MOBILE FIRST ANNUAL REPORT 2013-2014
ANNUAL REPORT OF THE NEW BRUNSWICK COMMUNITY COLLEGE MOBILE FIRST TECHNOLOGY INITIATIVE
William McIver, Jr., Ph.D. NSERC Industrial Research Chair on Mobile First Technology Office of Applied Research and Innovation New Brunswick Community College 26 Duffie Drive. Fredericton, NB E3B 0R6 Canada mobile: +1 (506) 238-1210 [email protected] http://nbcc.ca/mobi
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Release date: 2014-07-15 Updated: 2015-05-26
New Brunswick Community College 26 Duffie Drive, Fredericton, NB E3B 0R6 Canada tel: +1 (506) 238-1210 fax: +1 (506) 453-7944 email: [email protected] | nbcc.ca/mobi
W. McIver, Jr., New Brunswick Community College
TABLE OF CONTENTS 1 Executive Summary ...... 4 2 Introduction ...... 7 Part I - Context ...... 8 3 Mobile First Technology Initiative ...... 8 3.1 Background ...... 8 3.2 Activities ...... 9 4 Mobile Demographics ...... 13 4.1 Device Ownership ...... 13 4.2 Usage by Consumers ...... 13 4.3 Usage in the Enterprise ...... 14 4.4 Devices ...... 15 5 New Brunswick ...... 17 5.1 Innovation Ecosystem ...... 17 5.1.1 Public sector R&D ...... 17 5.1.2 Challenges & Opportunities ...... 18 5.1.3 Resources ...... 19 5.2 Skills development ...... 20 Part II – Science, Technology & Engineering ...... 21 6 Priority Research Areas for the Mobile First Technology Initiative ...... 21 6.1 Interoperability ...... 21 6.1.1 Mobile application – platform interoperability and cross-platform development ...... 21 6.1.2 Hardware interoperability ...... 25 6.1.3 Communications interoperability ...... 25 6.1.4 Service interoperability ...... 26 6.1.5 Automotive platforms ...... 26 6.1.6 Accessibility and interoperability ...... 27 6.2 Authentication and security ...... 27 6.2.1 Authentication ...... 28 6.2.2 Threatening mobile apps ...... 28 6.2.3 Intrusion and anomaly detection, and malware mitigation ...... 29 6.3 Interconnected User Experience ...... 30 6.3.1 Interaction paradigms ...... 31 6.3.2 Human-computer interaction design and evaluation methods ...... 32 6.3.3 User interaction devices and techniques ...... 34 6.3.4 Collaborative and social computing systems and tools ...... 35 7 Other Areas of Science, Technology & Engineering (Selected) ...... 37 7.1 Ubiquitous and mobile computing devices ...... 37 7.2 Microprocessors ...... 37 7.3 Data and File Management ...... 37 7.4 Internet of Things and Machine-to-Machine ...... 37 7.5 Geo-spatial technologies and location-based services ...... 39 7.6 Speech recognition ...... 40 7.7 Accessibility technologies ...... 41 7.8 Wireless communication standards and technologies ...... 42 7.9 Image-based tag technologies ...... 43 7.10 Energy storage ...... 44 7.11 Network architectures ...... 44 7.12 Electronic money, digital cash, or m-money ...... 44 7.13 Enterprise computing, middleware and service-oriented architectures ...... 45 7.14 Operating systems ...... 46
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7.15 Software safety ...... 47 7.16 Software testing and verification ...... 47 7.17 Social-local-mobile ...... 48 7.18 Location information services ...... 50 7.19 Games and gamification ...... 51 7.20 Video ...... 51 Part III - Society ...... 52 8 Access ...... 52 9 Communities ...... 52 9.1 Urban and Suburban ...... 52 9.2 Remote, rural, and Aboriginal communities ...... 52 10 Privacy and Surveillance ...... 53 11 Intellectual Property ...... 54 12 Skills Development and Jobs ...... 54 13 M-Government ...... 54 14 Public Safety and First Responders ...... 55 15 Crime, Crime Prevention, and Policing ...... 57 16 M-Commerce ...... 57 16.1 Mobile Payment and Banking ...... 57 16.2 Business models ...... 58 16.3 Mobile marketing and advertising ...... 60 17 M-Learning ...... 60 18 M-Health ...... 63 19 News Media ...... 64 20 Mobile Social Media ...... 65 21 Environment ...... 65 22 Entertainment ...... 66 23 Tourism ...... 66 24 Human Development ...... 67 Bibliography ...... 68 Notes ...... 79
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1 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY This is the first in a planned series of annual reports to be issued by the Mobile First Technology Initiative of the New Brunswick Community College (NBCC). This report provides an overview of the work of the Initiative between May 2013 and May 2014; and surveys recent issues and developments in selected aspects of mobile information and communication technologies (ICT), with emphasis given to the applied research priorities of Initiative. The following are key developments and findings documented in this report: Section 3 provides an overview of the Mobile First Technology Initiative: o Mobile Ideaspace: The Initiative focused in year one on the development of a facility to support early stage innovation in mobile ICT by NBCC students and staff, called the Mobile Ideaspace. This facility is currently distributed across three of NBCC’s six campuses. Funding has been obtained to expand this concept to the remaining three campuses in year two. o Involvement of NBCC Staff and Students: The Initiative has provided a variety of opportunities to NBCC students and staff to engage in applied research and innovation. These include seconding NBCC faculty to help build the Mobile Ideaspace and collaborate on applied research, the hiring of student assistants to implement app development tutorials, and providing infrastructure and services for an NBCC faculty member to engage in a science fair project with Riverview High School students. o Applied research: The Initiative has begun one large-scale applied research project with several of its partners spanning geo-fencing, game development, m-learning, and mobile data analytics. The Research Chair is developing a research program relating to intelligent communities, assistive technologies for senior citizens, and wellness. These areas encompass his involvement in research projects in these areas, as well as several collaboration opportunities. The Initiative will explore research opportunities with its partners in this program. o Public engagement: The Initiative has engaged in a number of public engagement activities: ! A partnership workshop to seek input and collaboration opportunities, ! Development of a project intake process to respond to external requests from a variety of New Brunswick companies and organizations, ! Starting a technical talk series, and ! Organization of a public workshop on mechatronics to be held in June 2014. o Resource development: The Initiative has submitted several successful proposals in year one, totaling over $490,000 in grants and matching funds over five years. These grants include funding for research projects, tools and infrastructure, and staff. o Priorities for Year Two: The Chair will focus on applied research projects, completing the build-out of the Mobile Ideaspace to the remaining three campuses, and the development of tutorial resources for mobile ICT development.
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o Areas for improvement: The Initiative must increase its focus on applied research activities with partners and on moving external project requests through to implementation. Section 4 Covers Mobile demographics o Device ownership: Per capita mobile device ownership is above 90% worldwide and is expected to increase. Smartphones and tablets represent a rapidly expanding proportion of mobile device ownership worldwide. o Usage by consumers: Leading activities for mobile phone users include gathering information “just in time” (86% of smartphone users), texting (81%), accessing the Internet (60%), using e-mail (52%), installing apps (50%), performing geographic- oriented functions (49%), listening to music (48%), communicating by video (21%), and notifying social networks of their location (8%). o Usage in the Enterprise: Mobile ICT ranked second among CIO priorities, following big data, in a 2013 survey conducted by the Information and Communications Technology Council. Many enterprises still face significant challenges in managing employees’ access to enterprise resources and facilitating maximal productivity in the face of the bring-your-own-device concept. Supporting both internal and client-facing mobile ICT continues to force major infrastructure changes within enterprises. o Devices: Android and iOS continue to be the dominant platforms in the smartphone market with over 92% market share by 2013. The diversity of form factors will continue to expand, including 4K tablets, phablets, and transformable devices. Section 5 Provides context on mobile first technology in New Brunswick: o SMEs in the Mobile Space: New Brunswick companies are represented in a number of areas surveyed throughout this report, including cross-platform development, machine-to-machine technologies, streaming video technology, games and gamification, m-health, m-learning, m-government and public-private innovation, and tourism. o Support and Resources for Innovation: New Brunswick has developed a rich set of resources to support technological innovation that are having an impact on mobile ICT developments. Major steps have been taken to address challenges that New Brunswick has faced in improving its innovation ecosystem, including increased funding for R&D projects and research chairs. o Skills Development: Skills shortages and mismatches are a major barrier to Canadian innovation in mobile ICT. A study commissioned by NBCC suggests that the Province would be well-served by a two-year ICT program in mobile application development, the core of which would include cross-platform development, native app development, fundamental ICT concepts, user interface design, security, and business cases based on New Brunswick businesses. Section 6 Outlines priority research areas for the Mobile First Technology Initiative: o Interoperability: Much of the focus on interoperability for mobile ICT continues to be on application – platform interoperability, or more specifically, cross-platform app development. So-called mobile Web app development represents an attractive approach to interoperability for many developers. HTML5 still faces technical
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challenges, but is becoming the norm for mobile Web app development. WebGL, a JavaScript API, is expected to begin to fill the combined roles of CSS3, HTML5, and JavaScript once it is supported in more mobile Web browsers. o Authentication and Security: New methods of authentication continue to be sought. Existing methods are no longer suitable according to many specialists. This includes two-step authentication used in many banking applications. A significant proportion of mobile apps operate in a manner that is intentionally threatening or destructive to users. Android is generally considered to be the focus of most malware. o Interconnected User Experience: Advances in providing interconnected user experiences will arguably derive from greater attention to user-centred design, human-computer interaction design, and usability evaluation; novel user interaction devices, and novel user interaction paradigms. Mobile technologies offer unique opportunities to facilitate interconnected user experiences, including the ability to use sensing capabilities on devices to understand a person’s context, including their location, usage history, and what they are trying to accomplish. Section 7 reports on selected developments in science, technology and engineering research areas outside of the Initiative’s priority areas. Sections 8 through 24 report on recent issues and developments related to mobile ICT as they relate to selected areas of society.
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2 INTRODUCTION This is the first in a planned series of annual reports to be issued by the Mobile First Technology Initiative of the New Brunswick Community College (NBCC). This report provides an overview of the work of the Initiative between May 2013 and May 2014 period; and surveys recent issues and developments in selected aspects of mobile information and communication technologies (ICT), with emphasis given to the applied research priorities of Initiative. The objectives of this report are to provide the reader with a general overview of the state of mobile ICT and resources to assist them in pursuing in-depth inquiry. This report is written, in part, for people who do not develop mobile ICT, but who have a need to know and communicate about developments in the field. It is also written as a high level survey for technology developers or analysts with references to more detailed literature. The 2013 report of the Information and Communications Technology Council calls for a “clearinghouse” to provide SMEs with “’one-stop’ support” in mobile technologies. 1 Understanding trends in mobile technology development and having an academic partner with which to develop proofs of concept for new mobile technologies is of paramount importance to NBCC’s industry partners. NBCC’s Mobile First Technology Initiative is working with New Brunswick companies to analyze industry research and trends, and to provide assistance during the development, proof of concept, and prototyping stages of the commercialization process. This report is a part of that assistance. This report is organized into three parts. Part I covers the context for the Mobile First Technology initiative, including the background and activities of the Initiative, the current demographics and trends of mobile ICT, and innovation within the province of New Brunswick. Part II covers recent issues and developments in the research priority areas of the Initiative and other selected science, technology and engineering areas related to mobile ICT. Part III covers recent issues and developments related to mobile ICT as they relate to selected areas of society.
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PART I - CONTEXT
3 MOBILE FIRST TECHNOLOGY INITIATIVE NBCC has been a vital part of skills development, job creation, and life-long learning in the Province of New Brunswick for over forty years. NBCC continues to pursue its mission of transforming lives and communities though a collaborative, learner-centred approach. NBCC has since 2012 established an Office of Applied Research and Innovation to help enhance teaching and curricula, and support the delivery of applied research to local companies; launched an NSERC Industrial Research Chair in Mobile First Technology in May 2013; and established the Mobile First Technology Initiative, which encapsulates the programs of Research Chair.2 The work of the Mobile First Technology Initiative is centred on the overlapping areas of mobile- first and responsive design. Mobile-first is a strategy that optimizes the design of products and services for mobile platforms. 3 Responsive design is a design strategy that seeks to format the presentation of information according to the characteristics of the device on which it is to be viewed so as to provide for optimal user experiences. 4 The primary objectives of the Mobile First Technology Initiative (MFTI) are the following: • Enhance the teaching and learning environment for mobile ICT topics within NBCC; • Develop facilities for NBCC students, faculty, and staff to engage in early-stage innovation; • Engage in applied research with NBCC’s industrial partners, staff, students, and members of the broader New Brunswick ICT Community; • Mobilize research and practical knowledge for the benefit of NBCC, its partners, and the broader New Brunswick ICT Community; and, • Develop additional resources to sustain the initiative. 3.1 Background NBCC identified mobile technology as a strategically important area for innovation and skills development in New Brunswick through a consultative process involving stakeholders in Province’s ICT ecosystem; and, as a result of this consultation, initiated the Mobile First Technology Initiative in May of 2013. The Mobile First Technology Initiative is supported by a grant from the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC) for an Industrial Research Chair; and through financial and in-kind contributions from private and public sector supporters of NBCC. NBCC’s private sector partners of the Initiative are the following: • GTECH International Canada ULC (Moncton, New Brunswick) a leading developer of online gaming products headquartered in Moncton, New Brunswick; • T4G (Saint John, New Brunswick), a company with a major presence in Saint John, New Brunswick that designs, develops, implements, markets, tracks and measures technology solutions in order to help customers run their businesses better; • Technology Venture Corporation (Moncton, New Brunswick), a private venture capital and investment holding company based in Moncton, New Brunswick;
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• Accreon Inc. (Fredericton, New Brunswick), one of Atlantic Canada’s largest privately- owned ICT consulting firms; • Mariner Partners (Saint John, New Brunswick), a leading global provider of IP-based TV and Video solutions based in Saint John, New Brunswick; and, • Stellar Learning Strategies/Red Hot Learning, a company that seeks to improve organizational and individual performance through the strategic use of innovation, mobile or personal media, and location-based learning environments. NBCC’s Advisory Council members are the following: • GTECH, • T4G, • Technology Ventures Corporation, • The University of New Brunswick, • The Knowledge Park in Fredericton, New Brunswick, and • The New Brunswick Information Technology Council. Collaborators supporting NBCC include the following: • Dr. Ali Ghorbani, Dean of the Faculty of Computer Science, University of New Brunswick; and • Dr. Dave Coleman, Dean of the School of Engineering, University of New Brunswick. 3.2 Activities The following were the key activities of the Mobile First Technology Initiative between May 2013 and April 2014: • Enhancing the teaching and learning environment: o Involvement of NBCC staff and students: The Mobile First Technology Initiative has been able to hire nine students since May 2013 for part-time assignments that have helped them develop skills in mobile ICT and applied research. The Initiative has also been able to second two NBCC staff members for one semester to help with the development of the NBCC Mobile Ideaspace (discussed below) and learning resources. The Initiative has also supported one NBCC staff member’s research project (discussed below). o Academic program affiliations: Formal affiliations were established with the Apple University Developers program, Blackberry Academic program, and IBM Academic Initiative. These programs make mobile ICT software tools and tutorial resources available to the NBCC community. NBCC was already a member of Microsoft Dreamspark, which includes support for Windows Phone development. A membership was also obtained in the CANARIE DAIR cloud services program, which is allowing NBCC to create sandboxes for teaching and experimentation using the well-known OpenStack cloud services framework. o On-line resources: An on-line space has been developed within NBCC’s learning management system for hosting mobile ICT tutorials and other resources. This is being
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made available to all students, faculty, and staff. Development of a mobile app tutorial sequence was started in February 2014. The tutorial covers native app development on Android, iOS, and Windows Phone; as well as cross-platform development using Adobe Cordova (or PhoneGap). o Academic programming: Consultations have been held with the NBCC Dean of ICT Programs on the development of mobile ICT modules, courses, and a curriculum. • Supporting early-stage innovation: o NBCC Mobile Ideaspace: A physical and virtual facility for exploration, experimentation, and early-stage innovation, was launched on three of NBCC’s six campuses. The Mobile Ideaspace implements a low risk innovation “sandbox” concept in which NBCC community members from any discipline can learn more about mobile ICT and collaborate on the solution of problems that incorporate these technologies. The Mobile Ideaspace includes a virtual hallway between the three campuses that enables people to collaborate using video conferencing, shared workspaces, and Web collaboration technologies. Sites on the Fredericton, Moncton, and Saint John campuses were opened in February 2014. The Mobile First Technology Initiative was recently awarded an NSERC Applied Research Tools and Instruments grant to expand the Mobile Ideaspace concept to NBCC’s Miramichi, St. Andrews, and Woodstock campuses. o Programmatic support: The programmatic dimension of the Mobile Ideaspace concept is focused now on the development of tutorials for mobile ICT development. Content on design processes and models of innovation are also being developed. • Applied research: o Industrial research strategy: Research priorities were established at the launch of the Mobile First Technology Initiative: interoperability, inter-connected user experience, and security. A strategy to consolidate multiple research priorities within large-scale projects was developed with NBCC’s industrial partners and the Advisory Council. o IP Framework: NBCC has worked with its industrial partners in the Mobile First Technology Initiative to develop a joint intellectual property framework. This included a broad survey of research and existing frameworks from Canada, the European Union, the UK, and the U.S.; as well as consultations with IP and technology transfer experts Chris Mathis, Executive Director of Springboard Atlantic; and Dr. David Foord, CEO of Atlantic Hydrogen. It is expected that this agreement will be concluded in May 2014. o Industrial research projects: One project has been launched and several are in the planning stages with NBCC’s industrial partners involving the Initiative’s research priorities. Areas of research include geo-fencing, cross-platform development, mobile data analytics, m-learning, m-health, and gamification. o NBCC research projects: NBCC’s Office of Applied Research and Innovation (ARI) funds research projects conducted by NBCC faculty and staff. The Mobile First Technology Initiative provided infrastructure and expertise for a faculty member to collaborate with science students and teachers at Riverview High School. The Initiative has also launched a collaborative project with NBCC’s Health and Wellness Committee to explore the role of mobile ICT in institutional wellness. This project is expected to
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include technology prototyping. One NBCC project involving energy management is in the exploratory stages. o Project intake: A project intake process is in development to guide the Mobile First Technology Initiative in its engagement with members of New Brunswick’s broader ICT community in applied research projects. The Initiative is in the process of exploring research projects with several New Brunswick organizations. Areas of interest include finance, assisted living, and customer engagement. • Knowledge mobilization: o Mobile First Technology Initiative Partnership Workshop: A partnership workshop was held in January 2014. It objectives were to obtain additional input on the design of the Initiative and on the development of effective working relationships with our existing partners; to continue to build new partnerships within New Brunswick’s ICT ecosystem; and to seek input on managing intellectual property within NBCC’s research consortium. A small, highly focused workshop involving key academic and non-academic stakeholders from New Brunswick and Canada at large was organized. Sectors represented included students from NBCC and the Collège communautaire du Nouveau-Brunswick (CCNB); NBCC’s industrial partners; small and medium enterprises (SMEs); provincial and municipal governments; federal and academic research institutions; experts in Aboriginal and First Nations ICT issues; health care and e-learning; and industry representatives. The workshop featured three keynote speakers: (1) Catherine Middleton, Canada Research Chair in Communication Technologies in the Information Society, Ted Rogers School of Management, Ryerson University; (2) John Weigelt, National Technology Officer, Microsoft Canada; and (3) David Foord, Chief Operating Officer, Atlantic Hydrogen Inc. Dr. Middleton spoke on people-centred design and social issues concerning mobile technologies; Mr. Weigelt spoke on the new ways in which mobility has become an enabler and trends toward its ubiquity; Dr. Foord spoke on approaches to intellectual property management for research consortia. The workshop aided in the following outcomes: • The Initiative identified new collaboration possibilities and research funding opportunities; • Participants gained insight into the opportunities available through mobile ICT and mobile business models; • Participants were able to exchange knowledge on the management of intellectual property within research consortia; and • NBCC received input as to how the Initiative can better serve New Brunswick. A final report and Web site was completed in May 2014 to disseminate the results of the workshop to the public. o Outreach: The research chair has given a number of invited presentations on a number of subjects, including the Mobile First Technology Initiative itself, processes of innovation, knowledge transfer, and open data in government. These included
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presentations to the New Brunswick Roundtable on Crime and Public Safety, Doc Talks, and the T4G Big Data Congress II. o Delivery: A public Web presence is being developed to give the broader New Brunswick ICT community (and others) access to on-line resources being developed by the Initiative, including white papers, source code, and other resources that contribute knowledge to the innovation ecosystem in the province. o Colloquium: The Initiative launched a colloquium series in April 2014. The series will feature research and industrial talks and panels that are open to the public. All presentations are being recorded and posted on the Initiative’s Web site. This activity is expected to foster new collaborations and research projects. o Annual report: This report is a mandated part of the knowledge transfer activities of the Mobile First Technology Initiative. • Resource development: o Grant making: The Initiative has developed a number of grant proposals to increase its capacity and to obtained specialized support for research or partnership activities. The Initiative has been successful in obtaining the grants from the following programs: ! “Applied Research Tools to Support the Development of a Cross-platform Mobile-first Platform as a Service (MPaaS) and Cross-Campus Research Collaboration”, National Sciences and Engineering Research Council (NSERC) Applied Research Tools and Instrument (ARTI), $77,374 over one year; ! “Mobile First Technology Initiative”, New Brunswick Innovation Fund (NBIF) Research Assistantships Initiative (RAI), $15,000 over one year; ! “Multi-Channel Content and Analytics Platform (MCAP)”, Government of New Brunswick Industry Innovation Challenge, $ 240,879 over five years; ! “Reducing Greenhouse Gas Emissions by Improving Public Education, Awareness, and Behaviour Change”, New Brunswick Environmental Trust Fund, $60,000 over one year; and, ! “Survey and Prototyping of Mobile Technologies for Institutional Wellness”, NBCC Applied Research and Innovation fund, $5,000 over one year (application on behalf of and in collaboration with NBCC’s College Wide Wellbeing Committee). o Collaboration: The chair is also a collaborator on a successful grant proposal for Canada's Strategy for Patient-Oriented Research (SPOR) from Canada Institutes of Health Research (CIHR): “SPOR Network in Primary and Integrated Health Care Innovations 2014-01-10”, $75000. This project is lead by Dr. Baukje (Bo) Miedema, Professor and Director of Research Dalhousie University Family Medicine Teaching Unit. o Needs: The Initiative would benefit from having several full-time technicians to support its applied research projects, software prototyping, and the operation of its Mobile Ideaspace. The NBIF RAI grant will assist in meeting this need. The Initiative continues to explore funding opportunities to meet these needs.
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4 MOBILE DEMOGRAPHICS This section provides an overview of mobile device ownership, usage by consumers and enterprises, and the distributions and trends in mobile device types. 4.1 Device Ownership Mobile ownership rates exceed 100% in some parts of the world.5 The Pew Internet Project’s Smartphone Ownership – 2013 Update, an annual survey, included the following demographic details of mobile device ownership: • 91% of respondents -- an increase of 4% since Pew’s December 2012 survey and an increase of 14% since January 2008 -- own mobile phones; • Of 2,252 adult respondents, 56% said they own smart phones; • Of 2,252 adult respondents, 59% of males and 53% of females own smart phones; • 42% of respondents indicated that they own tablets and 32% own e-reader devices; • Smart phone ownership by age group among the 2,252 adult respondents was 79% (n=243) between ages 8 and 24, 81% (n=284) between ages 25 and 34, 69% (n=292) between ages 35 and 44, 55% (n=377) between ages 45 and 54, 39% (n=426) between ages 55 and 64, and 18% (n=570) of those 65 and older; • Smart phone ownership by brands included 25% iPhones, 4% Blackberry devices, 28% Android devices, and 1% Windows Phone devices; • 70% of smart phone owners have post-secondary degrees; • 78% of smart phone owners have household incomes of $75,000 or more; and, • 59% of smart phone owners live in urban or suburban areas, while 40% live in rural areas. 6 4.2 Usage by Consumers Mobility affordances that smartphones brought to computing are no longer novel; they have become the norm for many people. People are beginning to use mobile devices in place of many desktop functions, not just in contexts where mobility is required.7 The depth of impact of mobile phones in daily activities of people has become significant. Pew research reported in December 2013 that over two thirds of cell phone owners check their mobile phones for messages even without notifications and that 44% have slept with their phones. Leading activities for mobile phone users include gathering information “just in time” (86% of smartphone users), texting (81%), accessing the Internet (60%), using e-mail (52%), installing apps (50%), performing geographic-oriented functions (49%), listening to music (48%), communicating by video (21%), and notifying social networks of their location (8%).8 New uses and behaviours have been emerging through the use of tablets, including mobile work in the enterprise, media playback, sharing of information in person, new forms of gaming, and to augment a primary screen in the home.9 Perhaps the most profound changes in society due to mobile ICT have been in youth culture. Noted cognitive psychologist Gardner and Davis argue in their recent book, The App Generation, that mobile apps are at the centre of a fundamentally new perspective on life and society for the youth who have been growing up with this technology:
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It’s our argument that young people growing up in our time are not only immersed in apps: they’ve come to think of the world as an ensemble of apps, to see their lives as a string of ordered apps, or perhaps, in many cases, a single, extended, cradle-to-grave app.10 A study by investment bank Piper Jaffray reinforces this view in market terms, noting in its most recent Taking Stock of Teens report that “[m]obility and connectedness are driving nearly 91% of teens to purchase a smartphone for their next wireless device.” 11 Gardner and Davis point out that this app-centric approach has contributed positive things to communities, citing the organization Code for America as an example. App developers now routinely collaborate with public officials or communities to develop app-based solutions to problems that would traditionally take far more time and money to implement. Code for America is one example of organizations that organize frameworks or events to support this app-centric work. Hacking for Health is a prominent Canadian example of this, which now has an international stature.12 Mobile phones have been enabling profound changes in developing regions of the world. The ITU-T points out that in developing areas of the world “[m]ulti-faceted handsets are the Swiss army knives of the 21st century and are recognized tools in trade and banking, healthcare, farming and education.” 13 Significant barriers to usage of mobile ICT by consumers remain. Pew reported in December 2013 that over two-thirds of mobile phone users identified as key problems dropped calls, unwanted calls, text spam, and slow download speeds. Costs are cited as a major barrier to wider adoption of mobile ICT. Poor usability and consumers’ lack of knowledge are also cited as barriers to adoption.14 Integral to increasing mobile ICT adoption is a proactive effort to educate the public of its benefits. 4.3 Usage in the Enterprise The Information and Communications Technology Council (ICTC) reported in 2013 that of the companies it had surveyed, 70% had a dedicated budget for wireless service and 61% for mobile devices.15 Only 34% of companies in the ICTC survey had invested in mobile enabled web sites. More than 15% of companies in the ICTC survey had dedicated budgets for apps, with 25% having budgets for iOS apps, 18% for both Android and Blackberry apps, and 15% for Microsoft apps. 16 Gartner surveys of Chief Information Officer’s (CIOs) strategies showed that mobile ICT ranked second among their priorities for 2013, following big data; and that close to 40% of those CIOs plan to make their organizations 100% mobile, including laptops. Mobile strategy within organizations is moving away from “siloed, mobile-only” to multichannel strategies of which mobile is only a part of the organization’s ICT strategy. Such strategies include categories of cloud services, such as platform-as-a-service (PaaS), software-as-a-service (SaaS), infrastructure-as-a- service (IaaS), business-process-as-a-service (BPaaS); system administration tools; and secure document sharing.17 The ways in which work is performed in sales, retail, healthcare, agriculture, transportation, government, service industries, and many other sectors have all been transformed by mobile ICT in general and, in particular, by tablet computing. Gartner’s analysis suggests that further opportunities for data collection, analytics, and integration with other enterprise systems remain using tablets.18
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Many enterprises still face significant challenges in managing employees’ access to enterprise resources and facilitating maximal productivity in the face of the bring-your-own-device (BYOD) concept. The antithesis of BYOD meant that organizations could proscribe and assign a standard platform for employees, which potentially simplified security frameworks, application deployment, and usage policies. BYOD adds complexity in that security must take into account a diversity of vulnerabilities between devices that employees choose to bring into the enterprise and the need to have enterprise applications that are interoperable between those different types of devices. Enterprise data could be exposed if an employee’s device is lost or stolen. Best practices in mobile security suggest that employees be required to sign contracts that specify their organization’s BYOD policies. Best practices also suggest that user segments be identified by business requirements, location, work style, and risk. Enterprises should then deploy devices and applications according to those segments. Some organizations have established mobile centres of excellence to assist in this process. Some organizations also build self-help into employee apps to assist them in complying with security policies.19 Mobile ICT development by many enterprises is both inward and outward facing. A survey by GIGAOM Research in Q3 2013 of over 500 developers from France, Germany, Italy, Spain, and the UK indicates the following targets for their app development: 67% for customers, 56% for their own employees, 38% for distributors, and 18% for commercial markets. GIGAOM Research also reported that of developers of mobile and social apps 63% develop their own apps, 53% outsource some development, 39% perform integration with third party consumer apps, and 19% perform integration with third party business apps.20 Supporting both internal and client-facing mobile ICT continues to force major infrastructure changes within enterprises. BYOD necessitates multiplatform business-to-employee (B2E) solutions. B2E requirements include Electronic Filing and Service System (EFSS), which facilitate document sharing between many types of mobile platforms. Business-to-consumer (B2C) mobile strategies will translate into requirements by enterprises for improvements in the collection and analysis of usage data, and for external cloud services support. Cloud services support for mobile applications has extended the concepts of SaaS, PaaS, and IaaS into emerging mobile backend-as-a-service (MBaaS) offerings. 21 Enterprises may need to continue to offer traditional or blended service delivery models for those clients who have not adopted mobile technologies, as shown by the demographics of mobile device ownership. 4.4 Devices Android and iOS continue to be the dominant platforms in the smartphone market with over 92% market share by 2013.22 Apple iPhones make up 25% of smart phone ownership according to respondents to the 2013 Pew survey, followed by 4% Blackberry, 28% Android, and 1% Windows Phone.23 The research consultancy IDC estimated the U.S. market share for Windows smartphones to be 2.8% and 3.9% globally. Microsoft’s acquisition of Nokia may, however, help it increase its market share in emerging markets where Nokia already had a foothold.24 Mobile phone manufacturers in emerging markets are presenting serious challenges to some of the dominant phone manufacturers. China’s Xiaomi and India’s Micromax are challenging companies such as Apple and Samsung within their own countries and have begun looking outwards regionally and to countries such as Russia and Romania.25
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Many mobile content and app designers are reinforcing popular expectations that new devices will continue to emerge for different contexts, such as watches, fitness, and automotive.26 Gartner captures this in its taxonomy of mobile form factors, which include “glanceable, pocketable, grab and go, [and] portable” devices. 27 The research firm forecasts continued growth in smartphones and tablets and a continued decline in the proportion of notebooks in the installed base of devices through 2017. There continues to be differentiation in the form factor categories for notebooks and tablets. Tablets can now be categorized into basic, utility, and premium models. Tablet and notebook form factors have started to converge somewhat in some product lines in the form of transformable devices, where the keyboard can be attached to create a notebook.28 Content and software designers must, therefore, expand their notion of mobile users to include laptops and notebooks.29 The diversity of form factors will continue to expand, including 27” tablets; 4K tablets; so-called phablets, which have form factors in between smartphones and tablets; and so-called transformable devices. Curved and flexible screens are also expected to appear in the near future.30 Large screen tablets with 4K resolutions are beginning to appear. Japan Display Inc. announced that they are developing a 12.1 inch LCD module with a resolution of 3840 x 2160 RGB pixels, also known as 4K2K, for use in tablets.31
16 New Brunswick Community College, Mobile First Technology Initiative, 2013-2014 Annual Report
5 NEW BRUNSWICK The Province of New Brunswick has a vibrant innovation ecosystem. This has been evident most prominently in recent years by the successes of Radian6 and Q1 Labs. Many mobile ICT developments are taking place within this ecosystem. Examples of mobile ICT research and development (R&D) in New Brunswick will be given throughout the following sections of this report in the context of different areas of mobile ICT and society. 5.1 Innovation Ecosystem The quintessential New Brunswick innovator and investor, Gerry Pond, has described the requirements for successful innovation as a triad consisting of ecosystem capital, financial capital, and human capital. All three are present in New Brunswick and efforts are being made to fortify them and better coordinate their use. 5.1.1 Public sector R&D New Brunswick’s innovation ecosystem emanates out of its public sector R&D, as in most places. Provincial gross domestic expenditures on R&D increased 29% in New Brunswick between 2004 and 2009. The Council of Canadian Academies (CCA) 2013 report The State of Industrial R&D in Canada shows that Canada’s public sector R&D institutions have in the aggregate been on a positive slope in the production of science and technology (S&T) over the past decade; and that Canada makes a significant contribution to global S&T developments. Canada is also well-positioned to continue to improve the state of its S&T. Perhaps the most striking assessment of Canada’s S&T production in the CCA report is that it makes a far greater contribution to the world's scientific and technological output -- as assessed by the impact of scientific papers worldwide and the opinions of top researchers world-wide -- than most countries that have similar, if not larger, populations. The report also shows that on the whole this output has increased significantly over the last decade. New Brunswick’s public R&D sector makes a significant proportional contribution to innovation in Canada as a whole. Publications by the province’s researchers are more impactful than the world average in enabling and strategic technologies.32 It is ultimately the strength of the overall innovation ecosystem in New Brunswick and Canada as a whole that is more important than the measures of S&T strength alone in the CCA report. S&T strength speaks to a country’s output of basic and applied research. The production of innovations usually makes use of S&T from around the world, not just within a single country. Innovations are useful technologies or processes that are created by leveraging basic or applied S&T research. Measures of S&T strength tend to be weighted toward basic research in many S&T disciplines, which excludes applied research. S&T production and innovation are also thought by some to require clusters of people and amenities usually found in large municipal regions. The recent successes of companies like Radian 6 and Q1 Labs are counter examples to this view. Their successes speak as much to the builders of those companies as they do to the quality of New Brunswick’s innovation ecosystem, including its postsecondary education systems, public sector R&D, and labour market. Colleges are expected to play an increasing role in applied research and innovation in New Brunswick. Recent federal budgets and developments within federal research granting agencies have resulted in the creation of grants for applied research that are available to colleges.33 A key development here has been the creation of the College and Community Innovation (CCI)
17 W. McIver, Jr., New Brunswick Community College
Program. The National Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada manages the CCI as a joint effort with the Canadian Institutes of Health Research and Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada. CCI grants are designated specifically for applied research projects that are conducted within public-private partnerships. These developments have been crucial for NBCC. The College makes use of interdisciplinary approaches and public-private partnerships to leverage public sector resources. Provincial and federal investments in innovation combined with cash and in-kind support from industrial partners have created a multiplier effect that will enable NBCC to “ punch above its weight class” in conducting applied research and innovation. 5.1.2 Challenges & Opportunities New Brunswick faces general challenges in improving its innovation ecosystem of which mobile ICT is only a part. The 2012 Manship Report recommended improvements in R&D investment, education, and access to capital.34 Major steps have been taken to address each of these recommendations. The Government of New Brunswick has responded with a multi-dimensional approach, addressing R&D funding, education, and access to capital, within an overall funding envelope of $80 million.35 NBCC is playing a role through the creation of a College-wide Applied Research program for students and staff, which includes the Mobile First Technology Initiative. The innovation ecosystem in New Brunswick can be improved by increasing support for early stage innovation, as differentiated from incubation and acceleration. There is, in particular, a need for risk-free environments in which students and others can collaborate, perform ideation, experimentation, and prototyping without barriers to entry and time limits.36 A focus on science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) disciplines alone may be insufficient for increasing successful technological innovation in New Brunswick. There has been growing recognition of the advantages of making arts, humanities and other non-STEM disciplines integral parts of R&D processes, rather than a subsidiary to them.37 This view is represented partly by the so-called STEM-to-STEAM movement.38 Some successful innovators have argued that such integration is not just desirable, but required to optimize processes of innovation.39
The nature and complexity of mobile ICT are now such that many bodies of knowledge and research methods outside of STEM must be leveraged in concert with the engineering of a new technology to optimize chances for its success in the marketplace. These include, but are not limited to, the following: • Understanding the history of successes and failures of related technologies; • Understanding the social environments in which a technology is to be used; • Gauging social acceptance of novel ideas posed by a technology; • Performing early identification of novel legal issues posed by a technology; • Communicating effectively to the target market the complex ideas and value propositions embodied by a novel technology; • Determining how best to present a technology visually or physically such that it effectively balances ease of use, the masking of underlying complexity, and aesthetics; • Designing business models that will generate revenue effectively while balancing design constraints informed by all of the above; and • Harnessing creative practices to optimize the generation of innovative ideas.
18 New Brunswick Community College, Mobile First Technology Initiative, 2013-2014 Annual Report
There have been many cases where attention to such details was critical to the success of otherwise sound technical ideas.40 Participants within New Brunswick’s innovation ecosystem should consider the extent to which trans-disciplinary activities can be increased within existing innovation programs and whether new programs should be created to support them. Such programs would facilitate the integrative application of liberal arts, social sciences, humanities, law, business, and creative disciplines (among others) with STEM disciplines within R&D, design, teaching, and consultative activities. Finally, many opportunities likely remain for adding value to natural resources in New Brunswick through environmentally responsible industrial design and production of innovative products. Mobile ICT would be an integral part of this, as advances in machine-to-machine technologies are becoming key elements in many industrial sectors. 5.1.3 Resources The Government of Canada has contributed funding to improve innovation in the Province, including programs for education and applied research with industry. These include the following: • The National Sciences and Engineering Research Council (NSERC) supports NBCC’s Mobile First Technology Initiative.41 • CANARIE Digital Accelerator for Innovation and Research (DAIR) cloud development resources program has granted NBCC membership and the ability to extend cloud services to its partners for applied research purposes.42 • Wavefront, a Canadian Centre of Excellence, extended its R&D and commercialization support services for mobile ICT to Atlantic Canada in 2013.43 Federal, provincial, and private funds have enabled the development of a rich set of resources to support technological innovation in New Brunswick. These resources include, but are not limited to, the following organizations: • Atlantic Canada Opportunities Agency (ACOA); • BioNB; • Computing Science Creative Space (CS Square), University of New Brunswick; • Invest NB; • Launch36; • Mobile Ideaspace, New Brunswick Community College; • National Research Council – Industrial Research Assistance Program; • New Brunswick Innovation Fund (NBIF); • Planet Hatch; • Pond-Deshpande Centre; • Propel ICT; • Springboard Atlantic; • Technology Management & Entrepreneurship program, University of New Brunswick;
19 W. McIver, Jr., New Brunswick Community College
• Venn Centre (formerly TECH Southeast); and, • Wallace McCain Institute. See the Manship Report for a comprehensive list of resources available to support innovation in New Brunswick.44 NBCC’s Mobile First Technology Initiative is contributing to the enhancement of New Brunswick’s ecosystem capital by developing infrastructure and programs for early-stage innovation that will allow students, staff, and recent graduates to experiment with mobile ICT, leading to later stage innovation and the launching of enterprises. This includes the development of NBCC’s Mobile Ideaspace and the development of on-line app development tutorials for students. It is hoped that support for early-stage innovation will make it possible for more NBCC graduates to remain in the province, which would benefit the province’s ICT ecosystem as a whole. 5.2 Skills development Skills shortages and mismatches are a major barrier to Canadian innovation in mobile ICT.45 A study commissioned by NBCC suggests that the province would be well-served by a two-year ICT program in mobile application development, the core of which would include cross-platform development, native app development, fundamental ICT concepts, user interface design, security, and business cases based on New Brunswick businesses.46 Most comprehensive postsecondary institutions in New Brunswick have been offering courses that are related in some way to mobile app development for several years.47 These include Collège communautaire du Nouveau-Brunswick (CCNB), Mount Allison University, New Brunswick College of Craft and Design, New Brunswick Community College, Université de Moncton, and University of New Brunswick. They have been offered as modules within courses or as special courses (i.e., not a regular part of an institution’s curriculum). Some of these courses are being taught outside of traditional computer science or information technology programs. CCNB appears to offer the most comprehensive program in mobile app development in New Brunswick. It is an 80-week program that includes app development using the Android, Apple iOS, and Windows Phone platforms in the context of general computer science topics, such as data structures, algorithms, Web application development, and object-oriented analysis.48 The Aboriginal Workflorce Development Initiative (AWDI) within the Joint Economic Development Initiative Inc. (JEDI) is offering a 57-week mobile app development program for Aboriginal students in the Kingsclear First Nation’s Training Centre. The curriculum was developed in consultation with CCNB. The program is funded through a partnership between the Government of Canada, the Government of New Brunswick, and First Nations in New Brunswick. This project is a part of New Brunswick Aboriginal Information and Communications Technology (NBAICT) training-for-employment project.49
20 New Brunswick Community College, Mobile First Technology Initiative, 2013-2014 Annual Report
PART II – SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY & ENGINEERING
6 PRIORITY RESEARCH AREAS FOR THE MOBILE FIRST TECHNOLOGY INITIATIVE This part of section II reports on issues and developments in the research priority areas of NBCC’s Mobile First Technology Initiative: • Interoperability, • Interconnected user experience, and • Authentication and security. 6.1 Interoperability Interoperability is a broad concept that speaks to the ability of systems to perform actions on or communicate with other systems. Interoperability in mobile ICT is a leading concern by industry.50 Interoperability is key to economic development and growth because it allows the efficient integration of services. The service sector, in particular, is dependent on and has been significantly changed by mobile ICT and interoperability issues. Logistics services, manufacturing, and health care are markets that are seen as benefiting from cross-border interoperability.51 Interoperability in the context of mobile ICT can be viewed at a number of conceptual layers: • Hardware interoperability: the ability of different hardware components, including whole mobile devices, to interoperate with other hardware components. • Communications interoperability: the ability of a mobile device or service to transmit and receive information with different other types of devices or service, mobile or otherwise. • Data interoperability: the ability of a system enabled by mobile ICT to understand the data formats and semantics used by other systems, such that it can effectively exchange data with that system. • Mobile app - platform interoperability: the ability of a mobile app to function on mobile devices of different types, such as an app that can run on both the Android and Apple iOS platforms; or, in reality, an app that has been implemented for each platform. • Service interoperability: the ability of a mobile app or service to understand the semantics of and interact with other services, such as the ability to integrate the functionality of an external mapping service or social networking service into its own functionality. 6.1.1 Mobile application – platform interoperability and cross-platform development Much of the focus on interoperability for mobile ICT is on application – platform interoperability, or more specifically, cross-platform app development. Mobile app software developers face the dilemma of choosing to develop new apps for one or multiple mobile platforms. The total cost of the software life cycle of creating an app for one mobile platform can be significant. The life cycle for high profile apps (e.g., Angry Birds or Evernote) includes design, implementation, testing, app store compliance, marketing, customer support, and maintenance. 52 Deploying a mobile app to multiple platforms at the same time -- say Android, iOS, and Windows Phone – might be ideal in terms of reaching more customers or offering greater flexibility to
21 W. McIver, Jr., New Brunswick Community College employees who need to use an enterprise app; however, multi-platform app development poses significant technical and financial challenges. Significant technical complexity is added as one attempts to replicate and maintain the same functionality on multiple platforms using traditional native app development. A native app is one that is written for a specific hardware platform, such as a Blackberry. Design changes or enhancements to a native app generally require different changes for each version of the app associated with a given platform. This is because the way in which native apps are written for one platform differs from the other platforms in terms of the programming languages used, software libraries, and software tools. The capabilities of the each device on which the app is meant to run may also differ significantly from the others. All of this results in non-linear increases in software development and maintenance costs as each platform is added. A number of developments in recent years present options for reducing the costs of both single platform and cross-platform app deployments, with the overall effect of addressing certain types of mobile interoperability. The key approaches to mobile app development are summarized in the following tables.
Mobile-friendly Web site development: Adaptation of existing Web content for mobile Web browsers. Representative technologies used: • HTML5, JavaScript, CSS Advantages: • Mobile Web site development avoids the costs and complexity of native app development, when only content delivery is required. • Many existing content management systems can automatically adapt existing content for presentation on mobile Web browsers. Disadvantages: • A mobile Web site offers only content delivery, as in a traditional Web site. • A mobile Web site offers does not offer the same type of interactivity and responsiveness as a software application.
22 New Brunswick Community College, Mobile First Technology Initiative, 2013-2014 Annual Report
Native app development: Writing a software application for a specific mobile hardware platform Representative technologies used: • Android: Java, Eclipse • Apple iOS: Objective-C, XCode • Blackberry 10: C++ (Qt/QML) UI Framework, BlackBerry 10 Native SDK53 • Windows Phone: C, C++, Visual Studio, Windows Phone Developer Tools Advantages: • Native apps generally run faster than other types of mobile apps. • Native apps have full access to the hardware functions of the device on which it runs, such as its sensors. • Native apps have more precise control of the design and responsiveness of the user interface. • Native apps must conform to the standards and vetting process of an app store, which can often catch design flaws, and high-risk or malicious apps.54 Disadvantages: • Native app development is generally more costly. • Native apps are generally less resilient to changes to the underlying operating system and hardware. • Native apps must conform to the standards and vetting process of an app store, takes time.* • Native apps must be distributed through an app store.* * There are options for enterprises to distribute apps for internal use.
Mobile Web application development: Development of apps that run in mobile Web browsers. Representative technologies used: • Most common: HTML5, JavaScript, CSS • Adobe Flash • Blackberry: BlackBerry WebWorks 2.0, HTML, CSS, JavaScript • WebGL (emerging) Advantages: • A mobile Web app runs inside of mobile Web browsers; thus, it needs only to be compatible with the mobile Web browsers through which it will be accessed. • Popular mobile Web browsers, such as Chrome and Opera, have versions available for many mobile platforms, enabling mobile Web apps to run on many types of devices. Disadvantages: • A mobile Web app generally runs slower than a native app that has equivalent functionality. • Mobile Web app development frameworks often do not allow apps to have full access to the hardware functions of the device on which it runs, such as its sensors.* • Mobile Web app development offers design and responsiveness possibilities for user interfaces that are limited compared to native apps. * Some frameworks have been developed that allow more access to hardware.
23 W. McIver, Jr., New Brunswick Community College
App development using cross-platform frameworks: Development of native or mobile Web apps using tools that assist in making the app compatible with multiple mobile platforms. Representative technologies used: • Many, including Appcelerator, Adobe Cordova, and Agora Mobile Advantages: • Cross-platform app development frameworks attempt to enable an app to be written once and then translated into apps for each target platform. • Cross-platform app development potentially reduces development and maintenance costs significantly. Disadvantages: • Apps created using cross-platform app development frameworks may run slower than native apps, though not necessarily. • Some cross-platform app development approaches are partially dependent on mobile Web app approaches; thus, they potentially share some of the disadvantages of mobile Web apps.
Some designers and developers predict that there will continue to be innovation through native app development technologies that could, variously, ease or complicate interoperability. Ian Hickson, the Editor of the HTML5 specification, deconstructs the native app versus mobile Web app debate, pointing out that there are many more Web pages than apps; Web pages are more resilient to platform changes than native apps because they are based on non-proprietary standards; and that, in contrast to non-proprietary Web technologies, innovation often occurs within proprietary contexts.55 The dominant approach to mobile Web app development in recent years makes use of HTML5, JavaScript, and CSS to implement in-browser functionality. HTML5 still faces some technical challenges, but is becoming the norm for mobile Web app development. HTML5 is viewed by Gartner as attractive for app development even in the face of those remaining technical issues.56 Refinements continue to take place in the mobile Web area around HTML5 and its companion technologies JavaScript and CSS. Many Web designers and application developers are noting an increasing use of HTML5 to present video content, as opposed to Adobe Flash, a technology that dominated mobile Web app development at one time. JavaScript is also being used somewhat to fill the void being left by the decreasing use of Adobe Flash. WebGL, a JavaScript API, is expected to begin to fill the combined roles of CSS3, HTML5, and JavaScript once it is supported in more mobile Web browsers. CSS preprocessors, such as Sass and LESS are also providing new options to make CSS more dynamic in attempts to meet the demands for more complex user interface functionality in mobile Web applications.57 Google’s Chrome browser presents a newer possibility for cross-platform development. Google announced in early 2014 a tool chain based on Adobe Cordova that allows desktop Chrome Apps to be adapted to run on Android and iOS platforms. 58 Google has also developed a cross-browser application development tool chain based on its Dart programming language that aids in the production of structured Web applications based on JavaScript.59 Presumably Dart can be leveraged within its Adobe Cordova tool chain to convert Chrome apps to mobile apps. Many cross-platform development technologies now exist. The two dominant frameworks are Adobe Cordova (formerly PhoneGap) and Appcelerator. Agora Mobile, a company based in New Brunswick, is developing a novel cross-platform app development framework that features a
24 New Brunswick Community College, Mobile First Technology Initiative, 2013-2014 Annual Report
“social network for mobile app discovery, development, and deployment” and is geared toward enabling “anyone from consumers to companies to build their own mobile apps.”60 The hosted virtual desktop (HVD) is another emerging option for interoperability. HVDs provide a user interface between mobile platforms and applications that run elsewhere in the cloud. HVDs are still emerging and present some disadvantages that block wider adoption: • Mobile user interfaces can differ significantly from their native desktop counterparts, • Off-line access to a native application’s functionality is still often incomplete, • Interoperability of the HVD software across mobile platforms is still sometimes lacking, and • HVDs remain expensive to install and support.61 Application development tool selection is still seen as tactical, with many new tools emerging every year. There is the danger with such a proliferation of new tools and tool chains that developers will be left unsupported when companies that produce these technologies do not survive.62 6.1.2 Hardware interoperability The Council of the European Union is working on a directive to require manufacturers to harmonize battery chargers for their mobile devices. The sharp increase in multi-device usage has resulted in users having to maintain several, often incompatible, charging devices. The objective of the EU directive is to reduce costs and waste by consumers and employees of organizations associated with maintaining multiple incompatible charging devices. Implementation of national laws within EU countries based on this directive is not likely before 2017. 63 6.1.3 Communications interoperability Communications protocols and technologies of potential interest for mobile communications interoperability in various contexts include the following: • Bluetooth and Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE); • Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA), which is contained within UMTS; • Enhanced Data rates for GSM Evolution (EDGE), often referred to as GSM/EDGE; • General packet radio service (GPRS); • Global System for Mobile (GSM); • High Speed Packet Access (HSPA), which combines HSDPA and HSUPA and is used within UMTS; • IEEE 802.11-2007 IEEE 802.11-2012 IEEE 802.11 ac & ad, various versions of the Wi-Fi standard; • Long Term Evolution (LTE), also 4G LTE; • Near field communications (NFC); • Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS), generally referred to as 3G; and, • Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access or IEEE 802.16 (WiMAX).64
25 W. McIver, Jr., New Brunswick Community College
Communications interoperability is of prime concern for public safety organizations in Canada and abroad.65 In North America, public safety communications appears to be evolving toward a converged U.S.-Canada network based on the use of LTE in the 700MHz band, and implemented under the auspices of several bilateral agreements, including the Canada-U.S. Beyond the Border program. See section 14 for more discussion on this agreement. Public safety organizations across the continent currently use multiple land mobile radio (LMR) and commercial cellular data services that do not interoperate. Current efforts involve the integration of LMR and commercial cellular data services around an LTE public safety network, wherein voice interoperability, roaming, and limited data interoperability can be achieved. A future converged network would provide complete interoperability for voice and data, support for multimedia user devices, and continent-wide roaming. Interoperability is required at several levels, including • Radio network protocols, such as GSM radio access network (GRAN), Universal Terrestrial Radio Access Network (UTRAN), and Evolved UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access Network (E- UTRAN); • Core network services and other network services; • User devices; and • Applications.66 The Harris Corporation has attempted to address the issue of communication interoperability for first responders with a system and devices that operate on 700 MHz LTE networks and enable intercommunication.67 6.1.4 Service interoperability Standards, such as Web Intents, are exploring ways to build software applications that are resilient to changes in services. The Web intents specification, which is still in development, would define a framework for “client-side service discovery and inter-application communication.” 68 Next generation 9-1-1 (NG 9-1-1) is being designed to improve interoperability and information sharing. NG 9-1-1 will enable the public to transmit text, images, video, telematics, sensor data, and subscriber information.69 6.1.5 Automotive platforms The automotive industry has been focusing recently on interoperability related to mobile ICT. Some industry analysts suggest that integration of mobile devices with automotive infotainment systems is “among the most difficult issues facing the auto industry today.” 70 Car manufacturers are reportedly have trouble keeping pace with releases of new mobile platforms and versions. QNX, the real-time operating system owned by Blackberry Ltd, is seen by some analysts as a platform for automotive infotainment that can address these interoperability concerns. Panasonic chose QNX in 2013 for its automotive infotainment platform and Ford was reportedly looking to adopt it as well.71 A major automotive industry effort to address interoperability is the Open Automotive Alliance (OAA). OAA is attempting to introduce technologies to cars based on the Android operating system. Its members include Audi, General Motors, Google, Honda, Hyundai, and NVIDIA.72
26 New Brunswick Community College, Mobile First Technology Initiative, 2013-2014 Annual Report
The automotive industry has also begun to encourage “developer hubs” around North America to focus on developing apps for the automobile industry.73 6.1.6 Accessibility and interoperability There is also growing recognition of the important relationship between accessibility and interoperability. Attention to accessibility and universal design in the development of mobile technologies can improve interoperability because it necessitates adherence to standards.74 Accessibility is examined in section 7.7. 6.2 Authentication and security Authentication and security mechanisms attempt to prevent unwanted access to systems, the data they create and store, and the data they communicate with and store on other systems. The ICTC reported in 2013 that of the companies it had surveyed, over 50% of respondents cited data and network security as issues of most concern.75 Security for mobile devices is unique in the following ways: • Mobile devices are highly portable and, therefore, easily stolen; • Many mobile devices can be linked easily to their owner’s identify; • Many mobile devices provide multiple communications channels through which attacks can be propagated; and, • Many mobile devices host multiple types of technologies that can be used to implement attacks. Methods of reducing or mitigating attacks include, but are not limited to, the following: • Educating users, • Improving software development techniques, • Enhancing mobile telecommunications networks, • Addressing issues at the manufacturing stage, and • Modeling of attacks. Security and intrusion detection technologies and techniques can be applied in the following areas of a mobile device’s architecture and usage: • User behaviour, • Application layer, • Virtual machine, • Hypervisor, and • Hardware layer. 76 A range of options now exist for enterprises to manage the security of mobile devices: • Mobile device management (MDM) systems: These are systems allow enterprises to manage collections of devices, including over the air deployment and updating of apps and deactivation of devices.
27 W. McIver, Jr., New Brunswick Community College
• Mobile application containerization: This refers to several techniques, including maintenance of distinct zones on a device for work and personal use. Mobile virtualization is another technique, which is a mobile version of hardware virtualization where several operating system environments can be run on a single device, all managed by a special entity called a hypervisor. • Mobile application wrapping: This is a form of containerization in which individual apps are run within a system that is able to reinforce a set of security policies established by the enterprise, such as what resources can or cannot be accessed by the application. • Offer only limited access to the enterprise via untrusted devices. • Restrict employees to trusted devices.77 Vendors of mobile security solutions include Absolute Software, Apple, Air-watch.com, BlackBerry, BoxTone, Centrify, Citrix, Fiberlink, Good Technology, IBM, Kapersky Lab, LANDesk, McAfee, Microsoft, MobileIron, Mobiquant, SAP, Sophos, Soti, Symantec, Tangoe, Trend Micro, and Zenprise.78 The FIDO Alliance is an industry organization developing an “open, scalable, interoperable” set of technologies for online authentication. It is focused on two areas: Passwordless UX Universal Authentication Framework (UAF) and Second Factor UX (U2F). The UAF protocol defines an online service to which users register, allowing them to authenticate to affiliated online services using only local authentication on their device. UAF approaches include including biometric and PIN based methods. The U2F protocol defines ways to add a second factor to authentication -- beyond PINs or passwords -- by attaching a U2F-compliant device to their Web browser, such as a fingerprint reader.79 Selected issues and developments in authentication, threatening mobile apps, intrusion and anomaly detection, and malware mitigation are discussed in the remainder of this section. 6.2.1 Authentication New methods of authentication are being sought for computing in general and mobile ICT in particular. The key objective with respect to mobile ICT is to harness the convenience of mobility to enable people to authenticate to sensitive services, particularly for payment. Existing methods of authentication are not suitable according to many specialists. A 2014 Trend Micro report predicts that two step authentication for banking apps will not be sufficient because of the increasing abilities of cybercriminals to intercept information transmitted in the process.80 A variety of novel authentication approaches have emerged in recent years. Clef, a San Francisco start-up, announced a mobile app that allows users to authenticate to Web sites by sending an encrypted key from the mobile phone to a desktop computer running the Google Chrome Web browser.81 6.2.2 Threatening mobile apps A significant proportion of mobile apps operate in a manner that is intentionally threatening or destructive to users. Trend Micro, a producer of security software, defines two broad and overlapping categories of threatening mobile apps: high-risk apps and malware.82 Malware is intentionally destructive or harmful, whereas high-risk apps present threats, but are not necessarily malicious.
28 New Brunswick Community College, Mobile First Technology Initiative, 2013-2014 Annual Report
The app store model of software distribution is seen as encouraging the creation of imposter apps and fake apps. Such apps are typically designed only to draw revenue with minimal development effort. The overlapping forms, methods, and variations of high-risk and malicious apps include the following: • Adware: apps that push advertisements to user devices in an aggressive manner; • Trojan horse apps: compromised versions of legitimate apps that are vectors for malware; • Counterfeit Trojan horse apps: facsimiles of legitimate apps that act as vectors for malware; • Fake app Trojan horses: apps that provide none of their advertised functionality, but act only as vectors for malware; • Malware-free counterfeit apps and fake apps: apps that contain no malware, but are either counterfeit versions of real (typically popular) apps or contain little or no functionality, and cause economic damage by defrauding consumers and diverting revenue away from developers of legitimate apps; • Premium service abuser malware: apps that surreptitiously cause users to be subscribed to on-line services that incur charges; • Data robber malware: apps that steal private data stored on or communicated by devices; and • Remote control malware: apps that install functionality on a device that allow it to be controlled by unauthorized users or systems. Trend Micro classified over 1 million Android apps as high-risk or malicious by Q3 2013, over 25% of which came from app stores. The vast majority, 80%, come from Web sites. Trend Micro’s study suggests that the leading threats were premium service abusers, adware, and data robbers.83 Time magazine estimated in Q1 2013 that there were approximately 800,000 Android apps in Google’s store; AppBrain.com, developer of a popular app for discovering Android apps, claims as of March 3, 2014 that there are over 1,132,000.84 The Trend Micro report does not offer sufficient data to compare threats to Android versus Apple iOS. Android is, however, generally considered to be the focus of most malware. Kapersky Lab, another producer of security software, claims that 98% of malware targets Android devices, but offers no data concerning malware on iOS devices.85 Trend Micro predicts that mobile platforms will be the primary vector for cyber attacks going forward, replacing desktop e-mail clients. A key threat is banking apps, which was reportedly represented by over 200,000 compromised apps in Q3 2013. High-risk apps are expected to rise above 3,000,000 this year.86 6.2.3 Intrusion and anomaly detection, and malware mitigation Google removed between 25,000 and 35,000 apps per month from its Google Play app store between December 2012 and July 2013. Apple removed approximately 5,000 apps per month from its App Store for most months during the same period. Not all of these apps were malware. Some of these apps were removed because they were found to violate other policies of the given app store, including being imposter apps.87
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Google’s Android version 4.4, known as KitKat, has security enhancements that are meant to reduce its use as a platform for malware. This includes strengthening its digital signing algorithm and the enforcement of its Security-Enhanced Linux (SELinux) configuration.88 KitKat has been installed on less than 2% of Android devices. Google is reportedly taking steps to enforce its use. It would, according to reports, withhold access to key services, such as Google Maps, if a vendor does not migrate to KitKat.89 Some analysts suggest that Android is at the same time easier to attack because it is more open and easier to secure with custom solutions, again, because it is more open.90 The processes by which apps are admitted to Google Play (i.e., Android apps) versus Apple’s App Store differ significantly. Apple reportedly employs a far more thorough review process than Google when developers submit an app. Apple has still been shown to be susceptible to malware slipping through its vetting process. Google and Apple have both instituted policies meant to reduce the amount of malware that gets into their stores. One general approach requires that apps that process payments do so only through the app store vendor (e.g., Apple, Blackberry, Google, or Microsoft). 91 6.3 Interconnected User Experience The state of interconnected user experience derives from the ability of a system to perform some combination of the following services for users: • Coordinate information-seeking and problem-solving sub-tasks between devices and Web services platforms, • Ensure secure access to a user’s accounts while reducing the work they must do to manage logins for multiple channels or services, and • Personalize its user interfaces across multiple channels or services (i.e., means of access to information). Mobile technologies offer unique opportunities to facilitate interconnected user experience. Such opportunities include the potential to communicate from anywhere and at any time; and the ability to use sensing capabilities on devices to understand a person’s context, including their location, usage history, and what they are trying to accomplish. The drive to provide interconnected user experience is due, in part, to cyclic relationships between several developments: • Affordances of mobile devices; • Newer business models enabled by the combined use of mobility, dynamic social analysis, and location technologies; and • The continued evolution of consumer behaviour and expectations as a result the previous two developments. The 2012 Taking Ontario Mobile report describes these relationships as follows: “[m]obility redefines the individual as part of a network that links data, technologies, content, context and other users and systems to create a profoundly new way of being in the world.”92 Advances in providing interconnected user experiences will arguably derive from both isolated and combined developments in the following areas:
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• Greater attention to user-centred design, human-computer interaction design, and usability evaluation; • Novel user interaction devices, and • Novel user interaction paradigms. Industry analysts argue that improving usability through user-centred design is crucial to wider adoption of mobile technologies.93 Many mobile ICT companies focus narrowly on software development. Usability and interoperability issues warrant more attention. These issues pose serious problems, from poor resolution and sound quality to unreliable app performance. Developers must make significant investments to develop apps that work on multiple mobile platforms, if they want to reach the largest possible market. Interoperability is discussed in section 6.1. 6.3.1 Interaction paradigms Many companies are trying to find better ways of delivering mobile services to customers quickly, accurately, in context-specific ways, and independent of the channel being used to deliver the service. GIGAOM Research reports in a survey of over 500 developers that among the objectives of mobile and social apps they develop, 58% are intended to improve consumer experiences, 50% are intended to market to users, and 43% are intended to reduce customer service costs.94 These objectives require the development of apps that not only operate on all platforms, but which enable a user to move between devices without any serious disruption in services. How best to do this is the question now before many companies. Consumers are demanding products that enable users to engage the same services on various devices and in different usage contexts. It is expected that Mobile ICT will soon be able to support interconnected user experiences in the form of apps that not only operate on all platforms (or channels), but also enable a user to move between devices without any serious disruption to services they are using at the time. A user could, under such a scenario, be in one location and begin to access a service on their desktop PC and then continue using the same service on one of their mobile devices in an uninterrupted manner as they leave that location to begin a commute to a different location. Designers predict that Web sites capable of space shifting and device shifting will become more prevalent. This will include the ability to shift any application and media type seamlessly between devices. The emergence of more immersive environments is also expected. 95 The following are selected issues and developments in the area of user interaction paradigms: • Mobile first responsive design: The main design trend for mobile ICT is arguably mobile first responsive web design. This includes a trend toward visual simplicity in mobile Web and mobile app design and enabling the dynamic transformation of content such that it can be used optimally on a given device. One challenge in mobile first responsive design is reengineering existing user interface patterns for mobile devices.96 • Content parity: The objective for many designers and their clients is to remove the distinction between mobile Web and desktop Web. Web design must become device agnostic because organizations cannot be certain how people will visit their sites. Designers are, therefore, striving for “content parity” between desktop and mobile experiences. The mobile experience is, at the same time, no longer being viewed as the “lite version.” 97
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• Toward user interface (UI) invisibility: Even with the emphasis on parity between mobile and desktop Web experiences, some designers expect increasing access to Internet-based services without Web browsers. User interfaces (UIs) are expected to become “invisible” in a sense. Content-first approaches are one example of the attempt to make the UI invisible through simpler layouts that reduce the “clicking burden” on users. The objective is to provide simple paths to the practical information that users require at a given moment. 98 • Content-first design: Content-first design paradigms predate their application to mobile ICT, but have been evolving as part of the emphasis on parity between mobile and desktop experiences and the pursuit of mobile first responsive design. Content-first is motivated by the reality that device properties, software technologies, and design trends all tend to change at significant rates, while the value of the content they deliver often remains a lot longer. • Storytelling: Storytelling is one example of a content-first approach. According to leading Web design consultant, Denise R. Jacobs, storytelling has come to be recognized as an effective strategy in Web content design for connecting with users. The challenge is how to translate the story telling design paradigm into mobile first responsive designs. Story telling sites often use long single pages and, thus, require scrolling, which is often not optimal for mobile platforms. Storytelling approaches also necessitate greater attention to the lifecycle of content that is created and shared via mobile platforms. 99 • Visual simplicity: The visual aspects of design for mobile platforms are changing. Skeuomorphism, the use of design elements in human-computer interfaces that mimic real- world objects, is fading in favor of flat designs. The move away from skeumorphism corresponds to increasing familiarity that users have with mobile devices; it is no longer necessary to help users understand the affordances of digital devices by mimicking more familiar physical objects, such as icons that look like real-world controls. A decline in the gratuitous use of design elements is also expected to decline. Many interaction capabilities, such as parallax scrolling, have been used as gimmicks and not based on scientific evidence that they are effective in a given circumstance. We may see such techniques used as design experience for mobile devices improves and as part of evidence- based “conceptual constructs.” 100 • Flat designs: Microsoft’s Windows 8 Metro interface is indicative of the new flat design style that is becoming more prevalent.101 There is also increased attention to typography in relation to the emphasis on simpler and content-first approaches.102 • The Internet of Things (IoT) as a design paradigm: The Internet of Things paradigm is usually not discussed as a design paradigm, but its affordances are being leveraged increasingly to achieve certain types of interconnected user experiences. (See section 7.4 for a discussion on the Internet of Things.) Canadian company reelyActive leverages its Internet of Things (IoT) technologies to enable its Log in to Life location-aware, social networking system. Users of their system are enabled to share their ambient information within an environment instrumented with their sensors with the objective of enhancing discovery and interaction within physical and social contexts.103 6.3.2 Human-computer interaction design and evaluation methods Attention to design and usability are critical for developing effective mobile ICT.104 The combined objectives of design and usability are to enable user experiences that are effective, “compelling and cohesive.” 105
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The following are selected issues and developments in the areas of human-computer interaction (HCI) design and evaluation methods: • Overall design approach: Many designers think that a focus on design processes has taken on an importance approaching that of specializations in specific technological areas. Valdes points to the question in industry circles of whether good design requires a “design dictator” or if there are effective alternatives. Design approaches can be characterized along a spectrum, with intuition-based methods at one extreme and evidence-based methods at the other. • Intuitive design: Intuitive approaches are seen as “craft,” relying on what are often thought to be innate individual talents of design team members who share a design philosophy and have an intuitive understanding of their potential customers. • Evidence-based design: Evidence-based approaches rely on usage data to judge the success of a design, and a well-defined design process to guide the work of the design team. Usage data may include time spent using certain features, return visits to a service, the frequency of help requests, and financial data concerning the sales of the resulting products or services. • Hybrid design approaches: Many successful companies, such as Facebook, employ approaches that are somewhere in the middle of this spectrum. Valdes sees the iPhone as being a result of intuition-based approaches.106 Google is well known for using a data-driven approach to design and evolve its service offerings.107 • Collaboration between content and technical design: One recommended design approach that is specific to mobile ICT is to have creators of content and designers of apps and services work collaboratively. The rationale for such an approach is that the increasingly specialized nature of information being delivered to users – geographic, social networking, and real-time telemetry – can have significant implications on the both the aesthetic and technical aspects of design and on cross-platform compatibility.108 • Focus on performance: Designers will focus increasingly on improving performance as a means of improving usability; however, mobile ICT developers still need better methods for tailoring information to both the bandwidth and the features of the devices to which it is being delivered.109 Successful design processes, whether intuitive or evidence-based, are usually iterative, where successive versions of a product or service are evaluated. The following are best practices in design that apply to many domains, including the design of mobile ICT: • Strive for balance: Designers should seek an overall focus on achieving a balance between functional desirability, economic viability, and technical feasibility. • Be technology neutral: Designers should be technology agnostic at the inception of a design project. • Measure: Obtain baseline measurements representing the status quo before a design project and measure and analyze candidate solutions against them. • Walk in the user’s shoes: Become immersed in the environment in which candidate designs are to be used; and perform ethnographies of typical users and other stakeholders.
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• Use disciplined approaches: Engage in structured idea generation and processing, and other disciplined approaches to generate and evaluate candidate designs. • Leverage heuristics: Make use of effective design heuristics and patterns in generating candidate designs. • Make heavy use of prototyping: Perform frequent prototyping and evaluation to identify failures or opportunities early; and use prototypes as shorthand for “discussing” candidate designs. • Use iteration: Refine designs through multiple iterations. • Use diverse design teams: Form design teams that have diverse perspectives and sets of expertise.110 6.3.3 User interaction devices and techniques The following are selected recent developments and trends in user interaction devices and techniques for mobile ICT: • Hands-free and gesture-based interactions: A 2013 study by ABI Research suggests that devices that enable hands-free and gesture-based interactions will make the largest impacts in differentiating mobile ICT products in the near future. Such devices that are already in use include accelerometers, NFC, gyroscopes, and various other means of recognizing gestures.111 The trend toward hands-free and gesture-based interactions is being influenced, in part, by increasing user experience with these interaction techniques.112 • Cursor tracking: It was reported during 2013 that Facebook was working on cursor tracking technology that could be used to determine which areas of a Web page are of interest to a user. Such a capability would potentially enable higher advertising revenues. It is not yet clear how this type of capability would be transferred to mobile ICT.113 This type of capability would likely engender new privacy concerns. Other reported capabilities of Facebook’s tracking efforts will include determining whether a user is viewing a given page on one of their mobile devices.114 • Media queries: It is expected that there will be increasing use of media queries within mobile first responsive designs.115 Media queries are defined as queries consisting of “a media type and at least one expression that limits the style sheets' scope by using media features, such as width, height, and color. Media queries, added in deprecated CSS3, let the presentation of content be tailored to a specific range of output devices without having to change the content itself.”116 • Increasing screen resolution: We will continue to see higher resolution screens on devices, with designers focusing on making optimal use of higher resolution displays.117 • Alignment of interaction techniques: No one type of mobile device dominates; thus, designers must align user interaction techniques with device types: o Touch and voice interactions are suitable for the full range of mobile devices, with touch-enabled devices now expected by many users. There will be continued creativity in using multi-touch.118 o Keyboards will continue to be most prominent and useful for tablets and notebooks.
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o Gesture-based interactions will likely be useful for a wide range of devices, from pocket-sized through tablets and desktop devices. o Speech recognition interfaces are expected to improve significantly. 119 • Simpler multimodal input: The implementation of Web apps that can handle multiple input types -- pen, touch, and mice – is expected to become simpler. The W3C Pointer Events candidate recommendation seeks to define a platform-independent standard for handling input from pens, mice, and touchscreens within a Document Object Model (DOM).120 • Cross-platform integration: The integration of mobile platforms with other types of platforms and sensing devices or output devices is expected to increase. Examples of such integration include the following: o Personal tracking devices, such as the Fitbit, Jawbone UP, and Nike+ Fuelband, are designed to pair with smartphones and Web services; o Frameworks that ease the use of sensors, such as Twine Wi-Fi sensor blocks, are designed to be subordinate elements of other ICT; o Various systems for home appliances, such as the LIFX Wi-Fi light bulb, are dependent on external controls, such as smartphone apps; 121 o A number of systems have emerged that pair mobile devices with television or other types of output devices. These include Google Chromecast, an inexpensive Wi-Fi dongle that enables video to be streamed from mobile devices to an HDMI input. 122 • Use of Scalable vector graphics and icon fonts: Scalable vector graphics (SVG) is a W3C two dimension image format standard defined as a “modularized language for describing two- dimensional vector and mixed vector/raster graphics in XML.”123 An icon font (or font icon) is an icon that has been defined using a font file.124 Scalable vector graphics (SVG) have become more common as higher resolution devices come on the market. Icon fonts have become popular as a means for creating icons whose sizes can be scaled downwards to smaller screens found on mobile devices. The scalability of both SVG and icons fonts are useful in creating cross-platform content because they are easy to adjust to a variety of screen resolutions.125 • Flexible and shape shifting devices: Some designers predict that mobile devices whose sizes or shapes can be morphed will begin to appear on the market in the near future.126 Samsung announced a flexible form of organic light emitting diode (OLED) technology with which flexible displays can be produced.127 Nokia Research Center (NRC) announced the Morph Concept, a mobile device that is “flexible, stretchable, transparent.”128 • Real-time communication: The Web Real-Time Communication (WebRTC) is “enables web browsers with Real-Time Communications (RTC) capabilities via simple JavaScript APIs.”129 Designers predict that WebRTC will continue to make inroads into mobile ICT.130 • WebGL vs. HTML5: WebGL enables 3D rendering without plug-ins. 131 More mobile browsers are beginning to support WebGL, leading some designers to predict that it will overtake HTML5 in some contexts.132 6.3.4 Collaborative and social computing systems and tools Vancouver-based company, Perch.co, has developed a simple service and iOS client app that enables organizations to turn a device into a dedicated point-to-point video portal. The Perch app
35 W. McIver, Jr., New Brunswick Community College provides for single touch initiation of video conferencing. The app also performs automatic muting and unmuting when it recognizes the presence or absence of a face.133
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7 OTHER AREAS OF SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY & ENGINEERING (SELECTED) This section surveys issues and developments in selected areas of science, technology and engineering as they relate to mobile ICT. 7.1 Ubiquitous and mobile computing devices The following are selected issues and developments in the areas of ubiquitous and mobile computing devices: • Video on 2G phones: Most of the world’s mobile phone users are still on 2G networks and devices that do not support video. Vuclip.com has developed what it calls dynamic adaptive transcoding that enables video to be streamed to 2G devices in such a way that it takes available network capacity into account.134 This has the potential to open up markets for creative content for people whose 2G mobile phones would be their only screens. • Glanceable and wearable computers: Canadian firm Recon Instruments produces modular, Bluetooth-enabled, heads up display (HUD) technologies that have been integrated into mobile platforms for sports applications, such as skiing and cycling. Oakley is a notable integrator of Recon’s technologies. Recon offers a software development kit (SDK) to encourage third party development of mobile apps. Canadian start-up Neptune Computer Inc expects to produce a new entry into the glanceable space in 2014 with its Pine smart watch, an Android-based computer designed to support social, fitness, health, and entertainment applications in a relatively-compact, water resistant package.135 7.2 Microprocessors The use of multi-core processors is expanding, with the introduction of eight-core processors into mobile devices predicted in the near future.136 7.3 Data and File Management Enterprise file synchronization and sharing (EFSS) systems are being adapted to mobile platforms. Gartner predicts that this area will mature by 2016. EFSS vendors include Accellion, Acronis, Box, Citrix, Ctera, Dropbox, Egnyte, EMC, Good Technology, Nomadesk, Oxygen Cloud, TIBCO, WatchDox, and YouSendIt.137 7.4 Internet of Things and Machine-to-Machine There were approximately 500 million connected devices – including phones, desktop computers, and sensing devices -- in 2003. There were 12.5 billion such devices by 2010. There are predictions that there will be 50 billion mobile devices by 2020.138 This reality sets the context and potentials for systems involving so-called Internet of Things (IoT) and machine-to- machine (M2M) technologies. Interrelated IoT and M2M technologies have become prominent in the domain of mobile ICT in recent years. The 2014 Wavefront conference in Vancouver focused on M2M.139 Both IoT and M2M leverage the range of computing, data communications, and sensing technologies that allow physical objects and systems of objects to be individually addressed, interrogated and controlled via data networks, such as the Internet. Mattern and Floerkemeier describe the Internet of Things as follows: The Internet of Things represents a vision in which the Internet extends into the real world embracing everyday objects. Physical items are no longer disconnected from the virtual world, but can be controlled remotely and can act as physical access points to
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Internet services. An Internet of Things makes computing truly ubiquitous – a concept initially put forward by Mark Weiser in the early 1990s.140 Wu et al. define M2M, in part, as follows: M2M represents a future where billions to trillions of everyday objects and the surrounding environment are connected and managed through a range of devices, communication networks, and cloud-based servers. Wu et al. see “three essential components” of M2M: • “a continuum of devices from low-cost/low-power to compute-rich/high-performance”, • “ultra scalable connectivity”, and • “cloud-based mass device management and services.”141 M2M is becoming an important approach to addressing a wide range of industrial and consumer use cases. Some analysts predict that industrial developments based on IoT and M2M technologies could raise the U.S. GDP by 2% or more by 2025.142 The following are selected issues and developments in the areas of IoT and M2M: • Bluetooth Low Energy and iBeacon: Apple announced the iBeacon specification and API in 2013. This technology allows Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE) devices to send notifications to devices they detect. Objectives include retail applications that allow consumer devices to be notified of offers nearby. Both iOS and Android devices having Bluetooth 4.0 capabilities can be used with iBeacons. Vendors of devices compatible with iBeacons include Estimote, Euclid, GeLo, Nomi, and the Canadian firm reelyActive. BLE technologies will enable solutions in areas other than retail marketing, including home automation and security.143 A host of BLE solutions have emerged. Amongst the most cited is the Tile device, with which one tags items they want to track; and its associated TheTileapp.com, a service that facilitates geo-location of the Tile devices and the sharing of that information with one’s social network.144 • Reversing BLE or iBeacon: The technology been found to allow mobile devices to reverse the beacon-to-device notification flow to allow devices to initiate communications with beacons. This has been demonstrated in several interesting use cases by reelyActive.145 • Manufacturing: Masitek Instruments Inc of New Brunswick is a producer of machine-to- machine technologies for monitoring manufacturing processes. Masitek’s approach involves the use of sensor packages that simulate form factors and other characteristics of the objects involved in a given production line. Sensor packages can be designed to represent objects such as bottles, eggs, or potatoes. These sensor packages are then inserted into a given production environment and are then monitored in the context of a production process. These sensor packages are able to measure and report various conditions, such as force, acceleration, and temperature, which might adversely affect the quality of the products being produced.146 • Loss and theft prevention: Linquet, a Canadian company, has developed a system for loss prevention involving tags that is comprised of BLE tags and location monitoring software that notifies users when they move out of proximity of their tags.147 TEO, another Canadian company, has developed a padlock system enabled by Bluetooth that allows authorized users to open locks with their phones. TEO also allows lock owners to open a lock remotely on
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behalf of others and to authorize other people to use their own mobile device to open a lock.148 • Backhaul: Many M2M applications exist within remote industrial or natural settings necessitating some form of wireless backhaul from the remote elements to a core network. Examples include remote monitoring cameras and sensors. Canadian vendors such as Redline Communications offer such backhaul systems.149 7.5 Geo-spatial technologies and location-based services The following are selected issues and developments in the areas of geo-spatial technologies and location-based services (LBS) as they relate to mobile ICT: • Key challenges: Obstacles to location-based services include a lack of awareness by consumers; legacy systems that are not implemented using standards; proprietary interfaces or standards; and remaining gaps in integrating open standards.150 • Indoor positioning: The elements of location-based services include: o Positioning, o Spatial analysis, o Map representation, and o Data communications. No widely used standard exists for indoor position data. New indoor positioning standards are required that are capable of referencing both floor plans and objects contained within interior environments. Various building information management (BIM) standards offer possibilities for managing data about objects within internal environments. One challenge in integrating BIM data and indoor position data is the representation and updating of data concerning ownership, changes in position, and physical actions performed on sensing devices and other types of objects that must be represented. Objects to be represented within interior environments via a combined BIM and LBS standard may be owned and managed by different entities.151 The Canadian company reelyActive produces hardware devices and cloud services for IoT applications that enable objects and spaces to be instrumented for wireless identification, association with other entities, location determination, and communication.152 • Integrating GPS with indoor positioning: The seamless integration of outdoor geo-spatial data standards with indoor positioning is a challenge. Emergency response is a key motivation for integrating indoor and outdoor positioning via mobile platforms. Geographic coordinates sent by users of mobile technologies are sometimes the only means by which first responders have to locate people or locations during emergencies. Once at a site, however, first responders often do not have electronic data about the interiors of the structures at that location. Outdoor positioning approaches include GPS, cellular triangulation, and the correlation of Wi-Fi hotspots with known geographic coordinates. Indoor positioning may make limited use of cellular triangulation due to limited reception inside of structures, relying more on Wi-Fi-based positioning and a variety of wireless sensor technologies, such as BLE, RFID, and infrared.153 • Internet of Things: Several organizations are working on geo-spatial standards related to IoT, with an emphasis on indoor positioning:
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o International Organization for Standardization Technical Committee 211 (ISO/TC211) on Geographic information/Geomatics; o ITU Telecommunication Standardization Sector (ITU-T); and o Open Geospatial Consortium (OGC), which is developing a standard for accessing sensors in IoT environments.154 • Other geo-spatial standards efforts: Other standards efforts include the following: o The International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) Common Information Model (CIM) standard for representing the architecture and operating status of electrical networks is being integrated with the Geography Markup Language (GML) standard. o The OGC is defining the CityGML standard for modeling city infrastructure in 3D. o The Building SMART organization is developing standards for representing and communicating information about facilities management, building information, and other structural and operational aspects of cities. It is making its standards interoperable with CityGML. o The OGC is also working on IndoorGML, a means of representing indoors areas and the locations of objects within them. o The ISO Technical Committee on Intelligent Transportation Systems is expected to address interoperability with LBS standards for indoor and outdoor positioning. o The IEEE Robotics and Automation Society is expected to address interoperability with other LBS standards for indoor and outdoor positioning. o The OGC and the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) are working on WaterML2.0, a standard for the representation of water observations data. o Supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) systems are being integrated into cloud-based architectures that include mobile access to SCADA systems. o Organization for the Advancement of Structured Information Standards (OASIS) has approved integrations of GML with their standards for emergency data exchange (EDXL) and hospital availability exchange (EDXL-HAVE). o The Benutzerfreundliche allgegenwärtige Ladestellen für Elektrofahrzeuge (BALLADE) (user-friendly ubiquitous charging points for electric vehicles) is a system that makes the locations of plug-in electric vehicle (PEV) charging stations discoverable. o Intelligent transportation systems (ITS) having been integrating LBS for fleet management and automated vehicle location for passengers. o The W3C has recognized GML as the preferred standard for “points of interest.” o The OGC and ITU-T are also developing the Open GeoSMS standard for exchanging location-based information via Short Message Service (SMS), known colloquially as texting.155 7.6 Speech recognition Emerging offline voice recognition systems offer the possibility of faster response time than systems like Apple’s Siri that rely on cloud services. Android began offering offline speech
40 New Brunswick Community College, Mobile First Technology Initiative, 2013-2014 Annual Report recognition in version 4.1. Intel is reportedly developed a chip-based speech solution with Nuance that it is marketing to mobile phone manufacturers.156 7.7 Accessibility technologies Mobile ICT should be designed from the start with attention to accessibility as a matter of principle. There are also legal requirements to provide accessible designs in some jurisdictions. Practitioners of universal design have long recognized that technologies of accommodation inevitably have broader impacts than the accommodations they are meant to enable. The Trace R&D Center at the University of Wisconsin-Madison identifies four categories of impairments: visual, hearing, physical, and cognitive or language.157 The following are selected issues and developments in the area of accessibility as they relate to mobile ICT: • Standards for Accessibility: Interoperability standards and assessment guidelines for accessibility for ICT exist and continue to evolve. The World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) has played an important role in this area for many years.158 A consortium of the Broadband Commission, G3ict (Global Initiative for Inclusive Information and Communication Technologies), IDA, ITU, Microsoft, the Telecentre.org Foundation, and UNESCO has recently called for the evolution of accessibility standards for ICT.159 • Visual impairments: Accessibility for mobile ICT is seen mainly in features that benefit the visually impaired. The World Health Organization reported in 2013 that 285 million people worldwide are visually impaired, approximately 90% in developing countries. Approximately 39 million of the world’s visually impaired people are blind.160 Some accessibility experts and advocates see smartphones as representing a significant advancement for assistive technologies. Android and iOS offer accessibility options that enable speech-based navigation and input into apps. Accessibility features also allow the user to have the contents of their screen read aloud. Many novel applications of cameras on mobile devices are being developed to aid visually impaired users. There are, for example, apps that enable one to determine the denominations of paper currency using the camera.161 • Hearing impairments: Mobile phones and other RF devices have been known to cause problems for users of hearing aids and cochlear implants. Users of these hearing devices may experience various types of noise when using mobile phones. The American National Standard Institute (ANSI) developed standard C63.19 for hearing aid compatibility (HAC) with mobile phones. 162 The U.S. Federal Communications Commission (FCC) has, in turn, established hearing aid compatibility rules for mobile phones based on ANSI C63.19. Consumers can use the ratings to determine the level of compatibility a given phone has with certain types of hearing aid devices.163 Many novel smartphone apps continue to emerge that solve problems for people with hearing impairments.164 This includes relay services, such as the Purple Communications Video Relay Service (VRS), that enable people to make calls using sign language during which a qualified interpreter speaks to the hearing party on the call.165 • Physical impairments: Mobile platforms are also enabling solutions for people with mobility impairments. One category of technologies in this area helps users navigate physical
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environments and locate accessible accommodations, such as ramps, elevators, parking spaces, and washrooms.166 Gestured and speech-based user interaction technologies, and M2M technologies offer many affordances that could be leveraged to addressed unsolved problems for those with mobility impairments. • Cognitive or language impairments: The convergence of e-readers, audio, imaging and video, and text-to-speech technologies in mobile devices have enabled the development of assistive technologies for reading and learning disabilities. This includes many text-to-speech options for reading books and apps that can use the camera on a device to scan and read text aloud. This has occurred in the tablet category, in particular. 167 A significant amount of research has been devoted to finding effective ways of assisting people with dementia and other types of cognitive impairments. Much of this work is in the context of assisted living environments. Researchers in this area are careful to point out that “parachuting existing technologies into residential homes is unlikely to be effective.” The design process, as discussed in section 6.3, must be “socio-technical,” taking into account a careful study of the people to be assisted, their issues, and the environment in which they live.168 7.8 Wireless communication standards and technologies The following are selected issues and developments in the areas of wireless communication standards and technologies: • Near field Communication (NFC): Some analysts predict that the release of NFC-enabled devices and services will continue to be sluggish due to a lack of infrastructure.169 • Internet of Things in remote applications: Many wireless networking technologies are being developed specifically for IoT and M2M applications. Many IoT and M2M networking solutions are based on Wi-Fi, including Electric Imp and Spark Core. Wi-Fi and wire line networking technologies are limiting in many M2M contexts. A fundamental need in the development of many IoT and M2M applications is enable medium to wide-range data communications capabilities with low power consumption to the elements within a system (e.g., sensors and processors). These requirements are common for applications in remote settings where Wi-Fi and Ethernet are either impractical or unavailable; and short-range technologies, such as Bluetooth and Zigbee, have insufficient range. Technologies, such as Flutter Wireless, which has a 1 km range with a current draw of 10 to 30mA, are being developed for these contexts.170 • WiGig/IEEE 802.11ad (gigabit wireless standard): WiGig/IEEE 802.11ad is a new multi- gigabit standard motivated by the need for wireless connectivity at even higher data rates. WiGig uses the 60 GHz band, which is unlicensed globally. The WiGig/IEEE 802.11ad standard includes the following features: o It supports data rates of over 6 Gbps; o It allows two devices to communicate directly, such as for synchronization; o It has the ability to adjust power use based on data traffic load; o It has the ability to transfer sessions seamlessly between WiGig and lower bandwidth 802.11 networks;
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o It has support for wireless HDMI, DisplayPort, USB, and PCIe; and, o It can make use of Advanced Encryption Standard (AES). An additional unique feature of the WiGig/IEEE 802.11ad standard is that it allows the use of directional antennae to concentrate a signal between two devices, which can reduce power requirements and interference. • Wi-Fi / IEEE 802.11ac: IEEE 802.11ac is the latest version of the Wi-Fi standard. The 802.11ac standard is designed to add the “capabilities of Gigabit Ethernet” to 802.11n. The key improvements of 802.11ac over 802.11n include potential speedups of 117% to 333% through the use of wider bandwidths and an increase from four to eight multiple-input and multiple-output (MIMO) antennae. This will result in 500 Mbit to 1 GBit throughput. The 802.11ac standard uses spectrum in the 5 GHz band only; thus, many devices with Wi-Fi support are expected to be dual band, offering 2.4 GHz as well. The first 802.11ac certified products reached the market in 2013, which include the Samsung Galaxy S4 and the 2013 Apple Macbook Air. • 5G: Mobile devices in the 5G generation are likely to be enabled by millimeter wave transceivers operating in the range of frequencies from 3 GHz to 300 GHz and that feature beam-forming antennae. Such transceivers would be capable of transmitting data at 1 Gb/s over distances of 1 km. Millimeter wave communications are known, however, to have difficulty penetrating solid materials and have, thus, been limited in their application to line- of-site applications. The NYU Wireless Lab and Samsung, among other organizations, are performing research to resolve such issues and bring millimeter wave communications to mobile platforms. 171 A beam-forming antenna is comprised of arrays of sensors that are capable of spatial selectivity with respect to direction they use for reception and transmission of signals. Beam forming can improve signal strength, signal quality within noisy environments, and enable greater data capacity. These characteristics are seen as vital in coming years as access to bandwidth becomes more contentious due to the rapidly increasing use of wireless devices, including IoT technologies. Cisco predicts that there will be 50 billion networked devices globally by 2020, many of which will be wireless.172 7.9 Image-based tag technologies Some analysts think that use of quick response codes (QR codes) will soon decline. QR Codes have often been used in locations where they are difficult to scan; instructions are lacking, limiting the public’s knowledge of how to use them; and are sometimes not linked with mobile-friendly content. The QR code is being challenged by image recognition-triggered, augmented reality (AR) technologies that are designed specifically for mobile platforms. These approaches are generally able to register images without the presence of visible tags (e.g., QR Codes) that conflict visually with the print design. Examples of these new approaches include Blippar and Touchcode.173 The QR Code has been cited as lacking built-in support on Android and iOS until recently, forcing people to download apps. QR Codes require connectivity to be useful. Some companies are resistant to using the extra space on their products to add QR Codes, especially when the bar code can be used in a similar way, though with much less information for the same area.174 There is a view by some analysts -- including by some earlier critics -- that QR Codes will continue to see significant use for some time. Apple’s iOS now comes pre-loaded with a QR Code
43 W. McIver, Jr., New Brunswick Community College reader app; and certain sectors have learned to make effective use of QR Codes, such as on real estate signs.175 The emergence of wearable technologies, such as Google Glass strengthens the possibilities for the use of QR Codes as seen in applications of related fiducial marker technologies, such as ARTag.176 7.10 Energy storage New research on supercapacitor designs is emerging that may point to compact, fast-charging energy storage solutions for mobile devices, among other applications.177 Energy storage is a critical problem in areas of the world where power sources are not widespread or reliable. Ushahidi, Inc, a Kenyan company, has developed a compact, robust, plug- and-play, multi-protocol modem, called the BRCK, which stores up to eight hours of power. The BRCK is able to maintain connections during power outages. See section 24.178 7.11 Network architectures Multipath TCP (MPTCP) is a standard that was been under development for about five years. MCTCP allows the simultaneous use of multiple network interfaces available on a device. Mobile devices are particularly well suited to leveraging MPTCP because they typically have multiple wireless interfaces, often Wi-Fi and 3G or 4G mobile broadband. MCTCP decouples TCP from IP such that any one session may maintain a continuous session in which packets may be routed simultaneously over any of a device’s network interfaces. Devices using MCTCP are, thus, potentially multi-homed. MPTCP is seen by many as a necessary evolution of TCP to allow greater mobility for mobile apps. It does so by allowing apps to transition seamlessly between networks, say when a Wi-Fi signal is lost; and by allowing devices to adapt to ever-greater levels of congestion due to the proliferation of mobile devices. The IETF issued an MCTCP standard in January 2013.179 Apple iOS 7 became the first commercial implementation of MCTCP in 2013.180 7.12 Electronic money, digital cash, or m-money M-money refers to a variety of approaches designed to enable financial transactions and banking using mobile ICT. M-money is used in peer-to-peer (P2P), consumer-to-business (C2B), or business- to-consumer (B2C) transactions.181 The following are selected issues and developments in the area of m-money: • M-money: M-money is seen as practical for micropayments in many contexts, such as bus fares. In developing countries, however, m-money has come to be used in virtually every aspect of life and has, thereby, come to be an important mechanism for financial inclusion. See section 16.1. • Electronic wallet: Electronic wallets allow users store monetary value on a mobile device and make transactions from it. Google, MasterCard, V.me by Visa, and YES-wallet.com are active in the area of electronic wallets.182 • Payment processors: Trusted service managers (TSMs) are used to process payments on behalf of mobile network operators (MNOs).
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• Near field communication (NFC): Near field communication (NFC) is ideal for C2B or B2C for contactless payments. NFC is based on the ISO/IEC 18092 standard. It allows data communications at distances of no more than 10 cm. It is based on the older Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) technology standard. NFC is also designed for device interconnection, such as accessing data from a physical tag to obtain information about a product or making contact free financial transactions. • Alternatives to NFC: Alternatives to NFC-based payment systems include the Square credit card reader that interfaces to mobile devices. • Security: Techniques for encrypting and securing m-money transactions and data include the use of o A secure element (SE) on the mobile device, such as an embedded chip; o A trusted execution environment (TEE) on the mobile device; o An operating system level environment protected by hardware on the mobile device; or, o A cloud service to store keys and data outside of the mobile device. • Opportunities for m-money: Opportunities exist for new value-added services using m- money, as well as the expansion of existing services to a multi-national or global footprints. National or regional banking and financial regulations must be contended for this type of expansion. • Global standards: Global standards are necessary for mobile payment systems. The Electronic Transactions Association, European Telecommunications Standards Institute, GMSA, ITU-T, ISO, and Mobey Forum are among the organizations working on global standards for mobile payment systems. The European Commission made a formal commitment toward this objective with its European Commission Directive on Payment Services.183 7.13 Enterprise computing, middleware and service-oriented architectures The following are selected issues and developments in the areas of enterprise computing, middleware, and service-oriented architectures as they relate to mobile ICT: • Mobile backend-as-a-service: Mobile Backend-as-a-Service (MBaaS) is a category of middleware technologies that is an extension of earlier concepts, including Software-as-a- Service (SaaS), Platform-as-a-Service (PaaS), and Infrastructure-a-as-Service (IaaS). An MBaaS is an emerging type of middleware that is becoming a part of some mobile architectures. 184 An MBaaS provides cloud-based storage, RESTful APIs, mobile usage analytics, and data exchange methods that are optimized for mobile wireless platforms.185 • Mobile network enabled platforms (MNEP): The advent of practical gigabit wireless technologies will motivate a re-examination of network-enabled platforms (NEPs) in the context of mobile platforms. NEPs make use of user-controlled light paths (UCLPs), which are an abstraction on top of ultra high bandwidth fibre optic networks (e.g., Canada’s CA*net 4 research network). The UCLP abstraction allows individual service providers to allocate parts of such a network in a manner that allows an NEP to create, find or reconfigure dedicated point-to-point circuits to transmit and receive large data streams at high rates. The ultra high bandwidth environment in which NEPs operate make possible e-learning scenarios involving
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real-time, interactive use of very large data sets that are not possible with traditional broadband-based desktop computing, much less with mobile platforms.186 A possible application of integrating and balancing the affordances of ultra high bandwidth computing and mobile computing is to enable optimal e-learning experiences. Ultra high bandwidth technologies make possible e-learning scenarios involving real-time, interactive use of very large data sets not possible with traditional broadband-based desktop computing and much less with mobile platforms. The broadband communication protocols upon which mass-market mobile computing relies are still limited to 4G technologies that have rates of 100 to 300 MBits/second for receiving data and 50 to 75 MBits/second for sending data, and to Wi-Fi technologies that have rates between 72.2 and 150 MBits/second. Data rates of 450 MBits/second are possible using the 802.11n standard for Wi-Fi under special circumstances. Higher data rates are possible using the newer 802.11ac standard. Such data rates are not yet available in mass-market mobile devices.187 The Apple iPhone5s, for example, supports 802.11n only in the 2.4GHz band, which limits its practical data rate to 51 MBits/second.188 NEPs, in contrast, make use of user-controlled light paths (UCLPs). UCLPs are an abstraction on top of ultra high bandwidth fibre optic networks, such as Canada’s CA*net 4 research network. This abstraction allows individual service providers to allocate parts of a network such that NEPs can create, find or reconfigure dedicated point-to-point circuits to transmit and receive large data streams. UCLPs can provide dedicated data rates of between 1 and 10 GBits/second.189 7.14 Operating systems Android and iOS continue to be the dominant operating systems for mobile devices, with Windows Phone trailing. Several formidable companies and alliances have started new mobile operating systems projects recently. The following are selected developments in the area of mobile operating systems: • Open Web: The Mozilla Foundation released an HTML5-based Open Web mobile platform. Eighteen carriers in Latin America, Europe, and Asia had adopted it by early 2013.190 • Chrome Apps: Google announced in early 2014 a tool chain based on Adobe Cordova that allows its desktop Chrome Apps to be adapted to run on Android and iOS mobile platforms.191 • Ubuntu: Canonical, producer of the Ubuntu variant of the open source GNU/Linux operating system, has recently begun offering a mobile version for original equipment manufacturers (OEM) and original design manufacturers (ODM). The mobile version of Ubuntu is designed to support the development of both native apps and mobile Web apps based on HTML5.192 • Tizen: The Linux Foundation is hosting the development of the Tizen software platform, which is being designed for smartphones, tablets, netbooks, in-vehicle entertainment systems, and televisions. Tizen has the participation of Intel and Samsung.193 • Sailfish OS: Sailfish OS is being developed as a Linux core optimized for mobile devices. It is built using the well-known Qt cross-platform development framework. 194 Sailfish OS integrates the Mer project, an effort to build a free and open source software tool chain for HTML5, Qt Modeling Language (QML), and JavaScript; and the Nemo mobile GNU/Linux distribution.
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7.15 Software safety There are indications that the use of mobile devices can cause a known form of motion sickness. This phenomenon has been termed simulator sickness by the U.S. Military or visually induced motion sickness by earlier researchers. 195 Some users of interfaces that employ parallax or zoom techniques have reported simulator sickness. 196 Both motion and simulator sickness are thought to be linked to activities in which users perceive conflicts or delays between information sent to their brain by the visual system and their inner ear regarding motion. The user interface may signal our visual system that we are moving, but the inner ear experiences no motion. Simulator sickness has been reported in 3D and augmented reality systems and may include nausea and headaches. There does not appear to be an authoritative study on the prevalence of simulation sickness induced by the use of mobile devices, but some industry analysts suggest that it may be as high as 13%.197 7.16 Software testing and verification Software testing for mobile ICT can be organized, as with most other types of software, into the following categories: • Functional testing: Functional testing determines if an app performs its purported functions accurately and reliably on the range of devices for which it is being designed. Strategies for functional testing include the use of automated test scripts, often recorded from live sessions on a device; performing a specific set of use cases; and random testing by live users. Each of these strategies warrant in situ testing in real world settings typical of the ones in which the end-users of an app are expected to be. • Usability testing: Usability testing determines if an app is easy to learn and use, and to identify improvements in design, workflows, and use of interaction methods that might improve a user’s experience with the app. Strategies for usability testing include evaluation based on a set of heuristics, such as mobile first responsive design recommendations; testing from the user’s point of view; conducting surveys of end-users; and capturing interactions and timing data from the sessions of users. • Internationalization and localization testing: Internationalization and localization testing determine the ability of an app to use the correct language, formatting conventions, and cultural queues for a given location. Some apps may be localized for each specific location; while others may attempt to provide internationalization wherein the app adapts to the location set by the end-user. Internationalization and localization testing involve expert evaluation of language and formatting conventions, but ultimately requires evaluation by end-users who are native to a location. • Performance testing: Performance testing determines the ability of a mobile app to operate under different load and communications conditions. Load testing is concerned with understanding the way in which a mobile app, including backend services required by the app, performs with respect to different rates and volumes of requests. Performance testing seeks to understand whether an app will have difficulty performing in a timely manner when many people are using the app at the same time. Performance testing with respect to communications conditions seeks to determine how an app will behave as the quality of service (QoS) of a communication network is reduced. Strategies for performance testing include the use of script-based systems in which different scenarios can be specified, and the use of tools that can generate loads from simulated devices on the app.
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• Security testing: Security testing determines if there are vulnerabilities present within a mobile app that might enable someone to compromise the integrity, performance, privacy, and safety of a system, its data, or its users. Strategies for security testing include evaluation of a system based on heuristics; automated scanning and penetration testing based on known threats; formal security audits; and a system-wide evaluation (i.e., beyond the app itself) that includes identification of social engineering vulnerabilities. The following are selected issues and developments in the area of software testing that are relevant to mobile ICT: • Mobile Web sites and mobile apps: Testing mobile Web sites and mobile apps includes the following dimensions: validation of HTML; testing compatibility with various mobile browsers, including testing changes in browser window size to test CSS media queries; and compliance with app store standards. The W3C mobileOK Checker performs tests to determine the “mobile-friendliness” of Web content.198 • Testing scope: A Gartner study suggests that testing should be performed on 30 to 50 devices.199 • Testing frameworks and services: A wide range of companies offer mobile-specific testing technologies and services, including the following: o Wavefront, a Canadian Centre of Excellence, offers the Mobile handset Cloud, among other services. This service allows developers to test their applications using a collection of physical mobile devices running on actual mobile carrier networks in different regions of the world. This service eliminates the cost of acquiring and maintaining a device library while offering the ability to test a technology on a wide array of real devices under diverse sets of real network conditions.200 o Ranorex offers test automation technology for mobile applications. It purports to be better than “1st generation capture & replay tools and coordinate-based test automation” with improved accuracy in recognizing user interface elements.201 o Keynote MITE offers technology for testing the compatibility of mobile Web sites with browsers that are based on the WebKit layout engine. It supports performance measurement, emulation of device-specific JavasScript execution strategies, source code inspection, and recording of test scripts from live Web site navigation for input into automated testing tools. Keynote reports that the MITE library contains 2,200 “emulated devices.” Keynote claims that MITE can be used to conduct testing sessions for up to 12,000 devices in various combinations.202 o IBM Rational Test Workbench enables test automation and test virtualization for both native apps and hybrid apps based on HTML5 and Android.203 o Services, such as InfoStretch, have emerged that offer certification testing to help mobile app developers bring their software up to app store standards.204 o uTest Inc offers a comprehensive set of testing services for mobile ICT.205 7.17 Social-local-mobile There has been a convergence of mobile, cloud, location, and social networking services that is often referred to by the somewhat hyped term social-local-mobile (also SoLoMo). These technologies enable people to maintain social networks with greater ease by allowing them to
48 New Brunswick Community College, Mobile First Technology Initiative, 2013-2014 Annual Report locate and exchange context-sensitive and location-relevant information with people in their social networks. This includes information to help users meet in person, notifications of new information of specific importance concerning individuals within a network, as well as providing multiple channels of communication. The latter has come to include not only voice and text, but also video. Consumers are becoming more sophisticated in their use of these ever more complex technologies. Cloud services and mobile ICT are the platforms of delivery and access to social-local-mobile services. Information and social activities are used to determine context and location of each user of such a service. Each user’s social activities are used in the analysis of their behavior and to make predictions about their future behavior, such as their propensity to be attracted to an advertiser’s product or service. Social-local-mobile can be viewed in terms of relationships between the following elements: • Mobile technologies: Mobility enables people to interact with their social networks from any location within a coverage area. The impetus for greater use of mobile technologies is seen as being generated by social activities themselves. Mobile technologies are helping to maintain and reinforce existing relationships within established social networks and to establish new relationships and social networks. The expectations of users have evolved, in general, to demand mobile solutions for the hardware, applications, and services they use. Sociability is seen as enhancing such solutions. • Cloud services: Users who are highly mobile are becoming accustomed to using technologies that are aware of their location, context, and the history of usage. These technologies would under ideal circumstances have ubiquitous access to the information necessary to understand their user’s history, preferences, and location. Cloud services facilitate access to a wide variety of information and the selection of applications by users. The mapping of user data to the geographic locations in which they were created has added tremendous value to mobile ICT.206 • Context and location-relevant information: Context-awareness, location-awareness, and understanding of social networks in mobile ICT are achieved by the constant collection and analysis of the large volumes of data that are generated when people use mobile apps and services. These data collection and analysis processes are best served by ubiquitous access to high performance computing and data storage resources. Cloud services are being employed to enable this ubiquitous access, as well as helping services scale to larger populations of users. • Social activities of users: Social activities also provide the context for both the demand and generation of certain types of information by users. This includes locations of businesses they have visited, activities they have performed, or products they have purchased.207 The ITU points out that value to individual users of this social information can be described in terms of network effects, such as Metcalf’s Law, where the value of each person within the social network is proportional to the square of the number of people in the network.208 The following are selected issues and developments in the area of social-local-mobile: • Challenges for social-local-mobile: o Mobile apps may need to be designed to cache data for use during periods when the mobile device does not have access to a network.
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o Mobile applications or hardware may lack interoperability with certain types of social or geographic data. o Social activities must be modeled to facilitate analyses of data generated from them. o Users are likely to demand the ability to develop custom functions for their own mobile ICT. o Developers require secure means of distributing software to mobile devices. o The integration or federation of multiple services is often required to implement social networking services. o Social-local-mobile service developers must decide whether to outsource cloud services or to host them within their organization. • User-centred design: Social-local-mobile services are becoming more complex as a result of the convergences of multiple technologies. Complexity within these convergences has required more careful attention to user-centred design. User-centred design is, in particular, striving to remove complexity perceived by users, allowing the technologies to recede into the background. • Postsecondary institutions: OOHLALA, a company started by Canadian students in 2011, offers a customized social-local-mobile app and service to postsecondary institutions that is designed to support social engagement among students, awareness of events and locations of campus resources, and integrate with a school’s learning management system to enable access to class schedules and course catalogs.209 NBCC’s Council of Student Executives started a pilot initiative with OOHLALA in late 2013. • Livestreaming video: Gingle.tv, a company based in New Brunswick, has developed a service that combines live video streaming and social networking. Gingle.tv enables both mobile-to- mobile and mobile-to-Web stream of live video using an iOS app. A social networking service enables users to locate live or recorded video streams on an interactive map for playback.210 7.18 Location information services A growing number of third party location information services (LIS) are available as an alternative to developers creating their own systems. There are several types of information that can be requested by such services: cellular identification, enhanced cellular identification, positioning based on known locations of Wi-Fi hotspots, and assisted global positioning system (A- GPS) information. Each positioning method offers trade-offs in terms of accuracy and battery life. Use of a cellular network by a device to determine location usually requires less energy than GPS, but the accuracy is typically much lower than GPS. The accuracy of network-based LIS depends on the density of cell towers, which is usually high in city settings. Systems such as Skyhook employ hybrid approaches that make opportunistic use of cellular, Wi-Fi, and GPS depending on availability to balance these tradeoffs.211 Applications include geo-fencing, automated vehicle location (AVL), asset tracking, mobile gaming, fraud management, proximity advertising, traveler assistance, truancy management, and human resource management. Some offer privacy provisions that allow subscribers to opt-in to have their location revealed.
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AT&T’s Location Information Services allows the geographic location of a given mobile device to be requested by third parties on a transaction fee basis.212 BeOn, a system developed by the Harris Corporation, provides push-to-talk, situational awareness, and tele-presence for devices on 3G, 3G, Wi-Fi, LANs, and private LTE networks.213 Canadian LIS vendors include GreenOWL Mobile, which has developed a real-time traveller information service that feeds live traffic updates to mobile devices.214 7.19 Games and gamification Among the more unusual mobile game devices to emerge in 2013 was Sphero 2.0, a robotic ball that can roll at up to 7 km/hour and be steered remotely via a Bluetooth connection using a mobile app.215 Eggroll Digital Studios Inc., a mobile software development company, is one example of new companies in the mobile game space within New Brunswick.216 7.20 Video Apple issued version 12 of its HTTP Live Streaming (HLS) protocol. This protocol is designed for “transferring unbounded streams of multimedia data.”217 This protocol has been in use in desktop contexts, such as in QuickTime, but it is particularly relevant to mobile contexts where the costs of streaming large media files can be compounded by intentional or unintentional breaks in transmission that require media to be retransmitted using alternative approaches, namely progressive downloading. HLS decomposes a media stream into relatively small individual HTTP downloads, rather than attempting to progressively download entire media files. If a transmission is interrupted -- due to a phone call, for example – only a relatively small part of the file that was missed because of the interruption needs to be retransmitted. Not to due so might incur large data transmission fees. Apple requires that videos longer than ten minutes use HLS, among other constraints.218 HLS is supported in Android and Adobe Media Server.219 The disadvantages of HLS include the need to use larger and more complex media file structures on the server side and the need to re-compress existing non-HLS-compliant videos.
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PART III - SOCIETY 8 Access Mobile telephony has replaced landlines for most people in North America and become the norm; however, there are still significant numbers of people who cannot afford either type of service. Pay telephones were a key communication channel for many people in the past, but they have become increasingly difficult to find and more costly. Advocates for low income people point to the need to maintain access to pay telephones for those who cannot afford their own mobile or landline phones. The numbers of pay phones have been declining for many years and telecommunications companies have been requesting rate hikes of up to $1 per call from the $0.25 to $0.50 it costs in most Canadian jurisdictions.220 9 Communities Mobile ICT continues to play an increasing role in urban and suburban contexts, while gaps in service continue to limit their use in remote and rural communities. 9.1 Urban and Suburban The concept of the smart city was once associated with fiber-based broadband.221 Mobile ICT are now a key part of the conception of the smart city. The definition of a smart city has many variations and continues to evolve. The ITU-T categorizes smart cities according to levels of implementation: • Newly designed smart cities; • Cities retrofitted to become smart cities; and • Smart cities built for special purposes. There is still a global need to standardize smart city interfaces, processes, and user interaction techniques to allow people to use their mobile ICT seamlessly between communities.222 Seoul has been a widely cited example of a smart city since the original wired broadband conception of the term, but it has been retrofitting its smart city services to mobile ICT in recent years. Seoul has implemented a number of mobile services: • Single point of access to city call centres and services, including accommodations for the hearing impaired; • Delivery of city-sponsored courses to mobile devices; • Location-based personal safety services, including geo-fencing alerts if a person leaves a specified area; • Reporting on public transit status and road conditions; and • NFC-based payment for public and private goods and services. 9.2 Remote, rural, and Aboriginal communities Most remote and rural communities around the world – including in Canada -- have experienced insufficient access to telecommunications, from telegraphy, to landline telephony and broadband (or high-speed internet).223 Residents living in remote and rural areas communities often lack reliable mobile services as well. Over 90% of people who lack cellular coverage live in rural
52 New Brunswick Community College, Mobile First Technology Initiative, 2013-2014 Annual Report areas.224 Costs and lack of coverage also present significant barriers to accessing mobile services for aboriginal communities in Canada.225 Barriers to access are attributable, in part, to interrelated public policy and private sector decisions. These barriers also derive, in part, from the interrelated technical and economic realities of deploying telecommunications in remote and rural areas, including lower densities of potential customers, higher backhaul costs, and onerous power utilization requirements for continuous coverage. The percentage of operating costs (OPEX) of a rural cellular network can be as high as 50% because of these factors. The OPEX for urban cellular networks is, in contrast, usually no higher than 30%. 226 Heimerl et al. presented an approach to creating “virtual cellular networks” that sacrifice constant coverage for connectivity on demand to enable broader, power-economic coverage in rural areas. Their approach involves implementing a low power idle mode in cellular base stations when they are not servicing cellular handsets, and implementing a wake-up signal from cellular handsets to cellular base stations when service is required. The researchers were able to demonstrate idle time power savings of over 60%. 227 10 Privacy and Surveillance Concerns over privacy related to the use of ICT have been heightened with respect to mobile ICT. This is due to the convergence of location awareness, a variety of sensing capabilities, and mobility. The following are selected issues and developments in the area of privacy and surveillance that are relevant to mobile ICT: • Retail analytics: A retail location analytics sector has emerged in recent years. Companies in this sector offer technologies and services that enable the tracking and analysis of consumer activities within retail spaces. These include Euclid, Mexia Interactive, ShopperTrak, and WirelessWerx.228 The objectives given by the retail location analytics industry include identifying ways of reducing customer wait times, optimizing responses to consumer needs, and improving the designs of stores.229 • Reaction to retail analytics: Consumer reaction has been strongly negative in some cases.230 Far too many stories were reported in 2013 alone to reference here. Some governments have taken steps in individual instances to stop surveillance of people. The removal of mobile phone tracking in London is one of many examples.231 The retail location analytics industry has formed the Future of Privacy Forum to develop guidelines by which their services are designed and deployed, ostensibly to address the public’s concerns.232 • Consumer surveillance technologies: Mobile apps and other technologies have emerged that provide consumers with surveillance capabilities, ostensibly with good intentions. These include apps that allow parents to track the locations of their children, detect cyber bullying, and newer versions of remote web cams.233 Experts have pointed out that the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child states that “[n]o child shall be subjected to arbitrary or unlawful interference with his or her privacy, family, home or correspondence, nor to unlawful attacks on his or her honour and reputation.” 234
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• Optical head-mounted devices and lifelogging cameras: Google Glass, a wearable computer in the form factor of eyeglasses, generated much of the concern in 2013 about privacy in mobile ICT. People were concerned, among many issues, about the ease with which they can be recorded by wearers of Google Glasses.235 Google pointed out features that are meant to mitigate surreptitious use of Glass, such as the requirement that users issue recording commands verbally. A lesser-known category of mobile ICT is emerging that, unlike Google Glass, does not require conspicuous user interaction to initiate video recordings and, thus, raises even more concern about privacy by some people. These technologies are called lifelogging cameras and are designed intentionally to enable users to make continuous video recordings of their daily activities with minimal effort. Video data captured in lifelogging cameras include meta-data documenting the times and geographic coordinates at they were captured. The Narrative Clip is a prominent example of lifelogging devices.236 11 Intellectual Property The submission of imposter apps to app stores – discussed in section 6.2.2 – is being reported as a significant threat to legitimate software developers. This approach typically involves creating an app that provides the same functionality as a popular app -- or only appears to do so -- in order to divert revenue from the legitimate app.237 There is criticism of mobile app stores for not removing imposter apps quickly once they are identified.238 12 Skills Development and Jobs The ICTC estimates that over 400,000 jobs in Canada are related to mobile technologies, with over 320,000 of these being directly related to technologies and services. Employee skills shortages and mismatches were, at the same time, the greatest concerns for 12% of companies responding to a survey for ICTC’s 2013 report on mobile technologies.239 Some analysts see the any time, anywhere affordances of mobile ICT as being advantageous for delivering skills development programs.240 13 M-Government Mobility enables improvements in the quality, scalability, and efficiency of government services. Mobility affordances enable any time, anywhere interactions with government entities to obtain services or to report vital information. The categories of m-government correspond to modes of interaction with government, which include – but are not limited to -- the following: • Government-to-citizen (G2C), • Government-to-business (G2B), • Government-to-employee (G2E), and • Government-to-government (G2G).241 The following are selected issues and developments in the area of m-government: • Challenges: The following are some of the key challenges for m-government: o Enabling wireless access by residents in remote and rural areas to government services;
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o Security and privacy of personal data exchanged or stored as a result of transactions with government; and o Ensuring the accessibility of technologies used to enable m-government.242 • Accessibility: M-government can potentially improve the accessibility of government services for people who are challenged by visual, hearing, or mobility impairments by providing alternate methods to engage government in a location-independent manner. People are increasingly able to move away from both the fixed desktop for on-line government services and the physical government service desk. • Open data: The Open Data movement has generated important opportunities for m- government. Free and open data provided by governments are being leveraged in the creation of new mobile apps for the benefit of residents and governments alike.243 The Apps Gallery at data.gc.ca, a central portal for obtaining open data published by the Government of Canada, offers a growing set of mobile apps that leverage open government data. These include the Aboriginal and Treaty Rights Information System, and a Recalls & Safety Alerts service for consumer products.244 • Trends: Many government Web sites are being extended to provide content and services optimized for mobile platforms.245 • Public-private innovation: Mobile ICT are enabling public-private innovations. Hotspotparking, a company based in New Brunswick, is one example of the use of mobility affordances to enable the payment of fees to municipal government from one’s mobile device. Hotspotparking makes it easier for drivers to comply with parking regulations, and it gives municipalities the potential to collect parking fees more consistently and at much lower operating costs. Novel business arrangements with businesses proximate to parking meters can also enhance local walk-in business by giving drivers a deal on parking fees.246 14 Public Safety and First Responders Mobile ICT continues to make significant impacts on public safety. The following are selected issues and developments in the areas of public safety and first responders as they relate to mobile ICT: • Long Term Evolution: Canada has selected the Long Term Evolution (LTE) standard as the basis for mobile broadband services for public safety. The U.S. Federal Communication Commission (FCC) also mandated the use of LTE for public safety broadband networks.247 This harmonization of standards offers the advantages of cross border interoperability and economies of scale in the build-out of public safety infrastructure and services in both countries.248 • Interoperability: The objective within Canada is to achieve communications interoperability among public safety organizations. The process of evolving toward higher levels of communications interoperability in public safety has several dimensions: o Governance of the processes necessary to implement communications interoperability must themselves evolve. o Standard operating procedures must evolve in line with the introduction of systems that enable communications interoperability.
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o Training and exercises must be conducted on interoperable communications technologies as they are introduced. o Communication interoperability must be introduced into daily usage within public safety organizations.249 • 700 MHz: Defense R&D Canada estimates that greater than 20MHz bandwidth will be required in the 700 MHz spectrum to meet the requirements of public safety over a twenty year period.250 A part of the upper 700 MHz designed as the D Block -- consisting of 758-763 MHz and 788-793 MHz – has been proposed for use as public safety wireless broadband.251 • U.S. FirstNet: The U.S. National Telecommunications & Information Administration’s (NTIA) Institute for Telecommunication Systems (ITS) has been developing FirstNet, a national mobile broadband system for first responders that will be based on LTE, including Voice over LTE (VoLTE).252 The Canadian Interoperability Technology Interest Group has reported on efforts to integrate Canada’s interoperability efforts with that of FirstNet.253 It is not clear whether such integration efforts are part of the Canada-U.S. Beyond the Border program, which includes a mandate to “[p]rovide interoperable radio capability for law enforcement actors” as part of its cross-border law enforcement action items.254 • Disaster relief: Mobile technologies have come to play important roles in most aspects of disaster relief work, which includes the types of following activities: o Preparedness; o Response and recovery, which is comprised of ! Situational awareness, ! Resource management, and ! Accountability; o Search and rescue.255 Mobile ICT have played a major role in disaster rescue, relief and recovery in recent years, including the following: • Services to locate shelters and other resources, • Monitoring food prices, • Organization and coordination of responders, • Crowdsourcing of needed resources, • Crisis mapping, and • Data collection for any number of purposes. Mobile ICT also enable the following improvements in relief operations: • They give the communities receiving assistance mechanisms to provide timely feedback to relief organizations, thereby improving their accountability; • They improve data collection; and, • They facilitate real-time monitoring of humanitarian assistance, such as the locations of relief shipments, materiel, and personnel.
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• Standards: The International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (IFRC) has called on humanitarian groups to establish standard approaches to using mobile solutions and mobile operators to provide minimum services to support disaster rescue, relief and recovery. 15 Crime, Crime Prevention, and Policing Consumers lost as much as $30 billion in 2012 due to the theft of their mobile devices. Technical means to deter theft, such as locking stolen phones over the air, could be made available by manufacturers and telecommunications companies, but they have been slow to respond. Public officials in a number of jurisdictions, including San Francisco and New York, have pressed for greater support from companies in this area.256 Mobile data centres (MDC), which are typically in-vehicle laptops, have been among the most common acquisitions among police agencies in the U.S. in recent years.257 16 M-Commerce M-commerce includes the areas of banking and payment, mobile-related business models, and advertising. M-commerce uses mobility affordances to transact commerce using mobile ICT any time, anywhere. This includes secure payment or receipt of money (e.g., m-money) from one’s mobile device. Mobile banking enables funds to be deposited, withdrawn, or transferred to other accounts using a mobile service and device. 16.1 Mobile Payment and Banking • Digital wallets: Mobile payment mechanisms include several types of digital wallet mechanisms and mobile point of transaction mechanisms. These mechanisms include SMS and NFC-based approaches. Both NFC and text messaging-based systems are typically used for small purchases, such as for public transit or on-line media.258 o Text-messaging-based M-money or branchless banking: M-money systems are implemented using unstructured supplementary service Data (USSD), SIM Toolkit (STK), or SMS, all GSM standards. A wireless service provider may actually act as a bank for its subscribers, which has become common in some developing countries, as discussed below. Such service providers hold and manage subscriber funds, in addition to enabling transactions relative to those funds via mobile devices. Transactions are typically initiated using text messages (e.g., SMS) in this type of arrangement, with the subscriber’s balance being debited or credited accordingly by the service provider. o NFC-based payment: Near field communications technology enables the mobile device or newer NFC-enabled bankcards to initiate payment by placing it in close proximity to a point of sale (PoS) terminal. • The unbanked and m-money in the developing world: Over 2.5 billion people lack bank accounts, which presents significant barriers to social and economic development. Such people are referred to as unbanked. Mobile money systems, or m-money, allow people to pay bills, send money, and receive money using their mobile phones. The prime example of m- money systems is the M-PESA system in Kenya. Mobile payments are possible in India using MoneyOnMobile, which is similar to Kenya’s M-Pesa system.259 Large numbers of unbanked people are using m-money systems to receive government payments, purchase airtime, and to access other banking services. These systems may not be
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linked to a traditional bank, as discussed above; rather, the service provider may act as the subscriber’s bank.260 The GSM Association (GSMA) reported in 2012 that there were 140 m-money systems in developing countries, including Afghanistan, Benin, Cameroon, Ghana, Haiti, India, Ivory Coast, Kenya, Pakistan, Philippines, South Africa, Tanzania, and Uganda. Cash transactions still make up 90% of all transactions in developing countries; thus, there is still a large untapped market for value-added mobile services that support financial transactions. • North America: Canada is the leading country for online banking. One challenge in mobile commerce in North America has lagged other parts of the world in adopting NFC due to a lack of infrastructure.261 A great expansion in the use of NFC is predicted for North America in the near future, however.262 Some sectors, such as public transit, are beginning to implement NFC systems. Public transit authorities are seeking to reduce operational costs and to increase fare revenues by moving to so-called open loop payment systems, through which riders can use any compatible bank or credit card.263 • Point of Sale devices and services: Devices such the Square enable mobile devices to become PoS terminals that can process credit card payments. SquareUp.com launched its service in Canada in 2012. It charges 2.75% per swipe of a major credit card, as of this writing.264 Rogers announced Suretap in late 2013, a mobile wallet service that allows users to debit funds from a prepaid MasterCard account by “tapping” their phone to an NFC point of sale (PoS) terminal. Suretap also allows users to receive gift cards in the form of QR codes that they can present for payment.265 • Need for standardization: The ITU-T has called for more work on standardization for m- money technologies and the establishment of a code of practice for regulators.266 16.2 Business models ICT business models are commonly divided into two categories: consumer-facing and inter- business models. These are commonly referred to as business-to-consumer (B2C) and business-to- business (B2B), respectively.267 The following is a taxonomy of mobile business models synthesized from several sources: • Business-to-consumer models: These are retail business models. Their primary sources of revenue are derived from delivering products or services to consumers. o Free app: This is a special case: a retail app that does not derive revenue directly or indirectly. It is free to download and use in perpetuity. o Freemium app: This type of app is free to download and use, but is designed to entice the buyer into purchasing premium features that enhance the functionality of the free app. o Paid app: This type of app is obtained for a price. No freemium entry point is offered. Paid enhancements may also be available. o App as an advertising platform: The primary revenue strategy for this type of app is to collect payments for advertisements delivered to the consumer within the app. It is common to entice consumers to download such apps by offering them for free.
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o App as a service platform: The primary revenue strategy for this type of app is to collect payments for services delivered via the app. It is common to entice consumers to download such apps by offering them for free. o Subscription-based app: These are paid apps that have expiry dates, after which a new version of the app must be purchased. o App as a paid content delivery platform: The primary revenue strategy for this type of app is to collect payments for content that can be used within the app. Examples include audio books. It is common to entice consumers to download such apps by offering them for free. • Business-to-business models: These are business models in which the primary sources of revenue are derived from delivering products or services to other businesses. o App development for hire: Many organizations commission apps from third party software development firms. The objectives of such apps are usually to enhance the value of an existing business line by adding a mobile channel. Common app development strategies include converting an existing Web presence into a mobile- friendly site and leveraging the social-local-mobile capabilities of mobile ICT to create new consumer experiences. o Data marketing (consumer-to-business-to-business): The revenue strategy for this type of app is to collect payments for the use of data that are generated by consumers through use of an app. This revenue strategy may not be exclusive of other techniques, such as advertising or services. It is the context in which the data are generated that gives them value. Correlating a consumer’s location, activities, and social relationships can help a company analyze their behavior and, thereby, tailor its marketing to that person. This business model depends on distributing an app to a wide range of users; thus, they are often free. o Third party service provider (business-to-business-to-consumer): This model involves providing backend services to a business that it integrates into services provided to consumers. An example would be location information services or mapping services that a mobile app vendor obtains from a third party, such as Apple’s use of Skyhook.268 o Mobilizing B2B transactions: This involves enabling existing B2B transaction types via a mobile channel. 269 The following are selected issues and developments in the area of mobile business models: • Balancing mobile services with other forms of delivery: It is important that enterprises adopt mobile technologies; however, they may need to continue to offer traditional service delivery models for those who cannot use mobile technologies.270 • Usability: Improving usability through user-centred design is crucial to wider adoption of mobile technologies.271 • Cultural attunement: More designers are becoming sensitive to the need to take approaches that anticipate alternate markets in other regions and tailor designs accordingly. The evolution of the business model of Ignighter.com provides one example.272
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• Heritage brands: Heritage brands will continue to demand customized designs independent of standardized user interface frameworks.273 16.3 Mobile marketing and advertising Making optimal use of the affordances of mobile devices for advertising continues to be the major goal of marketing plans. Mobility affordances enable businesses to tailor their marketing and advertising strategies to the specific context and location of a mobile user, including analysis of their history and social connections. The following are selected issues and developments in the areas of mobile marketing and advertising: • Impact: Mobile advertising revenue in 2012 reached over U.S. $3.5 billion in both North America and the Asia-Pacific region, and U.S. $1.6 billion in Europe. Mobile advertising revenue during the same period was U.S. $109 million for Middle East and Africa and U.S. $50 million for Latin America. China, in particular, has emerged as a significant market for smartphones and mobile advertising.274 • Opportunity: There continues to be a large market upside for mobile advertising. Meeker and Wu estimated in 2013 that there is a $20 billion opportunity in the U.S.275 • Searching for effective advertising paradigms: Developing effective mobile advertising remains a significant challenge. Users continue to be resistant to interruptions on their devices and the relatively small screen areas on mobile devices limit the visual experience. New paradigms in mobile advertising must be developed. • BLE and NFC: The technologies of BLE and NFC continue to be the prime areas of focus for proximity-based advertising and marketing data collection. BLE and NFC can be used with the mobile device in a reader mode, where a user receives advertisements or coupons when they are in close proximity to a tag or beacon. Exploration of a reverse mode has emerged that allows the device owner to proactively and selectively notify beacons in the area of their presence and interest in exchanging information. A reverse mode could be used to indicate that the user is seeking a particular product or service. 276 • Privacy: A major challenge for mobile marketing and advertising continues to involve balancing privacy with positive value propositions for consumers. 17 M-Learning The GSMA, the primary association of GSM operators around the world, defines m-learning as accessing “educational resources, tools and materials at any time, from anywhere, using a mobile device.” 277 The modalities of access in m-learning include SMS, Web, video, audio, text-to-speech and speech-to-text applications, and collaboration tools. Mobile ICT can, if carefully designed and managed, enable modes of learning and social interactions amongst teachers and students that can improve educational outcomes in an efficient and cost-effective manner.278 M-learning currently includes use of the following types of mechanisms: • SMS for micro-blogging; • Data collection by learners in the field; • Various learning activities involving collaboration and social interaction with peers; and,
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• Use of sensing and mobility affordances of tablets and phones to develop learning experiences any time, anywhere.279 The following are selected issues and developments in the area of m-learning: • North America: The U.S. Federal Communication Commission’s National Broadband Plan spurred the creation of the “Learning On-the-Go” initiative, which had the objective of developing infrastructures for seamless access to learning resources on mobile devices off campus, and providing on-line mentoring and support to new teachers.280 Canada has had a variety of m-learning projects, including in Ontario.281Canada’s geography and low population densities have served as the impetus for e-learning and now m-learning. This is exhibited in New Brunswick and the Atlantic region by the evolution of a number of educational technology firms over the past two decades, including Bluedrop Performance Learning, Innovatia, Pulse Learning, Skillsoft, and Stellar Learning Strategies.282 • Developing regions: M-learning has often been defined in the context of addressing shortages of teachers and learning resources in the world’s poorest communities, where many students are not able to attend school for various reasons. The key point of leverage for m-learning in developing regions is that the rate of mobile phone ownership is relatively high in these areas of the world. Mobile technologies enable new possibilities for the delivery of education to children who must travel far, often on foot, and sometimes in peril, to obtain an education from schools with scant resources. The cost of mobile devices, their form factors, the need for reliable power sources for recharging, and communication costs remain limiting factors in this context. Lack of interoperability also poses barriers to the dispersion of educational content and applications.283 M-learning is seen in such circumstances as offering two major benefits: o It can improve the efficiency of delivering education and, thus, reduce education costs by distributing limited teaching resources to larger populations; and o It can decrease students’ travel costs and minimize their need to take perilous trips to school. Students in various countries, including Kenya, are now able to pay tuition via their mobile phones using m-money systems. See section 16.1. • Addressing gender disparities: M-learning is also seen as a means to address gender disparities in educational opportunities by enabling certain barriers to be removed that would otherwise prevent girls and women from gaining an education. • Hardware: M-learning has been part of the objective of the high profile On Laptop Per Child (OLPC) project since its inception in 2005, placing equal emphasis on a series of special ruggedized hardware platforms on its learning-oriented operating system. 284 The Government of India has since 2011 supported the development of four versions of the Aakash Android tablet, mainly for postsecondary education.285 A Belgian firm has recently launched a project to build the Surtab Android tablet in Haiti.286 The Amplify Education division of News Corp has sponsored the development of the Amplify Android tablet, content, and support services specifically for school projects in U.S.287 The ITU-T indicates that there is a trend away from the development of special purpose educational hardware platforms toward general-purpose services that can be delivered on
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common platforms. This would require agreement on and adherence to standards at all levels from the communication interfaces, multimedia formats, and operating systems.288 • Barriers in developing regions: The cost of access and lack of mobile broadband are still significant barriers in developing regions of the world. Broadband costs were reported by the ITU in 2011 to be 1% of average monthly income in developing countries.289 Licensing and copyright also present barriers to distributing content to developing areas of the world that people in developed countries are able to access. • Re-thinking education through m-learning: Mobile platforms offer user interaction affordances that may be ideal for evolving e-learning systems beyond the mimicry of traditional teaching methods: o Improving tools for the measurement and analysis of learning outcomes; o Enabling any time, anywhere learning; o Enabling competence-based learning; o Improving the accessibility of learning technologies through the use of universal design; o Enabling collaborative learning models; o Enabling students to select from among several learning approaches for a given concept; and, o Leveraging technology to allow students to engage in more creative activities in the process of learning.290 There has been interest from some experts in the “flipped classroom” as a model for competence-based learning and improving outcomes in on-line learning.291 • Any time, anywhere learning: Mobile technologies are seen as enabling a number of positive changes in education: o Access to educational content any time and anywhere; o Support for improved models of teaching and learning, such as group work, experiential programs, skills-based training; and, o Improvements in quality and efficiency. M-learning will enable any time, anywhere access to skills development programs. The affordances of mobile technologies will, in particular, allow these experiences to be delivered in the specific contexts, locations, and times where they will be most useful, such as through on-the-job training programs. M-learning includes informal modes of education as well. Many people already use mobile ICT for self-training.292 • Early childhood education: The use of mobile apps is gaining traction in early childhood education, including research to identify effective means of using mobile devices in this area. Various concerns have been raised about m-learning, as with past proposals for using technologies in education. One concern is that this trend will divert children’s attention away from much need physical activities. Another concern is that about the efficacy of teaching methods that use these technologies.293 • Need for collaboration and standardization: The GSMA calls for collaboration between the public and private sector to improve and scale m-learning. Several GSMA efforts were started: USAID’s Mobiles for Education Alliance program, UNESCO’s m-learning department, and MIT’s
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Center for Mobile Learning. The ITU-T has called for standardization activities to drive growth in m-learning.294 • Opportunity: The GSMA reported in 2012 that m-learning represents a $9.1 billion opportunity by 2015. • New directions: Interest exists in extending m-learning in a number of directions: o Internet of Things: The Internet of Things paradigm is being used to create “smart objects” that are physical, can be identified by learners digitally using various sensing and tagging technologies, and can interact with learners. o Gamification: Mobility continues to be used to gamify learning experiences through the use of location-based services, virtual reality, and augmented reality.295 o User interaction methods: Gesture-based mechanisms available on mobile platforms are being used to implement new, physical interaction methods for learning.296 o Blended models: So-called “blended learning” models seek to produce the most effective educational outcomes by balancing the use of ICT-based teaching methods with traditional teaching methods. 18 M-Health M-health can be defined as “the practice of medical and public health supported by mobile devices such as mobile phones and PDAs for delivering medical and healthcare services.”297 The affordances of mobile technologies enable efficient, remote monitoring of a patient’s health at any time and any location. They also enable remote alerting of family members and professional caregivers. Use of these capabilities can result in improved health care outcomes and greater efficiencies in the allocation of health care resources. Mobile phones, in particular, are becoming a useful element in the healthcare delivery, including for communications with physicians and delivery of educational information to a patient’s mobile devices.298 The following are selected issues and developments in the area of m-health: • Devices: The domain of mobile ICT has seen the emergence of a wide range of patient monitoring devices in recent years, including weight scales, blood pressure cuffs, and blood glucose monitors that interface physically or wirelessly through ANT, Bluetooth, or Wi-Fi with a patient’s mobile device. These are usually offered with a companion Web portal for aggregating health data. A trend has emerged in this space toward the aggregation of multiple health monitoring functions into a unified hardware platform, including some wearable variants. The X Prize Foundation and Qualcomm announced in January 2012 a $10 Million Tricorder Prize to the first team that could build a mobile, Star Trek-style medical tricorder. They define this as a single device that can “assess a set of 16 distinct conditions and five (5) vital signs in a pool of people.”299 A number of mobile technologies have already begun to emerge – both within and outside of the X Prize competition – that are approaching this level of combined functionality within highly mobile form factors. The Canadian design firm OMSignal announced plans to produce a compression t-shirt that would host health monitoring devices for continual data capture. Scanadu, a high profile start-up in California, announced the Scanadu Scout, a hand- held sensor package that would be able to measure one’s temperature, heart rate, and blood pressure through skin contact. 300
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• Emergency response: The usefulness of mobile technologies has been demonstrated in several ways: o Facilitating responses to national disasters and pandemics; o Facilitating self-education of patients and patient-to-physician communications; o Supporting mobile apps that detect of counterfeit drugs; and o In the collection of public health data.301 • Standardization: The ITU-T has called for greater work on standardization as a means of advancing m-health. ITU-T standards pertaining to m-health include the X.1120-X.1139 mobile security standards. The ITU-T also started the Internet of Things Global Standards Initiative (IoT-GSI) whose results have implications for mobile medical and patient monitoring devices. The IoT-GSI has yielded a number of recommendations. ITU-T Multimedia Framework for eHealth Applications, Study Group 13 focuses on mobile telecommunications networks.302 Several U.S. organizations are attempting to define interoperability standards for medical devices, including American Society for Testing and Materials—Integrating the Clinical Environment (ASTM-ICE), the Continua Alliance, the Health Information Technology Standards Panel (HITSP), and Integrating the Health Environment—Patient Care Devices Domain (IHE- PCD). Some of these, such as Continua Alliance, now contain mobile working groups.303 • Challenges: The following are selected challenges in m-health: o Scale: The full potential of mobile technologies in improving health has not yet been realized. A World Health Organization (WHO) survey suggests that m-health, and e- health have generally been represented by “small-scale pilot projects.”304 o Interoperability: Communications standards that allow m-health devices to interoperate must be adopted. Public procurement policies should be used to encourage the adoption of such standards. o Open data policies: The adoption of open data policies can also encourage the development of interoperable technologies. o Security and privacy: A critical challenge is securing patients’ health care data within mobile environments. This includes securing data transmissions and data stored on devices. Guidelines addressing security and privacy in m-health have been issued in different jurisdictions. A regulatory framework is also needed that balances patient protection with approaches to interoperability that enable innovation. 305 19 News Media Mobile technologies continue to put a lot of pressure on news organizations and to open up opportunities. Google and other on-line advertisers continue to draw advertising revenue away from news organizations and increase their control of the flow of accesses to news content. The use of mobile platforms to consume news has, at the same time, continued to increase significantly, providing opportunities for news organizations to capture audience share through special apps that enhance access to their content. Mobile Web-friendly news content and news apps have spurred the second screen phenomenon whereby consumers of news are using their mobile device to enhance their experience in consuming news and entertainment from a television, radio, or desktop computer.306
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20 Mobile Social Media The affordances of mobile devices make engagement with social media possible any time and anywhere. The Pew Internet Project reported on a U.S. survey that as September 2013 “73% of online adults use social networking sites,” including the following sites: • 71% Facebook, • 18% Twitter, and • 22% LinkedIn. The following are selected issues and developments in the area of mobile social media: • Mobile access to social media: Pew also reported that among U.S. cell phone owners “[f]ully 40% of cell phone owners use a social networking site on their phone, and 28% do so on a typical day.” 307 Meeker and Wu reported that typical cell phone users check their phones as much as 150 times per day, which includes nine social media accesses.308 • Social impacts: Pew Research reported in February 2014 the results of a scientific survey of couples, which included the following findings: o Only 10% of couples reported that social media had a “major impact” on their relationships, but among those, 74% reported that the impact was positive; o 25% of couples text each other while both are within their homes; o Cell phone usage is a source of tension among as many as 25% of couples; and, o “Young adults are more likely to report feeling closer to their spouse or partner thanks to technology.” 309 • Risky behaviours: The ease with which users can engage social media services from their mobile device can enable risky social behaviours. The phenomenon of sexting by young mobile phone users continues be a widely cited risk in the use of mobile social media.310 Some criminal behaviours are also being identified with mobile social media. A number of people have, for example, been charged or convicted for making threats against politicians using social media, including Twitter. Agencies, such as the U.S. Secret Service, have created accounts specifically for the reporting of such threats.311 • Aggregation services: The proliferation of popular social media sites makes it difficult for users to monitor all of their accounts. Canadian firm HootSuite has addressed this issue with technology that aggregates and organizes information feeds from their various social media accounts, such as Facebook, LinkedIn, and Twitter. HootSuite has mobile apps for Android and iOS.312 21 Environment There are significant environmental issues involving mobile ICT. The following are selected issues and developments in environmental issues pertaining to mobile ICT: • Mobile device recycling: Environment Canada has sponsored the national Mobile Device Recycling Program. It is an industry-led program with regulatory approval and recognition by most provinces. The agency reports that in 2009 almost 300,000 cell phones were collected nationally.313
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• Modular device architectures: The objective of a modular hardware platform for mobile telephony has been around a while. One purported benefit is that it would minimize waste by allowing owners to upgrade only those parts that are outdated or defective. Dave Hakkens in the Netherlands started the Phonebloks project in 2013. Phonebloks is a concept for a modular phone with the objectives of minimizing waste and creating a platform that allows consumers to easily customize their mobile phone. The basic functions of a mobile phone are packaged into blocks, which are then plugged into a base. These basic functions include radios, receivers, cameras, sensors, and screens. If one wants to upgrade or replace a defective function, they would need only unplug the existing module from the base and plug in the new one.314 Motorola launched the Phonebloks concept as Project Ara. Google reportedly brought Project Ara into its Android group after its acquisition of Motorola.315 Modular concepts have several major disadvantages. The performance and power consumption on phones depends on the physical configuration of the components. Modular designs would likely result, all else being equal, in phones that are slower and less energy efficient. 22 Entertainment Mobility affordances offer new revenue stream possibilities for entertainment companies. Each mobile device is seen within the entertainment domain as having several functions: • As a primary delivery platform for content, • As a controller for other entertainment platforms, • As a secondary delivery platform for supplementary content, and • To collect data about the content and the entertainment experience. 316 The following are selected issues and developments in the area of entertainment in the context of mobile ICT: • Mobile media audience measurement: Nielsen released a new software development kit (SDK) that enables the measurement of viewing of video on mobile devices. Demographics are determined in their system through social media data. This is meant to extend its traditional TV ratings system.317 • Games and gamification: Mobility affordances allow context awareness, location awareness, and social networks to be factored into games. 23 Tourism Mobility affordances offer context and location-sensitive delivery of information to the tourist. Mobile ICT continues to evolve in the direction of greater leverage of the social-local-mobile construct to provide ever-greater personalization and expertise to the tourist. Google’s City Expert program, Sosh.com, and UrbanBuddy are examples of this evolution. These services put the user into contact with people who are experts or “personal concierges” for specific locations. Users may become a part of these networks of experts in some of the services.318 TourOff.com is a service based in New Brunswick that provides a platform for creating multi-lingual, map-based tours of any destination. This service is being adapted to mobile devices.319
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One challenge for mobile tourism apps is the lack of connectivity in many remote and rural destinations. Pre-fetching and caching of information on the mobile device while connectivity is available is one approach. 24 Human Development Human development in the context of this report refers to the mission of the United Nations Human Development Programme and similar organizations, which is concerned with improving the lives of people in areas of the world designated as developing or least developed.320 The United Nations Development Programme has reported that the digital divide in developing countries has been “rapidly narrowing.” This is particularly true for mobile access to the Internet. Examples of the impacts include increasing use of mobile banking and kiosk-based business services. These technologies have been shown to mitigate difficulties of many aspects of lives and livelihoods of people, including high transportation costs, lack of local expertise, and access to timely market information. The UNDP reports, for example, that 61% of cocoa farmers in Ghana own mobile phones, which they used to check market information.321 The Indian government was reported in 2013 to be preparing a “rural connectivity scheme” that would give women in 25 million low-income rural households a “free Internet-enabled mobile phone connection.”322 The program, if ever implemented, would with its emphasis on giving phones only to women in households, also address the “mobile gender gap.”323 Organizations within developing areas of the world continue to produce their own innovations in response to unmet social, economic, and technical needs. Ushahidi, Inc, a Kenyan company, has developed one such innovation for mobile broadband: the BRCK (pronounced “brick”). The BRCK is a compact and robust, plug-and-play, multi-protocol modem that stores up to eight hours of power. It is able to maintain connections during power outages and make use of 802.11 b/g/n, 10/100 Mbps WAN/LAN, 3G/HPSA+, or GPRS/EDGE networks depending on availability.324
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NOTES
1 Information and Communications Technology Council [ICTC]. (2013, June). Canada’s Mobile Imperative: Leveraging Mobile Technologies To Drive Growth. p. 26 2 See NBCC’s Strategic Plan: Imagine the Possibilities NBCC 2017. http://nbcc.ca. 3 Wroblewski, L. (2011). Mobile First. A Book Apart. pp. 1-3. 4 McGrane, K. (2012). Content Strategy for Mobile. A Book Apart. p. 46. 5 Diamond, S. & Roberts, V. (Principal Investigators) (2012, October). Taking Ontario Mobile: Research- based recommendations for how mobile technologies are part of the financially responsible solution to providing better access to services for Ontarians. Ontario College of Art and Design University (OCAD University).Toronto, Ontario Canada. 1st ed. pp. 2-3. 6 Pew Research. (2013, December 27). Mobile Technology Fact Sheet: Highlights of the Pew Internet Project’s research related to mobile technology. http://pewinternet.org; Smith, A. (2013). Smartphone Ownership – 2013 Update. http://PewResearchCentre.org. pp. 3-10. The Pew report is based on a survey by Princeton Survey Research Associates of 1,125 landline and 1,127 cellular users among an overall sample of 2,252 adults 18 and older. 7 Awwwards Team. (2013). Web Design Trends 2013. http://Awwwards.com. p. 9. 8 Pew Research. (2013, December 27). 9 Fiering, L. (2012, October 23). Tablet Growth and Evolution in 2013 and Beyond. Gartner, Inc. p. 4. 10 Gardner, H., Davis, K. (2013). The App Generation: How Today’s Youth Navigate Identity, Intimacy, and Imagination in a Digital World. Yale University Press. [Kindle edition] pp. 6-7. 11 Piper Jaffray. (2013, April 10). Piper Jaffray Completes 25th Semi-Annual Taking Stock with Teens Market Research Project. http://piperjaffray.com. para. 9. 12 See http://codeforamerica.org and http://hackinghealth.ca. 13 International Telecommunication Union Telecommunication Standardization Sector [ITU-T]. (2012, September). Standards for technology-enabled learning. ITU-T Technology Watch Report. p. 3. 14 ICTC. (2013, June). pp. 24-25; Diamond & Roberts. (2012, October). p. 115. 15 ICTC. (2013, June). p. 19. 16 The Information and Communications Technology Council (ICTC) report is based on a Harris Decima poll of a random sampling of 400 Canadian enterprises. 17 Wallin, L-O. (2013, October 9). Smartphones and Tablets in the Enterprise: Trends, Directions and Strategies. Gartner, Inc. pp. 4, 13 18 Fiering, L. (2012, October 23). pp. 5 – 17. 19 Wallin, L-O. (2013, October 9). pp. 16-18. 20 Card, D. (2013, November 13). Preliminary findings: ICT Developers Survey. GIGAOM. pp. 7-8. 21 Jones, N. (2013, September 25). Mobile Trends and Issues from 2013 to 2016. Gartner, Inc.
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22 International Data Corporation [IDC]. (2013, May 16). Android and iOS Combine for 92.3% of All Smartphone Operating System Shipments in the First Quarter While Windows Phone Leapfrogs BlackBerry, According to IDC. Press Release. http://idc.com. 23 Smith, A. (2013). P. 8. 24 Wingfield, N. (2013, October 14). As Microsoft Updates Mobile Software, a Cautionary Tale. New York Times. Bits. http://nytimes.com. 25 Mirani, L. (2013, October, 25). The Xiaomi Of India: The smartphone companies that shook up India and China are ready to colonize the world. Quartz. http://qz.com. 26 Awwwards Team. (2013). p. 13. 27 Jones, N. (2013, September 25). p. 5-9. 28 Fiering, L. (2012, October 23). p. 9. 29 Awwwards Team. (2013). p. 75. 30 Wallin, L-O. (2013, October 9). p. 9. 31 Japan Display Inc. (2013, October 23). Japan Display Inc. Announces Mass Production of High- Resolution LTPS TFT-LCD Modules for Tablet Devices. News release. 32 Council of Canadian Academies [CCA]. (2013). The State of Industrial R&D in Canada. Ottawa, ON: The Expert Panel on Industrial R&D in Canada, Council of Canadian Academies. p. 139, 145. 33 Association of Canadian Community Colleges. (2013). ACCC Annual Report 2012-2013. Ottawa, Ontario, Canada. p. 3. 34 Government of New Brunswick. (2012, April). Strategies for Innovation: A framework for accelerating the Province of New Brunwsick. (aka The Manship Report). pp. 3-4. 35 Government of New Brunswick. Office of the Premier. (2013, October 24). Province to launch $15 million competition to accelerate industry innovation. News Release. http://gnb.ca. 36 Bhidé, A., (2008). The Venturesome Economy. Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey, USA.; Buxton, B., (2008, January 2). The Long Nose of Innovation. Bloomberg Businessweek; Von Hippel, E. (1988). The Sources of Innovation. Oxford University Press.; Von Hippel, E. (2005). Democratizing Innovation. The MIT Press. 37 HM Treasury. (2003, December). Lambert Review of Business-University Collaboration: Final Report. HM Treasury, London; Brown, T. (2006). Innovation Through Design Thinking. MIT World, Cambridge, MA, USA. http://mitworld.mit.edu; Bakhshi, H., Schneider, P., Walker, C. (2009). Arts and Humanities Research in the Innovation System: The UK Example. Cultural Science. Vol 2, No 1. 38 National Endowment for the Humanities. (2013, September 9). Google Hangout 2: From Thomas Edison to Steve Jobs: Innovation from the Arts, Humanities and STEM. Humanities Insights: NEH Blog for Congressional Staff. http://humanitiesinsights.wordpress.com. 39 Kelley, T. & Littman, J. (2001). The Art of Innovation. Doubleday; Wadhwa, V., Freeman, R.B., Rissing, B.A. (2008, May 1). Education and Tech Entrepreneurship. Ewing Marion Kauffman Foundation.
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40 Kelley, T. & Littman, J. (2001); Martin, R. (2007). The Opposable Mind. Harvard Business Press. 41 Industry Canada. (2013, May 23). Harper Government Supports New Research Chair in Mobile Technology at New Brunswick Community College. News Release. http://news.gc.ca/web/article- en.do?nid=744399 42 CANARIE. (2014, January 20). New Brunswick Community College Partners with CANARIE to Accelerate the Adoption and Development of Cloud Technology by Small Business. New Release. http://www.canarie.ca. 43 Wavefront. (2013, June 20). Wavefront Accelerates the Growth of Wireless Companies in Atlantic Canada with Support from the Government of Canada. Press Release. http://www.wavefrontac.com. 44 Government of New Brunswick. (2012, April). http://www2.gnb.ca/content/dam/gnb/Corporate/pdf/EcDevEc/strategiesE.pdf. 45 ICTC. (2013, June). p. 18. 46 MQO Research. (2013, April). Mobile Application Development Labour Market Analysis. A Commissioned Report for New Brunswick Community College. P. 30. 47 E.g., http://www.mta.ca/news/index.php?id=4066 . 48 Le Collège communautaire du Nouveau-Brunswick (CCNB). (n.d.). Programmation et applications mobiles. http://ccnb.nb.ca. 49 Joint Economic Development Initiative (JEDI). (2013, March 7). NBAICT Mobile Application Development Course Launches. News Release. http://www.jedinb.ca/news-releases.html. 50 Diamond & Roberts. (2012, October). p. 185. 51 European Commission (EU). Directorate-General for Enterprise and Industry. (2012, November). European Policies and Instruments to Support Service Innovation (EPSIS) Final Report: Policy recommendations to support service innovation. PRO INNO paper n° 20. Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union. pp. 46-47. 52 Various models exists for estimating such costs, such as the total cost of ownership (TCO). 53 http://developer.blackberry.com/native 54 Business Insider. (2013, February 13). HTML5 vs. Apps: Here's Why The Debate Matters, And Who Will Win. Business Insider. http://www.businessinsider.com. 55 Awwwards Team. (2013). pp. 63-64. 56 Jones, N. (2013, September 25). p. 12; Wallin, L-O. (2013, October 9). p. 14. 57 Awwwards Team. (2013). pp. 79-80, 92-95, 105. 58 Google. (2014, January 28). Run Chrome Apps on mobile using Apache Cordova. The Chromium Blog. http://blog.chromium.org. 59 Google. (2013, November 13). Dart 1.0: A stable SDK for structured web apps. The Chromium Blog. http://blog.chromium.org. 60 See Agora Mobile Inc. http://www.linkedin.com/company/agora-mobile-inc.
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61 Wallin, L-O. (2013, October 9). p. 15. 62 Jones, N. (2013, September 25). pp. 4, 8, 10; Awwwards Team. (2013). p. 62. 63 Collins, K. (2013, December 19). Mobile phone chargers to be standardized under EU law. Wired.co.uk. http://www.wired.co.uk/news/archive/2013-12/19/universal-phone-charger. 64 La Polla, M., Martinelli, F., and Sgandurra, D. (2013). A Survey on Security for Mobile Devices. IEEE COMMUNICATIONS SURVEYS & TUTORIALS, VOL. 15, NO. 1, FIRST QUARTER 2013. 65 Public Safety Canada (2011, January). Communications Interoperability Strategy for Canada. Government of Canada. http:// http://www.publicsafety.gc.ca/ . 66 Harris Corporation. (2012, November 9). Comments of to the National Telecommunications and Information Administration, U.S. Department Of Commerce, On Notice of Inquiry on Behalf of the: First Responder Network Authority. FirstNet on Conceptual Network Architecture Presentation. National Telecommunications & Information Administration (NTIA). Docket No: 120928505-2505- 01. http://www.ntia.doc.gov. p. 8. 67 Harris Corporation. (2012, July 12). Harris Corporation Conducts First Nationwide Public Safety LTE Demonstration; Showcases Next Generation Broadband Capabilities for First Responders. Press Release. http://harris.com. 68 Awwwards Team. (2013). p. 47; http://webintents.org. 69 McIver, Jr. W. (2013, June 21). Personal notes. Canadian Interoperability Technology Interest Group (CITIG) conference: Public Safety Communications Interoperability. 70 Mearian, L. (2013, October 22). Smartphone users struggle connecting to in-car infotainment systems. Computerworld. http://computerworld.com. 71 Hartley, M. (2014, February 24). How QNX in-car tech is a rare bright spot for BlackBerry Ltd. Financial Post. http://financialpost.com. 72 Open Automotive Alliance. (2014, January 6). New roads ahead for Android and the Open Automotive Alliance. Press Release. http://www.openautoalliance.net/#press. 73 Trop, J. (2013, June 30). Detroit, Embracing New Auto Technologies, Seeks App Builders. New York Times. http://nytimes.com. 74 Broadband Commission, G3ict, IDA, ITU, Microsoft, the Telecentre.org Foundation, UNESCO. (2013, September). The ICT Opportunity for a Disability-Inclusive Development Framework: New action- oriented report. http://www.itu.int. p. 16, 51. 75 ICTC. (2013, June). p. 18. 76 La Polla et al. (2013). pp. 450 – 451, 458 - 459. 77 Wallin, L-O. (2013, October 9). p. 19. 78 Gray, P. (2013, February 4). Directory: Mobile Device Management vendors in the US. Zdnet.com; Wallin, L-O. (2013, October 9). p. 20. 79 http://fidoalliance.org
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80 TrendLabs. (2014). Blurring Boundaries. Trend Micro Security Predictions for 2014 and Beyond. Trend Micro Incorporated. pp. 3-4. 81 Perlroth, N. (2013, December 18). New Clef Plug-In Lets You Forget About Your Password. New York Times. Bits. http://nytimes.com. 82 TrendLabs. (2013). 3Q 2013 Security Roundup. Trend Micro Incorporated. pp. 6-9. 83 Ibid. pp. 6-9. 84 McCraken, H. (2013, April 16). Who’s Winning, iOS or Android? All the Numbers, All in One Place. Time. http://time.com; and http://www.appbrain.com/stats/number-of-android-apps. 85 Kapersky Lab. (2013). Kaspersky Security Bulletin 2013. Kaspersky Lab Global Research And Analysis Team (GREAT). http://kaspersky.com. pp. 11, 34-35. 86 TrendLabs. (2014). p. 4. 87 Mirani, L. (2013, December 19). This t-shirt will tell your phone how healthy you are. Quartz. http://qz.com. 88 Android.com. (n.d.). Android KitKat. http://developer.android.com. 89 Houghton, S. (2014, February 22). Google's KitKat clampdown will save Android: FIGHTING TALK Google's right to rein Samsung and co in. TechRadar. http://techradar.com. 90 Messmer, E. (2012, December 3). Apple iOS vs. Google Android: It comes down to security. Network World. http://networkworld.com. 91 Mirani, L. (2013, September 5). Google is waging war on apps that attack, infiltrate and steal from your phone. Quartz. http://qz.com. 92 Diamond & Roberts. (2012, October). p. i. 93 ICTC. (2013, June). pp xv, 13; Awwwards Team (2013). pp. 23, 29. 94 Card. (2013, November 13). p. 9. 95 Awwwards Team (2013). pp. 79-83. 96 Ibid. pp. 13, 23, 29-36, 50. 97 Ibid. p. 12. 98 Ibid. pp. 13, 36, 42-44. 99 Ibid. pp. 26, 29, 56, 91, 93. 100 Ibid. p. 9. 101 Ibid. pp. 9, 20, 56, 95. 102 Ibid. p. 52. 103 http://logintolife.co 104 Diamond & Roberts. (2012, October). p. II. 105 Valdes, R. (2013, September 26). User Experience Design: From Web to Mobile to Social. Gartner Inc. p. 7-10.
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106 Ibid. pp. 6-10. 107 Thomas, O. (2009, March 20). Google's Data Fetish Drives Away Its Top Designer. Gawker. http://gawker.com/5177144/googles-data-fetish-drives-away-its-top-designer. 108 Awwwards Team. (2013). p. 13. 109 Ibid. p. 66, 72, 75. 110 Kelley, T. & Littman, J. (2001).; Martin, R. (2007); Ulrick, K.T. (2011). Design: Creation of Artifacts in Society. University of Pennsylvania. http://opim.wharton.upenn.edu/~ulrich; Dyer, J., Gregersen, H. & Christensen, C.M. (Jul 19, 2011). The Innovator's DNA. Harvard Business Review Press; Valdes, R. (2013, September 26). pp. 11-23; Awwwards Team. (2013). pp. 48-50. 111 Nouveau, T. (2013, November 7). Report: MEMS sensors and hands-free UI will revolutionize mobile. TG Daily. 112 Awwwards Team. (2013). p. 44. 113 Graham, C. (2013, October 13). Facebook Tests Screen Tracking Software for Users. Technology Advice. http://technologyadvice.com. 114 Rosenbush, S. (2013, October 30). Facebook Tests Software to Track Your Cursor on Screen. The Wall Street Journal. CIO Journal. 115 Awwwards Team. (2013). p. 17. 116 Mozilla Developer Network (MDN). (n.d.). CSS Media Queries. https://developer.mozilla.org/en- US/docs/Web/Guide/CSS/Media_queries. 117 Awwwards Team. (2013). pp. 20, 41. 118 Ibid. pp. 24, 70. 119 Jones, N. (2013, September 25). p. 6; Awwwards Team. (2013). p. 13. 120 W3C. (2013, May 9). Pointer Events. W3C Candidate Recommendation. http://www.w3.org/TR/pointerevents. 121 http://supermechanical.com; Awwwards Team. (2013). p. 91; http://lifx.co. 122 http://www.google.ca/intl/en/chrome/devices/chromecast. 123 W3C. (2011, August 16). Scalable Vector Graphics (SVG) 1.1 (Second Edition). W3C Recommendation. http://www.w3.org/TR/SVG. 124 Weber, H. (2012, January 21). This new typeface was made just for interface designers. TNW. http://thenextweb.com/dd/2012/01/21/this-new-typeface-was-made-just-for-interface- designers. 125 Awwwards Team. (2013). pp. 20-21, 50. 126 Ibid. p. 53. 127 Samsung. (2013, January 9). SAMSUNG Highlights Innovations in Mobile Experiences Driven by Components, in CES Keynote. Press Release. Samsung Electronics Co., Ltd. http://www.samsung.com/us/news/20353;
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128 Nokia Research Center (NRC). (n.d.). The Morph Concept. Nokia. https://research.nokia.com/morph. 129 http://www.webrtc.org. 130 Awwwards Team. (2013) p. 37. 131 http://get.webgl.org. 132 Awwwards Team. (2013) pp. 9, 44 133 Lardinois, F. (2013, August 15). Perch Launches Video “Portal” Service For Distributed Teams. TechCrunch. http://techcrunch.com; http://perch.co. 134 Auletta, K. (2013, April 2). How To Make A Dumb Phone Seem Smarter. The New Yorker; http://vuclip.com/products.html. 135 http://reconinstruments.com; http://neptunepine.com 136 Wallin, L-O. (2013, October 9). p. 10. 137 Ibid. pp. 21-22. 138 Evans, D. (2011, April). The Internet of Things: How the Next Evolution of the Internet Is Changing Everything. Cisco Internet Business Solutions Group (IBSG). pp. 2-3. 139 http://wavefrontac.com. 140 Mattern, F., Floerkemeier, C. (2010). From the Internet of Computers to the Internet of Things. Informatik- Spektrum 33 (2): 107–121. 141 Wu, G., Talwar, S., Johnsson, K., Himayat, N., Johnson, K.D. (2011, April). M2M: From mobile to embedded internet. Communications Magazine, IEEE , vol.49, no.4, pp.36-43. 142 Mandel, M. (2013, September). Can the Internet of Everything bring back the High-Growth Economy? Progressive Policy Institute. Washington, DC. p. 2. 143 Del Rey, J. (2013, December 6). Apple Hopes to Usher in New Age of Personalized In-Store Shopping With iBeacon Rollout. All Things D. http://allthingsd.com ; Higginbotham, S. (2013, September 17). Loophole in iBeacon could let iPhones guard your likes instead of bombard you with coupons. Gigaom.com. 144 Loukides, M. (2014, February, 7). Bluetooth Low Energy: What Do We Do With You? Forbes. http://forbes.com. 145 Higginbotham, S. (2013, September 17). Loophole in iBeacon could let iPhones guard your likes instead of bombard you with coupons. Gigaom.com. 146 http://masitek.com 147 https://linquet.com 148 http://teolock.com 149 http://dlcom.com
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150 International Telecommunication Union Telecommunication Standardization Sector [ITU-T]. (2013, September). Location matters: Spatial standards for the Internet of Things. ITU-T Technology Watch Report. p. 21. 151 Ibid. p. 5. 152 http://reelyactive.com 153 ITU-T. (2013, September). pp. 4-5, 7, 10. 154 Ibid. p. 1. 155 Ibid. pp. 3, 16, 18, 19. 156 Mims, C. (2014, January 27). Intel’s voice recognition will blow Siri out of the water—because it doesn’t use the cloud. Quartz. http://qz.com. 157 Trace Center (n.d.). A Brief Introduction to Disabilities. http://trace.wisc.edu/docs/population/briefintro.pdf. 158 http://www.w3.org/standards/webdesign/accessibility. 159 Broadband Commission et al. (2013, September). pp. 14, 16, 25, 32-33, 41-42, 46. 160 World Health Organization [WHO]. (2013, October). Visual impairment and blindness. World Health Organization Media Centre. Fact Sheet N°282. http://who.int. 161 Bilton, N. (2013, September 29). Disruptions: Visually Impaired Turn to Smartphones to See Their World. New York Times. Bits. http://nytimes.com. 162 American National Standard Methods of Measurement of Compatibility between Wireless Communications Devices and Hearing Aids. (2011, May 27). C63.19-2011 (Revision of ANSI C63.19- 2007). 163 See http://www.fcc.gov/encyclopedia/hearing-aid-compatibility-hac . 164 See http://www.audicus.com/blogs/hearing-aids-blog/6071788-the-top-6-mobile-apps-for- hearing-aids-and-hearing-loss . 165 http://www.purple.us/p3mobile 166 Font, S. (2014, January 1). How apps and smartphones are helping people with mobility problems. Mobile World Capital Barcelona. http://mobileworldcapital.com/en/article/358. 167 Hatton, D. & Hatton, K. (n.d.). Apps to Help Students With Dyslexia and Reading Difficulties. National Center for Learning Disabilities. http://www.ncld.org/students-disabilities/assistive- technology-education/apps-students-ld-dyslexia-reading-difficulties. 168 Maiden, N., D'Souza, S., Jones, S., Müller, L., Pannese, L., Pitts, K., Prilla, M., Pudney, K., Rose, M., Turner, I., Zachos, K. (2013, November). Computing Technologies for Reflective, Creative Care of People with Dementia. Communications of the ACM, Vol. 56 No. 11, Pages 60-67. 169 Jones, N. (2013, September 25). p. 6. 170 Mims, C. (2013, August 31). The wireless network with a mile-wide range that the “internet of things” could be built on. Quartz. http://qz.com; https://electricimp.com; https://www.spark.io ; http://www.flutterwireless.com;
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171 Bleicher, A. (2013, June 13). Millimeter Waves May Be the Future of 5G Phones. IEEE Spectrum. http://ieee.org. 172 Evans, D. (2011, April). p. 3. 173 Ochman, B.L. (2013, March 26). QR Codes Are Dead, Trampled by Easier-to-Use Apps: New Technology Can Make Almost Any Product Interactive, No Download Needed. Advertising Age. http://adage.com; https://blippar.com; http://www.touchcode.de . 174 Strout, A. (2013, April 4). The Death of the QR Code. Marketing Land. http://marketingland.com. 175 Strout, A. (2013, November 14). 5 Reasons QR Codes May Not Be As Dead As We Think. Marketing Land. http://marketingland.com. 176 Fiala, M. (2010). Designing Highly Reliable Fiducial Markers. IEEE Journal Of Pattern Analysis And Machine Intelligence. 177 Oakes, L., Westover, A., Mares, J.W., Chatterjee, S., Erwin, W.R., Bardhan, R., Weiss, S.M., & Pint, C.L. (2013). Surface engineered porous silicon for stable, high performance electrochemical supercapacitors. Nature. Scientific Reports 3, Article number: 3020 doi:10.1038/srep03020. 178 BRCK. (2013). Specifications. http://brck.com; Chimbelu, C. (2014, February 2). Can tech help solve some of Africa's education problems? Deutsche Welle. http://dw.de. 179 Bonaventure, O., Handley, M. & Raiciu, C. (2013, October). An overview of Multipath TCP. USENIX login. http://inl.info.ucl.ac.be/publications/overview-multipath-tcp. 180 Cox, J. (2013, September 19). Apple iOS 7 surprises as first with new multipath TCP connections. Network World. http://www.networkworld.com/news/2013/091913-ios7-multipath-273995.html. 181 International Telecommunication Union Telecommunication Standardization Sector [ITU-T]. (2013, May). The Mobile Money Revolution: Part 1: NFC Mobile Payments. ITU-T Technology Watch Report. p. 2. 182 http://www.yes-wallet.com; https://developer.visa.com/vme/checkout; http://www.google.ca/wallet ; http://www.mastercard.com/masterpass/partners 183 ITU-T. (2013, May). Part 1. pp. 2, 12. 184 Jones, N. (2013, September 25). pp. 10, 12. 185 Facemire, M. (2012, April 25). Mobile Backend-as-a-Service: The New Lightweight Middleware? Forrester. 186 Ellaway, R.H., Cooperstock, J.R., Spencer, B. (2010, July). Simulation integration for healthcare education, training and assessment. Digital Information Management (ICDIM), 2010 Fifth International Conference, vol., no., pp.484,489. 187 Cisco. (2012, August). 802.11ac: The Fifth Generation of Wi-Fi. Technical White Paper. http://www.cisco.com. pp. 3, 6, 21. 188 http://www.apple.com/iphone/compare 189 Meynell, K. (Ed.). (2008, August). Report on Technical Issues: EARNEST foresight study. TERENA Secretariat. http://www.terena.org. p. 10.
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190 Lunden, I. (2013, February 24). Firefox OS Hits The Ground Running With Phones From Telefonica, T-Mobile, Firefox Marketplace For Apps; 18 Carriers In All Signed Up For Mozilla’s Open Web Effort. TechCrunch. http://techcrunch.com. 191 Google. (2014, January 28). Run Chrome Apps on mobile using Apache Cordova. The Chromium Blog. http://blog.chromium.org. 192 http://ubuntu.com 193 http://tizenassociation.org 194 http://sailfishos.org 195 Johnson, D.M. (2005, April). Introduction to and Review of Simulator Sickness Research. U.S. Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences. Research Report 1832. pp. 21-22. 196 Reisinger, D. (2013, September 26). iPhone, iPad owners complain of motion sickness due to iOS 7. CNET. http://cnet.com. 197 Mims, C. (2013, September 28). Digital motion sickness will be the occupational disease of the 21st century. Quartz. http://qz.com. 198 http://validator.w3.org/mobile 199 Jones, N. (2013, September 25). p. 14. 200 http://wavefrontac.com 201 http://www.ranorex.com/test-automation-features.html 202 http://mite.keynote.com 203 http://ibm.com/developerworks 204 http://www.infostretch.com/Mobile/mobile-appstore-certification.php 205 http://www.utest.com 206 Howard, C., Plummer, D.C., Genovese, Y., Mann, J., Willis, D.A., Smith, D.M. (2012, June 14). The Nexus of Forces: Social, Mobile, Cloud and Information. Gartner, Inc. p. 13. 207 Ibid. p. 14 208 ITU-T. (2013, September). pp. 8-9. 209 http://gotoohlala.com 210 http://gingle.tv/ 211 http://www.skyhookwireless.com. 212 AT&T. (2010). AT&T Location Information Services (LIS). https://www.wireless.att.com. 213 http://pspc.harris.com/solution/beon/overview.aspx 214 http://greenowlmobile.com 215 Bonnington, C. (2013, August, 14). Orbotix Sphero 2.0. Wired. http://wired.com.
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216 Morris, C. (2013, September 12). Software Development Company Launching In Miramichi. Telegraph-Journal. 217 Pantos, R. (Ed.). (2013, October 14). HTTP Live Streaming: draft-pantos-http-live-streaming-12. Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF). http://tools.ietf.org/html/draft-pantos-http-live-streaming- 12. 218 Apple. (n.d.). Resolving App Store Approval Issues for HTTP Live Streaming. Technical Q&A QA1767. iOS Developer Library. https://developer.apple.com/library/iOS/qa/qa1767/_index.html. 219 See http://developer.android.com and http://www.adobe.com/products/adobe-media-server- standard.html. 220 Foster, J. (2013, June 19). Payphone Numbers, Revenue Dwindle. Times & Transcript. http://telegraphjournal.com. 221 See https://www.intelligentcommunity.org. 222 International Telecommunication Union Telecommunication Standardization Sector [ITU-T]. (2013, February). Smart Cities Seoul: a case study. ITU-T Technology Watch Report. pp. 2-3. 223 Telecommunications companies are now resistant to maintaining landline infrastructure in the face of newer technologies. Telephone companies were opposed to rebuilding some of their landlines destroyed by Hurricane Sandy in 2012 in favor of wireless. Some companies are reportedly planning to abandon their landlines by 2020. Such plans are dependent on regional and national regulations in most jurisdictions around the world. See Svensson, P. (2013, July 8). Big Disconnect: Telcos Abandon Copper Phone Lines. Associated Press. http://ap.org. 224 Heimerl, K., Ali, K., Blumenstock, J., Brewer, E. (2013). Expanding Rural Cellular Networks with Virtual Coverage. 10th USENIX Symposium on Networked Systems Design and Implementation (NSDI ’13). p. 283. 225 Diamond & Roberts. (2012, October). p. 117, 119-121. 226 Heimerl et al. (2013). p. 283. 227 Ibid. pp. 283-294. 228 Hardy, Q. (2013, July 18). The Rules of In-Store Surveillance. New York Times. Bits. http://nytimes.com. 229 Future of Privacy Forum . (2013, July 16). The Future of Privacy Forum Announces New Group to Develop Best Practices for Retail Location Analytics Companies. http://futureofprivacy.org, Washington, D.C. 230 Hardy, Q. (2013, July 18). 231 See Seward, Z.M. & Datoo, S. (2013, August 12). City of London halts recycling bins tracking phones of passers-by. Quartz. http://qz.com. 232 Future of Privacy Forum . (2013, July 16). 233 Mance, H. (2013, August 28). Big Mother is watching you. Financial Times. http://ft.com/management.
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234 United Nations. Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights [UN.OHCHR]. (1990) Convention on the Rights of the Child. Adopted and opened for signature, ratification and accession by General Assembly resolution 44/25 of 20 November 1989. entry into force 2 September 1990, in accordance with article 49. New York. Article 16, Section 1. 235 Bloomberg (2013, June 6). Bloomberg View: Who's Afraid of Google Glass? Bloomberg Businessweek. http://businessweek.com; http://google.com/glass. 236 http://getnarrative.com 237 TrendLabs (2013). p. 2-3, 7, 11, 16. 238 Mirani, L. (2013, September 5). 239 ICTC. (2013, June). p. 18. 240 Diamond & Roberts (2012, October) p.22. 241 Ibid. pp. 50, 52. 242 Ibid. p. 48. 243 Ibid. pp. 55-57. 244 http://data.gc.ca 245 Diamond & Roberts. (2012, October). p. 57. 246 http://hotspotparking.ca 247 Lucente, C. (2011, February 28). 700MHz Spectrum Requirements for Canadian Public Safety Interoperable Mobile Broadband Data Communications. Defence R&D Canada – Centre for Security Science. DRDC CSS CR 2011-01. p. 4. 248 Public Safety Canada (2011, January). Communications Interoperability Strategy for Canada. Government of Canada. http://www.publicsafety.gc.ca. p. iv. 249 Ibid. pp. 1-12. 250 Lucente, C. (2011, February 28). p. i, iv. 251 Industry Canada. (2012, March 14). Policy and Technical Framework Mobile Broadband Services (MBS) — 700 MHz Band Broadband Radio Service (BRS) — 2500 MHz Band. Government of Canada. http://www.ic.gc.ca/eic/site/smt-gst.nsf/eng/sf10121.html 252 National Telecommunications & Information Administration [NTIA]. (2013, January 29). Testing by NTIA’s ITS Paves the Way for First Responder Broadband Interoperability. United States. Department of Commerce. http://ntia.doc.gov. 253 See http://citig.ca. 254 Public Safety Canada (2011, February). Beyond the Border: A Shared Vision for Perimeter Security and Economic Competitiveness. http:// http://www.publicsafety.gc.ca/. 255 International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies. (2013). World Disasters Report: Focus on technology and the future of humanitarian action. http://ifrc.org. p. 21.
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256 Gogolak, E.C. (2013, June 13). Smartphone Makers Pressed to Address Growing Theft Problem. New York Times. Bits. http://nytimes.com. 257 Byrne, J. & Marx, G. (2011). Technological Innovations in Crime Prevention and Policing. A Review of the Research on Implementation and Impact. Cahiers Politiestudies. Jaargang 2011-3, nr. 20 p. 17-40. 258 Diamond & Roberts. (2012, October). pp. 73-74. 259 Shaffer, R. (2013, December 4). Mobile Payments Gain Traction Among India’s Poor. NY Times. 260 International Telecommunication Union Telecommunication Standardization Sector [ITU-T]. (2013, May). The Mobile Money Revolution: Part 2: Financial Inclusion Enabler. ITU-T Technology Watch Report. pp. 1-3, 7. 261 Diamond & Roberts. (2012, October). pp. XVIII, 68. 262 See http://nfctimes.com. 263 Smart Card Alliance. (2013, March). Open Loop in US Transportation Systems. Intelling, 9-13 rue Bel-Air, 13006 Marseille, France www.smartinsights.net. 264 http://Squareup.com 265 http://rogers.com 266 ITU-T. (2013, May). Part 2. p. 18. 267 So-called customer-to-customer (C2C) models, such as eBay, are arguably B2C models because C2C relationships had to have been enabled by the business. B2C or B2B can be used to represented so-called business-to-government (B2G) models, as appropriate. 268 Awwwards Team. (2013). p. 47. 269 Ford, C.M. (2012). Smartphone Apps on the Mobile Web: An Exploratory Case Study of Business Models. Doctoral dissertation. Georgia State University. pp. 19-20; Becker, A., Mladenow, A., Kryvinska, N,. Strauss, C. (2012). Aggregated Survey of Sustainable Business Models for Agile Mobile Service Delivery Platforms. Journal of Service Science Research. No. 4, pp. 97-121; Australian Communications and Media Authority (ACMA). (2011). Emerging business models in the digital economy—The mobile applications market. Occasional paper. Commonwealth of Australia. pp. 8-14. 270 ICTC. (2013, June). p. 24. 271 Ibid. p. 4. 272 Seligson, H. (2011, February 19). Jilted in the U.S., a Site Finds Love in India. New York Times. Business Day. http://nytimes.com; Awwwards Team (2013). p. 39. 273 Awwwards Team. (2013). p. 88. 274 Interactive Advertising Bureau [IAB]. (2013). IAB Global Mobile Anthology 2013: Worldwide Perspectives on Mobile Media. A Report Prepared by the IAB Mobile Marketing Center of Excellence. pp. 4, 27-28 275 Meeker, M., Wu, L. (2013, May 29). Internet Trends. D11 Conference. p. 5.
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276 Higginbotham. (2013, September 17). 277 World Economic Forum. (2012). Accelerating the Adoption of mLearning: A Call for Collective and Collaborative Action. Perspectives from the World Economic Forum’s Global Agenda Council on ICT. Cologny/Geneva Switzerland. p. 4. 278 Diamond & Roberts. (2012, October). pp. 7-27. 279 Ibid. p. 22. 280 Jacobs, I. M. (2013). Modernizing Education and Preparing Tomorrow’s Workforce through Mobile Technology. Innovation for Jobs Summit 2013: Qualcomm. p. 2. 281 Diamond & Roberts. (2012, October). p. 14. 282 Stairs, G. (2013, May 9). E-learning: our net export. Telegraphhournal.com. p. A9. 283 ITU-T. (2012, September). p. 3. 284 See http://one.laptop.org. 285 Datoo, S. (2013, December 20). Indian government to release a £14 tablet in 2014. The Guardian. http://theguardian.com. 286 Lall, R.R. (2014, February 27). Haiti's Android tablet maker Surtab to crank up production. The Guardian. http://theguardian.com. 287 http://amplify.com 288 ITU-T. (2012, September). p. 5. 289 World Economic Forum. (2012). p. 10. 290 Culatta, R. (2013, Jan 10). Reimagining Learning: Richard Culatta at TEDxBeaconStreet. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Z0uAuonMXrg ; U.S. Department of Education. Office of Educational Technology. (2010). Transforming American Education: Learning Powered by Technology. Draft National Education Technology Plan 2010. http://www.ed.gov; West, D. (2011). Using Technology to Personalize Learning and Assess Students in Real-Time. Brookings Institute: Center for Technology Innovation at Brookings; Wicks, M. (2010). A National Primer On K-12 Online Learning | Version 2. International Association for K-12 Online Learning. 291 Christensen, C. & Horn, M. (2013, Nov 1). Innovation Imperative: Change Everything: Online Education as an Agent of Transformation. New York Times; Koller, D. (2011, Dec. 5). Death knell for the lecture: technology as a passport to personalized education. New York Times; Martin, F.G. (2012). Will massive open online courses change how we teach?. Commun. ACM55, 8 (August 2012), 26-28; Rosenberg, T. (2013, Oct. 23). In ‘Flipped’ Classrooms, a Method for Mastery. New York Times. 292 Diamond & Roberts. (2012, October). p. 7, 11, 21. 293 Flaherty, A. (2013, August 7). Group: Apps Not Effective Tool For Teaching Babies. Associated Press. http://ap.org; Guernsey, L. (2013, September 2). Field-Testing the Math Apps. New York Times. http://nytimes.com. 294 ITU-T. (2012, September). p. 16.
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295 IBIS Capital. (2013, January). Global e-Learning Investment Review. IBIS Capital Ltd. pp. 10, 22, 24, 39, 56, 74. 296 International Telecommunication Union Telecommunication Standardization Sector [ITU-T]. (2011, January). Standards and eHealth. ITU-T Technology Watch Report. p. 6; Diamond & Roberts. (2012, October). p. 23. 297 Miao, F., Miao, X., Shangguan, W., Li, Y. (2012). MobiHealthcare System: Body Sensor Network Based M-Health System for Healthcare Application. E-Health Telecommunication Systems and Networks, No. 1, pp. 12-18. p. 12. 298 Diamond & Roberts. (2012, October). p. 38. 299 Qualcomm (2013, July 1). Qualcomm Tricorder X Prize Competition Guidelines. 1 July 2013, version 18. http://www.qualcommtricorderxprize.org. 300 Mirani, L. (2013, December 19). 301 International Telecommunication Union Telecommunication Standardization Sector [ITU-T]. (2012, April). E-health Standards and Interoperability. ITU-T Technology Watch Report. p. 4. 302 Ibid. pp. 9, 11, 14, 15-16. 303 Moorman, B. (2010). Medical Device Interoperability: Standards Overview. IT World. March/April. P. 132. 304 ITU-T. (2012, April). p. 3. 305 Diamond & Roberts. (2012, October). p. xiv, 40, 42, 57, 201. 306 Pew Research. (2013, March 18). The State of the News Media 2013: An Annual Report on American Journalism. The Pew Research Center's Project for Excellence in Journalism. http://stateofthemedia.org. 307 Pew Research. (2013, September). Social Networking Fact Sheet. Pew Research Internet Project. http://pewinternet.org. 308 Meeker & Wu. (2013, May 29). p. 52. 309 Pew Research. (2014, February 11). Couples, the Internet, and Social Media. Pew Research Center. http://pewinternet.org. 310 Walrave, M., Heirman, W., Hallam, L. (2013). Under pressure to sext? Applying the theory of planned behaviour to adolescent sexting. Behaviour & Information Technology. Taylor & Francis. 311 Brown, R. (2013, July 2). 140 Characters Spell Charges and Jail. New York Times. http://nytimes.com. 312 https://hootsuite.com 313 Environment Canada. (2013, July 12). Mobile Device Recycling Program. http://www.ec.gc.ca/gdd- mw/default.asp?lang=En&n=51FBEBFD-1. 314 Phonebloks. (n.d.) http://Phonebloks.com. 315 Patel, N. (2014, January 29). Google to keep Motorola's Advanced Technology group, including Project Ara modular phone. The Verge. http://theverge.com.
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316 Diamond & Roberts. (2012, October). p. 87. 317 Lunden, I. (2013, October 27). Nielsen’s New SDK Adds Mobile Viewing To Its Traditional TV Ratings, Uses Data From Facebook To Match Demographics. TechCrunch. http://techcrunch.com/. 318 Bromwich, J. (2013, September 13). An Insider’s View for Tourists. New York Times. http://nytimes.com. 319 http://touroff.com 320 See http://hdr.undp.org/en/humandev. 321 United Nations Development Fund [UNDP]. (2013). Human Development Report 2013. The Rise of the South: Human Progress in a Diverse World. New York, NY. pp. 14, 77. 322 Sinha, S. (2013, October 17). Govt wants every home to have a mobile phone. The Hindu Business Line. http://thehindubusinessline.com. 323 Kuo, L. (2013, October 18). Women are much less likely to have cell phones and India wants to fix that. Quartz. http://qz.com. 324 BRCK. (2013); Chimbelu, C. (2014, February 2).
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