiethin should analyzed be “returnwomen a graphic early as century in because andmothers goodwives” ( of the influence Wuxu under ideology of the“wise proposed in was education reform period [roles] of wise mothers and forfuture [their] foundation the [their] bodies, strengthens [their] [and] virtue, nourishes creates [women’s]and women’s ofeducation wisdom, the read“inspires that issue journal knowledge s The education numerous. were women’s ofemployments andmeans enunciation legitimization ofarguments. of demandsand reformists’ turn, In figureones. Western the ofwomanwei gains modernWestern power and to consider and accept thepractices that were introduced asWestern equalizing of two civilizations, at least in temporal terms,makes easier it to acknowledge civilizati respectable of gainingthe position continuous a thus China, as lasting in ancient Greece. With discursivethis move,West camethe to be represented as being as long narrative of the e and By Sparta “the defining as Athena West,”Chinese author/s introduced the readership to the in Early modern China and women’s school education) (Hefei: Anwei Qing China,” in JoshuaA.Fogel (Norwalk: EastBridge, 2002), 223

Joan Judge, “The Ideology of ‘Good Wives and Wise Mothers: Meiji Japan and Feminine Moder Zhongyu, Gu See “Regulations on the school’s opening,” NXB, no. 9. 633 As the quotations from the texts I discussed so far show, the aims and envisaged envisaged and aims farshow, so the discussed fromI texts quotations the As the of mothers” Joanthe wise conceptofand Judge’s argument wives that “good prominent As Judge asserts, both the terms xianmu Sagacious Monks and Bloodthirsty Warriors: Chinese Views of Japan in the Ming- Zhongguo jindai nüxing guan nüxing jindai Zhongguo nduring existence of West the of as homogeneousculturalplace that originates xianmu liangqi

wise wives.

he fourhe de yanbian yu nüzi xuexiao jiaoyu - 631

character compoundcharacter for “ ). Gu Zhongyu cites this rulewhen claiming thatthe 632 239 However, amI restraining from this assessment

and and ght andght suitable a authority,becomes and liangqi

jiaoyu chool’s rule published inninth rule the published chool’s

did appear did in e

chubanshe, 2006), 135, 136. 135, 2006), chubanshe, (The change of views on women good wives and wise wise and good wives arly Chinesearly texts, on. This symbolicon. This

Qing Period Qing nity in Late in nity

- , ed. , ed. - CEU eTD Collection subjects. learn how to write womenaccidents happen. if survive unforeseen Fifth,everyoneshould beto educated will able mothers willThird, better educate their children nourish and their talents and abilities. Fourth, will advise they husbandstheir rightfully and tactically (in a moderate tone, never in quarrel). a elder and and younger Second,brothers. women who are educated will become and virtuous, harm the stability in by the household disharmonizing betweenthe fatherssons and relationships five are whyreasons women’s needed.is education if First, women arethey educated will not published Renlan’sarticle Liu in t education for husbands, children, households and state. the households children, for husbands, education 636 635 634 of the terms:usefulness work in following women’s emphasized and household the of space out work reveals additionalinsight an into the reformers’ linksbetween offuture visions the women, Chinese the Girl’sto assumed womanthat it a and social had addition national in duties mo

Liu Renlan, NXB, no. 4. 4. no. NXB, Renlan, Liu Xue I ther” dem. On the notion of a “return graphic loan” see Lydia Liu, 1995, 302.

Shaohui Furthermore, t Furthermore, The treat essays I consulted

[reintroduced from Japan] went beyond the significance of its two composite terms of in significance itstwocomposite from the [reintroduced beyond went Japan] 636

in the in , NXB., no. 1.

, first issueof the journal. Liang Qichao’s unsigned addressestext the to study he he

Progress conveys”

astronomy, arithmetic, natural sciences, and many other useful

women’s familial The setting. importance of woman’s workwas relation between relation advocated he issue fourth and, ofjournal, a the women’s interest in study as a valid argument, valid a in as study women’s interest , 635 240 and put an emphasis on the benefits of female of benefits onthe emphasis an put and

The former women’s education women’s and

to her familial ones.” ccording to the text, there there theto text, ccording view was expressed in as a“Preface 634

CEU eTD Collection no. 9. 639 638 637 her hopes: conclusion, YunZhi expresses Zhu Yun suggests aself country.households and Asremedy a the to critical situation in which the Empire found itself, of their wealth the contribute to how can women detail great in explains text economy. The people for wearing clothes made fromforeign materials that, in her view, devastates the Chinese ofAsinternational position state. already a have mentioned, I Yu Zhi n criticizes the Chinese economy, household, the work within aboutthe betweenand women’s relationship writes the trees” mulberry cultivate silkworms and the raising “Balladabout her Yun Zhi in education, also suggests a printed manual written by Mr. Wu to be used for women’s instruction on this matter. and skin as medic silkworms, the its fruits to feed used will be tree a mulberry the fish); food for and the trees for fertilizer provide will

Note One should dig a pond to raise fish for household use and for the market; next to the pond build a piggery (that “The call for establishing women’s school in China,” NXB, no. 1.

the author’s support to the support author’s the Developing ofDeveloping the idea the usefulness of women’s workfurther, implicitly related to their and Emperor the wealthy powerful, and Guangxu ca magnificent, [and] is gathered, make strengthis it can ofthe country everyone it a hopeI that everyone will cultivate mulberry trees and raise silkworms, [because] when make f [but]will clothes, buyforeign we we not will of way]. moneylot [inWe this themade wear clothes homes, our will in [and] only not silkworms,Wea willraise happendiligently every household.earn in thatthis and will hope I that everypersuade husband will his wiferaise to silkw this true? Isn’t this true? householdswould offlourishing, If women’sIsn’t planting. workis ideal. be charge husbands, their educate women children,household, help betheir manage can in

ine, its sprouts as tea. After explaining all the phases of cultivating the mulberry trees, Zhi Yun Zhi Yun trees, the mulberry cultivating of phases all the explaining tea. After as itssprouts ine, - sustaining economy that relies on the cultivationmulberry of trees.

ruling dynasty.I

637

dem. 241

n ruleforever! oreigners wear theclothes we made. orms,that everywife will 639

Zhi Yun, NXB, NXB, Yun, Zhi 638 In In CEU eTD Collection 641 640 worth they theadditionare doing moneysmall “in to and theforeign workfor the since written that women’s propagated nei relationship between the and work additionalan persuasion. Theconcluding partof the text brings out an pointimportant about the thatlace all Thepersons. example of lady from the who Shangyang the invented newmachine for folding the seven yuan six, “five, a than thousand people. ago in years andhadmore England, usedforand China more that it been in fifty by years than the role of awoman inco wouldenhance of anduse newthat technology addresses the promotes is What this text journal. text that accompanied the illustration of the sewingmachine that appeared in the fifth issue of the financial the and benefitproductivity, that householda may from enjoy wasconveyedthe in it, with unit a of householdactivity” as production, the 69. gardening and animal husbandry and exclusively female cooking, cleaning, and sewing to produce livelihood”. Ibid., women joined the men in the fields. Fieldwork, as Harrell further explains, was joined with “mostly female was rather blurred. As the author argues, men were doing the fieldwork, but depending on the regio the family enterprise the boundary defining directly compensated work and the work not for direct compensation “The Changing Meanings of Work in China,” in Entwisle and Henders out for labor (usually in transport) and exploiting resources as a collective band (usually in mining).” Stevan Harrell, beingexceptions military “corvée, offi service, explains that (ideally) all work was within the household in terms of ownership and management, with the only 2010 Press, California ty of Universi London: Work, Households, and Genderin China “Cansangtu” (Feeding silkworms),NXB, no.8. who is using the microscope, positioned at the be Home”

“ Susan Mann, “Work and Household in Chinese Culture: Historical Perspectives,” in Re

Nügong tieche tu Nügong

engraved. In asimilar a the“Cansang tu” silkworms) features In fashion, illustration (Feeding genteelengraved. woman Maintaining the preindustrial conception of work as “a collective, not collective, individual, ofan “a preindustrialconception workas the Maintaining Thus, the explains article that sewingthe machine was moreinvented than hundred one owed her to help her husband in, as we may assume, the time of misfortune, served as as served misfortune, may of time the assume, we husband as her in, owed help to her these new sewing machines are more expensive than the older models, but that they ” (Sewing machine) of of 641 dayang ntributing financially to her family. It emphasiz It person thata workinged the with machineearn could

money,” and provide a comfortable life for a household of eight forhousehold a of life eight comfortable money,” providea and , ed. Barbara Entwisle and Barbara and, EntwisleGail and LosAngeles ed. Henderson(Berkeley, E. , NXB, no. 5. To add the novelty, the machine has b cialdom, and quite unusual (and exclusivelymale) practices of hiring ), 15, 16. Writing about preindustrial work in China, Steven Harrell

autifully adored stool and with its English name written. See 242 640 an additional message about women’s on, 68, 69. Harrell also clarifies that within that clarifies Harrell also 69. 68, on,

and and wai

ousehold: itof household: was the - Drawing Boundaries: Boundaries: Drawing English words n and the season, n and “New “New CEU eTD Collection 644 643 642 Western the offigure the further, would boundariesoccupations- the of that push socially educationoriented is needed in orderto equip knowledge womenthe needed with for these official, secretary, lawyer. the Since reform of thetexts that explicitly Nüxuebaodonot argue power the and ofs the represented ofhome outside economy was the community, the forconducted the asbeneficial toward the female factory wo attitudeofreformers the to point could bear comments not that does unfortunately, text the movement ofthe lower Sh in about audience interested workers numberof the female informs that the note a includes The issueofjournal the ninth factories. foreign for for work used placed in the household, while the sewing machine wasmeant to placed be in the home, if even was labor household. Agricultural householdfor and her fromher breadwinner a within as act also testifiesit that arespectable lateof equation m the before all innovations thatmade life and wellwork easier, very accepted by the Chinese people long day.” factories, if you sew some clothes and stockings you Life in China in Life

See See instance,See, for Elman, especially 2006;and Frank Dikköter, I d em. 642 “Nügong zhisheng”(The profusion of femaleworkers), NXB, no. 9.

As thetexts cited I earlier textnot shows This only acceptance ofnewthe the terms in of was,as which technology,

(London: Hurst Hurst (London: tate: wome - odern science and technology with Western expansion and power, expansionand Western with technology and science odern class female labor from within the household out to the factories, but, factories, the to household out the femalewithin from class labor & Company, 2007). Company, & rkers of the closing of ofclosing century. the the years nineteenth rkers

n acted as a judge, doctor, astronomer, official, a official, doctor,astronomer, as telegraphist, judge, acted n in this section show, the work that educated Western women woman serves to pronounce therequest for access to these Qing woman was increasingly encouraged to continue to to to encouraged continue Qing woman wasincreasingly

243

Things Modern: could earn one,could earn two yuan accepted women’s presence and action anghai’s factories, thus pointing to to factories, thus pointing anghai’s

Material Culture and Everyday 644 of of

da yang 643 but but per per -

CEU eTD Collection 645 cont of define helped to late community a discussed, affairs related and Women 6.3. responsibilities. and action proper their support to the claims women’s abilities, about ajustifying further expansion of the of spheres As thefollowing section will show, the examples from theChinese past were, once again, used increase their physical mobility, presence in the spatial wai forwould women that and opening occupations of the women’s new education promoteto in was stated women thatthe promoted wouldlead this suggestion profession education even future and to, professions. It was only the occupation of a school teacher that was explicitly addressed as a

Jiang Nüxue bao inuation and revitalization of the admirable actions, abilities and aspirations of their

Wanfang As we’ve seen, with the exception of a school teacher, the published of authors teacher, the the of texts with exception school a seen, As we’ve The narratives about exemplary Chinese women from theancient past, as I’ve already women’s and of girls’ benefits education. [be]household, not and usele a the assist children,can [and] knowledgehusband,her help educate the to her she woulduseknowledge gained.she the she notwork, does to Ifstudent wish can a she use issueddiploma be should thatshe so thisperiod,a beafter can student toappointed a in workas teacher school, her a or, toand graduate, student a studyorder how bein many should should decided It years in a balanced way. AsWanfang’s Jiang writes: opted to use the figure of theWestern woman to make alink between the necessity , NXB,

decision no. 9.

- making: Participation and leadership in in leadership making: Participation state- and ss person whoare eat. cannotThese doanythingbut the

can find acan job someteaching school in where other 244 - 645 Qing women as a group that is dedicated to is the that group a as Qing women

sphere and financial indep endence. CEU eTD Collection 648 647 646 notare like men[when comes it to the military skills], but women as are patriotic and asdevoted women’s army the in Prusso- ofpraise of Joan Arc the audience was very familiar with the examples of Chinese women soldiers, continues with the in thatChina hadaudience the past ownas female,but, her if jun organized liangzi warriors, in army of byJoan (Ruoanzi) Arc led Cui came to back this event in the fifth issue, reportthe continued with a narrative about the women’s brigade of Chinese women from past. After ancient the informing the audienceout ab theAmerican Western women of the recent past and present mirror the martial and patriotic accomplishme onwomen from thepast wit Western successors. and military unrest regularly bring together examples of Chinese womenfrom the past and their women braveryabout whotheir loyalty displayed and theirto country in the times of political Justpredecessors. like the discourses onthe reintroduction of women’s the education, narratives Prussia over Prussia France, the return of the organized women’s squads and defeated French army on several occasions. The narrative ends with the victory of

The audience was informed that France conquered Prussia and maltreated its population. Women courageously “Mei fu cong jun” (American women join the army), NXB, no. 2. Forthe quote fromthis going wars.going The beginning of this story,primarilyThe beginningofpreoccupied byPrussia’s this women, reminds the L et us first recall Lu Cui’s essay that Iintroduced in 646 , thatobviouslymade pointed since,as impression, have great Lu a I just out, Similarly, article an in second published of the in theimages issue journal, of

for leading her people to the battle against the British, and ofPrussian theand against British, the the to battle her people leading for text see p. 188 h the Western womenh the whofight are to willing for their country in the French war

ceased andterritory, indemnity received Prussia from France. .

and women’s Prussian army the . . 648 The article concludedis with the remark that women 245

which which 647 she directly relates Chinese

I dem.

nts nts CEU eTD Collection two Germanpriests. Thompson, 25. colony in 1898. The German invasion was undertaken under the pretext of an incident that involvedthe murder of shipping in China (The Great Britain was the first), but it invaded Qingdao and had established the Jiaozhou Bay 650 649 reign is inherited there are countries only which in men the throneand inherit which can those in the electionselecting (public inheritance),monarchies sovereign and or the the that in where explains monarchies andmonarch people.that in Thetextfurther are the there two waysof monarchies, democracies, and the political system thepower in which shared is between the modernthe were thereaders West.Hence, instructed that decision and of governing high positions at equally placed women’sbe to only reassert ability not to served the shortpiece to throne.This inaugurationofWestern the of woman, queen about Holland, a the of direction institutional The did,change. include editors, however, of praise the and women. bravery dedication of patriotic Prussian to contrary, opted quite bythe had, German army,but wascaused Empire Chinese trauma the of condemn rolethat the the G newly of the part dominant leadinga becoming Prussia community,to all moderninternational the the direct engagement ofwomen in the battlefield for wanted their country for and themselves: was Prussia conqueredby powerful a enemy, but wome to the country as men,“[hence] from has that all been said, it isn’t clear that there nothing is Empire inherited the privileges provided Treaty Tianjin by the provided the privileges Empire inherited

In 1861 China signed the first commercial treaty with Prussia in Tianjin, and by 1898, not only had the German I dem. n are not capable capable not ofn are doing?” - founded German in Empire it 1871. Nonetheless, is remarkable thatthistext not did

Prussia’s (women’s) history may served as have a good example of Chinese what women The texts published published in fir The texts the - making power as men, but has also introduced its readers of readers culture to political men,its the also introduced has as but making power erman Empire played in China’s crisis given that the most recent

649

st nine issuesof 246 restored the country to a dignified position in

and became the second biggest party in trading and Nüxue ther

bao e are three ways of government: 650 did not argue not did forparticular a

in the journal a thea in journal short report -

CEU eTD Collection 652 651 army. women, filial women’s and chaste trainingand the promoting as women’s rewarding well work, a library, home old and as for a orphans people, women’s hospital, and cluba for beautytest, con women’s a club women’s women’sa professional ( a school, journal, meeting.yearly Twe theand wives of officials, as well as “women all countries”would from invitedbe to gather ain House of Noble suggests yanyi historical mo - policy opportunityin morepower to the exercise given the reformsif directed developed propositions offer comprehensive a ofview thewhich waysin women have could display late tobecause, deserve roleofthisprocess mentioned be only in here she women not increased does the theof to strengthening authorperceivedleading and suggestions China as that the of womenmen.rights and countriseven women can inherit the crown as well. The readers were

Lu Cui, NXB, no. 5. no. NXB, Cui, Lu “Nüzhu deng ji” (The Empress ascends the throne), decision making processes as a state

652 and advocate female education by disseminating the book throughout the Empire. Lu also Lu Empire. also the bookthroughout femalethe advocate educationand bydisseminating Hence, Lu opens up her proposal by requesting that the Emperor write a Neize writea Emperor to by thatthe preface upher Lurequesting Hence, opens proposal Yet

that the Empressthat the Dowager Empre the and , - Lu Cui’s essay treats with the greatest care Qing women’s abilit ment inlate es es in worldthe where may women inherit the throne,and that thisshows equal the Women ( Women

lve werelve proposedactivities ladies genteel tofor the undertake: founding of - Qing history. G 651 uifuyuan in) the Summer Palace, where all the royal

ies to participate in state- - acknowledged NXB, NXB, 247 no. 4. ss, “just like the Westerners do

the issue of the inclusion of women into issueofinclusion ofthe women also socio related leadership, but her well informed Holland among that is - political collectivity. n ü gonghui wives of princes making at this making this at ), a women’s women’s a ), ,”

establish a All the -

CEU eTD Collection 653 West the in “like a announced plan that persons acting “outer” as “inner” and would directors be elected byvote women suggestion Cui’s that ofGuifuyuan the Lu way. Like wasunder recognizedsubjects as political elected electing both and participate the vision women, that show Western foreign inreports about the praised authors the ones the announced or practices, the ofWestern women for their contemporary roles in d state- from family sent be toabroad. royal girls to study the the Empress to travel all over the world for three years, and to suggest intelligent and talented - ofbound which parents the the (under footbinding withpropositions ends the appealfor re Emperor is the . Inhimself vision,it of Guifuyuan Lu’s and test women. who should rank Thelist donation a Empress Dowager pronounce that a woman who desires to receive an matters of the House of Noble teach, and, onwhile their posts, the provinces to the ofEmpire to the recommends, sent be authorfurther women,should the as these ( ( Nü education istrywomen’s ofMin the high as officials twelve women) would act gongju who

“Provisional Regulations,” NXB, no. 8. no. NXB, Regulations,” “Provisional ). ). thexuebu Paralleling existing maleways of participationgovernment Empire, the in the of related affairs, as the examples of women’s martial skills from China’s past and the praise Lu Cui also suggested that the Emperor order the Guifuyuan orderthe Emperor thatthe suggested Lu Cuialso Co ntributors to to the N the to .” 653 üxuebu

Nüxue bao , adding that only female only , adding that recommendedfor wouldbe the donors

Women. wasOne ofsuggestions thatthe the Empress and the of electoral politics in which (at least) elite women would

were, thus, were, advocating participationin women’s direct the y wouldselect talented women to become the involved in - promulgation of the laws thatwouldprohib 248 should be elected be byvote, schoolshould a regulation footed girl would be punished) and a call for and call a punished) wouldbe footed girl efending countries imply. their official official to select by public vote vote bypublic select to title should present Furthermore, Furthermore, it CEU eTD Collection hand, one On the dynasty. the and ruling behaviors contradicting ofstate the two seemingly andConfucius woman Missionary Religiosity: 6.4. Regulating hierarchies world.of modern/izing the suggestions related to “religion” and the civilizational repositioning of womanmissionary that world. modern/izing Asthe Iwill show in the following section, it was figure the favorable treatment of China in the process of its integration into the international commun more invite and, actor, turn, in position into the of back China civilized a place means could that by reformers,proposed rethi the centrality. As have I also indicated, as of apart the more comprehensive measures undertaken or worldviewWest toChina’s its Japan challenge and of and the definitions andof sense of civility m century, halfofnineteenth second the the foreign in with powers context of the final years of thenineteenth century was,that due to China’s defeat in all thewars access the to. have menwomen should and wouldChina assume the vote as a means of legitimization of t audience school stabilized. Nevertheless, these accounts suggest - haddirectors be suspended until, to thetemporarily as reformer operation of the explained, the Lu’s ref When it comesWhen it the to popular religiosity during Qing the period,Susan notices Naquin T hroughout my thesis I ideological I ofbroader importance hroughout emphasize the my the thesis -

the possibility and the expectation that a proposed reformed political life of late ormist program was not enacted, and the election procedure for the school’s school’s andfor electionthe procedure the program enacted, wasnot ormist

marked nking “religion” ofissueaas the China’s wasunderstood a space for theauthors to articulate their attitudes and

249

to us, to the female us,reformersto the to and their he leadinghe functions thatboth elite arked by the increased power power increased bythe arked China in the symbolic in China the symbolic

and and political political

of the - ity Qing Qing

of of

CEU eTD Collection 656 655 654 pilgrimage, 1852 while 1885sawand on reinforcementwomen’s pilgrimages. of prohibition Dao reiterated the law which forbids long organizations” ( “benevolent men women1762 forbidden joining and women should forbiddenBeijing) be formgoto temples. ofto the in associations Qianlong more gender to went In 1724Yongzheng incenses. menfor womenburning mixed ofand assemblingof the crowds against protested 1709 he burningwho are the incenses should pros be to templesburn and Ingo to statedallowed incenses. 1679Kangxi 1667,1673and that those promulgatedthe inShunzhi edict he which his expressed preference bethat women not should incenses who magicalgathered and arts,” burned a executed.in p wouldbe 1656grou In announcement “troublemakers”, that i.e. the persons who “disturb” peaceful citizens “with lies preference for women to gatheringsall of numbersof large dislike religiousprocessions, ofand general people, “a monitoring, co for or controlling, norms…ansocial assumption that people wereordinary foolish and easily duped…a preference to power their challenge organizations, ideasand religious of power recognition of genuine the “a government ofconcerns: fear religiousactivity thatwasnot the any …aunder control due explains, to author the It illegal. as wasso, were associations religious California Press, 2000), 55. 2000), Press, California I Ibid., 555- Susan Naquin, dem. guang once again restated the ban on crossing provincial borders when going for whena provincialborders going the on crossing ban again restated once guang

The official measures against popular religions started already in 1644 with the the 1644with in religions already popular started measures against The official 557.

Peking: 1400 City and Life, Temples Peking:

remainhome.” in

- opting - distant pilgrimagedistant womenincenses. and In burning 1834 religious activities.” 655

- 1900 ecuted according to the law sects, about while in 250

(Berkeley, Los Angeles, London: University of - specific prohibitions: women (and especially specific especially prohibitions: (and women 654 She also adds suspicions Shealso about shan hui a set ofa set interrelated ); Jiaqing 1800 ); in 656

CEU eTD Collection Bixia temples. gave aplaque to thesmall Holy Mother temple restored by his famany ther; repaired Qianlong the huntinginside estateimperial prayedof he for thewhere his spirit mother; late Yongzheng Heavenlythe Immortal HolyMother,and OurLady of Mount Tai. In 1678 built Kangxi a temple 659 658 657 as thefear that womenwould became “thepreyof clerics.” the during “promis up ritual naked); impurity; inpublic(elaboratelyor dressed cause women’sand appearance the temples. These interrelated concerns were the fear that women woulddesecrate a sacred place imperial times,” Vincent Goossaert allowed herself be to addressed as ‘Venerable Buddha’ ( ( Mother’ ‘Holy appellation the inscribed with banners had summer palace, Gyuanyin since“shefordeity posed the as bodhisattva photographs amidnew lotuses her the as associations. Act the pilgrimage subsidized and Yajishancalligraphy generousdonations, 1886,gave in visit to she wassaid fengcult, shan Miao Cixi upthe took the Dowager Empress while offer incenses; giftsbestowed to the Daoguang, temples; whil Jiaqing’s Empress cult. the to devoted be to continued household fromwomen imperial the (2008): 219 (2008):

See See “Irrepressible Goosaert, Vincent Female Piety: Late Imperial Bans on Women Visiting Temples,” 504 348, 347, Ibid., Ibid., 560. While issuing these edicts, the Qing rulers privately made offerings to Bixia Yuanju In an effort to “shed light on the complex experience of social control over women late experience complex of in control onthe social light “shed effort an to In cuity and sexualencounterscuity and of the youngwomen;”women’s in temples staying (either - 225. pilgrimages

657 ually, it seems seen had that Cixi herself as incarnationan ofpopularfemale the In the nineteenth century patronage by the Emperors was more modest, but the but moremodest, was nineteenthpatronageEmperors century the by In - 506, 561. 506,

or during the overnight discussions, overnight during the or

identifies five “problems” related to female involvement in 251 e still a young prince, was sent to the temples to foye 659 vigils of preaching, praying); ).”

658

sheng

mu Nan Nü Nan as well as ), and and ), n

10 10 –

CEU eTD Collection 664 663 662 661 660 malethethroughout alsothe Qingperiod.Asnoted, attempted I reformersin Wuxu active period fullest degree”, raising the of cult the chaste widowhood as anexample. obligations the bydomestic could to religious sanctification “one achieve one’s performing for instance, d “domesticated religiosity” assumes that religious activities performed home at (which did not, meanings, Ming in and Qing China, YüChün as - selfand embedded everydaylife in in the inner chambers were and integral theto women’s worldviews and rituals. elements Daoistthe and of Buddhist, through synergy a expressed religious rituals and cherished religious feelings in their homes, and their religiosity was regionregularlyperformed seventeenthJiangnan womencentury genteel the demonstrates, of the tolerated. reluctantly were ofwomen’s home to visits nuns the social acceptance. 1 (2008) 1 her home.” Beata Grant, “Women, Gender, and Religion in Premodern China: A Brief Introduction,” (Confucian) virtue to be highlighted by the fact that she never China Imperial Late Bloom and Fogel, 151. See also Yü Chün-

Yü Chün Yü Ibid., 198. b 1994 Ko, b 1994 Ko, 109; Yiqun, Zhou Zhou Yiqun, “The Hearth and the Temple: Mapping Female Religiosity in Late Imperial China, 1550 : 6. As Zhou Yiqunexplains, it was the place of female religious practice that directed its Thus, women’ - identities.”

- fang,“The Cult of Kuan

, 198, 199. 198, , 662 Ko terms these rituals and religious sentiments “domestic religion emand practitioners’ presence the in the monasteries)and the phenomenon that

24, no, 2 (2003), 109. 109. (2003), 2 no, 24, 660 663

The temple visits encountered strong opposition, encounteredas Thetemple strong while visits Zhou continues, In addition to w s religiosity was a heavily invested and contested site of intervention , 198. Nevertheless, Beata claimsGrant “it that notwas u

- - in Ming yin fang, 2001, 337, 338. 337, 2001, fang,

omen’s “domestic religion” and its everyday practices and Ch’ing China: A Case of Confucianization of Buddhism?,” in Buddhism?,” of A China: Case of Ch’ing Confucianization 252 fang argues,women devoutly were inengaged went on pilgrimage, and

661 Nevertheless, as Dorothy

of popular religious beliefs of popular 664 never never

nusual for a woman’s allowed nuns to enter ,”

as “they were Nan Nü Nan -

10, no. no. 10, 1900,” 1900,”

Ko CEU eTD Collection China. Western power Chineseabout women’s help, religiosity,and and the of fate neo/Confucian position textual that annunciated woman,a missionary assumed the reformers thus, anxieties conversion of Christianityfor to grave China wasa threat China’s Thefig ofspirit. ure the themselves from the missionaries’ (educational) enterprise, supporting the vision that the willdiscuss I as hand, in the following section, the reformers needed and wanted to distance they thatthe knowledge possessed reformers deemed for their ownother On aims. the necessary they became instrumental for the implementations of thereformist aims of because the of operation t establishment and as we in thefourth chapter, saw financial participants in the women persuasion was immense. this in missionary of offigure woman thata theChristianity. played spread The role prevent safeguard China from they what perceived as further decay of “our ancestors’ major concerns. two intersection atof operated the these ofnineteenth inclosingcentury the the religiosity years thein West. N Confucianism, that serves the ethically uplifting functions that Christianity was claimed to play to represent China asequally civilized as the West by arguing Chinathat has acivilizi How missionary address to women mu havest been a very delicate issue for the üxue

An important endeavorofjournal’s the An important

bao offers into intriguingview an the ways the which in discourses on female -

oriented reformist projects. On the hand, one missionary women were, he school, association andhe association e journal, th school, and, at a certain 253

donors

and participating supporters of the supporters participating and contributors was the atte ’ ’ teachings” and to ng religion, mpt to

level, level, CEU eTD Collection women missionaries. I am reading both cases as his discussion on missionary women because 667 666 665 schools: brings authorwrites:the goode . do th thing to women “came who from afar preachto their religion and [who] the persuaded [Chinese] people because the educational only system them to one available the by established is missionary Kunyi girls womenChinese and convert to Christianity. to subtlyleading is education thatmissionary anxiety the with doand themselvesChinese should girls, these letters

These letterThese I “ dem. A A m ut but the praise joinedwithis the expressed shamethe are foreigners doing that the what were responsible for “the work” with Chinese girls and women. again thefigure ofmissionaries and the fear of conversion of the female students in their emorandum emorandum that Chinesethat girls and

Memorandums Raising similar arguments, may of[isgoing customcertainly kind becomesocial to] a spread. that government. Thecommunication thewith Westerners continues to develop, and it is [with established school help the of] not people, it is establi private and books, some of themstudents gifted them[by help giving Thewomen’s grants]. theirwomen with us donations. help Some money, of someof themdonate them donate countries. [Thisface is why other […] welosing ofare] hands fromWestern women the the in was placed theof education women ownstill, women, its and Our countryhas

s sometimes explicitly discuss s explicitly sometimes missionary womenmissionary are

of the ” Girls’ School School Girls’ 666 published in the in journal regularlypublished After

women are in danger of in Christians becoming are women briefly discussing briefly discussing to the Official Liu,” no. 4. theNXB, to Liu,” Official represented memorandum

missionary women and sometimes use a non 254 as actively involved in t in involved actively as a curriculumof w publicized in the eight issue of the journal Thu included r included s, s, memorandumone Liufirst warns

emarks on missionaries. omen missionary’s schools,omen he education of Chinese , as as mentioned, I’ve earlier, , and that is this so 667 -

gendered termgendered for shed by the 665 In In

CEU eTD Collection School School 670 669 668 world. map of the religious representationofmourns the onthe China menKang women, Tongwei and between state religion. essay onher addressed women’s education, the importance of promoting Confucianism the as WestKangthisposition, Tongwei, the and, Christianity.partof and a daughter, supported His as to counterforce religious and cultural a as advanced further be should it Confucianism that and is female religiosity to support the reformist cause. traditions and “religion” allowed the reformers to use the political and economic potential of flexibilityofnotions of thatthe “wrong” may its suggest that wethrough practices pages, see religious influences. Chinesethe to break women’s schools “wrong”the traditions and to the prevent spreadof reply states ofWesternKunyi hadefficient:Liu missionary to his very influences proved be in schools the

Unfortunately, I was not able to identify which map Kang “ [Jing Yuanshan A memorandum of the to the to Liu), Official The argument that the Chinese school should be supported in order to annul the religious the annul to in order supported be school should Chinese the that The argument aimsthe of education. [our] by Wethattheonce much girls, theours. afraid educated very Westerners, are will forget Jesus, in believe the and why educatereason they [thegirls] is completely than different of Shanghai: there are as many six orseven as missionary schools, [their teachers] them girls, and makedistinctionboys teach T a and between don’t all. Foreigners who came our to country opened the schools[wherever they settled]. They After acknowledgingthatboth Confucian and Buddhist promoteteaching equality male alreadyAs argued I that indicated,reformers, notably Kang and Youwei,

his supporthis for the educational initiativespointed women, to applauds and the aim of

et. al 670 ], “ ], This map,Kang as narrates, represents the great territory of China asaland 669

Nüxue tang Nüxue Girls’ School School Girls’ NXB, no. 8. no. NXB, Nevertheless, theargumentative texts ofbao, as well asthe Nüxue

di san di

to the Official Liu,” the to Liu,” Official 668

cibing Nanyang dachen Liu gao” (The 255

refers NXB,

to. no. 4. no.

third

memorandum of the o use the example the use o Girls’ Girls’ CEU eTD Collection 671 Chinese and published in the third issue of the journal reassures the readers that “[this school] assimilate and school the journal. officials,governmental itsunmediatedand advoc Confucius because it was not well mentioned I as the chapter, in third be reformers to had careful with agendadeify their to to spiritual,response the by and materialextension, threat thatcom also,treats oncethe of women, teachings it again, as Chinese of but the proper Confucius only of women’srespect for Confucian teachings. She warns: alsodisplay a but out, as education, Kang points receive to way a for them only not temples are gof women’s worshipin in sacred/Confucian temples ( of Buddhism, no with mentionConfucianism. of with Shecontinues criticism prohibition of the

KangTongwei, NXB, no. 7.

Hence, “The announcement stating in textis only oftenunacknowledged role that BuddhismThis not the lives played but country, instruction maythe ofSage vanish. the also understand teachingsthe ofSage the will decrease. not This onlywill endanger the who numberof believeIf Jesus the people in number increases,the of those who Buddha, [and] worship not that[they] amafraid will react…I do not Buddha. If we But worships population halfof[Chinese]Confucian education. the Out of millionpeople, four hundred arethere tentwenty to percent of those who receive Buddha. of mostWomen most the devout, ippers are numerous worsh offerings.Womenpresent donot understand medicine, [but] they rely onblessing. theGood,Women principles.[do the understand] understand not not [but] they do Bodhisattva,Women [but]heardname the not e venerable hav worship ofSage the and

western [and western learning, andwe] publicize any followreligion donot any donot

of the Guishuli Chinese Societyof GuishuliChinese for the Women’s Learning” - accepted by a great number of influential literati and 256 acy mayacy endangered operation have the of the

sheng miao). Women’s visits to the 671

es fromWest. the However,

that they will worship Jesus.

CEU eTD Collection Lady Zhang students, teachers, supervisors and the “inner” directors collected ten Confucianism As practice. in reform that way 674 673 672 feelings religious theof existing their womenexceptionally negotiated interesting which way in letter byall the uniformly womenwas not supported involved. political economic and However,thisway ofglory. rechanneling potentialof female religiosity religion Confucianismthatwouldsafeguardits civ as and China ilizational reformers introduce to missionary woman cultural the and she asanxiety seen,provoked, we have wasused bysome name Madame the to Confu that: in ofschool. Zhangwasdelegated informcius the Confucius books,” religious No.9) NXB, Learning), NXB, no. no. NXB, Learning),

“Yi wen zhaolu” ( wen “Yi Madame Zhang received the honor and a privilege of recommending the future exemplary women (reported in Guishuli received from Lady The article ofofWomen’sThe article the school named reply director the “The of figure bya thatwasopened onwomen’s religiosity for discussions The space andfor bumperharvest a happiness. for people’s prayWe world. makethe devotedly [they will] in countryprosperous, always the peace Women’s Learned Society and Women’s Journal may always exist! sincere desire. We all exerted our abilities to help to open this school. school…when a for wewomen, opened done we [have will allrepay teachings; Confucius’ sacred spirit to blessour success, [and] to foster man Zhongguo 673 to buy to candles,incense, tea, fruits othe and 672 Published 3. -

oriented womenoriented involved thein operation of Nüxue hui Nüxue

but the text from the ninth issue of the journal sheds light sheds ontheadditional issueofjournal fromthe ninth the but text the letters), NXB, no. 9. Wu” in theoffers sixthjournal published the issue of aglance into an gaobai,” gaobai,” (The announcement of the Guishu Chinese lane Society for Women’s

the the text published the in ninth of the issue journal reports

[ t hey hey 257 will]contribute tothecountry; [theywill] make 674

r sacrificial utensils, and to report to ability and and of ability persons y

so with and sent this money this yuan to sent and Nüxue tang ] determination and determination and ]

the forWe the plead Lady [We that] hope

talent! They Zhu to theZhu to related , the , the

to to

CEU eTD Collection feelings and rechannelto th planned women lightwhich way in onthe additional 678 677 676 675 dream, a having donate Women’sthe moneythe School. should she to the lady Wu could not be peace at because she did not donate the“peace spirits. the Women thus, please gods not, attempt to prefecture spirits. with and should properly behave temple the incense,go to burn and Lady to not byEmperor follow therulesetWomen bythe teachingsabide and the of should Confucius becausepilgrimageTai, Mountain to she e th goto to Wu Madame not advising tois her, letter received the clarified wrote, who, she as the older thatLadyZhu, an read reconstructto the ofcontent that letter bycounter i reproduced wasnot The letter Wu LadyZhu. Lady to female readership with the reformist aims. This article is a reply to the letter that was sent by Zhu toZhu letterthe received from Madame Wu

“Provisional Regulations,” NXB, no. 8 no. NXB, Regulations,” “Provisional Cize I “ dem. Nü gongxue neidongshi Zhu nüshi fu Wu nüshishu” ( pilgrimage to the the to pilgrimage

is a formof Chinese book.

Instead, at the end ofpublished the reply, Lady Zhu formulates the crucial suggestion: if Furthermore, the closing of the Furthermore, section Regulations the of the Women’s school sheds will be photographed, and photographed, be their will After the school resumes with its work, hard immortal. springevery autumn and they will be worshiped, making school themeternal this and and 678

Mountain Tai.Mountain LadyZhu, rather or, her husband (JingYuanshan himself) eir

to go to goto to wanted and dream a had about offrail health, lady rather veneration to veneration to reformthe .

,” NXB, No. 6.

photos will be be photos a will scrolled in

would be disrespected by “knowledgeable by“knowledgeable disrespected would be people Zhu continues, andZhu continues, local only 258 The replythe of

- reading the published reply,the original letter - - pain and working - n the journal, but if I may but if I dare n the journal, oriented elite women. The text women. elite Thetext conveyed: oriented to fostertheir students’worshipping director of of director ci ze. ci 676 staking women directors 677 the Women’s schoolLady

- officials officials know how to bringing money”bringing after After they pass away,

to attempt .”

675

CEU eTD Collection 680 679 mother. eventually of roles the and of sister daughter, instead,performance but, the daughter of performance her including her dailyperformance with mostimportant roles, longer of no social woman’s to relations her kin: when a woman of the in creation and - newly remind the all a andto rituals, aimingjoin manwoman wedding betrothal convoluted and correctly a and to assumedwhose preparation involvementofmatchmakers the and geomancers, as well as constitutive and transferrable. In this context, marriage was an elaborately regulated institution mutually wereas Empire functioningperceived offamilythe and the China, the Imperial 6.5 anddevotions economic emotionaland their investments. a as Temple,countingfor substitute homeearnestness the school and onthe of women’s Thecauses. attempted religious rechannelingof women’s devotions aspired t and concerns may,significant potential, which should and redirectedbe, suitthe to reformists’ Littlefield, 2002), 34. 2002), Littlefield, 2001)

See, for instance, Wang Pengling, Hunyininstance, Wang for See, shi Bret Hinsch, . marriage Competingof visions

The place of religiosity in thelives ofwomen was, acknowledged thus, as asite of As Bre As As Ielaborated in the part of the third chapter where Ita t Hinsch argues, marriage was generally the most important institution shaping a most shaping a the institution important wasgenerally argues, marriage Hinsch t Women in Early Imperial China Imperial Early in Women

- blood the prolonging in duties and roles wed of their 680 loyal familial and imperial subjects. That

is, a is,

woman not permanent a does have placewithout being social

(The history of marriage) (Shanghai: Shanghai renmin chubanshe,

(Lanham, Boulder, New York, and Oxford: Rowman and got 259

married she had to assume an entirely new set 679

lked about gender roles in in roles about gender lked line of the man’sfamily o position theoposition - in - law, and and law, CEU eTD Collection woman of the world is [going is be] world woman to ofmarried,” the interpretation, her in elaborationintegrity, and, claims onwomen’s Xuethat “every Shaohui 683 682 681 abouteducation, the necessity to boost women’s about work,and the desire to increase the power curre react beenmust have formulated in waya not as to maleturn the reformers into opponents who would anal keptmind be in in should oriented womenwere relying on the support of their male relatives, the benefit and the limit that avoid to confrontation holders the ofwith Furthermore, neo/Confucian authority. sincereform the proposed authorities, changes mustimperial formul been have reformists’ agenda. Since marriage was crucial in upholding the entire system of familial and society in positioning mostimportanther the and socio married, as Rosenlee reminds us, which makes marriage theonly legitimate influence for

Wang Chunlin, NXB, no. 5. no. NXB, Chunlin, Wang Xue Shaohui, “Si de song” (Exalting the Rosenlee, 2006, 126.

ntly enjoying the in system. strongly A number of A number If was there acertain of level consensus about theneed and content of women’s ofThe change ofinstitution most the wasthe marriage disaccorded issueon the and wife, and establish between] relationship [createda husband comprehended]they [people and increased, matters the humanand knowledge Gradually, manwoman. a and between distinction dawnAt the against change, which would deprive them of the privilegewerethe they power themand change, of woulddeprive which against

of the humankind, people were ignorant notof humankind,people did and understand the the texts published in in published texts

ed household. a yzing women’s words and acts, all suggestions change for social yzing acts,all and women’s words

four virtues), NXB, no. 9. no. NXB, virtues), four Nüxue bao 683 682 260

while Wang explains that: while Chunlin - indeed supportHins indeed cultural institution for a woman.

ated aated in very careful way so as ch’s and Rosenlee’s

681

- CEU eTD Collection when they reached one hundred) one reached when they 684 madethat eventually them livetheir and happily together lives join thecelebrates enduring old) were with womanthey love a in when accounts asintroduced factual of news. information readers received about unregulated marriages based on feelings and free choice were was substantiate the claims for its desirability in China. It is important to note that “free”marriage she the is only example that may be used to depict“free” marriages ofWest and the to of the companionship. Thefigure feelings and free choice of thepartners as offering enduring mutual happiness, respect and practices ofmarriage. among ot were men they exercising,depriving ofpower f issue the the wasargued marriage of changing women’s- thatwouldco parallel sphere which, inendeavor, contrast to other reform contested terrain. As this section will show, the reform of marriage was indeed a multivocal which marriage should be adjusted to suit the of set advocated social changes were highly - ofdecision in women participation and

“Bai sui hunyin” (Marriage in the old age), NXB, no. 8.

not not but Hence, we read about a of system ofmarriage the critique current marriageOne a onshared line introduced based

explicitly argued for in the respected textual genre of educated discussions. Instead, the Instead, discussions. genre of textual educated respected argued the forexplicitly in who her ways, through an open open an ways,through her , “because ofmany obstacles,” managed t

very . 684 Western - long their and newscouple old the about While old old critique of men and their privileges intrinsic in the current in the mi the in man man making and existthe in woman role plays acrucial in thesediscourses, since (lit. “of - 261 oriented proposalsoriented that argued for re/creation of ddle of their of(i.e.whenlives they ddle their

one hundred and four years hundred one thirty governing, proposals about the waysin about proposals governing, o get gotmarry when they old only (i.e. wai wai sphere without (straightforwardly)sphere were lasting love lasting fifty years )

who fell fell who or, or, CEU eTD Collection and his French wife women in to womenascribed numerous China in ethical motivations – tothreatening the ofdefiance publicauthority (in case, her the missionary society), is not as represented should changed. be institution It is interesting though, that Norwegiana missionary women’s reaffirming the ideal of there are other significant issues that this short story touches upon. First, the text is once again an easy task to envisage its future. The report about the arranged marriage of the granddaughter 685 Chineselife, of ordering social marriage and it the ofstructuring because importance in unique!” many] women, snobbish thata Western woman willing is to marry poor a Chinese man is [truly] missionary Thesociety. unsigned authorconcludes that “[Nowadays] when there [many are pos missionary returned to Shanxi years several married later, the man she loved, and resigned from her community. missionary However,she home andwassent woman back byher the beginning, with un love an in Chinese man” sends several messages the to readers. feelings that defeated all the obstacles, a report entitled “AWestern woman is marrying a

“Xi n “Xi ü In addition to the critique of the influence that wealth (or the lack of it) had on marriage, on had of the it) lack (or that wealth tocritiqueofinfluence addition the In T The text informsabout fell a readers woman missionary who the Norwegian Shanxi from zi gui Huaren” (A Western woman is marrying a Chinese man), 685 he reports that informed the readers about foreign marriage practices also reveal that,

t becauset she acted against the rules and obligatory statements she signed for her

social orde married and poor Chinese man. Their love was not approved from the approved from poorwasnot married and Chinese love the man. Their altruistic love, that this time got contrasted with thematerialist motivations “ free ” r, r, but instead gets praised as virtuous revealing behavior higher her

marriage as oriented reformist projects , perhaps res

one of proposed the ways in thiscrucialwhich social 262 ulting fromulting involvem the

NXB, No. 7.

ent ofent C hen Jitong Jitong hen

was not CEU eTD Collection 687 686 differentwife a and for punishments forhusband prescribe a which making and same the request, raises hervoice against thelaws allow that men to demand adivorce, but disable womenfrom wives womennoteven secondary and concubines while are have allowed to remarry. desires forthe food and are primordialsex Wang human needs, points that,regrettably, men can “ byWangwritten Chunlin Anmarriage. examplemen standards of for criticismofdouble a women and thearticle the is men to positions thethatwomen in unequal customsprescribed criticized laws and the and married couple. affair, it is actually the buildpartnership waya to thatbringslong immoral maylike an marriage look even free though ethical people,”that the to “highly pointed their spouses after they reach the age ofone. twentyThe commentary ends with an Britain, the exampleWest of was the claiming raised that Western men and womenfreely choose s rather but again, rather the strictandof regulations are oftenChina marriage persons.Once that bondunsuitable wealthy and capable and honorable man. T admirablean bridegroom, Hesse Duke of desire to keep it as is: an arranged institution that helps the governing of the state. disclose that, sometimes, was there not aclear cut betweemarriagen the propagatedthe and free of Queen Victoria

Wang Chunlin, NXB, no. 5. no. NXB, Chunlin, Wang “Guizu lianyin”“Guizu (A marriage arrangement aristocrats), between As I have announced, have another As I line of argumentation This begins report with the news Princess that Victoria entered an arrangedmarriage with 686 trange for accompanying thetext forpraise an arranged aristocratic marriage in

(Victoria Melita of Saxe

A discussion of equality betweenmen ofA ”. discussion equality women After and stating that

- Coburg and Gotha) and its accompaniedCoburg its and commentary Gotha) and

(Ernst Louise Charles Albert William), who is a he report further reads that marriage practices in 263

NXB, no. 5. present in the texts of Nüxuebao

- lasting happiness lasting to the

explanation, explanation, 687 She also CEU eTD Collection decision.” others’ it is die, will live or she something or whether not, sold,likes whether and she object of owner “Woman the body, is her still,decide and others marry,whom will she isshe likethe 690 689 688 operationestablishment and of the association, school, the the were and journal themselve claim. independent an Yet,it is important torecall that somein womenthe the involved of buthusband, her authori journal reveals N amurdering spouse. she willbe dismembered. I , and that only note that bao,and short articleüxue a concubinepublished ona the of in in Xue Shaohui

Wang reminded the readers that if a man kills his wife, he will be whipped, while, if a woman kills her husba Xue Shaohui, NXB, no. 9. I dem. . Xue writes:

Thus, the concubine possessed a certain a concubinepossessed Thus, the authority youngmarryingof a over daughter her These are three commands for awomanwho is about marry. to at clothes.you look your commands never offorget parents, your [their words], commands] recall [their whenever the commands offather and hermother, she commands: respectively listen (obey) the women’s virtue.violate Father’s concubinegives a her pouch a as gift, [and] emphasizing husband, your never and respect diligent, be to commends:e youhav mother a clothes, While and yourmy Alwaysrememberpreparingmorals respect husband. words. her violate thingsthat do the commands:married her father donot be to going is When girl a Nonetheless, it is important to note that the polyg how 689

polygamous polygamous

688 dem. A woman’s Awoman’s ty servedtoty the authoritybackbone of and make father mother, a to not

marriage

and role in gettingmarried is described in the following terms: the status groupthe of this of 264 amy

was not a matterwas not a of debate in

women 690

got represented in the nd, nd, s

CEU eTD Collection causes. She causes. in died age had admired K’ang for a long time, keeping his picture on her wall while…[and] who became his concubine at the w 694 693 692 691 benevolent the and with you continue righteous “If reportedlysaid: husband thatwomen nourish.Thetearful,dying should aspirations and ideals Wang’smessage Ms. about virtuous behavior, making example an ofcorrect her behavior, the additional one nveys husband’sdeathbed co the The of scene he of died tuberculosis. that hard forenough themselves. read marriage with Mr. Xie Kaitai, a coppersmith. The couple was praiseworthy because of their her about with narrative a continues Thisstory commending parents. her to obedience and Wang starts with praise mo aboutres thechastityreconfirmation ofexisting the women entitled“Aabout record journal praised by the texts of not it did an and consider polygamous issue. concubines the couple did not have anything else to eat. They shared the rice, made it salty could not earn enough money for rice, she went to ask their neighbors for help. The neighbors gave them rice, but others at one’s expense was stressed in the depiction o opted to give his entire earnings to the man he knew when the acquaintance asked him for help. The sacrifice for depicted as an extraordinarily already onehad child,and, since they were the adoptionpoor, meant theirsacrifices bigger child. for Mr. was Xie He was nineteen, she was twenty one and betrothed to himwhen he was eight. Kang had two concubines: ith whomhe gotmarried in 1897,and “an intelligentgirl who had gone toAmerica to pursue her studies…[who]

We know We The couple was also praised for adopting a child. The adoption was a sign of benevolence because the couple “Guafu Xie Wang shi zhuan” (A record about Mr. Xie’s widow, Ms. Wang), NXB, no. 8. For instance, Zhu Shilan and of seventeen, with her parents’ iness to share their assets with others in need, even when it meant that they would not have Nevertheless, , for instance, , , 691 but that the that but 1922. Thompson, 25 n17. 25 Thompson, 1922.

it should be not assumed that“the reformed” marriage was univocally thatKang enjoyed polygamousa marriage. He marriedhis firstwife, 694 N of pre her generous man. Once, as the author narrates, he worked really hard to earn a salary, but xue bao. üxue The narrative moves Thenarrative sad of the destiny husband to a who worked so

Peng Jiyun. Qian, 2003, 436. 2003, Qian, Jiyun. Peng

permission.” Ms. He died in 1914. Ms. Zhang used her fortune to support Kang’s Kang’s to support her fortune used Ms. Zhang in Ms. He died 1914. permission.”

men who facilitated women’s involvement themselves were

- marital virtues of diligence (herneedlework wassingled out) Mr. Xie’s widow, Xie’s Mr. On the contrary,On t the

692 f their lunch: since Mr. Xie gave his earnings, and Ms. Wang 265

life [that we have been living] I cannot say that that cannot say beenI we have [that living] life

he textpublished thein eightof issue the Ms. Wang” , a . nd ate it without nd 693 signed signed A short biography A short of Ms.

by Fen Zhufeng is by FenZhufeng is nee

complaint. complaint. I Zhang,in 1876. nee

dem. Liang, Liang,

CEU eTD Collection 697 696 695 women descriptive claimingof be real to lives and constructs anormative standard for women ( the textwith Theauthor finishes marrythe words: following again. adheretoalways the deathbedwords ofhusband, commit her choosingsuicide to rather than to husband young, thather herexplained died still t and has recently, were children narrative’sfor the closure: when some of her husband’sbrothers asked her to remarry, Wang Ms. her supported be will prosperous.” our lineage, twentyhousehold in years, the and onl “if I The yours.” Reconfirmingruined. choice is self her be will youthat[our] must I reputation to tell it, adhere not but stop, if youdo poverty will the coin for one wish, and in this way, as the story says, she “earned a lot of money she made a “wish bow” and went from door to door of the rich families. Wealthy people were paying one copper bury Mr. Xie. Afterwards, she was working for the county guild, washing clothes, but, as the econo my worsened,

. Wang, 93. R. Wang, Robin I She did not inherit anything from her husband, and she was so poor that she had to ask the relatives to help her to dem.

Thus, continuing a tradition a exemplaryThus, continuing of about writings chaste text“ women, this who possess women and jade. Men than more is exquisite elaboratepropriety her pine, onewinter the more of chastitythan beinga makeup, her firm wearing widow, never tradesman, became widowed when she was twenty four years old. [Yet,] she remains a Wang, wife a o Ms. atmospherehas grave, so been lascivious when the Nowadays, which in ashe with ofways description Wang the continues ofThe exaltation Ms. kind of behavior widespread. oflearn Everyonekind behavior should from sublime deeds. these ofkind determinationdeserve our compassion and support, [and make we should this] y have one piece of meat, I will give it to children, I will bring them up, I will continue bring toIthem give children, will y havemeat,it I pieceofwill one I up, self and her twochildren. her and self

695 The highest moral worthiness ofWang Ms. was saved 266 to be to what ought

( - what is the case what is the sacrificing virtue, WangMs. that promised –

one one

the casethe ).” yuan 697

per a month I .” In suggesting strict suggesting In ) through stories of through stories ) hat shehat would 696

d em. defines f the f the

this CEU eTD Collection survival andfor hope survival ofpropriety the following revival Chinese the way:in colonial or status,powerful sovereign women’s journal should advocate. without raising similar doubts for the other essays that comply with the vision of what a “proper” modernizing a question of why would we think that these essays to reaction political the the “less honest”) are climate is, (that women’s movement), (Beijing: Zhongguo funü chubanshe, 1989), 111. My response to this interpretation would be 700 699 abruptend of the i.e. thechange” political to “probably as issue related the ninth in Shaohui published Xue article of interpreted 698 praising the marriage rituals of theancient past: between men and makingwomen as main the and difference beasts, wild and between humans otherwise affirmative norms. presentinterpreting the ofproblems consequences uninformedmisusi as people immoral and systematically articulates theappeal for stricterobservance of the“original” Confuc widowhood signed article byZhengWen.chaste joinsthe standards ofmorality and ofwomen’s characteristics and acts to can can become like a country the of savages,” author writes, clearly al Then, even if a country has a strong foundation, and intelligent and ingenious st

“If inhabitants of a country do not feel shame, people from other countries can mock them, and despise them. (Abou shuo” hua feng yi duan Hunli [?]“Xiu Interestingly, Liu Jucai interprets publishing of these two “traditional” views views on as two marriage, above these well “traditional” as of Jucaipublishing interprets Liu Interestingly, After correlating a country’s inh affairs menlove women.of and moremore secret and wouldbe [and] there [then] becomepromiscuous, Womenwould behavior]people’s six ritualswould abandoned,be fiveethical relations would disappear. bodies for supervising official [these be wouldnot If there of people… the [and whoetiquettes inaugurated] official supervised and the guided pr the established institutions for Zhou [regulation dynasty of] beasts. from wild different the regulate the [if properbehavior, are] there no explain to texts it, humans wouldnot be is toneed aThe need no couple basic menare women.there instructionsof to If and studyingthe “About Wedding correct ritual customsto

the reforms.the Jucai, Liu See

698

The article opensThe article with defining ritual the regulation of coupling shi yundong funü jindai Zhongguo 700 699 t studying the Wedding ritual to correct customs), NXB, no. 8. Zhengbegins her narrationof theof history fall, the abitants’

267

proper conduct and and conduct proper ludingto Chinese situation. I be celebrated, this reappraisal of rategies, it become can it a colony, (History of earlymodern Chinese ” is the” is text which most sense of shamewith its

dem. and regulating regulating and oper behavioroper

ian norms, ian

CEU eTD Collection implementation of the marriage rituals as practiced in the past: sh opinion,author’s idealized. What ZhengWen as a proposes preventive measure is reinforcing the ric toward cherish other, they each feelings woman a marry of regardless to deep unable men being togetherliving without being married; kidnapping, and forcing womenmarriage; seizing poor for woman problems.contemporary What the author criticizes is sexual love, re from for theof institutions solution antiquity the cohortofwhoChina’s propose joins writers necessary becauseabsolutely arethey the only way to properly match suitable spouses, the author spouse. one’s Shijing 702 701 of parents in arranging the marriage. h men having pretty wives if they spend lots of money, and “love escapes” which were, in the whichthe escapes” in were, “love and money, lotsof spend if they wives pretty h men having

The quote from quote The I dem. and Mengzi to praise the role of matchmakers and the authority of both parents in finding in of the praise roleand authority to and the matchmakers parents ofboth Mengzi as a

The author praise The author then to quotes proceeds theand in marriageantiquity, set regulations down. passed andsangang not, thedid forthousand jiufa over years in the dynasties to not have the same source astheclear River Wei, persons of thenoble character survived the and gentr common people poetryemerged, weaken, to [and someboth] hadstarted conduct slightly licentious institutions weremoral perfected. already [But] during the Chunqiuperiod the social Our China countrythat was the cannot cannot

immoral seductre 702 destroy Shijing Afterexplaining that the complex procedures for arranging marriages are 701

argues for the necessary involvement of the matchmaker, while stressedMengzi the role the scent scent oforchid,[and]jus the

come. [Hence]but dynastyof declined, the propriety Zhou institutions ss, contemporary wedding ceremonies, extravagant men women and

I dem.

y did y did

comprehended of rules propriety and [andmusic, her] not observe etiquette… observe not 268 t like the River Jiang is is Rivermuddy Jiang the [but] like t were change not e suggests the establishment of Just like - invoking the image of a the odor of salted fish the of fish odor salted d and haveand been

does does CEU eTD Collection [two] persons, [assuring that]will marriage be[two] their [assuring till happy the age old persons, would institutionan that marriages supervise that the of commoners, is, goodmatch “a between 705 704 703 “free” marriage and informed the readers that mar crying in emptyyoung women withher Shanghai, room all in her belongings lost. husbands upon Chinese arrival.their Thenews send with men, Times ( for suitably theit. In seventhissue of journal the a pieceof news readerriskandof“ in the women vulnerability to that: in the west than the readers had the chance to read in previously published articles. She claims ancient teachings, the author includes slightly different information about the marriage practices

“Xi n “Xi I I dem. dem. sailed to China following their feelings and marital vows, only to be abandoned by their vows, abandonedmarital be andby their theirto following China only feelings to sailed ü liuluo Zhongguo” ( Zhongguo” liuluo ü

Thus, the figure of the womanWestern and explained communicated both appeals for a Yet woman toseduce amanhas been diminished. Thatwhy are severely the is pretty they punished. practice ofa commit using adultery, It Women etiquette. cannotseduced the property,be by[theman’s]to have they wealth. so not accordance in are that ofthings [whencomes prevention the very it strict to] are they Western differencemen countries makebetween donot but women, and significant a w best argument the supportthe to that order In Lundun Taimushi Lundun is allowed for common people to freely choose their marital partners, but if they allowedis tochoose their if forfreely partners, commonpeople but marital they nother piece of news constructs an image of amarried Western woman conveysthat Destitute Western women in China), NXB, China), 7. NXB, no. in women Destitute Western ) informs) twoWester about us young

269 riage in the powerful West was not absolutely 704 ay to practicemarriage is according to the

free ” a touchy

marriagesmen if notare ethically n womenmarried Chinese who

translated fromtranslated London the scene depicting of one the .” 703

705

CEU eTD Collection social changemodern in China. of processes gendered tocomplex inherent the burdens and understanding ofopportunities the writing this dissertation, and will suggest new directions for research I ofchapter concluding my thesis, social changes. (and its women) supporting as examples in the of process legitimizing arguments for proposed with its social practices and relations. is It this wider discursive framework that of country strength a economic military,and political relates logicwhich modern/izing wider the i was crucial, though, truthfulness ofWestern practice and the realities ofWestern women were not stakeat here. What West purpose of the institution the reinforcing with manwoman and a the sameat position, and for marriage to becomea more strictly regulated andchoiceofa free that thatput on love the formarriage the a partners, is, would supposedly and were shaped by women allow us to see one particularly important feature of thecompeting discourses werethat shaping Wu the in changes xu reform period does not necessarily bring happiness.my As has repeatedly study emphasized, advocated social freedom that followed,and and respected be and regulations to protocols also are there that free, -

narrated figurethrough the of woman a - However, t

he analysi he s s the embedding of women - orientedreformist projects. In thetexts that argueform s I haves I presented in my certainly is thesis not conclusive, and in the

were multivocal and contested will recapitulate undertaken will ofall the in steps the process 270

moral - is needed as solid supportfor the argument. The oriented reformist projects and its discourses in power of the family and the and offamily power theEmpire, the

. The discussions of marriage

that could deepen our deepen could that requires theWest arriage based CEU eTD Collection for mypoint women discussion ut abo - issues that I had a chance to consult in public and private archives in China, served asan entry [ projects related affairs. legitimization and fixed demarcation of position its as arecognized discussant and significantly, self into the political arena of late waysin focused onthe n ideasandforeig and foreign and men Chinese ways, Chinese women.and Chinese and ofwomen’simprovement China’s facilitated the direct participation of category ofcentral intervention. a as figured gender which in change of social uponvisions and acted community discussed int the of into forcibleintegration process its to the in China allocated West had discussed, social actors concerned with the semi symbolic hierarchies ofmodern/izing the world a in more powerfuland dignified way. As I China elites intellectual toenter concerned geo Qing court and to enable the reform period of late Chinese Girls’Progress School Girls’ ] the and Chapter 7: Concluding remarks and further questions - systematic forbut socio reformers’gradual Wuxuperiod call The This dissertation has examined- women – the association I observedI the emergence and operation of women three - directed formation of apolitical collectivity of “Chinese women,” aimi - Qing China, a historical moment that staged multifaceted attempts by the attempts stagedmultifaceted Qing moment bythe historical that a China, which women used the historical moment of the Wuxu reforms to step Wuxu momentstep reformsto historical of the used women which Nüxue hui - Qing initiate to China, the andmultivocal contested,most but,

[ The Society for Women’s for The Society oriented oriented reformist projects. The publishedtexts Nüxue in

Chinese women in theorizations and actions for the womenfor the theorizationsactions Chinese and in 271

positions. A positions. [ related discussions and actions in the Wuxu Wuxu the in actions and related discussions ]. Nüxue tang - civilized semi nd it tied together, tiedtogether, veryin particularnd it

Learning Nüxuebao ], journal the , thatNüxue bao is, the first nine - colonized positioncolonized which the - oriented reformist political changepolitical My dissertationMy - actorin state political and ernational ng at ng at -

CEU eTD Collection treated the bodies of available primary and secondary literature used inmy thesis. bao audience, it promised its readers access to the dynamics of thenewly thatthejournal as involvementofeditors,and claimedas contributors, the women modern/izingin China in general, and in the Wuxu reform particular. periodin As earliestthe the that matter, in all women who wasinvolved,and in capacity, what in the establishment operation and of Nüxuebao,or, for policy in what was previously sanctioned as an exclusively male sphere ofpolitical discussions and and and have beenhave developing a criticism of passivizing, asor, Rey Chow feminizing modern implied, influenced my woon and thinking rk thisdissertation. I read together ofthe insights scholars who whichway in thisdissertation took shape. I engaged with historiographical literature that heavily limits ofthe opportunities and my backgroundacademic institutional and influenced the have discussed I sources. secondary myarchivesand briefly howmy and the primary with problems undertake.and changes that an implied female authorproposed and that implied female reader should support Nüxue bao

journal’s female and/or male audience understood the published texts as written by women for women thisassumption oflate is the it , and inspiredmy further research steps, that is, the issues I addressed and the ways in which I - making. I examiI We do still not possess enough empirical ev In the opening the In of section my elaboratedonI how dissertation obtained I approached and as an invaluable media site which had an instructive which invaluable an mediainstructive directing an as had rolein socia site the ned ned Nüxue bao - related reformist enterprises of theWuxu reform period as a source with a unique a sourcewith a as perspective ongender 272 idence to allow us to claimwith certainty - Qing reader that allowed me to analyze - forming space for women - specific changes

. Nevertheless,

imagined l CEU eTD Collection 706 knowledge activitiesand prescribed to and/or practiced by women thatwouldbe for important presence for women and men Imperial in late China. particularlyI emphasized the aspects of meaningsanctioned elite. intellectual concerned and court specificmoves ofQing influenced the the International Society China’sreconfiguration and forced internationaliz whoselate inAsia, East exchange trade and diplomatic, cultural this regard Ialso talked about the tribute system, the political institution that regulated In nineteenth century. second halfof embeddedbythe ofwomen the imagery Chinese which was - geo ordering oftianxia the informed neo/Confucianand China’s culture China’s - geo addressed I China’s understandingtreatment and nei First, domains. the of oriented reformist projects movement thatI positioned as crucial in informingthe establishment and operation of women- operated. incategories according which, to the secondary literature I cons these texts, tried I to place my dissertation within the frame of analytical and conceptual InformedChina. by case”of to “the experience European historical onthe theorybased social China asa historical actor,

Chow, 5. Chow, civilizational center civilizational terms.I talked about sinocentric culturalism, a worldview which in took pride

I also introducedI another meaning ofnotions the of nei Hence, when instituting the wider socio

that, at the normative level, prescribed different physical and discursive - periphery, periphery, 706 , I elaborated onmultiple meanings of nei with the with works thatquestion the validity of using concepts the from

nei - wai

lines, was,that aswe areference saw, system in 273 - cultural politicaland of context the Wuxu reform ation and integration into the European

and and ulted, late wai

(“inner”) and : their gendered, ritually - Qing intellectual elite - nineteenth century and and world along the world the along wai wai wai

realms in (“outer”) CEU eTD Collection werethat engaged in the establishment and/or operation of women portraits” of“social historical figures who may distinctrepresent three ofgroups social actors the both broader - ideo civilizational an as dignified China a repositionitself to empowering pointedat discussions actions and underway.thus, it back to the political and civilizatio ofgroup reformerspropose and to launch set a ofmeasures aimed China posit strengthen and to and orde and designate power to the ofdestabilized, China diminished if not functioned. theemerged and journal and association women’s which school, waysin understanding the reconstructed the initiation and operation of initiationreconstructed operation and the that Hence,project sectionmy the of years. reformist engagement and organizing the in engagement into thecomplex relations between participating thatactors facilitated women’s Little, untilactions September 1898. female education; and an Kang Youwei, (in)famousof reformer coordinator and the reformist Mary Richard, as an exemplarymissionary woman dedicated changing to Chinese male and Alicia Little, a representative of the social activist wives of Western merchants and diplomats; wai I examined this immediate context of the entrance of late As also I emphasized, military and political advancements of the West and Japan These short narratives pinpointed the problematic positions of the social actors that Alicia Mary Richard Kangand Youweiissue thatprovoked exemplified, my the deeper

domains according to self to domains according

d political actor in the West political developments ofpolitical interventions and the QingCourt and three - defined cultural and civilizational and standards.a This cultural defined enabled nal center it once occupied. The Wuxu Reform period was, was, Wuxu Reformperiod occupied.The it once center nal

Nüxue hui, Nüxuetang and - 274 directed internationalcommunity. I about talked - oriented reformist projects: - Nüxue baoattempted to Qing women into the Qing women the into - geo r civilizational nei nei CEU eTD Collection my imply concern to Wuxumovementwanted unresolved reform in I the women’s participation literature. By paying attention to these historiographical dissonances present in the literature on (represented asdetermined facts and used for making authoritative statements) by the secondary differencest arein significant highlight to wanted also What I 1898. and eventsof about the 1897 perspectives and engagementsmodes in the positions, of certain set of circu down playing the ofimportance wasachieved what how and it wasdone innovatively under a create unrealistically high expectations in terms of historical influence and accomplishment, could onthat they process direct not their maywomen because operated doso mayit representwomen having as much more in agency the which in thatoverlookingcontext accomplishments. late contrary, believe the I Quite mean occupy not to does Chinese womencollectivity that started socio of recognized a thereformsmay created,- to vulnerability have and ofposition the involved. actors women,and women Chinese to had through the navigate thatthetheselimits support of all recoverto the of power and China of Chinese womenthe involvement required of Western men be should undertaken measures that of the visions men, wh the en of and Chinese support on the activities and the recognitionofwhich social Chinese women if heavily, relied completely, not in a implied, Asin toI thatthe situation hands womenhave free act. not suggest Chinese did base of these reformist projects. didI so, as haveI stressed throug the at stood menwomen Chinese and that foreign and map of foreign networks the In my view, to point need support the mypoint thatthe forto limits the participants In to in of other view, Thus introduced I a number of different Chinese and Western actors, their different social

mstances.

own. Whenown. analysismay augments the it agency, the 275 he interpretations of these events of interpretations these he hout my order in thesis, to to belittleto their abilities or political - Qing CEU eTD Collection gaze. Furthermore, both the actions actions Furthermore, which discussions womenwere the and in gaze. both Chinese participated spatial school public in and women’s (massive) in presence the process the the the meetings,which the relationsthe of nei actions concerned with China’s and Chinese women’s empowerment further had reconfigured Nüxue hui, and work of tang Nüxue engagement of female relatives and acquaintances of the male reformers in the establishment and reformed asto so reclaim bothand China’s Chinese women’s cultural confidence facilitated the women be Chinese which should accomplishme waysin Theproposed changed. be should nts, women,- Chinese long the political and civilizational semi- as asemi realms.wai of of meanings spatialdiscursiveboundaries inand the nei reformers interfere gendered to nei treatment be ofthe the to it as what used understood and itsdesignation ordering ofworld, China’s in the interfered Japan West ofand power and the geo both relationships in Wuxu reform was,as haveI period established, marked reconfigurations bymultiple of nei ofin historical strategies representationpresent historiographical both and narratives. howpracticallywith to

wai I demonstrated that these venues for women’s direct participation in participationin the discussions demonstratedforand women’sI direct that thesevenues treated and internationalcommunitywasplaced China new, this hostile in discussed, As I When it comes to the different and unstable meanings of the notions of nei ofnotions meanings the unstable and comesdifferent When the it to - civilized semi

was narrated through women’s exposure bothto endangering and legitimi

a nd wai deal with the limits of the archives, the issue of translation, and political - colonial member. Chinacolonial ofto grandfrom their plan bring back As part - civilizational and socially accepted gender standingmarkers of Chinese civilizational dominance and . In spatial terms, genteelChinese ladies entered “the outer” spaces of Nüxue bao. periphery periphery to the center, concerned literati proposed that 276

an d wai

domains, and motivated and domains, the - related terms: the presence and and zing public zing

wai - , the wai and

CEU eTD Collection process of delineating the bounda of delineating process wai - geo echoes thecreation ofnew world a in which startedChina to reference itself after its vision of “Western foreign woman” in late collections and fiction testify, were familiar with poetry their as Western womenChina, Imperial Chinese in pointedout, Aswith women.I initial stage in the definition of Chinese womenas socio discussions actions and China’smeant glory. restore to civilizational meanings of a political collectivity ofwomen, recognized as legitimate participants in the formationwas the ofwomen group a Chinese whoondef embarked distinguished this particular moment of the Wuxu reform period from the Chinese Imperial past disclose their commitment to state expertiseand interests aesthetic and poetic shared women whomthey with other related issues andpolicy is, that signalsit socially sanc which ofin expected Chinese operate, womenexpansion properdiscursive sphere to the were and to the ofpresence group a women elite in these discussionsactions and marks an We advancementsmilitary political and the of by the power civilizational to needand denied itspolitical the regain related urgent to enable China to

sphere of andformssphere certain politics as argued, I Additionally, literacy. of women the entered civilizational and nei These three projects did position a group of elite Chinese women within the late the Chinese within women a of didgroup elite position projects three These An additional specificityAn inwa additional ofwomen’sthe positioning Chinese with relations deep past enjoy and form did imperial women the in emphasized, As I - making. wai domains got destabilized. got domains tioned extension of the women’s “inner” concerns state tioned with ofwomen’s “inner” extension the - Qing in imaginaryand the women- ries and defining the meanings of the emerging collectivity of meanings of ofemerging collectivity the the defining and ries - related issues. Nevertheless, as have I shown, what 277

the foreign women, but the presence of presence the foreignthe but the women, st and Japan. Thus, the invitation extended invitation Thus,the Japan. and st

- political actors was their cooperation

related reformist enterprises ining the boundariesining and i

domain of and this , and did, and - Qing Qing - CEU eTD Collection and continue Chinese (women’s) practices from theglorious past. disgracefully abrupt the “ways of theSages”, but asadevelopmental process that would recover intr to and fortified aspirations and forexemplary author’s social actions argumentsthe change, requests and of community a ofcreation late thatt argued knowledge). I of western Chinese origin (the yuan idealization periodand zhong of Three ofxue dynasties the xi notion a and the same to creation result contribution of a temporalscheme time a reaffirmedwhich the with thecontinuity character, deedswomen abilities and offr admirable and commonality of community, creation of the sense a demonstrated, forming As I group. relied on the discursive inclusion of strategically selected female predecessors into thenewly women’sand position in wai the - of formation socio a thatthe Thus,testifies journal sphere. the collectivity ofChinese womenre wai the in late a interlocutoractor as and recognized position fix its would womenChinese that legitimization. offers invaluable an perspectivethus, onthe strategies employed the of in process its time displayed and facilitated the emergence of apoliti ofThe inclosingcentury. I same at actions theas and the expressed, years nineteenth journal, s olely as aolely as specificentry for point reaching the internationalized gendered of world ideas,actors

sphere. mydoes indicatedmypositionsphere. As throughout I not Nüxuebao project dissertation, This approachThis Nüxue to bao oduce the desired changes in the painfulleast way -

- Qing included women whose select that from past the cognized as legitimate discussants and participants in the wai sphere of specific forms ofliteracy and government, heavily enabled me to address enabled me processesthe address ofvery to forming a his specific way of framing historical time enabled the 278 cal collectivity ofChinese women and, political group of Chinese women, political ofgroup Chinese

not as novelty a thatwould om thepastwas at the - Qing -

CEU eTD Collection alarm thepublic and allow thereformersmove to ahead with their agenda. bao “social atmosphere” that neglects women’s capacities and abilities. Thus, my reading of Nüxue sometimes the posit texts the I consulted oftenjoinedthe criticism of Chinese women ofpresent, indeed, the and reformed and which were sharply criticized by the male reformers. Nevertheless, suggestedI that assumed the unproductivity, chara and knowledge thissense,In I pointed to the textual criticism beauty, the of women’s vulgar frivolous condemned were reform andthe aspirations that behaviors by practical exclusion of certain groups of women, that is, of certain assumed characteristics, dynasty Manchu into the forming newly I women’s group. also indicated the textual and the allowed ofexemplary womenfrom and inclusion select Chinese frompast the ruling both the oriented late andJohnston McDermott commonality and continuity ofcommonality late continuity and origin has discursivemoves.in learning its enabledtwosignificant China, the notioncombined the with ofclai, i.e. xixuezhongyuan of theglorious times of theChinese past. As maintain,I this temporal scheme (sometimes) in which the reformers’ proposals were represented as a revival of the practices and institutions of type tem promotion mentioned, of I the argumentsparticular was,as a legitimize their suggests that an over Careful readin First, First, it allowed, haveas I just elaborated, the creation of asense of community, mainA rhetorical device that served to introduce the contributors’ demands andto - Qing woman, namely, the state’s andbenefit correct “cultured” w education, criticism pointed at women as an introduction to the criticism pointed at the g of the journal enabled me to discuss, to use the use term to enabledmeof discuss, g ofjournal to the - , “constitutive norms” offorming the identity collective of reform emphasized criticism pointed at womenmay be read as a st - Qing women’s the with group 279 cteristics of women who urgently neededbe to urgently ofwho womencteristics - oriented contributors of Nüxuebao. m that the origin of the Western

female paragons from the

Abdelal, Herrera, rategy to rategy porality hich - CEU eTD Collection 707 the accepte power dWestern term than convey.the understandingcan of the “inspiration” these which embedded were representations suggestmore complex of of processes appropriation possessing the rights and duties Chinese women wanted for themselves, the broader discourses in allowedhowever, me claim to t strengthen the nationand gain to asequality matterofa right.” saw social and cultural aspects of American women’s lives as sources of power – “lookedfor women American to women’s journals theWriting first about two decades oftwentieth century way the the and thatChinese women in foreign very “Western particulara womanand way. in foreign woman” specific general in of what were originally China’s civilizational accomplishments, intro “new” practices and institutions fromWest the and Japan are results of uninterrupted evolution used as legitimizing examples that thepower of thestate will grow if theproposed social supported by examplesof foreignwomen. In the caseofWestern the examples, women were fors the state change ofwomen Chinese suggestion criticismpresent and the through of over and/orfollowedexamples past; late from Chinese by anxiety the the with praised opened requests. their Thetext argumentslegitimizing and their supporting religiosity mobilityand physical marriage, as reintroduction. rather, their teachings,” but, changes social disruption a ofancestors’ the wouldbe suggested “our that would imply past.it Second, Imperial allowed the not a reformersintroduce proposals in to their way that

Carol C. Chin, “Translating the New Woman: Chinese Feminist View the1905 Feminist West, View Chinese the New C.Woman: Chin, “Translating Carol Thus, argued,as I all the aspectsof thereformist agenda – Celebration of China’s and Chinese women’s glorious past, as well asthe claim the that

hat while Chinese women represent did -

280 were discussed with the figure of foreign woma of figure foreign discussed the were with

inspiration”, Carol C. Chin argues that “they that C. Chinargues Carol inspiration”, 707

education, women’s work, work, women’s education, The texts of Thetexts Nüxuebao, duced theduced figure of the - - 15,” in Ko and Wang, 43. in Wang, and Ko 15,”

Qing crisis expressed American womenas both to

n CEU eTD Collection may project approachin using comparative Another a examining entail which ways in gender the the intersections about in ideology,class,oflate religiosity gender, ethnicity and on apparatus the territories conqueredbythe Taiping army wouldoffer significant conclus parts ofgovernmental active the were and Rebellion, Taiping the participated in who women activitiescomparisonssions and of discu of involved women thein Wuxu reform periodwith the anticipate that two comparative studies would be especially rewarding academic pursuits. First, a methodologiesdifferent employed new and primary secondary and sources I consulted. issues, did allow me toarticulate all afore way,”reader’s thatis, to read fromits texts beginningtoend the of the journal’s available to approach decision their and oftenpointtexts out to various directions whichin social change shouldMy head. visionunitary of social change, they not did have identical understandings of the raised issues, and of the Nüxuetang establishment and operation Nüxuehui, religious and cultural hierarchies that China appropriated. detrimental treatment and concealment, terms in womenaddressed of are Persian their Indianand vicinity. inunderway China’s embodiment ofexemplary China’s the about warns thetributary pace of changes thatwere “of three only islands” fromthat learns We the condescending complimentary and tones. For example, byreferring Japanto as smalla country rather neglected and in need of revival. Japanese women were addressed with a mix of werechanges applied, thewith social changes being not repr However, arethere many directio have As I

emphasized throughout ofwomen group my, a Chinese engaged the study in Nüxue bao, in, as Andrea Janku and Barbara Mittler call it, “aChinese ns in which my research may evolve in the future, infuture, ns may mythe with which evolve in research -

mentioned conclusions. mentioned conclusions. pronouncing a a colonialpronouncing discourse oncivilizational, 281 st, st, but learns well. Korean women, as an

esented as new and foreign but

Nüxue bao Nüxue did not produce produce a not did - Qing China. Qing China. ions CEU eTD Collection 708 female reformers indeed organized between male reformers’ ideaof learning societies ( Xia second, the which thatXiatexts is referring emerged to the and audience Andthey addressing. were 1898,1897 and the and may speculations for instance, start, fromof analysis the an in context are manya why reasons Jing there ofwomen’s accountseducation. onChinese successive onthe their history it in report YuanshanJing ShenYing,“the and founders” Xia ofthem,, as Nüxuetang addresses not did am by convinced Xia’s explanation not thatWu’s statem Nüxue hui “aChinese feminist” pioneering into complied her Wu’s pridein proposal with establish to of visions thecontesting of activities. purpose herits Xuedong Xia ,in promotion of Wu Megan issues I tackled in mydissertation Nüxuehui is Policy. One Child ofactions social various and actors bodies engagedpolitical for instance, with, the issue of the on the ways which in contemporary of“standards come civilization” in about the discourses and figureissues in Chinesecontemporary also consulted. also to not “feminists” and take into account the ofcontributors texts the to Nüxuebao,

Xia Xiaohong, “Wu Mengban: A Pioneering Chinese Feminist,” in Lomová, 277. The primary and secondary sources I consulted allow consulted not m I sources did The primarysecondary and A n addition

that she herself introduced as “the first in four thousand years herself four she firstthousand in years ofhistory.” introduced“the Chinese that as

does not elaborate on her reasons to “trust” the words of Wu and other post Wu the toof reasons words other and “trust” elaborateonher not does

al venueal of inquiry that maymeaningful new about number a insights offer of

nd Shen would not write about Nüxuehui writeabout not nd Shenwould Nüxue hui - Western relations. Th 282

as a proposed venue ofcommunication proposed a venue direct as , its operation and, as it may be expected, the operationmay it , its as expected, and, be xue hui xue ent “was not an exaggeration” because ) and Nüxuehui and ) is mayis our improve understanding

e to establish a direct link . But, if male and . But,ifmale and

that operated in in that operated which she she which 709 - 1900s First, 708 I

CEU eTD Collection collectivity of Chinese women and the expectations that expectations actionsthe that led maycollectivity of womenformulated. its be Chinese and entire an enlightenment, and action and forum wouldprovidea personswithfor the a unity “natural of pursue purpose”to improveto reformers’ proposal the systemgovernmental would Empire the that link of learning 710 did not comethesis feminists.” “pioneering be Chinese to address analyzed certainly why I my theshould is discussionsdactions in women an whose as- operating recognized socio dynamics of “internal” stratifications within the collectivity of Chinese women who have been of Chineseformingcollectivity women political wouldcontributediscussions on the histo of more the the as exclusions well profound within analysis as intertextuality, The focus on implicationsthe of wo on historicaldiscourses Chinese heroines ain way thatwould, for instance, allow me analyze to in late women in China’s Imperial past, as well as its relation to the existing elite women’s communities would emphasize amore comprehensive comparison of Nüxuehui off may between the gentrywomen Emperor, the and

Furth, 344, 345; Liu and Liu, 485, 486; Lü and Zheng, 92, 92, 93. Zheng, and Lü 486; 485, Liu, and Liu 345; 344, Furth, - Qing China. Furthermore, Furthermore, Qing China. In addition, I believe that, when the historical sources allow, an analysis of allow, that,whensources Nüxuehui addition, the believe In historical I analysis an Furthermore, my methodologies and sources did not allow me to look deeper intome did allowdeeper and the not look my to sources methodologies Furthermore, er more comprehensive insights on the morecomprehensive mentioned onthe I er issues insights my in dissertation, of I which men’s choice to celebrate particular women from thepast, and not others.

set of new questions and answers about the emergence of political the emergence about of ofpolitical answers and newset questions

political debate actors Thequestion moderninthat this China.

283 if if

Nüxue hui

to theto communities of gentry functioned as a partof the 710 rical rical

CEU eTD Collection Women’s Learning). for Zhongguo gaobai” (The “Guishuli Nüxuehui announcement Chinese Society lane ofGuishu the affiliated to the Society for Women’s Learning). gaobai”(An annSchool lane shushu ofGuishu Girls’ Nüxue“Guishuli hui ouncement the September 1898. widow,Wang).Nüxue bao8, Mr. Xie’s about (Arecord “Guafu Ms. Wangzhuan” Xie shi shangyu”copied“Gonglu (Respectfully imperial Nüxueedict). bao8,September 1898. “Foot for (The France). 1898. in hui” Society nüxue Women’s Nüxuebao1,24July, “Faguo Learning “Editorial Note.” “Editorial Comment.” Di,Wanjia. “Di nüshi shu” (The incoming letter of Lady Di). Nabu 2010.Reprint, Press, for1911. China, forChristianSociety Literature Society China.Glasgow: Literature Christian the of Resume Story the A Brief of China: in Reform Literature andthe Movement Christian “Cansang tu” (Feeding Company,Edinburgh: FlemingRevell 1912. H. Margaret. Burton, 149. M.S.“Report ofBondfield, Mrs. theZu HuiforChinese Tian 1898.” Recorder 30, no. 3,1899, Nüxue bao 1898. 3,15August announcements). (Our gaobai” “Benguan Nüxue bao 1898. 2,3August announcements). (Our gaobai” “Benguan Nüxue bao 1,24July announcements). 1898. (Our gaobai” “Benguan “Baisui hunyin” (Marriage inthe old age). Sources: Primary - binding; TwoofQuestion.” Sides the Chinese Recorder . New York, Chicago, Toronto, London and Notable Toronto, Women Chicago, ofYork, Modern China.New

Chines silkworms Nüxue bao3,15Augus

e Recorder 31,no. 2, 1900,104.

). Nüxue bao8,September 1898. Nüxue 27, no.2,1896,100. Bibliography Nüxue bao8,September 1898. Chinese Recorder 26,no.12,1895,551- 284 t 1898. t August 1898. Nüxue bao5,27August August 1898. Nüxue bao3,15August

552. CEU eTD Collection aiguo Lu, Cui.“Nüzi shuo” (On women’s 1898. Nüxue bao5,27August patriotism). chubanshe,Hunan 1981. renmin siji yao Xihong.Liu, Ying 1898. August Renlan.Liu, “Quanxing qi” nüxue Co.,Hutchinson & 1899. Little, Alicia [Mrs. Archibald Little]. Changsha: shushe,Yuelu 1985. Zhen, Lin, 1981. chubanshe, zazhi yang Xi Shuchang, Li, chubanshe,Hunan 1980. renmin lu xin Gui.HuanLi, diqiu you chubanshe, bookofGreat Harmony). Reprint,Shenyang: (The ______. Datongshu the Liaoning 1935. G.Laurence Thompson. Ta T’ungKang, Youwei. Shu,TheOne education). Kang, Tongwei.“Nüxue li bi shuo” (On the advantages disadvantages and of women’s 1988. chubanshe, daxue Huazhong shifan Yuanshan ji yuanqi” (The ______. “Zhongguonüxuetang establishment school).In Jing ofgirls’ Chinese Wuhan: daxue Huazhongshifan chubanshe, 1988. 196. Western writings ladies). ofYuanshan), (Collected by edited Jing ji Yu In Heping, Yuanshan Jing ji”(Meeting offemalesan the Shanghai in Guishuli: Ththird e and directors meetingChinese of di nüke shen Xiguan Hu huishangzhu gongyan Zhong Guishuli dongshi “Nei Yuanshan. Jing, xu” rong (The“Huanghou ci portrait Nüxue womanto“Hua fu(AChinese study). bao8,September who 1898. haoxue” likes woman abroad (AKorean “Han nüyouxue” travel study). to “Guizu lianyin” (A marriage arrangement between aristocrats). Nüxue bao7,Septe 1994. Xi ha Xi (Collected writings of Jing Yuanshan),(Collected bywritings edited Yu 181- Heping, i ji youi cao London New and York:

(Journals from 1879. Voyageto the England) Reprint,Changsha: (Sketches from the West). 1877. Reprint, Changsha: Hunan renmin Hunan renmin Changsha: 1877.Reprint, West). from (Sketches the mber 1898. (New Record from around the Globe). 1878. Globe). fromReprint,Changsha: (New the Record around (Random from Notes Travel to the West. 1849Reprint, (Letter about advancing (LetterNüxue bao about advancing women’s education). Intimate China. The Chinese as I Have China. I Intimate as Them Seen TheChinese of Empress the ). - World: PhilosophyofWorld: K’angYu-

285 Routledge, 1958. Routledge, Nüxue bao 1,24July, 1898. August 1898. Nüxue bao2,3August Nüxue bao 1898. 5,27August wei . Translated by 185. Wuhan:

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CEU eTD Collection 1898. Nüxue bao3,15August Chinese Girl’s Progress and the mutual assistance between Chinese “Lun Nü Pan, Xuan. shuo” Double xi “Qi (Talking the 1898. Pan, Daofang. Seven).about Nüxue bao6,6September “Nüzhu shihao”(Indulgencesofroyalwomen). Nüxue bao6,6September the 1898. “Nüzhu deng ji” (The Empress ascends thethrone). memorandum ofGirls’ the School to the Official Liu). al].“ et Yuanshan, [Jing memorandum ofGirls’ the School to the Official Liu). al], et [Jing Yuanshan, “ Girls’ School tothe Official Liu), et[Jing Yuanshan, al]. “ Girls’ School tothe Official Liu). et[Jing Yuanshan, al]. “ 1898. Nüxuebao5,27August Women’s Learning). “ Nüxue bao8,September 1898. Nüxue bao School Girls’ [Liang Qichao] “ bao 9,O School and[Lai Mayi ShenHeqing]. “ “Nügong zhisheng” “ 1898. LadyZhuWomen’s school the to letter received from bao Wu). Madame Nüxue “Nü gongx Work onthe “Notes ofT’ien the saihui”“Meinü (Beauty contest). fuwomen cong (American “Mei the jun” army). join 1898. Nüxuebao2,3August shushu hui Nüxue Nügong tu” machine) tieche (Sewing

affiliated to the Society for Women’s Learning). ctober 1898. ctober ue nei dongshi Zhu nüshi fu Wu nüshi shu” (The reply of the director of the director the replyof (The shu” nüshi Wu fu Zhu nüshi dongshi nei ue 2,

3 affiliated to the Society for Women’s Learning). August 1898; Nüxuebao 1898; August Nüxue hui shushu Nüxue hui (The1898. profusion Nüxue bao9,October of female workers). gaobai” (The xue

bao Nüxue tang Nüxue tang Nüxue tang Nüxue tang nanchu he Zhongwai nüzi xiangzhu nüzi de Zhongwai he nanchu kaiguan zhangcheng” (Regulations for the Girls’ zhangcheng”(Regulations for the kaiguan shushu Nüxue hui - Nüxue 1989. bao 5,27August tsu Hui.” tsu

announcement Nüxue 1898. bao5,27August Nüxue 1898. bao4,20August

.Nüxue bao 1898. 5,27August chuangban regulations zhangcheng”(Provisional for the bing Nanyangbing dachen gao” Liu (A memorandum of the Nanyangbing dachen gao” Liu (A memorandum of the di sandi ciNanyang bing dachen Liu di

Chinese Recorder e 3; 3; r ci bing Nanyang dachen Liu gao” (The ciNanyangdachen gao” r bing Liu second 286 15

of Girls’ the School August 1898; Nüxue 1898; August Nüxue bao 1898. 4,20August Nüxue bao8,September 1898. Nüxue bao6,6September 1898. Nüxue bao 29, no.3,1898,149,204. Nüxue bao

lifa” (On the problems of the problemslifa” (Onthe the of

affiliated to the Society for 8, September 1898; Nüxue 1898; 8, September

bao and Western 5, gao” (The second 1, 27 6,

24 August 1898; 1898; August

July 1898;July September w omen”).

CEU eTD Collection gove the and “NüjiaoXue, Shaohui. yu zhidao xiangguan shuo” (On the relation between women’s education 1898. 3 August atSchool Qianxi Village, Longdu Town, County,Chaozhou Prefecture). Yaoping Nüxuebao Xu, Fu.Yaop “Chaozhou xianing Longdu Qianx xiangi Nüxue customs). Wedding correct ritual to studyingthe (About duan shuo” yi feng hua Hunli [?] “Xiu 1898. n “Xi fujuan”“Xi (Generouscontribution kai Western ofwomen). 1898. Nüxuebao3,15August (LetterWei). from1898. shu” “Wei Gongren Nüxue bao1,24July Lady women). “NannüWang, pi Chunlin. “Ticao tu” (Calisthenics). chuofEmpress Nüxue“Taihou (Atravel the you” Dowager). 1898. bao3,15August about yunxin (Newpregnancy). insights “Tai shuo” Nüxue bao9,October 1898. Sun, Yun, “ September 1898. discussion about lun(Ms.Nüxuebao Sui’s military shi bing” affairs). “Sui Nianqu. Sui, TimothyRichard, . Forty Shanghai,17 at May held - Chinese.”In Girls Openedbythe School WoofFirst and the Mrs.rking Timothy[Mary].“History Richard, Co.S.W. & Ltd, Partridge 1911. Rev.Reeve, B. TimothyD.D.: ChinaMissionary,Statesman Richard, andReformer Nüxue schools). bao boys’ 7,Septemberand 1898. of girls’ importance tang zhong” the yunanxue bing (Onequal tang “Lunnüxue Qiu, Yufang. Shanghai). Pan, Xuan. “Shanghai Nüxuebao üz i gui Huaren” (A Western womanmarrying is a Chinese man). Nüxuebao August 1898. bao5,27August Nüxue Nüxue bao8,September 1898. Nüxue July 1898;Nüxue bao1,24July 1898. 2,3August Nüxue bao rnment). Records ofRecords Third the MeetingTriennial of the AssociationChina, Educational of August 1898; Nüxue bao 1898; Nüxue bao3,15August 1898. 4,20August xu” (Preface to the Chinese Girls’ Progress) - five years China in September 1898. Nüxue bao6,6September . Shanghai: American Mission20, 1899.Shanghai: Press, Presbyterian 1900. ngdeng lun” (A discussion of equality betweenmen of lun”ngdeng (Adiscussion equality and Chinese Girl’s purposesofChinese (The the yuanqi Progress in . New York: Frederick A. Stokes Company, A.. NewStokes Frederick 1916. York: 287

tang ji (A note about the Girls’ Nüxue bao .Nüxue

2, 3

7, September August 1898.

. London: 6, 2, 6

CEU eTD Collection ed. White, Aldersay, Debate Al Books,Oxford: 2002. Berghahn Historical Thinking: An Intercultural Debate Al 2009. Press, University M. Variable.” In Abdelal, Rawi, Yoshiko M. Herrera, Iain Alastair Johnston and Rose McDermott.“Identity as a Secondary Sources: 1898. Nüxue bao6,6September Schools Girls’ expenditures ofChinese the “ Nüxue 1898. China). in bao1,24July (The tang nüxue qi” call [Liang she Qichao]. “Zhongguochang trees). the (Aballad silkworms raisingmulberry Yun.ge” Zhi, the “Cansang about cultivating and Changsha: chubanshe,Hunan 1981. renmin Gang.Zhi, Chu shi taixi ji chubanshe,Hunan 1982. renmin shi Sui FaguoZhang, Deyi. ji(Embassy 1871.Reprint,Changsha, Official’sfrom Notes France). “Yi wen zhaolu” (Published letters). 1898. Nüxuebao9,October song” de four “Si (Exaltingvirtues).NüxueXue, 1898. Shaohui. the bao9,October 1898. “ Xue, Shaohui. 2001. Ankersmith, Rudolf. Franklin Historical Representation 1932. Press, Livingstone Zhongguo Nüxuetang - - Azmeh,Aziz.“The Coherence of theWest.” Azm, J. “WesternSadik Historical Thinking from Arabian Perspective.” an In Herrera, Iain Alastair Johnston and McDermott,Rose 17 Nüxue 1898. bao 9,October , edited Rüsen,58- byJörn Measuring Identity: A Guide for Social Scientist Social Afor Guide Identity: Measuring Nüxue bao A

Woman Wuxu yue liu di zhi shou fu qing zhang” (Adetailed list of income and

xu” (Preface to the Chinese Girl’s Progress). (Notes from the Diplomatic Mission West).to the1871.Reprint,

Pioneer in in China:Pioneer The Life of Mary Ann Aldersay

64. Books, Oxford:2002. and Berghahn New York

until until ofsixthmonthof end Wuxu the the ye , edited byJörn Rüs , edited 288 In Western Historical Thinking: An Intercultural . Stanford: Stanford Press, University , edited by, edited Yoshiko Rawi Abdelal,

for establishing women’sfor establishing school - en 32. Cambridge Cambridge: , 119- Nüxue bao 127. New Yorkand

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Western Western 24 July July ar). CEU eTD Collection Los Angeles, London, and 1997. Bray, Francesca. 1967. Press, ColumbiaUniversity London: Boorman, Howard L, ed. Biographical Dictionary China. of Republican Vol. 1.New Yorkand Cambridge Press, 1999. Melbourne: University and NewCambridge, York, Books,Oxford: 2002. Berghahn Historical Thinking: An Inter Burke, Peter. “Western Historical Thinking in a Global Perspective – Historical JournalSociology of Century.” “ Julie. Broadwin, http://www.temple.edu/gradmag/volume5/bright.html(2002). Chinese Relations thein Late- Bright, Rachel M. “‘Irregular Unions’: Alicia Bewicke Little's Chinaandin A Marriage British Sinologicalgies Knowledge of Genealo GregoryBlue, Timothy and Brook.“Introduction.” In 2002. . and Casey.Writing: World New Routledge,Blanton, London: TheTravel Self the Yorkand World,One 2000. Berthrong, John H. and NagaiEvelyn Berthrong. 1997. Press, University deTheodore Bary Honorin Thought. Interaction Asianin of East Wing Traditions Essays - of Religionin Ch’ing.”MeetingChinese the In Early of Minds: Intellectual and Religi Ways: of JudithA.Separate “When TheCollapse Unitary TheygoTheir Berling, ofthe Vision and Berg 73- Starr, Chloë Daria Beyond and Gender in Negotiations China: Gentility for TheQuest In China.” Clubin- Seventeenth Poetry Daria.Garden Berg, “NegotiatingTheBanana Gentility: 1976.Columbia University, Wom ______. “The 379- ChinaModern 1,no.4(1975): “FeminismWomen’s Charlotte. Chinese Beahan, Nationalism1902- the in Press, and History Colonial and J ofChina.” Women History E.Direction in “The Tani, Barlow, 4, no. 1 4,no. Technology andGender: Fabrics of Late Power in China Imperial . Berkeley, , edited by Irene Bloom, edited A.209- byIrene Fogel, Joshua and Walking Contradictions: Chinese Women Unbound at the Turn of the of Turn Chinese the Women the Contradictions: Walking at Unbound en’s Movement Nationalism and LateChina.”PhD diss., in Ch’ing en’s

(2003) http://muse.jhu.edu/(2003) (accessed26,2012). December Nineteenth Century.” Schuylkill cultural Debate 93. Abingdon: Routledge, 2007. Routledge, Abingdon: 416. , edited byTimothy Brookand Gregory 1- Blue, 10, no. 4 (1997): 418 10,no. - 4 (1997): 289 , edited by , edited

. Oxford: AConfucianism: Short Introduction. Oxford: Jörn Rüsen,15- China and Historical Capitalism: China andHistorical Capitalism: (accessed December 26,2012). 5,no.1 443. 237. New Columbia York: ournal ofournal Colonialism and

10 Thesis.” In Western10 Thesis.”In tsit Chantsit and William 32. New Yorkand Class ous ous

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9. 9. - CEU eTD Collection and of 1991. Minnesota University London: Press, Minnesota andEast West Between Reading The Politics Modernity: of Chow, WomanandChinese Rey. ofModernity. Lanham: Chinese Search Paradigm: In Books, 2008. Lexington Kai Chow, O Wang by Ko Dorothy and China,edited Zheng,35 - in Feminisms Translating West,1905- the Feminist View Chinese Woman: New the C. “Translating Chin, Carol 1997.Routledge, Philosophy Cheng, Chung- Shehi period). Xinhai the kexue yanjiu Women’s funü(Amilestonepress in de modernhistory baokan” ofpress: sheqi early Chinese “ZhongguojindaiyiChen, de Lun Xiaohua. lichengbei: baokanshi shang zuo gemin Xinhai intellectuals intheearly twentieth century). “ Wenlian. Chen, chubanshe, wenyi 2006. Baihua Tianjin: Qing). Late (Depicting Xiaohong, wan Qing Tuxiang ed. Xia and Chen, Pingyuan 1934. (Sophia H. Chen). Chen, Hengzhe thesis, ChuiChau, Virginia no.32,series, 2 1894- movements, revolutionary ofin analysis groups an Chang, Yu- 1997. R. BinWong, Huters, Yu,Theodore Pauline and 236- Chines andin Culture State Chang, Kang- 1980. Press, University Cambridge Kwangand - ofhn K. 2ofbyJo China,edited Fairbank TheCambridgeHistory 11,part vol. by 1911, edited Chang, Changeand Hao.Reform “Intellectual the 1890- Movement, xford and Carlton: Blackwell,2007.xford Carlton: and Columbia 1966. University, - , by edited Qingji de geming tuanti (Revolutionariestuanti Yufa). (Zhang Qingjigeming de fa of the late Qing period wing, Tze ching Liu,ching 274- I Sun. “Ming- I ying.“The OriginsofPhilosophy.”In Chinese Asian Companionof Encyclopedia nd ed. Taipei:1982. ed. Institute History, of Modern Ershi shiji chu zhishi nüxing de nüquan sixiang” (Feminist thought of female (Feminist of thought sixiang” nüquan de nüxing zhishi chu shiji Ershi - -

tin.“The Anti ki Hon, Hung- Brian Carr Brian Indiraand Mahalingam, 445- 228. Cambridge, New York,New Rochelle, Melbourne, Sydney: and Qing Women Poets theand Notions and of ‘Talent’ ‘Morality.’”In e History:e andCritiques Conventions,Accommodations,

The Chinese Womanand FourOther Essays - footbinding in Movement China- (1850 6 (2003): 153- 6(2003): yok Ip, and Don C. Price, eds. eds. andBeyondyok Ip, the Fourth Price, DonMay C. 2 (2001): 111- Chuanshan 2(2001): Xuekan 290 156. 258. Stanford Press,Stanford: University 1911). Academia Sinica Monograph 1911). Academia Sinica

480. London and New York: 8.” Ch’ing Late 1800- In 114. 1912).”Master’s . Peiping: b.n., 69. Malden, , edited by , edited 15.” In15.” : . CEU eTD Collection 2011. Press, University and the Religion Cambridge David. Making ofDuBois,. Cambridge: Thomas Modern Asia 377 (2012): The Prasenjit.“BookPolitics Review: Duara, of Imagining Asia W. Johannesen, and Richard Guisso Stanley 179- 1840- Women Alison R.Western Anti InfluenceDrucker, “The of the on Company,& 2007. Hurst China.London: in Life andEveryday MaterialCulture Frank. Modern: Things Dikköter, History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002. Di Cosmo,AncientNicola. Chinaand ItsEnemies: TheRiseNomadic of Power in AsianEast Winchester, Pandora, Wellington: 1989. London, Sydneyand Croll, Elisabeth. of ColumbiaVancouver: University British Schools Teachers’ Cong, Xiaoping. andthe of Making Modernthe Nation Chinese - PalmerKatherine Kaup, 353- Cole, Keri. “Religion in Asia Pacific.”In Past.Chinese 2 to______. Preface Discovering History in China: American Historical Writing on the Recent Curzon,Routledge 2003. ______. PastChinese A.Cohen, Paul Discovering History in China: American Historical Writing on the Recent Sta Today of aChinese Being TheChangingMeaning Tree: Living The Identity.”In of Traditional ThePeripherization Chinese: L.“Being Cohen, Myron Press, University 1997. Harvard London: Latee and th TwentiethCentury Clifford, in Travel James.Translation Routes: Dowager Tz'u Much______. “The Maligned A Dowager: Empress Revisionist ofStudy the Empress Press, University 1976. Harvard London: China,edited A.101Century E.by Paul CohenJohn Schrecker, and - Chung, SueFawn. Image “The ofEmpress- the DowagerTz’u nford: Stanford University Press, Stanfordnford: Press, 1991. University 1911.” W In China Unbound:Evolving on Perspectives Chinese Pastthe - 379. . New York: Columbia University Press, 1984. . New Columbia York: Press, University - - (1835 Hsi nd ed Wise Wise Daughters from ForeignEuropean Lands: Women Writersin China , edited by in , edited Directions Historicalomen Scholarship Current China: in New York: Columbia University Press, . New Press, 2010. ColumbiaUniversity York:

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85, no. 2 2 85, no. State 108. - . . CEU eTD Collection 1983. Press, Sydney:and University Melbourne, Cambridge History of Movement, 1895 Fourth May the to Reform From Change: the “Intellectual Movement Charlotte. Furth, Sung- of Kuo TheJournals West: the to Chinese The Embassy First trans. David, Frodsham, John Widmer, by Qing, S. FongEllenthrough and Grace edited 1 - Ming Writers from Women Quarters andBeyond: ______. “Introduction.”TheInner In of 2008. University Press, Hawaii ______. ______. 1968. Press, University Relations Foreign China’s Order: Traditional World TheChinese John In Framework.” King.“AFairbank, Preliminary 1999. History ofTravel Elsner Press, 2006. California Elman, Benjamin 1550 History, Economic E Eastman, Lloyd. Late Imperial EarlyLate and LateRepublican China.” Imperial China Fong, Grace S. “Female Embroidery Hands: as a Knowledge Press, London:University and Cambridge 2009. Harvard Sinosphere:- Joshua,Sino Fogel, the Articulating 2004. Press, University Feng, Jin. 2003. ______. Analysing Analysis SocialResearchDiscourse: for Textual . London: Routledge, andChange NormanFairclough, . Discourse Social 1986. t’ao, Liu Hsit’ao, , Jaś and PauRubiés Joan

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