UC Merced Journal of California and Great Basin Anthropology

Title Cupule Petroglyphs in the Diablo Range, California

Permalink https://escholarship.org/uc/item/2gj7b7gz

Journal Journal of California and Great Basin Anthropology, 8(2)

ISSN 0191-3557

Author Parkman, E. Breck

Publication Date 1986-07-01

Peer reviewed

eScholarship.org Powered by the California Digital Library University of California Jounial of Califoniia and Great Basin Anthropology Vol 8, No. 2, pp. 246-259 (1986). Cupule Petroglyphs in the Diablo Range, California E. BRECK PARKMAN, California Dept. of Parks and Recreation, Northern Region Headquarters, 3033 Cleveland Ave., Suite 110, Santa Rosa, CA 95403-2186.

V^UFULE petroglyphs have been recorded throughout the world, and it is possible that they represent the oldest known form of rock art.l Such petroglyphs are especially numerous in California, where examples are found in most areas of the state (Heizer 1953a; Payen 1968; Fleshman 1975; Minor 1975; Hedges 1981; True and Baumhoff 1981). One area of the state, central Cah- fornia's Diablo Range, appears to be charac­ terized by a relatively great number of cupule petroglyph sites. A recent archaeo­ logical study conducted in the northern por­ tion of the Diablo Range resulted in the recording of additional petroglyph sites, and generated new ideas about the function of the petroglj^hs. The Diablo Range, a portion of the cen­ tral Coast Ranges, extends from Mount Diablo in the north to a point about 300 km. Fig. 1. Location of the Diablo Range. south-southeast, at which point the Temblor Range begins (Fig. 1). It varies in width been conducted in the Diablo Range, and the from about 30 to 50 km., with elevations northern area appears to have been studied from just above sea level to almost 1,600 m. more than the southern area. The northern Some of the major peaks include Mount area, the subject of this paper, extends from Diablo (1,173 m.). Mount Hamilton (1,283 Mount Diablo in the north, to just south of m.), and San Benito Mountain (1,597 m.). Pacheco Pass and San Luis Reservoir. In Like the rest of the Coast Ranges, the early historic times, this area was the terri­ Diablo Range is characterized by rocks of tory of Bay Miwok, Northern Valley Yokuts, the Franciscan Formation, and plants of the and Ohlone peoples. Chaparral, Grassland, Oak and Pine Wood­ In the Diablo Range, the Bay Miwok con­ land, and Riparian plant communities. trolled Mount Diablo, and the Northern Valley Yokuts and Ohlone controlled the ter­ ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND ritory to the south of it (Bennyhoff 1977). ETHNOGRAPHIC BACKGROUND Although the boundary line separating the Except for a few recent studies, rela­ Yokuts and Ohlone may have been the crest tively little archaeological fieldwork has of the Diablo Range (Kroeber 1925:462; [246] CUPULE PETROGLYPHS IN THE DIABLO RANGE 247

Wallace 1978:462), it is possible that the line non-Indian petroglyphs, were discussed by of separation occurred closer to the banks Elsasser and Contreras (1958), and Ritter of the San Joaquin River. Working with (1982) discussed CCO-434, a native American mission records, Milliken (1982) observed pictograph site that may date from the early that the suffkes on protohistoric native historic period. Finally, two Diablo Range American women's personal names appeared sites, CCO-152 and SCL-48, have been the in patterned geographic distributions, subject of newspaper coverage (Oakland corresponding somewhat to the suggested Tribune 1933; Berkeley Gazette 1953). distribution of particular aboriginal language During the 1960s, several archaeological groups. These data suggest that Ohlone ter­ sites were excavated prior to construction of ritory extended eastward beyond the crest of San Luis Reservoir (Olsen and Payen 1969, the Diablo Range to the western edge of the 1982; Pritchard 1970, 1982; RiddeU and Olsen Central Valley. The three tribes located 1965). Three of these sites, MER-15, -38 between the crest of the range and the edge (often referred to incorrectly as MER-119), of the valley were the Tomoi, Locobo, and and -130, contained cupule boulders close to Cobo, whose people were taken to the mis­ late protohistoric (Yokuts) occupation sites. sions at Santa Clara and Santa Cruz between Because of the geographic association be­ 1800 and 1808. Women of these tribes had tween the cultural deposits of these sites names more typical of those found in the and their cupule features, it was inferred Santa Clara and Livermore valleys, thus sug­ that the two were contemporaneous (Olsen gesting that they spoke Ohlone dialects and Payen 1982:21), and that these data dis­ (Milliken 1982:3, personal communications proved Baumhoff s (1980) proposal concern­ 1981-83). At some earlier time, Hokan ing the antiquity of such features (Pritchard groups are thought to have inhabited the 1982:31). More recently, another Diablo Diablo Range, and to have been displaced Range cupule petroglyph site was excavated later by successive waves of Penutian near San Francisco Bay. This site, ALA-60, groups, the ancestors of the historic Miwok, is a large occupation site with numerous cu­ Yokuts, and Ohlone (Levy 1978:486). pule boulders, in ethnographic Ohlone terri­ Rock art research in the Diablo Range is tory. It was excavated by California State relatively nonexistent, and little that has University, Hayward, in 1979 (Miller 1982). been accomplished has been reported. A few Interpreted ages derived from obsidian rock art sites have been discussed, including hydration rind measurements range from 415 CCO-222 (Heizer and Clewlow 1973:94, Fig. to 4,097 B.P., and a single radiocarbon age 7a), SCL-48 (Heizer and Clewlow 1973:115, of 3,295 ± 500 B.P. was derived from the Fig. 288a; Elsasser 1985; Hotz 1986), and lower deposit of the site (Miller 1982), STA-33 (Heizer and Clewlow 1973:117, Fig. suggesting that the place may have been 298a, c). ceo-125 (also recorded as CCO- used by Hokan-speaking people prior to the 353), a large cupule petroglyph site with arrival of the Penutians. It was observed petroglyphs of a style termed Pecked Curvi­ that some of the bedrock milling activity at linear Nucleated (PCN), similar to those the site appeared to postdate certain of the occurring in Marin County sites (Hotz and cupule petroglyphs (Parkman 1982), thus Clewlow 1974), was discussed by Miller (1977: giving some credence to Baumhoffs (1980) 22, Fig. 4), and, more recently, by Elsasser proposal that cupule petroglyphs are an (1984). ALA-19 and ALA-51, two historic ancient Hokan element. 248 JOURNAL OF CALIFORNL^ AND GREAT BASIN ANTHROPOLOGY

THE HENRY COE STATE PARK PETROGLYPH SITES • • • • In 1982, an archaeological survey was • conducted in Henry W. Coe State Park, a • • • 27,000-ha. wilderness in the Diablo Range (Parkman et al. 1983). During the survey, ^ •<^ eight cupule petroglyph sites were recorded (SCL-496, -499 to -503; STA-195 and -201). a ^ Since the 1982 survey. State Park staff and on volunteers recorded three additional cupule <^ petroglyph sites (SCL-594 and -595; STA- 218). These eleven cupule petroglyph sites • are described below. • SCL-496. A single Franciscan graywacke • boulder, about 10 m. from a major spring, has six cupules arranged in what may be a c d • nonrandom pattern (Fig. 2a). Fig. 2. Arrangement of cupules at four sites in Henry SCL-499. A single Franciscan graywacke W. Coe State Park; a, SCL496; b, SCL-499; boulder has three cupules arranged in what c, SCL-501, d, SCL-502. may be a nonrandom pattern (Fig. 2b). The to once have been a single rock, having boulder is near a spring, and is in a grove broken apart after the manufacture of the of black oak {Quercus kelloggii). A sand­ cupules. The cupules appear to represent a stone bowl or mortar and an oval-shaped nonrandom arrangement (Fig. 2d). sandstone mano were observed within 40 m. SCL-503. A large glaucophane schist of the cupule boulder, and small pieces of boulder with several Pecked Curvilinear soapstone and serpentine littered the surface Nucleated petroglyphs and evidence of quar­ of a nearby field. rying activity occurs near a spring. One SCL-500. A single Franciscan graywacke large vertical face of the boulder is covered boulder has three cupules and three bedrock with numerous cupule-hke depressions and mortars. Four other bedrock mortars are on angular incisions that may or may not be of two nearby boulders. A flake scatter occurs cultural origin. At least one visitor to the on the surface of the site, which is beside site has noted that these cupule and an intermittent stream. incision-like markings are natural (Robert SCL-501. Two Franciscan graywacke Mark, personal communication 1983; New­ boulders have one cupule on each (Fig. 2c). man and Mark 1986:193, Fig. 4), the result The boulders are in the vicinity of a chert of tectonic emplacement process observed quarry/workshop, and are about 10 m. from a elsewhere on blocks of metamorphic rocks in major spring. the Franciscan assemblage (Bailey et al. SCL-502. Six cupules and one bedrock 1964). A second schist boulder, much mortar are on two Franciscan graywacke smaller than the first, is just downhill, and boulders near a spring. The mortar and five has a large cupule carved into a vertical of the cupules are on one boulder, with a face. A quartz biface, and several battered single cupule on the other. The two boul­ rocks were observed on the surface about ders are adjacent to one another, and appear the site. CUPULE PETROGLYPHS IN THE DIABLO RANGE 249

SCL-594. Four Franciscan graywacke would have been important during prehistoric boulders with 17+ cupules and five bedrock times. The association of cupule petroglyphs mortars located on them are beside a per­ and water sources, especially springs, may ennial stream. A midden and possible house have been more than coincidental. pit are adjacent to the boulders. The ethnographic record of northern SCL-595. Two blue schist boulders ad­ California suggests two reasons aboriginal jacent to an intermittent stream have 40 + peoples made cupule petroglyphs. The first, cupules on them. There also are at least taken from the Pomo, associates the cupules eight incised lines and grooves on one of with a "fertility" ritual in which certain the boulders. rocks were carved on by couples wishing to STA-195. A large Franciscan graywacke have children (Aginsky 1939:214; Heizer boulder beside an intermittent stream has 1953a:35-36; Loeb 1926:247-248). These four cupules and eight bedrock mortars. "baby rocks" tend to be elaborately carved STA-201. Six limestone boulders in the with both cupules and incised lines (Hedges bed of an intermittent stream have three cu­ 1983a, 1983b). pules and 18 bedrock mortars on them. The second reason for cupule use is sug­ STA-218. A large glaucophane schist gested by data from the Shasta National boulder has 40+ cupules, 14 bedrock mortars, Forest, where cupules were associated with a and several possible incised petroglyphs. ritual in which certain rocks were carved on The boulder is beside an intermittent stream. by shamans wishing to control the weather (Heizer 1953a). In this ritual, the produc­ DISCUSSION tion of cupule-like depressions produced wind and rain, while the making of straight At least 76 recorded cupule petroglyph parallel grooves produced snow (Heizer sites are in the Diablo Range (Table 1). 1953a:35). To stop the snow from faUing, an Here, as elsewhere in central California, cu­ incision was made across the parallel lines, pules occur in a variety of environmental whereas to stop the rain, the rock had to be settings, the only apparent common denomi­ covered. Such "rain rocks" also are thought nator being the availability of a rock to have been used by the Hupa, Karok, and outcrop. Tolowa of northwestern California. One One of the more interesting traits char­ such Karok occurrence may be the "Shouting acterizing the cupule sites in Henry Coe Rock" of Amaikiaram, the sacred village in State Park is their proximity to water sour­ which the Jump Dance (a world renewal cer­ ces. Five of the sites are adjacent to emony) and the First Salmon ceremony tradi­ springs, while the other sue are in stream- tionally occurred (Winter and Heffiier 1978). beds or beside streams. This appears to be From atop Shouting Rock, during the First a characteristic common to Diablo Range cu­ Salmon ceremony, warnings were "shouted" pule petroglyph sites, especially those in the out so that the Karok tribal members might Pacheco Pass area (i.e., Merced, Santa Clara, avoid seeing the priest or the smoke from and Stanislaus counties). On and about his ceremonial fire. Inspection of Shouting Mount Diablo, cupule sites also occur near Rock has shown it to be covered with in­ water sources, often on or near ridges just cised petroglyphs and at least 10 cupule above springs (Parkman MS; Porter et al. petroglyphs (Keter and Maniery 1977; Winter 1980; Sampson 1985). As the Diablo Range and Heffner 1978). It is not clear what use is a relatively arid region, water sources was made of the Amaikiaram cupule petro- 250 JOURNAL OF CALIFORNIA AND GREAT BASIN ANTHROPOLOGY

Table 1 CUPULE PETROGLYPH OCCURRENCES IN THE DIABLO 1RANG E Elevation Water Site No. (ft.) Topography Vegetation (Dist.) Lithology Association Cupules ALA-60 240 Canyon/Streamside Oak Woodland Stream Sandstone Large Occupation 149 + and Riparian (20 m.) Site ALA-339 640 Canyon/Streamside Oak Woodland Stream Sandstone Occupation Site 10 + and Riparian (10 m.) ALA-398 1,400 Ridge crest Grassland Stream Sandstone Milling Station (?) 6 + (5 m.) ALA-400 1,160 Canyon/Streamside Oak Woodland Stream Sandstone Milling Station 2 and Riparian (5 m.) ALA^12 325 Ridge crest Oak Woodland Stream Sandstone None 5 (80 m.) ALA-418 700 Ridge Oak Woodland Stream Sandstone Milling Station 2 and Grassland (300 m.) CCO-9 500 Streamside Oak Woodland Stream Sandstone Milling Station 8 (Nearby) CCO-21 3,200 Canyon Oak Woodland Spring Sandstone None 2 (250 m.) CCO-125 160 Canyon/Streamside Riparian Stream Chlorite Occupation Site 256+ (20 m.) Schist CCO-152 200 Canyon/Streamside Riparian Stream Chlorite Quarry (?) 200 + (20 m.) Schist CCO-320 600 Canyon/Streamside Oak Woodland Stream Sandstone Occupation Site Many and Riparian (20 m.) CCO-369 720 Canyon/Streamside Riparian Stream Basaltic Milling Station 1(?) (20 m.) Greenstone CCO-375 1400 Canyon Oak Woodland Spring Sandstone Milling Station 7+ (50 m.) CCO-382 1,640 Canyon Oak Woodland Spring Sandstone Milling Station 5 (100 m.) CCO-383 1,600 Canyon Oak Woodland Spring Sandstone Milling Station 2 (100 m.) CCO-384 1,640 Canyon Oak Woodland Spring Sandstone Milling Station 1 (100 m.) CCO-394 380 Canyon Oak Woodland Stream Sandstone None 1 (75 m.) CCO-395 1,600 Canyon Oak Woodland Spring Sandstone Milling Station 5 (100 m.) CC0^16 1,640 Canyon Oak Woodland Stream Sandstone Milling Station 8 + (35 m.) CC0^24 2,050 Canyon/Streamside Oak Woodland Stream Sandstone None 1 + (20 m.) CC0^28 940 Ridge crest Grassland Spring Sandstone None 20 + (Nearby) CC0^29 1,640 Ridge Oak Woodland Stream Sandstone Milling Station 3 (100 m.) CCO^30 1,980 Ridge crest Grassland Stream Sandstone None 1 (400 m.) CCO^SO 560 Canyon/Streamside Grassland Stream Sandstone Milling Station 7 and Riparian (at Site) CC0^62 580 Hillside Oak Woodland Stream Sandstone Milling Station 15 + (50 m.) CCO-469 410 Hillside Savanna Stream Sandstone None 6 + (30 m.) CC0^82 1,720 Ridge crest Oak Woodland Spring Sandstone None 1 and Grassland (150 m.) 1,720 Ridge saddle Oak Woodland Spring Sandstone None 1 cco^se (100 m.) CCO-487 1,600 Ridge saddle Oak Woodland Spring Sandstone Milling Station 13 (100 m.) CUPULE PETROGLYPHS IN THE DIABLO RANGE 251

Table 1 (continued) CUPULE PETROGLYPH OCCURRENCES IN THE DUBLO RANGE

Elevation 1 Water Site No. (ft.) Topography Vegetation (Dist.) Lithology Association Cupules CCO-530 1,560 Ridge crest Oak Woodland Spring Conglomerate None 2 (Below Site) CCO-531 1,580 Ridge crest Oak Woodland Spring Sandstone None 5 (Below Site) KIN-15 1,200 Canyon/Streamside Grassland Stream Sandstone Occupation Site 10 + (Nearby) MER-14 250 Valley Streamside Grassland Stream 7 Occupation Site Many (at Site) MER-15 550 Canyon/Streamside Oak Woodland Spring Basalt Occupation Site Many (Nearby) MER-19 525 Canyon/Streamside Grassland Stream Sandstone Occupation Site 2 + (Nearby) MER-21 575 Canyon/Streamside Oak Woodland Stream 7 Occupation Site 7 (at Site) MER-24 450 Canyon/Streamside Oak Woodland Stream Sandstone Occupation Site 4 + (at Site) MER-38 230 Rolling hills Grassland Stream Sandstone Large Occupation 200 + (50 m.) Site MER-130 600 Canyon/Streamside Oak Woodland Spring 7 Occupation Site 7 and Grassland (at Site) MER-186 1,860 Hillside Oak Woodland Spring 7 Milling Station 7 (at Site) MER-192 1,900 Canyon/Streamside Oak Woodland Spring Andesite Milling Station 44 (Nearby) MER-195 1,480 Canyon/Streamside Oak Woodland Stream Andesite None 1 and Grassland (at Site) SBN-10 2,550 Knoll top Chaparral Stream Conglomerate Occupation Site 3 rockshelter (600 m.) SBN-21 960 Hillside Oak Woodland Stream 7 None 2 (200 m.) SBN-29 1,400 Rockshelter Oak Woodland Stream Rhyolite None 2 (Nearby) SBN.42 860 Canyon/Hillside Oak Woodland Stream 7 None Many (at Site) SBN^3 770 Canyon/Streamside Oak Woodland Stream 7 Large Occupation 60 + (at Site) Site SBN-47 2,750 Meadow Oak Woodland Stream 7 Milling Station 1 (75 m.) SCL.40 1,250 Canyon/Streamside Riparian Stream 7 Milling Station 10 + (20 m.) SCI>t3 2,250 Canyon/Streamside Oak Woodland Stream 7 Milling Station 4 + (20 m.) SCL-48 2,500 Hillside Oak Woodland Stream Basalt Occupation Site 7 (Nearby) nearby SCL-50 2,000 Canyon Oak Woodland Spring 7 Large Occupation Many (at Site) Site SCL-100 440 Hillside Grassland Spring Basalt None 9 + (100 m.) SCL-373 2,000 Ridge Oak Woodland Stream Granite (?) Milling Station 1 (200 m.) SCL404 1340 Canyon Oak Woodland Stream Sandstone Milling Station Many (5 m.) SCL408 880 Canyon Oak Woodland Stream 7 None 7 (50 m.) SCL451 2,060 Canyon Oak Woodland Stream 7 Occupation Site <12 (Nearby) SCL496 2,280 Canyon Riparian Spring Franciscan None 6 (10 m.) Graywacke 252 JOURNAL OF CALIFORNIA AND GREAT BASIN ANTHROPOLOGY

Table 1 (continued) CUPULE PETROGLYPH OCCURRENCES IN THE DLVBLO RANGE

Elevation 1 Water Site No. (ft.) Topography Vegetation (Dist.) Lithology Association Cupules SCL-499 600 Hillside Oak Woodland Spring Franciscan None 3 (100 m.) Graywacke SCL-500 1,950 Canyon/Streamside Oak Woodland Stream Franciscan Milling Station 4 (5 m.) Graywacke SCL-501 1,600 Hillside Oak Woodland Spring Franciscan Chert Quarry 2 (5 m.) Graywacke SCL-502 2,050 Hillside Oak Woodland Spring Franciscan Milling Station 6 (150 m.) Graywacke SCL-503 2,070 Hillside Oak Woodland Spring Glaucophane Schist Quarry 7 (Nearby) Schist SCL-594 1,560 Canyon/Streamside Oak Woodland Stream Franciscan Occupation Site 17+ (10 m.) Graywacke SCL-595 1,680 Hillside Oak Woodland Stream Blue Schist None 40 + (5 m.) STA-33 1,025 Canyon Oak Woodland 7 7 Occupation Site Many

STA-llS 344 Hillside Grassland Spring Sandstone Occupation Site 7 (at Site) STA-127 650 Canyon/Streamside Oak Woodland Stream 7 None 7 (Nearby) STA-129 550 Canyon/Streamside Oak Woodland Stream 7 Occupation Site 7 (Nearby) STA-134 300 Mesa top Grassland Stream Sandstone Milling Station 10 + (700 m.) STA-135 300 Mesa face Grassland Stream Sandstone Milling Station 1 + rockshelter (500 m.) STA-136 300 Mesa face Grassland Stream Sandstone Milling Station 3 rockshelter (500 m.) SrA-137 300 Mesa face Grassland Stream Sandstone Milling Station 1 rockshelter (500 m.) STA-195 1,150 Canyon/Streamside Oak Woodland Stream Franciscan Milling Station 4 (5 m.) Graywacke SrA-201 960 Canyon/Streamside Oak Woodland Stream Franciscan Milling Station 3 (5 m.) Limestone STA-218 1,200 Canyon/Streamside Oak Woodland Stream Glaucophane Milling Station 40+ (5 m.) Schist glyphs, although it might be assumed that the ethnographic "baby rocks" and "rain they were associated with weather control rocks" of northern California, it does not and/or some aspect of the First Salmon seem likely that it would hold true for all of ceremony. the many cupule sites found throughout the The association of cupule-like designs and state. petroglyphs with concepts of fertility and The cupule style of petroglyph is a very water occur not only in California, but else­ basic and easily produced design. For this where in the world, including Austraha and reason, it seems unlikely that any one ex­ India (Grieder 1982). Based on this relation­ planation can ever be given for its use. In­ ship, it has been hypothesized that "... the deed, this style of petroglyph may have been cup mark everywhere refers to the vulva of produced by a variety of activities, and for the female earth from which all creation a variety of purposes. Meighan (1981) of­ emerges, especially water and the souls of fered a number of possible explanations for human babies" (Grieder 1982:43). Although California rock art sites. Although they this interpretation does seem plausible for primarily were intended to explain picto- CUPULE PETROGLYPHS IN THE DIABLO RANGE 253 graphs and petroglyphs other than cupules, Such markers were used by the Luiseiio many of Meighan's suggested explanations of southern California (Minor 1975:15). might also be applied to the interpretation Songs in the migration legends of these peo­ of cupule sites. Of the various explanations, ple mention the travels of their ancestors three seem especially well-suited for ex­ and the landmarks left by them. According plaining some of the Diablo Range cupule to a Luiseiio legend: petroglyphs: When the people scattered from Ekvo Te- 1. Boundary markers or representations of meko, Temecula, they were very powerful. group symbols having territorial signifi­ When they got to a place they would sing cance. a song to make water come there, and 2. Clan or personal symbols representing the would call that place theirs; or they would "I was here" message. scoop out a hollow in a rock with their 3. Supplication, exemplified by the so-called hands to have that for their mark as a "rain rocks" or "baby rocks" consisting claim upon the land. The different parties of boulders with many drilled pits-marks of people had their own marks [DuBois made by individuals to accompany a prayer 1908:158]. or request for some benefit [Meighan 1981:16]. In one song, the Luiseiio make reference to a rock left by their ancestors in order to In Henry Coe State Park, a few cupule "claim the land which was theirs" (DuBois boulders may represent boundary or owner­ 1908:115). In reference to the Luiseiio, ship markers. The sites include SCL-496, Strong (1929:285) noted that "in the old -499, and -501 to -503. The first four sites days each family (clan) had a territory have cupule boulders adjacent to or very marked by rocks and they killed all tres­ near springs, while the fifth has a cupule passers." boulder adjacent to both a spring and a In northern California, territory boundary source of glaucophane schist. Three of the markers are often thought of as "corner­ sites (SCL-496, -499, and -502) are charac­ stones." The Spyrock Road petroglyph terized by boulders with cupules in nonran­ boulder (MEN-1912) is still used by the dom arrangements (Fig. 2). The other two Cahto as a cornerstone marking their inter­ sites have boulders with single cupules each. ior boundary (Foster 1983:51). The Bell In aboriginal California, territorial bound­ Springs petroglyph boulder (MEN-433) prob­ aries and natural resources might have been ably represents a similar site. Both boulders marked for various reasons. It is a habit are covered with petroglyphs, including nu­ that we continue even today. Writing about merous cupules. Among the Pomo, such cor­ California Indians in the early 1870s, nerstones are thought of as "mountain baby Stephen Powers noted that ". . . the bound­ rocks" (Peri et al. 1978:204), a term that aries of all tribes are marked out with the refers to their "spiritual power which greatest precision, being defined by certain guides, protects, and regenerates the earth" creeks, canyons, boulders, conspicuous trees, (Peri et al. 1978:204). Mabel McKay, a springs, etc., each of which has its indivi­ prominent Pomo/Patwin Indian doctor, noted dual name" (Heizer and Elsasser 1980:204). that one such place. Geyser Rock, was an The use of boulders as markers is recorded important religious place where young people in the ethnography of several northern and were brought for training as doctors, sing­ southern California Indian tribes. ers, and dancers (Peri et al. 1978:204). In 254 JOURNAL OF CALIFORNIA AND GREAT BASIN ANTHROPOLOGY reference to Geyser Rock, it was further references to ownership marks on arrows and noted that: oak trees. The same held true for face tatoos. For example, among the Maidu: the area was a "dead spot" due to the disturbance of the ground by present geo- Tatoo is placed on the face as a guide or thermal activities, and that "the spiritual mark of identification in the futiu'e state. power had moved further down the moun­ It is a travel mark . . . Tatoo was a tain." She [Mabel McKay] also indicated family or kin mark, used by the living to that spiritual places need to be used and identify a person and by the dead to be prayed for in order to thrive. When its identified in future life, so its owner could mountain sanctuaries are disturbed, "the be placed with his dead kin. All these spirit" moved down to protected locations various tatoos were known in a tribe or along waterways. As new locations be­ stock very much as the stock men know come "polluted," the spirit continues its the various brands of cattle, and when a downward course following the creeks and dead body of a person was found his rivers eventually entering the ocean. people were at once notified [Hudson "When the ocean water is disturbed that MS:42, 48]. will be the last days" [Peri et al. 1978: 204]. Given a need for identification, it is possible that rocks might have been "tat­ In Wappo territory, two large boulders tooed" to mark ownership of nearby resour­ were considered sacred, and the home of ces. The cupules might have been painted spirits (Heizer 1953b:246). Each passerby from time to time to make them more visi­ would leave an offering, usually a stone, ble, and the cupule boulders may have been stick, or bead (Heizer 1953b:239, 246-247). marked in some way to draw attention to Goddard (1913) presented information con­ them. cerning similar sites in northwestern Meighan's (1981:16) third suggested ex­ California. planation for rock art, that it represents In addition to possibly representing "marks made by individuals to accompany a boundary or ownership markers, the cupule prayer or request for some benefit," might petroglyphs found at some of the sites in also explain some of the Diablo Range cupule Henry Coe State Park may represent clan or sites. Some of these sites appear similar to personal symbols. A particular symbol or the "prayer" sites noted for the Sacramento cupule pattern could indicate ownership of a Valley (Merriam 1955:11). Two of the Diablo resource by an individual or group. Water Range sites, CCO-430 and -482, are on ridge resources, such as springs, and food resour­ crests, along what may have been an aborig­ ces, such as groves of oak trees around inal route to the summit of Mount Diablo. springs, are things that might have been Each has a single cupule atop a small up­ marked by cupule boulders. Many cupule right boulder, in an area with a commanding sites in the Diablo Range are close to such view of the surrounding countryside. Mount resources. Three sites in the state park Diablo played a very important role in local (SCL-496, -499, and -502) seem particularly Penutian mythology, and was without doubt well-suited to such an explanation. At each, considered a sacred mountain by many of the cupules occur in what appear to be nonran­ local people (Kroeber 1925:472). It seems dom patterns (Fig. 2). The ethnographic re­ likely that individuals or groups would have cord of northern California contains various made pilgrimages to the summit of Mount CUPULE PETROGLYPHS IN THE DIABLO RANGE 255

Diablo to obtain power, for vision quests, contain boulders with cupules in apparent and for similar purposes. Sites such as random arrangement. Perhaps some of these CCO-430 and -482 may represent places cupules were produced in connection with where people stopped to offer prayers. The ritual activity intended to affect the cupule at each site may have been used as a weather, fishing and hunting ventures, and receptacle, in which the climber placed an individual or group fertility. These same offering, such as eagle down, native tobacco, sites may have played a role in initiation or shell beads. Harrington (1942:41) noted ceremonies. Although accounts of cupule use that the local Ohlone made use of trail are reported from northern and southern offering-places, and such places have been California, no such uses are described in the recorded elsewhere in northern California ethnographic record for the Diablo Range. (Goddard 1913; Heizer 1953b; Merriam In part, this absence may be due to the 1955). quality of the regional ethnographic record. In addition to the suggested use of cer­ Or it may indicate that the cupule sites tain cupule sites as trail offering-places, were used prior to the arrival of the some of the Diablo Range sites may repre­ Penutians, upon whom the ethnographic sent "destination" sites, or places where record of the Diablo Range is based. individuals went to conduct a particular NOTE ceremony. Such activity may have involved hunting magic, fertility enhancement, weath­ 1. For the purpose of this paper, a bedrock depression is considered a "cupule" if it occurs er control, or initiation. Gayton (1930:399) on a vertical rock surface or, if found on a hor­ noted that the Yokuts and Western Mono be­ izontal surface, it has a depth of 4 cm. or less. lieved that "Springs of water frequently In the Diablo Range, most cupule features tend made people ill, by sending sickness in the to be 4 cm. or less in depth, and 10 cm. or less form of a water insect." Perhaps cupule in diameter. However, since large cupules do in- boulders adjacent to springs and streams tergrade with small mortars on horizontal sur­ represent some former ceremonial activity faces, it is likely that some of the cupules dis­ cussed in this paper are in fact small mortars, aimed at maintaining or restoring the purity and vice versa. For this reason. Table 1 should of the particular water source. be viewed cautiously, since some of the cupule sites listed thereon may be bedrock milling sta­ CONCLUSION tions. In this same regard, I should note that I have personally inspected less than half of the The Diablo Range is an area with many sites listed in Table 1. For the remainder, I cupule petroglyph sites. The area has re­ have had to rely on site records on file at the ceived relatively little archaeological inspec­ Office of Historic Preservation (as of 1982), and tion, and likely more cupule sites will be the California Archaeological Inventory's North­ found in further field studies. Some of the west Information Center (as of 1986). Many of Diablo Range cupule sites appear to be asso­ the site records, especially those compiled prior to the 1970s, are tenuous at best, and are of ciated with springs and streams, perhaps limited value for archaeological study. In some serving either to mark the water or affect it of these latter cases, the records Hst "pitted in some way. Several boulders have cupule boulders" or "rain rocks" among the site char­ arrangements that appear nonrandom. Per­ acteristics. In other cases, however, I have haps these cupule patterns symbolically inferred the presence of cupules from references "marked" the ownership of nearby resources to "very small" or "incipient" bedrock mortars. (such as water). Many other cupule sites Several of the earlier site records reference 256 JOURNAL OF CALIFORNIA AND GREAT BASIN ANTHROPOLOGY bedrock mortars, while the accompanying mea­ Elsasser, Albert B. surements place the features in the cupule 1984 North Bay Region Rock Art. Bay Area category. Rock Art News 2(1):2,4,10. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 1985 Ogier Ranch Site. Bay Area Rock Art News 3(1):2. I thank Joe Hood and Michael Sampson, Cali­ fornia Department of Parks and Recreation, and Elsasser, Albert B., and E. Contreras Dr. Robert Mark and Evelyn Newman, U.S. Geo­ 1958 Modern Petrography in Central Cali­ logical Survey, for information on cupule sites in fornia and Western Nevada. 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