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A. ^V- -^.v \> GRAMMAR

RONG (LEPCHA) LANGUAGE,

AS IT EXISTS IN THE DORJELING AND 8IKIM HILLS.

COLONEL G. B. MAINWARING,

BENGAL STAFF CORPS.

CALCUTTA

PBIUTED BY C. B. LEWIS, BAPTIST MISSION PBES3.

1S76.

To

THE HON'BLE E. C. BAYLEY, C. S. I.

D;«nkr 0f t|rc Comtcil of Qre 6okraar General 0f |ni)i:i.

As a slight tribute of respect for his great attainments in Philology and in general knowledge, and for the advancement he renders both personally and by encou- ragement to all literature and science, this book is gratefully dedicated.

Calcutta, December 1875.

PREFACE AND INTRODUCTORY REMARKS.

Before presenting to tlie public a grammar of a language, it may be considered meet to give some information regarding the country and people, especially where, as in the present instance, little is known respecting either. Relating to the

Lepchas and country, however, little information can be imparted. Sikim is in 27° 2' 53" 88° 18' 41" Lat. N. Lon. E. and is bounded on the North by Tibet ; on

the East by Pru (Biitcin) ; on the West by Nepal ; and formerly extended on the South to near Titalyah in the Plains.

It was not until the year 1814 that the first political connection with Sikim

commenced, and then only with reference to the affairs of Nepal. The first com- munication of importance with the latter, commenced in 1767, when the reigning Newah Rajah, harassed incessantly by the independent Gurkhas* who were now threatening his capital (Kathmandah), became alarmed and besought the aid of the British Government in India. It being considered politic to retain in peace the great mercantile and agricultural commerce which existed between Bengal and Nepal, and thence extended, through the latter country, to Tibet and China, his request was acceded to, and a force, under Capt. Kinloch, was sent to his aid, but, unfortu- nately, the troops despatched were totally inadequate for the occasion. They arrived

in Nepal in the commencement of the rains (1767) ; the malarious and deadly climate of the Terai, and want of provisions soon prostrated the few and unseasoned natives of the Plains, and Kiidoch was obliged to retire. The Giirkhas relieved from restraint, did not wait for a second force to be sent, but renewed the attack with un- precedented vigor and shortly took Kathmandah. Wholesale and indiscriminate slaughter ensued, all the ruling Newah chiefs were put to the sword, and midst uncontrolled bloodshed and unheard of atrocities, the Gurkha chief, Prithwi Narayn, became the x'uler of the kingdom. Elated with their success, which added to their hill territories the country of Nepal, comprising the vallies of Tirhiit and Sarun,

* the Budhist inhabitants of Nepal. The Newahs were The Gurkhas were bigoted Hindus : grasping and rapacious, they, at first, gradually, and afterwards rapidly invaded and possessed themselves of the terri- tories of the numerous independent chiefs who held sway in the Himalayas. The conquest of Nepal and of Sikim, milted their possessions, making them masters of all the HiU and Terai tract, fi-om the rivers Sutlej

in the N. West, to the liung-nyo (Teistah) in the S. East. —;

( vi )

the Gurkhas aspired to the conquest of Tibet and China.* The former country they

invaded, reduced part to subjection and occupied it; but -were ignominiously driven

out by Chinese troops in 1792. They, however, still held in possession the country of Sikim, which they had subjugated after the conquest of Nopal, and retained in domination by a series of fortified intrenchments and barricades. I am not Avriting

a history of Nepal, it would therefore be foreign to the present subject to recount all the events which succeeded that calamitous triumph of the Giirkhas, which, for many years, plunged a peaceful, prosperous and most flourishing country into a state of anarchy, into constant civil broils and contentions, and rendered it a scene of ungoverned passions and of appalling barbarities.^ It was in vain the British Government intermediated, in vain it strove to keep in check the violence that

convulsed the country. Treaties were made but to be broken by Nepal ; the British Envoy was treated with duplicity and disrespect. Wearied with the constant dis- cord and reiterated aggressions, the Government of India declared war in 1814 ;:{:

* The invasioa of Tibet, and pillage of the Grand Lamasery of Degarchhe were also in a great measure due to the inHueuce of a Lama, known as, Samlmr, (his true name and title were Sha-tar Khyera-bo literally, Sha-kar, the learned), brother of the n^j'^fv liT^ra-sliis (Anglioe, Teshi) Lama, who, on the death of the latter, fled from Lhasa. Having brought much plundered treasure with him, he was taken into favor by the Nepal chief. Afterwards, on the peremptory demand of the Chinese authorities^ for his surrender, to avoid being delivered over, he put an end to his life hj poison. Nepal during f A graphic account is given of the state of this early period by an eye-witness, a Roman Catholic Priest (Father Guiseppe, Prefect to the lioman Mission), who was a resident at Nepal for four years states, — to firmly secure the valley of Nepal, the Gurkha Chief hoped to effect this purpose by ; he causing a famine, that orders for this were issued and vigorously carried into eifect " Every person who

" was found on the road carrying even a little salt or cotton was huug on a tree, and he caused all the inha» " bitauts of a neighbom'ing village to be put to death in a most cruel manner, oven women and children did " not escape, for having supplied a little cotton to the inhabitants of Nepal ; and when I arrived in tliat

" countrj- in the beginning of 17U9, it was a most horrible spectacle to behold so many people hanging on trees

" in the road."— He relates that the besieged, in a fortress (Khirtapiir), submitted themselves prisoners under a promise of general amnesty, but that after their surrender, Prithvvi Narayan sent instructions to his brother, (whom he had placed in possession of the surrounding— country), to cut off the lips and noses of every one, and tliat all these (lips and noses) were to be preserved "that he might ascertain how many souls there were."—Tlie order was carried into execution with every cruelty and horror, none escaping, (neither women nor children),

except the players of wind instruments, who alone were spared. Many in despair put an end to their lives

" it was most shocking to see so many living people with their teeth and noses resembling the skulls of the " deceased." With sarcastic and diabolical jocularity, Prithwi Narayn afterwards clianged the name of the town to Naskatpiir, = the place of cut noses. Ho did not survive long to enjoy what fruits he may have

reaped ; he died two years after, in 1771.

X On the first threat of war by the British, in the early part of the year, the subject was referred, by tlie Rajah, for the decision of the Chiefs. Though the recommendation of a temporizing and conciliating policy, urged by prudent counsellors, was in the majority, the boast — that the Gurkhas were invincible and their country impregnable — was paramount. War was determined on. Hostilities were immediately commenced by a force proceeding and slaughtering almost all of the few men that composed our Police outposts of Uhutvval. ( vii )

and in the latter end of that year a force was sent under command of Sir David Ochterlony. Having overcome the Nepal troops, the hitter sued for peace. In fram-

ing conditions, one of the stipulations was, that the Gurkhas should relinquish all claim to the territory, usurped by them, belonging to the Sikim Ruler. They would not accede to all the terms. The campaign was therefore renewed, under the same General. Instructions were also sent to Capt. Latter, the Political Agent on the Eastern Nepal frontier, to render the Sikim king every assistance in his power to expel the Giii-khas from his territories. Nepal being completely subdued, the treaty of Segowlee, bearing date the 2nd December, 1815, was formally signed and

sealed, in which, by the 5th and 6th Articles, the Nepal Government renounced all claim to the land east of the Mechi river, and further bound itself, never to molest the king of Sikim, or invade his territories, that all differences should be referred to the arbitration of the British Government—" by whose award the Rajah of Nepal engages to abide."— It was not, however, until afterwards driven out by a force under Captain Latter, that the Gurkhas eventually evacuated the Sikim territory. Sikim was considered of special importance as affording an accessible approacli to Eastern Tibet, and, as such, was deemed advantageous to be retained by a friendly power. The following year, therefore, a covenant was entered into by Captain Latter, on the part of the Governor-General Lord Moira, securing, to the king of Sikim, the whole of his territories. This covenant was delivered to the deputies of the king, at Tirhut, on the 10th day of February 1817. For some years after this, nothing of importance took place between the British Government and Sikim.

'^'' In 1827, disputes, with regard to the boundaries, occurring between Nepal and Sikim, ' '"' "'"^jf Captain Lloyd, commanding the frontier force at Titalyah, and Mr. J. W. Grant, Commercial Resident at Maldah (who had befoi-e visited the hills), were ordered to proceed to Sikim to amicably arrange matters. Both were charmed with the country and the inhabitants (the Lepchas).* They selected the site of Dorjeling,f as a most

* I use the term Lepclia ; as it has been so long employed, it may be considered to have become Aiiif li-

the origin of the word, but it is doubtless denomination cised ; I do not know a of the Giirkhas, from whom most of the names of the neighbouring places &c., have been taken, instead of from the inhabitants of the respective countries, e. g. Sikim, Butan, Tibet, etc. The proper name of the Lepchas, as they call them- selves, is—Kong. t The Tibetans had before this time formed a settlement at Dorjeling, on the summit of which thev had built a Lamasery, (about 110 years ago). This the Gurkhas had, more than once, attacked and plundered and, at one time, had converted it into one of their guard posts. The ruin of the Lamasery remains to the

name, " Dorjeling" was given by the Tibetans it is present day. The ; compounded of three words ; viz. f( rdo a stone, ^ rje noble, and gc; gling a place. The first two words compose a compound word, i^'^

Jor-rje a precious stone, a jewel, also a meteorite stone ; hence, an ecclesiastical sceptre, (emblematical of tlie thunderbolt, Sanscrit T^j ; so, ^-^'g]^ i)o)--7;;e-y/i/iy, pronounced Dorjeling, (corrupted, by Eui'opeaus, to Darjeeling), may be translated — the place of ecclesiastical sway. ( visi ) beautiful and convenient spot, for a sanatariura, and strongly urged on Government tlie importance of securing it for that purpose. The then Grovernor-General Lord Bentinck, and his successor Lord Auckland, both appreciated the advantage of hold- ing such a position in the hills, and both earnestly commended it to the attention of the Court of Directors. The latter, in the year 1830, forwarded directions that, on the first favourable opportunity, overtures should be made to the Sikim lluler for the cession of the Hill of Dorjeling. In 1834, boundary disputes having again risen between Nepal and Sikim, Major Lloyd, as Grovernor-General's Agent, was deputed to settle affairs, and to treat for the surrender of the Hill tract of Dorjeling. The king consented to cede the land, on condition that the territory of Debgang, (with one or two other minor stipulations), should be granted to him in exchange. In reply, it was represented, that as this property had already been conferred on the

Rajah of Julpai-giiri, it was impossible to accede to his desire. The answer return- ed was, simply, an unconditional present of the coveted land. The English version of the transfer deed, as rendered by the Government translators, being short, I here give it verbatim.

Translation of the Deed of Grant making over Dorjeling to the East India

Company, dated 29th Magh, Sambat 189 J, = A. D. February, 1835.

* The Governor-General having expressed his desire for the possession of the

' Hill of Dorjeling, on account of its cool climate, for the purpose of enabling the

* servants of his Government, suffering from sickness, to avail themselves of its ad-

' vantages, I, the King of Dre-jong* (translated Sikimputti Rajah), out of friendship

' to the said Governor-General, hereby present Dorjeling to the East India Company,

' that is, all the land south of the Great Rung-nyit (translated Rungeet) River, east

' of the Ru-shi (translated Balasun), Kal3nTil and Little Rung-nyit (translated Rua-

* geet) Rivers, and west of the (translated) Rungusf and Mahauuddi Rivers.' Major Lloyd was commissioned to construct roads, and to make all arrange- ments for establishing an European settlement. Under his administration all that was undertaken succeeded, and entire harmony existed with Sikim. In 1839, Colonel Lloyd left Dorjeling on active military employ, and Dr. Campbell who had previously served at Kathmandah, was temporarily appointed in his room, and afterwards permanently confirmedms Superintendent of Dorjeling. He was vested with extraordinary and independent judicial powers.

* Q^^V'ii'^'V Miras-ljonr/s, pronounced, as above, Drejong (literally, the country of rice), the name given to the ecjuutry by the Tibetans, called by Gurklias, and, hence, imijroperly, by Europeans—Sikim.

Meaning the Uung-nyo (called by Gurkhas, and now iiii^iivjici-Ij/, in f ; as the above note, by Europeans ^Teestah). —;;

( Jx )

Having: thus given an outline of the events which preceded and led to the occupation of the British in Sikim, we may take a glance at the people and country, of whom, and of whicli, the British Government took the charge. To- wards showing in a slight degree the characteristics of the Lepchas, and the state in which we found them, I shall, here, make a short extract from a letter I wrote, twenty years ago, regarding them, to a gentleman high in Government administration. " What or whersoever might have been their original source, they here appear- ed in the most simple, primitive state, living in the midst of the vast, wild, magnifi- cent forests, old as the hills themselves, and, as I think, I mentioned to you, each family residing by itself, having no villages or communities, and but little inter- course with each other; thus they dwelt in pretty cottages, around which they cultivated their plot of ground, which aflforded them rice, —their staple food ; grain of different sorts cotton, ; from which tliey spun their cloth ; seeds from which they expressed their oil, &c. From the forests they obtained fruits of numerous descriptions, edible and otherwise useful ; thus all their wants were supplied. They knew no care, and but little sorrow, cheerful as the birds, and sturdy as the trees around them, tliey roamed through the forests inhaling health. They understood little about medicines and had not much use for them, sickness being almost un- known among them, but they possess some very efficacious roots, &c., with which I believe Europeans are still unacquainted. Their religion was particularly simple they believed iu_one Good Spirit, and in innumerable evil spirits; to the former they conceived their worship was due, and to Him they offered their prayers and thanksgivings ; the latter they considered prowled about, and haunted every spot to them they attributed whatever sickness or misfortune befell, therefore deemed it requisite to propitiate them, which they did by offerings of rice, &c. The first fruits of the season were always offered to the Good Spirit. I may state that the purity of their belief was, at a period antecedent to our arrival, somewhat perverted by the introduction from Tibet of the Buddhist religion; it had and still has, how- ever, but little hold on them."

Having no written, or authentic traditional records regarding their mio-ratiou into this country, I have not yet been able to discover the exact period at which they first arrived. That they are in no way allied to any of the aboriginals of this country, is certain, nor can I find that they have any relationship with any of the immigrant races. They are called Mon by the Tibetans, which circumstance and a resemblance in physical conformation, might lead to the inference that consan^-uini- ty would be found to exist between them and the Mon race, the early settlers in Pegu,* but as far as I can judge from a comparison of their languages, the races are

In the Asiatic Society's Journal, Major General Sir A. Pliavre, K. C. S. I., C. B., writino- on the ( X ) perfectly distinct. The Lcpchas are naturally fair, latterly the absence of all forest shade, and intermarriage with the Yakthumbha,* also, lately, with the Gurkha races, have tended in a great measure, to alter tlie features and complexions of many families. The earliest veritable information I can acquire of their history, commences from the time of their King Turve (|\^ 75 i/^ Tiir-ve pa-no), who, apparently, reigned about 450 years ago, and about this period, they, probably, entered the country. Midst the extensive forests which covered the entire southern face of the Hima- layahs, and which, in Sikim, from the firs and pines and scant verbage that skirts the eternal snows, to the dense luxuriant tropical vegetation of the vallies, were then totally uninhabited, the homeless Lepchas found what they souglit, a place of refuge. They gave to the country the appellation oi nc hjang {(^ i^()> literally, a place of caves, hence, of retreat, of shelter, (so, Tib. ^^H'^. a place, a residence

Ei«i!V'qi (jnas-^mr, to dwell, to abide) ; and caves, (some of which, in Sikim, are very extensive), may, for a space of time, have been their chief habitations. In this land, they settled down, cultivating the soil in peace and tranquillity. Whatever may have been their previous circumstances, adversities and troubles, they, here, found a haven of rest. After the death of King Turve, three successive Lepchas, t sons of their Royal Fathers, ruled the lan.d. In the meantime the people had prospered and increased. But this halcyon state was not permitted to progress, altogether, undisturbed. On the demise of King Tur-ayek, the throne was usurped by a Tibetan, J from

fact, that, History of Pc'"-u, remarks, witli reference to the connection of the Mon with other tribes, the

' Csoma de Koros, in his Tibetan Dictionary, defines Mon as a general name for the hill people between Tibet and the plains of India.' The Tibetans, at Dorjeling, apply the term to the Lepchas alone, they do not call the Nepalese, or other tribes— j/jj MSn.

* This race, Generally known to Europeans as the Limbii, is a peculiar one. The people are Hindus in

relin-ion but less bigoted than the Gurkhas. Though some of the words in then- language, are allied to Lepclia, the people are darker and very inferior to the Lepchas. Formerly the tono-ues are altogether dissimilar ; and they possessed a written character of their own, which Dr. Campbell, in 1850, informed me, had long died out and that he had, in vain, endeavoured to find traces of it. In 1853, while in the hills, I came across a acquired a knowledge of the caligra- man who possessed some books and could read and write ; from him I the Alphabet. my return from England in ithv. At Dr. Campbell's request, I gave him a copy of On published 1857 I found in an old number of the Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, during my absence, Alphabet, u])side-down and otherwise incorrect. a description aud lithograph of the but the latter rendered IK' tv Tur-ajeng t Their several names were, ^yC^C ^ (/O Tur-sdng ixi-no, ^V^S^ ^ (/^ pa-no, and $\St'^(^ Tur.,ujvk im-no.

t His name and title were, ic[i^'^S[^'\^-^>f^ •pliun-tslwcis rnam-rgijas, (Phun-tslio Nam-gye), and tliose

of his succesj-ors, (in wliat may be tcrMic

i^isyii^'%i;-^\i)liij,fij-nlijr riiuni-ryijus, (Clutk-dur JS,'iim-iji/r) rijiias, (Tcn-sunij Nam-riiji-); ; Q|l'JjY*i*f'S\ ;

( xi )

which period a new era commences. He and his successors, however, married Lep-

chas, and the language and customs of the latter were retained. But other cir- cumstances supervened to detract from the happy state of primitiveuess in which the Lepchas lived. After the Tibetan usurpation of the throne, the Buddhists of Tibet began to enter Sikim, and to found lamaseries therein. In these, as usual, they stocked and reared young neophites, and thence they disseminated their doctrines.

In essaying to proselytize the people, they were not at all scrupulous as to their mode of conversion. They collected and destroyed the manuscript books of

the Lepchas ; and translated into Lepcha parts of tlieir own mythological works, under the name of Tashi-sung, (History of Tashi), thus giving the pure and unsullied name of Tashi,* (which single and invisible God, the Lepchas had hitherto worshipped with all the simplicity and purity of children), to a foul and fabulous incarnation, whose pretended life, they published, and this, (with the indoc- trination of a host of other deities), they preached to the Lepchas as gospeh Jeal- ousy and rancour, also, rose between the rulers and chiefs, which by no means added

Ji^yur-met ntam-rt/i/as,(Gi/ur-met JVam-ffi/e); ii3\'^^'T^i^'^E\^rnam-rgi/aspliun-tsTiogs,(]!i'am-gi/e PMn-tsho)

IJ?^'QF^'*i*f'§*V irten-hdsuii rnam-rggas, (Ten-zun Xam-gye. It was in this king's reign tliat the lama- was built, he afterwards died at Lhasa) sery at Dorjeliug ; Ei^E|'gi;;^'^j^'|ii\; gtskg-phut rnam-ggas, (Tsuk- 8th phtt Xam-gye) ; and the and present ruler, ^^'HC'^'E1^e!

zho). His Majesty, the defender of the realm. Since wi-iting the above I have heai-d of the death of this king. Lately he had been acting with considerable independence — the Lamas were, consequently, much dissatisfied with him.

* His title is ^S^ $^ (0 * jJ" ^^^^i' Tuh-lo Tiling, compounded of ^ ta, a prefixed particle,

here forming a substantive; \^ slii, to see; this is also often, especially since the ingress of Tibetans

pronounced sAe, from ^ she, (^ih. s^^'i^x slies-par), to know; synonymous with, to see; \^y^ slii re, "^ ^ ^ ^ \ the sight, scire to know, to ken, (compare, Goth, kann, Tib. [|aj Lep. /jTj Khyen, to know, also Lep. A, ^ be cunning (whence also, English can, Lep. L^ Tio, to comprehend, to ; ((\ Mm to be able, l^ k6n to

zi-noti, zee, Tib. gzigs-par, (ii-par), zu, see, cause] ; Lith. Dutch Ei^Eiivqi. Lep. ^\ to to perceive, to know

cfcc.) agentive of tuk, to overspread, (compare, by seeing, ; tuh-lo, the ^\ Heb. niO Arab, ci^ a covering, a cupola

a lord, (radically implying, an exalted flow from the First <&c.) ; and i\\o tli'mff, Cause, (see also, lord, in Powers

of Letters), relatively, being a reduced participial form of S Jo tlii, to reach, to arrive at, whence co-relatively

we have Sax. fliineg, the thing emphatically, serving (^^( tek-hun), progressing, from lowest to highest, tho i A,

thane ; the thohf, having its seat in \a^;( thgcik, the head, (hence tligdk, also signifies, to know, {\o^ ^^I'jo,

i ^ to hear, to know, to know by hearing), leading to the (Jo tliok, the highest point; the Jo( thar, the goal,

the l}ij"| working on to the •Jai'aros, or to ^ed?. See Th, in Powers of Letters). Hence, Tashi Tak-lo Thing

signifies, the All-seeing, Omniscient and Omnipresent Lord. a

( xii )

their till, in these to theii' tranquillity ; these fomented, and excited passions, 1825, latter burst forth with violence. The then ruler, Tsuk-phut Nam-gye, suspecting, with reason or otherwise, his chief minister, a Lepcha, by name Ra-thup, of conspiring with the Gurkhas to dethrone him, made a sudden onslaught and slew several of his relatives. The Cliief himself, ^"ith his adherents, succeeded in escaping to Ham,— district on the Ea«teru frontier of Nepal, —where their descendants still form a set- tlement.

All this, however, chiefly effected the Bar-fmg-mo* and the few chiefs about the court ; it made little impression on the mass of the joeople, these still followed their own habits and customs, still lived untrammelled in the vast forests, they j'et the of the had their priests—the bards ; and squabbles of the court, and the teachings Buddhists were of little import. The advent of the Europeans was the first real blow the Lepchas received ; their downfall quickly followed. Dr. Campbell, on obtaining the government, used his influence to induce every foreign tribe, and people, to come and settle in the country to the great detriment of the Lepchas. The Gurkhas, whom the British had such trouble in expelling from the territory, were particularly encouraged ; they, the Murmis,f and innumerable other tribes flocked into the land, they settled whither they willed, they burned down the forests, the country became filled with them. To avoid the odious association of the Gurkhas, who were ever their enemies, and whose habits and customs, with their narrow-minded cold-blooded dispositions, degrading and baneful caste prejudices were totally at variance with the open warm-hearted spirits, and overflowing gener- ous character of the Lepchas, J the latter fled from place to place, cultivation became

neglected, want and misery ensued. Ground-rent, in specie, was also demanded ; how was this to be paid by those, who, until Europeans ax'rived, had never seen mone}^, never known what it was. Their happy and peaceful homes, (homes, which were most hospitably and disinterestedly thrown open to all comers), were lost to them for ever. Broken-hearted, many of the elders died. The j'ounger resorted to the station of

Porjeliug, tlicre, as the state of affairs was, their destruction became a matter of certainty. They arrived artless innocent children, all they saw and heard was new

* The Lepchas observe two chief degrees of rank, (each of wliich has its own gradations), viz., the

(3*1 ^("^ iro-^oHy-wio; and the Xv^ a-den, (the power of letters implying, 'the llowing from on

;' ' High and the created, fashioned, formed'), the aristocracy, and commoners ; the patricians, and plebeians.

t The Mi'irmi, a low tribe inhabiting Eastern Nepal. They have a dialect of their own, and profess a small religion between Buddhism and Hinduism ; they are held in esteem, both by the Buddhists of Tibet and by the Hindus of Nepal ; they bear a di'eadful name of being murderers, they themselves have a sayin",

' before we steal we kill.'

I One of their many amiable traits, and one wliii'h I never found wanting, even in children, was, that they never received anything without shaiing it with a companiuu. ( xiii )

to them, ignorant of the Hindustani language, here introduced, totally inexperienced, unsuspecting, trusting, they at once fell a prey to the designing. Bereft of the few articles they had brought witli them, starvation stared them in the face. To obtain

food they were forced to perform work from which their spirit recoiled ; they were reduced to become bearers of burdens, to take to working on the roads. They were in manners and customs and in true civilization immeasurably superior to any of the surrounding tribes, to the Gurkhas, or to the natives of the plains. The two latter were set over them as task-masters. The Lepchas, the free sons of the forests, the hearty yeoman of the land, the lords of the soil, became the servants of servants, the very slaves of slaves. The lot of those who fell into household employment was no better. Few good natives of the plains at this time ever ventured to Dorjclino-;

it was notorious as a place of refuge for the out-pouring of jails, as a resort of all the most profligate and abandoned. These became the masters and teachers of the Lepchas. With such tuition, is it surprising that the latter should have become learned in all duplicity and every vice ? The women also, naturally exceedingly gentle and

modest, became the victims of the licentious : —the fall of the Lepchas was complete. Other causes were, also, tending to tlie destruction of the Lepcha nationality. The Lepcha language w'hich had, hitherto, been the language of the whole country of Sikim, which all Tibetans, Butias,* or others who entered the country acquired and

* All the Tibetan settlers, south of the Himalayahs from Ladak eastward, are denominated by Europeans,

Bfitias, (derived from the Tibetan word ^"i Sod, the true name of Tibet). They are called by the Tibetans,

^''«[' Lho-pa, southerners or southmen. There is a large settlement of them in the hills east of Sikim, the

country is called by Europeans, Butan. It is named by Lepchas ^S)j Pru, (derived from Qg^'i^ lilnig-pa

a schismatic sect of the Buddhists, to which the Butias belong), and the settlers are designated ^( ^( a-ral. They are physically large and powerfully built, much more so than theii- progenitors the Tibetans, but in mental proportionately degenerated neither the qualities thej- have ; people nor the Government have improved b v time. The first connection the Indian Government had with Butan, was in 1772, when Kiich Behar beinc overrun and devastated by the Butias, the Xazah Deo appealed to the British for protection. Troops consisting only of two companies of Sipahis and two pieces of cannon, under command of a Captain Jones, was despatched. This small force without any difficulty took the chief town of Kiicli Behar then occupied by the Butias, reduced the forts of Baling, Ac., and clearing all before them, drove the Butias into their fastnesses. (This oifers a "rave contrast with the management of later days, as exemplified when troops were sent to enter Sikim in the end of in the expensive Butan campaign of 18G5-66). The Butias 184S, and applied to Tibet for assistance ; the, then,

Tashi Lama forwarded a solicitation for peace, expressed in language so modest and superior, so free from the obsequiousness or bombast peculiar to Oriental despatches, as immediately to attract the attention of Warren favourable to Hastings ; a treaty very Butan was di-awn up and ratified by the Governor-General in Council on the 25th April, 177-4. By the first clause, all the lands, that belonged to the Biitias before their afo-res- sions on Kuch Behar, were restored to them. On the following month Mr. George Bogle was despatched on a friendly mission to the Tashi Lama, (who was at that time, also, Regent of Tibet). He without diiEculty reached Tashi Ihun-po, (^Sl'J'^'V §^'^ h-h-as-shis Ihun-po, corrupted by Em-opeans to Tashoo Loomboo) ( xiv )

spoke, ill which under the rule of Colonel Lloyd, business was carried on, and justice in the English Courts administered, in the character of which, decrees and documents

were written and recorded ; —this language was completely set aside, and Hindustani was made the chief language in Dorjeling. The Tibetans and the Butias of Butan were jDatronized, to them were given the appointments in the administration of the coun-

try, and they were made the advisers and counsellors of the State ; their influx into Sikim increased. This was pla3'ingintot]ie hands of the crafty pi'iests, who already

held the king in their thraldom ; their power and authority augmented. Oppressed

and crushed on all sides, the Lepcha race and language came to be considered unfashionable. Many of the Lepchas intermarried with Butias, and, repudiating theii- own race, denominated themselves Butias.* The Tibetan language became the medium of communication between the Sikim and Dorjeling Governments. Dr. Campbell was, and his successors in the administration of Dorjeling, also, have all been, quite unacquainted with the Tibetan or Lepcha languages. Who then were the secretaries who wrote, and the interpreters who translated the correspondence ? In Sikim communications were written by the authority of the Tibetan conclave that surrounded the king, and in Dorjeling they were translated and answers sent by the

the cumulation of glory. He met with the most cordial reception from the Lama, and resided with him for nearly a year, experiencing unremitting attention and friendliness. Before Mr. Bogle's return, the Tashi Lama was exerting his influence for opening an unrestricted commerce between India and Tibet, He afterwards, and unfortunately before this important project had been secured, died of small-pox at Pikin", where he had gone at the earnest request of the Emperor Kyen Lung to assist in the cele- bration on the occasion of his, (the Emperor's,) birth-day. As being the most enlightened ruler that )jro- ilbang sM-zhogs, the Lord bably Butan or Tibet ever possessed, his title of ^iji;';g'^fii\- of Power, deserves to be recorded. Since his death the country has by no moans im[)roved. Other missions have pro- the ceeded to Bil tan ; Capt. Turner's in 1783, Capt. Pemberton's in 1838, and Hon'ble Ashley Eden's in 1863-Gi,—none receiving the friendly reception accorded to Mr. Bogle, but each encountering increased diffi-

culties. Their reports have been published and may be referred to by those interested in the suljject. The occurrences of the Butan campaign of 1S6.5-G6, &c., must be known to those who review the events of the pass-

in" day^. But all these political acquisitions and military advances have in no ways tended to improve Butan. In 1786 the Miisalman Puringir Giiosain, who was the bearer of the letter from the Tashi Lama to Warren Hastings and wlio afterwards accompanied Capt. Turner in his mission, deposed, that many merchants from Bengal had succeeded in reaching Tashi Lhunpo, and that there was no scarcity of English goods there in the market. Though many Butias are, individually, very amiable, still he would be a rash trader who would now (in 1S74) venture, unprotected, to enter Butan.

is corrupt Tibetan at least according to the pronunciation of The lan^ua^e of Butan a ; the modem Tibetan ton "ue. It has no separate written character, so in reading the Butias pronounce the sanu' word quite

differentlv than when talking; thus, g lya, a bird, would in sjieaking be pronounced, j)y«, but when reading

they give it tlie Tibetan pronunciation of cha. • These arc the people whom Europeans designate as the naturalized Butias of Sikim. ( xy )

official Butias, mere accomplices and creatures of the Sikim Tibetans and usurpers ; or what was worse, bj Lepcha apostates, traitors to their king and country, betray-

ei's of their people, very Judases in spirit, worthy disciples of their Butia and Hindustani teachers.* Such was the sole medium of communication with Sikim. Into the hands of these jieople were submitted for translation all the views, edicts and wishes of the British Government. Even had these interpreters been willing, they were quite incapable of performing the duties required. Possessed of the slightest smattering of Hindustani, from, and into which language they were expected to translate all communications, it was impossible they could translate correctly. Nor if capable, would they have presumed to have forwarded to the Sikim authorities a literal version of any documents offensive to them, directly authoritative, or in which censure was conveyed. At all events the Tibetan documents have been sealed books to the representatives of the British Government at Dorjeling. Under such a system how could it be hoped that administration could be satisfactorily con- ducted.

In 184:9, Dr. Campbell, proceeding into Sikim, (to join Dr. Hooker, who was then making a tour in that country), was seized by the Butias and severely maltreated, nearly losing his life. He attributed this assault to revenge for his having refused to return to the owners, the slavesf who had fled from Sikim to the British territory of Dorjeling. Slaves of whom ?—Of the Biitias who attacked him, of those whose settlement and influence in the country had been promoted

* This mar appear an unnecessary effusion of epithets, but, if sentiments are to be expressed by words, the language wUl not be considered too strong when it is known, that, on expostulating with one of these per- sons, (a Lepcha interpreter of the Court, the only intei-preter of Lepcha, a man who can neither read nor write, selected for this important and responsible employment, by the Superintendent of Dorjeling), for not endea- vom-ing to support and preserve his owa language and people, I was told by him, that his lano-uao-e and people might go to perdition as long as he gamed money. It may be truly said, that the man was ignorant, and his words beneath notice but should not therefore ; he have been placed in the position he was, and in which he is still retained.

of C.'s (and believe t Two Dr. I the sole) remarks condemnatory of tlie Lopehas were, that they slaves, and that did had they not speak the truth. Eegarding the first, the Lepchas, certainly possessed people of their own race employed as ^%^ vyet, slaves or servants, and so have had all people, in all ages. Degree exists amongst all animate beings, inanimate matter finds its level. Our great dramatic poet makes Agamemnon say, ' Take but degree away, remove that string, and hark what discord follows :' we are, also, told in Scripture, that degree finds its order in Heaven. It is not the use, but the abuse of slaves, as exemplified in their treatment by the Romans and in America, &c., that has brought odium on the name. The Lepchas put themselves into voluntary bondage for a period, (as did the Patriarchs,) serving for theii- wives. The friendless, the orphans, the needy and helpless found shelter, food, and comfort in the houses of the more prosperous ; there were no poor in the land. The so-called slaves of the Lepchas were far more ( xvi ) by the encouragement given, and by the })olicy pursued by Dr. Campbell himself? To avenge the outrage committed, troops were sent to Dorjeling, but they never entered Sikim. Government contented itself by confiscating the whole of the Sikim territories south of the Eumam and west of the Rungnyit rivers, and by stopping the annual allowance of Rs. 6,000, which Avas granted to the king, (3,000, in 1841, and an additional 3,000, in 18iG), as a slight compensation for his cession of the territory in 1835.

For years after this, the entrance of travellers into Sikim was closed by the Sikim Government. In I860, Dr. Campbell, having reported to Government, a case of kidnapping, and violence, committed by the Bdtias, recommended part of the territories north of the river Rumam to be taken possession of, until such time as the offenders should be given up by the Sikim Government. With the object of carrying

this into effect. Dr. C. with a detachment of Sebundy Sappers and Miners, and a 61b. gun, crossed the Rumam, The Butias, however, mustered a force and overpower- ing the Sappers, who ran short of ammunition, obliged them to retreat. They followed up their success, burning some police stations in British territory, and even threatened Dorjeling. A force (consisting of a detachment of Royal Artillery

; ; with 3 guns ; wings of H. M. 6th foot 73rd N. I. and 3rd Sikh Infantry ; also de-

tachments of the 1st, Bat. Bengal Police, and of the Sebundy Sappers and Miners),

free than the dependents or the mercenary hirelings of civilized countries ; they were treated in every respect

as one of the family, they and their masters worked, eat, and in all things shared alike, I never kuew or heard of any of these servitors who ever wished to leave their homes. The fate of the slaves of the more imperious Butias (though I never witnessed any maltreatment), may perhaps have been different. But the novelty and vanities of Dorjeling wore the true causes of their flight thither. What protection, however, did such Lepchas, who were supposed to seek refuge in Dorjeling, receive. Being initiated into the use of money, taught to consider it the one thing needful, and finding it the only means of obtaining food, both masters and dependents became slaves to one of the most exacting and oppressive of tyrants. Upon them were heaped

all the artificial wants, all the load of necessities and miseries emanating from a pseudo state of civilization.

They were taken from their calm flow of existence and plimged into a troubled sea of passions, in wliich, before the eyes of heedless spectators, they have been allowed to sink and perish. As to Dr. Campbell's second cause of censure, I can affirm I ever found the Lepchas most honest and truthful. I do not speak for the veracity of those who were taught, and whose characters were moulded, in

Dorjeling, but of the Lepchas in their simple state. I would refer and recommend to the readers of this, Hooker's most interesting journal in Sikim. In it the learned Doctor enters with quite enthusiasm, into the gentle honest character of the Lepchas. Speaking of them, he saj-s, " In disposition they are amiable and

obliging, frank, humorous and polite, without the servility of the Hindoos, and their address is free and un- constrained. Their intercourse with one another and with Europeans is scrupulously honest." *****## " ^ more interesting and attractive companion than the Lcpcha I never lived with." ******* " Ever foremost in the forest or in the bleak mountain, and ever read^' to help to carry, to encamp, to collect, or to cook, they cheer on the traveller by their unostentatious zeal, and are spurs to his progress." &c. General Lloyd and

all who formerly knew the Lepchas ever spoke of them with the highest esteem. The Hon'ble Ashley Eden, who as Envoy accompanied tl)e force, in ISGl, to TauJung, in an able report does justice to the probity and integrity of the Loptha character. — .

( xvii ) was speedily assembled. This force entered Sikim, on the 2nd February, 18G1, and without opposition, (except a slight skirmish on crossing the Rung-nyil, in which, on our side, only one man was killed and two men wounded,) arrived, in March, at Tam-long, the capital of Sikim. All that was demanded was acceded to, a treaty, containing 23 articles, being signed by the king. The causers of all this disturbance,

(the kidnappers,) however were never surrendered ; they had, or were said to have escaped into Prii (Biitan). The British Government has again conferred on the Sikim Ruler an annual and larger allowance, to be enjoyed as long as order is maintained in his dominions. Since then the country has become more tranquil

and, as far as the snows (but no farther), is again thrown open to visitors. Sikim, however, is fast deteriorating. The influx of the Butians has increased, and the

power of the Budhist.s has become firmly established ; the G6rkhas have also com- menced to settle in it, and the grandest and most glorious scenery in the world is becoming completely destroyed.* With the destruction of the forests in Sikim, the charm of the will pass the climate will change, and unless speedy country away, "f"

* Utterly reckless, for tbe sake of a small space of ground for cultivation, they set fire to, and burn

down all the surrounding forests.

t I cannot, here, refrain from quoting a passage from Hue and Gabet's Travels in Tartary, &c.,

as the description so exactly coincides with what Dorjeling was, and with what it is becoming ; though it

is to be hoped it will never be reduced to the exceeding calamitous state I'epresented in the sketch. Keferring to a district in the kingdom of Onniot, Hue says,

" Towards the middle of the 17th century, the Chinese began to penetrate into the district. At that " period it was still one of rude grandeur ; the mountains were covered with fine forests, and the Mongol " tents whitened the valleys, amid rich pasturages. For a very moderate sum the Chinese obtained per- " mission to cultivate the desert, and as cultivation advanced the Mongols were obliged to retreat, conducting " their flocks and herds elsewhere.

" From that time forth the aspect of the country became entirely changed. All the trees were grubbed

" up, the forests disappeared from the hills, the prairies were cleared by means of fire, and the new cultivators

" set busily to work in exhausting the fecundity of the soil. Almost the entire region is now in the hands " of the Chinese, and it is probably to their system of devastation that we must attribute the extreme irregu- " larity of the seasons which now desolate this unhappy land. Droughts are of almost annual occurrence " the sprmg winds setting in dry up the soil, ******. Next after these hurricanes comes the " rain ; but so comes, that instead of being an object of desire, it is an object of dread, for it pours down " in furious raging torrents. * * * * The torrent rushes on and in a few hours the earth reappears ; " but the crops are gone, and worse even than that, the arable soil also has gone with them. * * # * # " The droughts and the inundations together sometimes occasion famines which well-nigh exterminate the

" inhabitants. That of 1832 in the twelfth year of the reign of Tao-Eou6ng, is the most terrible of these " — on record." After relating the apprehensions and forebodings of the people ; he continues, " The fearful

" prognostic that had been so often repeated became accomplished. Thousands died upon the hills, * * * " whole villages were depopulated * * *. It was in this dismal region that we awaited, &c."

No one, who knew Dorjeling as it was, and who can comtemplate it as it is, on reading the above narration, would fail to be most painfully impressed with the similarity in the state of the two countries. ( xviii )

measures be taken to jirevent it, the Lopchas will pine, and in time cease to exist. Much more might be said, but enough has been represented to account for the

deplorable fall of the Lepchas. Of the language I cannot speak too highly. The simple and primitive state in

Not contont with tlio numerous tribes tliat had flocked into the hind and ruined the Lepchas, Govern- ment, at the instance of Dr. C. issued an enactment whereb3', the forest lands of Dorjehng were to be

conferred on all who might apply for them. The terms were most inviting, — five years free, and afterwards

the lands to be retained on nominal rental ;—adventurers of .all sorts, rich and poor cropped up, who with avidity accepted the terms, and seized on the lands. Tea-planting was introduced, the demand for land

gradually increasing, till tea-planting became a passion, a mania, which infected all classes. Wealthy companies were formed, lands exchanged hands at exorbitant prices, the money not flowing into the Govern- ment coffers, but enriching the speculators, who retired with large fortunes. The few forests, spared by the

Gurkhas, &c., speedily disappeared. The efi'ect on the Lepchas was most disastrous. The residents and planters are also beginning to feel the results. In Dorjeling wood, for fuel and domestic purposes, can, now, hardly be obtained, whence are planters to procure it to supply the large consumption necessary to feed their furnaces,

vcetation, especially high trees, will inhale these gases, exhaling, in their room, particularly in the day, life- giving oxygen. In the hills, where the forests are so thick as to be impervious to the penetrating rays of a tropical sun, malarious fevers are unknown. Even Dr. Campbell,—no friend of trees or forests,— in a pub-

lished account of a journey in the hills, says, (I speak from memory, not having seen the article since it

was first published, upwards of 20 years ago,) that he was encamped in the forests where the eflluvia arising from decayed and rank vegetation were so excessive as to be sulfucating, still, though very subject

to fever, he never experienced the slightest attack.

Sikim, after the Nepalese had been driven out, ought to have been restored to it's original and rightful

owners, the Lepchas. Their sway, and natural innocence and purity ought to have been beneficently upjield.

Tlic niagnilict-nt forests of Magnolias, lUiododendruns, and rare and invaluable trees ought to have been ( xix )

wliicli tlie Lepclias lived is admirably shown by it. It has uo primary words (beyond the words for gold and silver) to express money, merchants or merchan-

dise, fairs or markets. Their peaceful and gentle character is evinced by their immerous terms of tenderness and compassion, and by the fact that not one word of abuse exists in their language. Nevertheless the language itself is most copious, abounding in synonyms and possessing words to express every slightest change, every varying shade of meaning, it admits of a flow and power of speech which

is wonderful, and which renders it capable of giving expression to the highest degree of eloquence. The language also attests the astonishing knowledge pos- sessed by—the Lepchas. I shall here again make an extract fi-om the letter before quoted : " Of all the almost inconceivable diversity of trees with which the hills

are covered ; of all the almost incalculable variety of plants and flowers with which

all, the forests are filled ; the Lepchas can tell you the names of they can distinguish at a glance the difference in the species of each genus of plants, which would

require the skill of a practised botanist to perceive ; and this information and nomenclature extends to beasts, to birds, to insects, and to everything around them,

animate and inanimate ; without instruction, they seem to acquire their knowledge by intuition alone. The trees and the flowers, and the birds, and the insects have heretofore been their friends and companions. But now, this simple knowledge, this beautiful language, this once happy people are fast dying out. The Lepchas have left their woods and innocence and have fallen into sin and misery, and is there no one that will help them, no one that will save ?"

It is impossible that a people, with a language so comprehensive ; with manners, though primitive, so superior, as to entitle them to rank high among civilized nations, could be engendered amidst the wilds and fastnesses of the Himalayahs. They retain,- in so marked a degree, all the simple ways and habits of the patriai-chs of old, as to lead to the conclusion, that they must have remained isolated ever since

most carefullj- guarded. For they,—with mountains, compared with whose high altitude the Alps shrink into insignificance, on wliose lofty summits, towering above in everlasting snow, no human foot may ever tread, their dazzling whiteness and unapproachable exaltation, sublimely representing the purity and power of — the Omnipotent, ^aU formed a scene unrivalled in grandeur ; a scene, which a traveller, who had visited all parts of the world, on arriving at Dorjeling and viewing, in rapture exclaimed, in the words of Simeon — of old, ' Now, let me die in peace, for I have seen the Glory of the Lord.' Dorjehng, in truth, was a very garden of Eden, a spot which Grod had blessed vrith transcendent loveliness, and as such ought to have been most religiously preserved from the desecrating hand of man. It was a special spot, where the

care-worn, and those weary with the hollowness and vanities of the world might have turned to, and returned invigorated, ennobled, for the refreshed and true duties of life ; a spot, on beholding which, the haughty and discontented alike, would have comprehended their own littleness and uuworthiness, and would have bowed down in homage to, and adoration of, the Almighty Creator. ( XX ) such customs were in vogue.* The type of their features indicates, that be- fore settling in the Himalayahs, they had probably, resided in Mongolia or Man- churia, and in, or near one of these countries, the body of the people might still be found. t The language is a monosyllabic one, (though not altogether an isolating one, as it possess in a degree—as all languages however primitive do—an aggluti- native structure), and is unquestionably fur anterior to the Hebrew or Sanskrit. It is preeminently an Urspraclie, being probabl)^, and I think, I may, without fear of misrepresentation, state it to be, the oldest language extant. It is a most com- prehensive and beautiful one ; and regarded alone, as a prolific source of the de- rivations and etyma of words, it is invaluable to the philological world. It however recommends itself to us on higher grounds ; it possesses and plainly evinces the principle and motive on which all language is constructed.:!: But, like everything really good in this world, it has been despised and rejected. To allow the Lepcha race, and language to die out would indeed be most barbarous, and inexpressibly sad.

* It may be noted, that the Lepchas, liave legends,— in common with divers other primitive races, (which merit notice, as testifying to the truth of Sacred History),—regarding the flood and the Tower of Babel. The legends were, without doubt, brought with them from beyond the snows, but they have connected the incidents with their present place of residence. —There is a hill, visible from Dorjeling, (^\ i(T^ tun-rong),

which, as the tale hath it, when all the country was under water, arose and supported a ship containing a

like horn, (hence its name, few persons, all other people being drowned. The hill rose up a ^(((^

(i-r6ng, a horn), and afterwards subsided to its present form. It is known to Europeans as the Camel's

'*' ^'^ said, a foolish class of Lepchas— back.—On the top of the lofty i(^N ^(\) (X «""^"'' ''''''

(the /^ i(l^ na-unrj), now extinct, — endeavoured to raise a building high enough to reach the heavens. Kock and blocks of stones, as the ruins, are shown on the place. t The primitive Lepcha, probably, more comprehensive than we even at present fiiul it, was in all likeli-

hood, at an early period, the one, sole spoken language ; and though both the people and language have long races and tongues yet as have found in the Sikim territory, one since been converted into different ; we part

of the race still intact, it is reasonable to suppose we may elsewhere discover another portion. The Altaic and Tun

iield of inquiry. There is in the Himalayahs, near Ladak, a tribe denominated Lapchas. Some years ago, when travelling through the latter country, I passed near the district in which they are settled. I had not time however, to change my course, and I have not yet been able to obtain any information regarding the people or their language, to enable me to make a comparison between them and the Lepchas of Dorjeling. t In the structure of the Lepcha language, I have discovered the system on which, I consider, all language (combined with a diagram showing the rudiniental is based. By an exegesis which I have, in part, prepared, powers of letters), the roots and true significations of all words in all languages, are, at once, rendered apparent. Kefcrence to this subject has several times been made in these pages, under the title of ' Powers of

Letters.' I have not been able to complete the system, (as I wished) to accompany this Grammar, but

(as I remark with regard to the Dictionary), should circumstances permit, it shall follow. ( xxi )

By the favour of the British Government in India, the writer has been enabled to present to the public a short Grammar of this language, (Should his health and circumstances permit, a Dictionary will follow.) The Grammar itself is simply written to assist the learner; it does not challenge the strictures of the critic* its mission is alone, to be useful, and should it conduce to the employment of a languao-e and the amelioration of a people, both of which have been too long neglected, its object will be fully gained.

Calcutta, 1875.

,

INDEX.

Page Preface and Introductory Remarks, V—xxi

Summary of the Alphabet, , , ^ 1

The Cousonants, .' 2

Vowels, 3

Finals, 3 ^ Sign Kya, , 4 Kra 5

Ran, , /i.

Letters, Powers of the , . 6 11 Syllabic Scheme—Monosyllables, 12—18 Dissyllables, IS 21

Trisyllables 21

Summary of the Parts of Speech, , 22 Of the Articles, 23

Nouns : 24 Gender, 24—27

Numbers, , 27—28

Declension of Nouns, , 28—30 Adjectives, 30—32

Degrees of Comparison, r, 32—33 Pronouns—Personal, 33—35 Possessive, 3d—36

Pveciprocal, = 36—38

Possessive, &c., . . . . Emphatic > 39—42 Interrogative, Relative and , 42—43 Demonstrative, 43 Adjectives, and Adverbial, Pronominal , 44

Distributive, Indefinite aud Compound, ,-^_ —

( xxiv )

Page

Of Verbs—Remarks on Tenses, 44—51

Verbal Particles, 51—52

Substantive Verbs, 52—53

Conjugation, 53—G5

Parts of Speech

Of Adverbs, 6fi-78

Postpositions, 78—85

Conjunctions, 85—89 89—90 Interjections, ^

Verbal Affixes and diverse Formatives, 91—95

Abstract Nouns, &c., 95—97

The Agentive, &o., 97—102

Nouns of Magnitude, Diminutiveness, &c., 102—105

Comparative Similitude, &o. 105—106

Negation, verbal formatives, 106—107

Negative Agentive, &c., 107—108

Adverbs of Negation, i , 108— 110

Negative (Tibetan), , 110

Negative Imperative, ,., j ib.

Inflection, 110—114

Numeration, Cardinal Numbers, 115—117

The Ordinals, 117—118

Multiplicative, Collective terms, ib.

Syntax, 119-130 130 Figurative Language, ,. —132

Honorific Language, 133—136

Expletives 1 36—1 37

The call to Animals ; and Infantine Language, 138

Prosody, 138-139

Division of Time, 140—141

Colloquial Sentences 141—146 ERRATA.

Page X, line 9, from top, for verbage read herbage.

,, svi, ,, 2, from bottom, for Tamlung, read Tamldng,

o i

,, 6, ,, 14, from top, for -^ read •^.

-^ read "^ read „ 8, „ 14, „ for ; for (^ (^,

„ 8, ,, 7, from bottom, for •^( read -^(.

\i^ read ,, 9, ,, 2, from top, for t>^.

„ „ „ 14, „ for X read X-

read )". V n )> 16, „ for y

„ ,, ,, 3, from bottom, for fowl, read cow.

„ „ 2, „ for read if^ „ fJ 5^ J^-

h dra h dra, read „ 11, ,, 3, from top, for hdra hdra.

11, for ready „ „ „ „ T i(T (^(f-.

,, 16, ,, 14, ,, for krah read krak.

23, 9, for read shu read shu. ,, ,, ,, ^j ^\ ; for

,, 24, ,, 2, from bottom, for S\f read S^^f (^\,

„ 29, „ 12, from top, for /^N read /JN.

2, from bottom, read ,, 29, ,, for ^(^ ^(^ (^.

„ 35, „ 18, from top, for \f\^i} read \f\^l\ ,

( xxvi )

Page 38, line 13, from top, ^ is upside down.

Ic. read Ic, let. 41, 1, ,, for Let

2, from bottom, for *Cji read <*^j.

50, 0, from top, for 5^ h//c{ read 5^ n?/at.

for 5>1 ^'^ei read n>jat (twice). 50, 7, ,, ^ ; A,

52, 8, from bottom, for (^ read (^.

57, 8, from top, for ^ read (^.

63, 8, from bottom, for f^ read {^. A.

64, 4, „ for C)o read ()o.

74, 8, from top, for (g (\> read ^. <$J ^^^ read 75, 9, from bottom, for i(^ y <(§V V".

70, 3, from top, for S^ read \'^.

/» ^ '« /or reaJ for ra«/ 78, 4, „ ^( /O ^( /^ ; ^/^ ^( /O- A, ^ *» ^

78, 3, from bottom, /or tense read sense.

81, 5, from top, erase ^ over X( (5^.

G, erase '^ over hun. 84, ,

84, 5, from bottom, for m t, read mat.

95, 14, from top, for \^ ^( read m\) ^(; /o/' U muf, read Un imit. /*- /*" /or read man (twice). 99, 5, ,, man ;

100, 3, from bottom, for (^ read (^.

100, 7, from tojj, /or if c/te/i read -S^i c/^a??, //r "^^ read %i\,

chho/o 7'ead c/iho. 106, 11, ,, for ^^ ^'^,

106, 5, from bottom, /or ui read in. ;

( xxvii )

Page 109, line 14, from top, for ^ read '^.

,, 111, ,, 14, ,, yor Noun. rmJ Noun, &c.

„ 114, „ 6, „ for "^ read (^.

„ 120, „ 8, from bottom, for (^(^ t.)^ (^ read (^( (.)^,

,, 128, ,, 4, ,, for \f\-^^^^\)cf ^ hu kd satkizak, read

''^" \f\ *^( J^( "^C [C**'j)^ -(f] '''^fl ''^^a^w 7ndt{sa-thi sak).

)) 129, ,, 7, ,, yor sueceeded rmt/ succeeded.

„ 133, „ 2, from top, /or ^ ((^ rraJ ^ ((^.

,, 140, ,, 13, ,, /or a week, rc«ti? a week,).

*,* There are other minor typographical errors, which I have not considereil it necessary to insert in the errata as, page 7, lines 8, 22, a should be affixed to Oh, Chh, 7, and Tsh; page 119, last line, a comma should be after Sakon. WTiile the pages were passing through the Press, many errors occurred, a number of which were, throuch imavoidable circumstances, overlooked.

:

A GRAMMAR OF THE RONG (LEPCHA) LANGUAGE.

PART I.

THE ALPHABET, -^idf f E:AKnO RE.

The Rdng (Lepcha) Alphabet may be divided into two parts, vis., Letters and Diacritical Marks, which latter include vowel, final, and other affixed signs.

These may be comprised, as follows

Consonants, 35

Vowels, 8

Finals, 9

Kya and Kra, (affixed y and ;•) 2

Ran (Circumflex sign), 1

Total, 5,5

The Consonants S((^ ^''«^j literally mother, chief, or large (letters), with their equivalents in Roman characters, are thus written.

1 ( 2 )

IsI.—TllE CONSONANTS. : —

( 3 )

DIACRITICAL MARKS,

called in Lepcha }c»( S^ tlidmif/n, (imj^lying the vowel and final siffiis, ^'c.J.

o » */* i •» X(*^J C^ )°i j(V -^"^ CS) ^^'^P ^^ thdmhuin kahjak gum,

the Vowel Signs are seven in number, vis. —

( 5 ( r 3 3 -

These are united to ^ a, the basis of all the vowels, as follows

2»f7.—THE EIGHT VOWELS.

* ^ii\ '^'^\ (<) f "'%^ J^ahi (8) re. A xt A I 6 U U E sc S^ cs rs S3 s3 5

The vowel signs are similarly affixed to all the consonants.

3r^.—THE NINE FINALS. .

<* (0 <> J^CSOiJ -^ (-£v ((^) r Telho sa thdmhjn hahjot (9) re,

the Final Signs are nine in number, and are thus formed,

* This name lit. child or small (letters), was formerly applied by the Lepchas exclusively X(*^\ "^"-'"i'l to the Finals.

t This short a is inherent after all the consonants. The sound is effected by a sinij)le (unaspirated) ejaculation of the breath. ( 4 )

Uniting these —

( 5 )

)-€jKra

Is affixed to eight letters thus Ngra Pra ^ Kra C^ Gra ^j ;?•) Bra Mra Hra ^ Fra 0| ^ \fj

And both are thus conjomed :

Frya l^rya Mrya Hrya ^ Ofi -^ tjj,

With these signs, single or conjoined, the vowel and final signs are united.

5tL—0F TPIE SIGN (i^( 55^ thmihjin).

f- RAN.

'*' There is a sort of circumflex sign, inscribed thus called y lian, (pronounced hard as if written di-an*). This sign is supposed to be confined to the sole use of the two vowels ^ a and jX h ^'^^ I have seen it written in books (though this is far from being any criterion of correctness) over the '^{ d, and when necessary,

it ought to be so applied ; it would be useful in distinguishing the correct pronuncia- * tion, as for instance, in the words ^^( sdm, three, and {^( sdm, to be sullen, ^ I*— (which latter might be written {^( swn). It is evidently the vowel sign ( inverted over the vowel. Over j^ it gives a prolonged sound as may be perceived in the

diff"erence between the words SCj)"" ''*'"'*^' ^ creeper (plant), and^)~' rih^ to curse.

Over the S *> whether written or inherent, it induces also a guttural sound as ah, yes ««, to long for, to yearn after, -^ man, meat, ^A gram, to ^ ; 2^ hasten, &c. In expressing it over the Roman character, I have adhered to its original form.

* See imcler head of Ascititious Powers, page 10. ( 6 )

Before proceeding further, it may be necessary to give the powers of the letters. I shall commence with ^ «, as being inherent after all the consonants, for the comprehension of the pronunciation of these latter, it is requisite that the powers of this vowel should be understood.

POWERS OF THE LETTERS. X ^

Is the basis of the vowels, and is inherent after all the consonants, when the

latter are uncombined with any other vowel. It has the following sounds : /o A 1. Of e in hen ; as, ^ /a??, to be had, ^ Jal, to have correct pronunciation,

foeman, &c. 0V fl/'^^^h ^

2. OfM in rut; as, 2^ al, new, fresh, -^ mai, to blow (as lire), ^ mal, to dibble, &c.

* 3. When succeeded by the final k, or by <,) the njjimlu, it takes the sound of in mock, or in long ; as, -^ male, a target, (V> lak, to pour, ^(3 taialc, the

('q^lang, upon, a stone, stomach, XC*-)^ (.)(V) ^««y) (.)S ^ <')S ^ ^"^ '^.5'* '^"Z/ "[1^^ bright, dazzling, &c.

When superscribed by J" ran, it acquires a prolonged and guttural sound, see under the head of Ran, page 5.

In Roman characters it may be represented by a.

Pronunciation of the Consonants,

-^ Ka, is the first letter of the aljjhabet, equally with all the consonants when

uncombined with any other vowels, it inherits 2J the sliort a. In

writing the single consonants in Roman characters, I therefore affix

this a. ( 7 )

•^ Ka, is sounded like its English equivalent K ; as S^ ki, cotton.

Kha, the letter, is the as the above aspirated as, khd, (J second same ; (j*(

twenty.

^ Ga, is the English hard Gr ; as, (^ go, I.

*^ Nga, a naso-guttural is sounded like the nge in singer ; as, ^-(^ nga la,

truly, evidently.

•Q Ch, is sounded as ch in chair ; thus, -^ die, to value, to have regard for.

; chh'), book. ^ Chh, is the same as the above aspirated as, (:2C a

^ Ja, is pronounced like the French/; thus, ^Sju, a thorn.

5^ Nya, is a palatal ny, and is sounded as nea in near ; thus, ("^C ngo, to be ominous.

^ Ta, is like the English T; thus, S<$ ti, to be great.

Jo Tha, is an aspirated donto-palatal th ; thus, Sjo tlii, to arrive.

^ Da, is the same as the English D ; thus, y^\ da, to be white.

/3 Na, is like the English N; thus, /^ nc, a cave.

Sp$ ^ Pa, like the English P ; thus, pi, to write.

PJ" Pha, a labial ph ; thus, \^ 2^hi, to be late.

^ Fa, like the English F ; thus, ^( fa, to swim.

(3 Ba, like the English B ; thus, j() bi, vegetable.

^ Ma, like the English M ; thus, j^ mi, fire.

Q Tsa, is a palatal ts ; thus, Q\ tsun, to bray, to pound.

(y^ Tsh, the above aspirated ; thus, ((^ tsho, colour.

^ Za, as 2 in zenith ;* thus, ^ se, gunpowder.

as Tj in year ; thus, f, Ya, 5( yd, to perish, to become extinct. y Ra, is like the English R ;* thus, ^\ ru, a cane.

* See under Lead of Ascititious Powers, page 10. ( 8 )

thus, li, a house. (V) La, like the English L; ^^

hd, \f Ha, like the Englisli H ; thus, \f{ wax.

vibrate. ^ Va, as the English V ; thus, ^( vd, to

clear, fair. ^t/^ Sa, like the English S ; thus, (^^ sd, to be

^ Sha, same as the above aspirated; thus, j^ shi, to see.

(JS" Wa, should be pronounced -with the full rounded sound of the English "\V ;*

thus, ^"S" wa, to be fit for, to be worthy of; as, (^^(J^ ivumo, a fox.

5" Kla, is a palatal kl, sounded as cl iu clcai' ; thus, ^ Ida, to cut through, or

divide with one stroke.

^ Gla, as gl in glow ; thus, \{^ (\) (jll la, distinctly.

C Pla, labial pi as in plan ; thus, d pla, to issue out of.

dento-labial fl as in flat; ^ Fla, a thus, M^ _///, to divide, to separate.

^) Bla, a labial bl as in bland ; thus, ^)\ hlu, a ridge.

-^ Mia, a labial ml ; as, (-^ mh, an article.

Hla, a palatal hi ; as, a high mountain. X (X ^'-^'^i

Pronunciation of the Vowels.

^ A, as already explained in page 6.

the long sound of a in far ; as, kdn, to be excited, Odn, a 3J( A', has •^( (3(

knife, jidr, to buy. It bears also a short pronunciation, like the o ^ (

in among, as, <^( j'diir/ to be close (as basket work, &c.) (Sec remark

with reference to this, under J^ ran, page 0.)

^2? I, is pronounced as the Latin or Italian /. It has both a long and short

accent, when bearing the former sound, it is distinguished b}' being sur-

* It is not pronoimcecl so generally \ij the Lcpcbas, but slioiikl bo taught so. :;

( 9 )

mounted by y ran, thus, S(\) U, to speak, S(\) (0 Un ho, a speaker,

^% dinr/, to stand, j)^ r;Y, to distribute, jO ^*'^"> ^ <^°'"^> jO ^"^') ^^ •''plit or burst ojien, j^ mit, a female, &c.

'^'^^ *^® sound of o in no, as dmo, mother, '''^''^) father, (S ^ : ^((^ ^((0

iC^ go, I, &c.

The Lepchas are apt to pronounce this letter as u, and hence when writing,

to confound it with 2^_S I'l, this error should be avoided, and corrected in the

Lepchas.

(^ O', is the broad o, as, in nor, for, thus, (^ mor, butter.

X^ U, is a short close u pronounced somewhat like the French eu in lieu, jeu,

thus, zu, to be striped (^N lu, ^\ ; a load.

U', is long 'Sfj a broad u, as u in rule or oo in moon, thus : y'\ ru, to be old

^j du, to dig; f^\ num, a debt.

is pronounced as the Latin c or the English short X E a in day, may ; thus ^ pe, a pattern. It likewise takes the sound of the e in the French word

as, jer, mere ; ^ gold, also as e in ten, thus, (\>, Icii, than, Y' rcn, since.

Prominciatlon of the Finals.

The Finals with their pronunciations, are given in note 3, page 4. They bear the sound of the English letter as written opposite each Final, under the head of

Powers. They have not the inherent a attached, and can only be used at the

syllable, thus Ilk, end of a word or : ^(3 a fowl, {^\ num, oil, ^\ (/^ hiknol, a snail,

kolpot, a walnut, ()" rop, to adhere nmrjnijit, of ir^Ci ; T' y^ name a river in

Sikim (improperly pronounced by Europeans Eungeet).

3 —:

( 10 )

The last two Finals hanrj and ivjimV) may bo considered as one letter or sign.

or The i-^ hawj is never affixed to a consonant, unless accomijanied by some vowel other sign, as by the llan or by the curval sir/n in the wjindo, which sign appears to be merely a vehicle for the i, <«^ kang.

The word ^"^^ nijindo is derived from q"q, ivji toa, the sun and |"q sla iva the moon, from some fancied resemblance in form thereto.

consonant signs kya and kra The pronunciations of the affixed \), -^ ) ^ have been shown under note 4, pages 4 and 5. Like the regular consonants they possess the inherent short a affixed. A few letters, however, sometimes Ijear

Ascitltious Poivcrs.

Thus :— ERA, RA and ZA ^ KRA, \^ y 4

Assume occasionally the following pronunciations : ^ Kra, takes sometimes the sound as of a hard rolling tr, thus, ^3 ^"''"j ^ ship, pronounced as if written tru. ^ Era, sometimes is sounded like an aspirated tr, thus,

S^ hri, a couch, pronounced as if written thri.

y" Ra, this consonant takes sometimes the sound of dr, thus,

T^((^ ?y/h to pronounced as if written dniii dri).

4 Za, in a few instances takes the sound of dz, or the pronunciation of what the

Italians call their soft z, as in the words mezzo, zanzara, (S,c., thus, the word

is pronounced as if spelt dzdm hu ling. •tf (0 V )^

But in no pure Lcpcha word do these letters take these pronunciations : it is

only in words derived from the Tibetan or some foreign som-ce, that they ai-e so

sounded, thus, for instance, in the examples just given ( '1 )

»^y Kn'i, corresponds to the Tibetan % (/rii, a ship.

S^ Jl/i, to R Mri, a couch.

T^i(y^ Run ro, accords ^vith Q5'Q5 h dra b dra, equal.

^""'' is as the Tibetan Qlwij-f c; h dsam lu (jUng, -(f(()3<5(V ^" ^'"ff) tl^^ same word corresponding to the Sanscrit w^ X\^ the central division of the earth.

I have introduced a sign (which the Lepchas, who have been taught it, have at once adopted) to render the letters when bearing these pronunciations easily distinguishable. A dot under tlie letter effects this, thus ^ Era ^ Eva y^ Ra 4 Za so the examples given, would be written

Lepchas sometimes give these pronunciations to words that ought not to possess them, the following of this error ought to be guarded against.

(^ Gr. might have been advantageously introduced to represent g (/r, (hard pound) in words derived from the Tibetan, which are now spelt with ^ Kr, or y R,

indefinitely. Not being, however, adopted by the Lepchas, I have not

brought it into use. ( 12 )

PART II.

SYLLABIC SCHEME.

The following is a synopsis of the Letters, Vowels, and Finals combined, arranged in Aljihabetical order, forming syllables, and comprehending all the forms that words in the Lcpcha Language can take.

( 15 )

^y'^ ayok ay6m ayol aycjn avop ayor ayot ay<5ng

c^ (s^ i%f (hf i%f i%f i%f (Su i(s^

ayu ayuk ayum ayul ayun ayup ayur ayut ayung

^3 ^3 ^3 ^) ^3 ^3 2^5 ^)

su3 2^3 su3 i^3 ^3 sS3 ^^3 si^3 *s»^3 aye a}'ek ayem ayel ayen ayep ayer ayet ayeug

^ ^ A, A, A, A, ^, /»"a.

4. — \) -^ K^i/a affixed to the Consonants, toith Votvels and Finals combined. kya kyak kyam kyal kyau kyap kyar kj^at kyang

i

-- -^- -— j<^ ,»-- ^w- /^^ ^^^ kya kyan kyap kyar kyat kyaug % "^ ^ itr ^' -61 i£i^ -^v w *£v <-€ii kyaa kyap kyar kyat kyang

-io^ -ifi -&[ -ivi i-^fi

kyin kyip kyir kyit kying

5ig; S-^ S^ S-^ ^S-^^

/»^ /*^ /*— /*^ /«^ kyiu kyip kyir kjit kying

S-I^ S-S' S<^ S-S' 6-S

kyon k}-op kyor kyot kj-ong

(,-& iiv i^ i-iv ii-^

kyoii kyup ky(ii' kvot kj'ung

(In i

kro krok kr(jm krol kr6n krop ki-or krut krdno-

(i) 4 4 4 (^ (^ (^ (?^ i(^ kru kruk krum krul krun krup knir krut kruno-

•^3 *^3 -^3 *^3 -^3 -^3 -^3 -^3 *-^3 kriik kru krum krul kriin krup krur krut ki-uuo-

«3 •£53 -i)}) &} ^3 -63 &} -^3 '-^,3

kre krek krem krel kreu krep kror kret kreng

And so on with the remaining seven letters (see page 5).

6. Jcya and leva united^ and comhincd u'ith Consonants, — \) •^ ) ^ Voivds and Finals.

krya kryak kryam kryal kryan kryap kryar kryat kryano-

krya kryak kryam kryal kryan kryap kryar kryat kryang

?|j -Iji . -if) -iji -^ -e^ -i^ -^ i-i^

krya kryak kryam kryal kryan kryap kryar kryat kryang

•^( ^( -^i -epi -^i -^i -e^i -e^i i^(^

kryi kryik kryim kryil kryin kryip kryii- kryit kryino-

S-^ S-^ S-^ S-e^ S-^ S"^ 5^ 5^ *5^ /^— /*— /»^ /"»- Z^-- z*-- /»— ^^_. ^^_ kryi kryik kryim kryil kryin kryip kryir kryit kryino-

S-e^ S^ S^ S-^ 5^ S^ 5*^ S-^ 6-^ kryo kryok kryom kryol kryon kryop kryor kryot kryong

(-^ i-i)} i-e^i c-^ ("^ i-e)) i-e^ (-^ i(^ ( 18 )

kryd kiyok kry(jm kiyol kryoa kryup krytjr kryot kry(jng

(^ i^ (^ (^ i% (i^ i^ (?yj «r^

kryu kiyuk kryum krj'ul kryun kryup kryur kryut kryung

^) 4o -^3 ^3 ^3 43 43 43 '^3 kryu kryuk kry6m kryiil kryuu kry(jp kryur kryiit kryung

-^3 -43 -^3 -43 -^3 -43 -4^3 -^3 ^-€^3

kryc kryek krycm kryel krycn kryep krycr kryct krycng

In like manner are the remaining seven letters written.*

In this sckeme may be seen every form that words of one syllable can take.

If each letter be carried out, with the vowels and finals affixed, it will give 7,290 monosyllabic words.

The Lcpcha Language is essentially a monosyllabic language, for though it has words of more than one syllable, these are words which are formed by compounds

of two different words ; or by the same word reduplicated, or connected by an

eponthesis ; or by certain prefixed syllables common to many words, as, ^\ tuk,

»^\ funr/, ^>\ Mc, ^\/'w», &c., which may be abscindable or inabscinduble ; com-

or immutable according to the nature of the word. By the addition of niutable ; these particles, the sense of tlic word may be completely altered, or may remain

slightly modified, or may be trausnmted from verb to unchanged ; may be substan-

tive or to adjective ; but tlie word itself retains the radical form of its syllable as laid down in this scheme.

* The Lepchas when writing, used generally to afTix the ^ I'l'f to the ^ /.i/n as a more speedy modo of writing, and so it will ho found in their manuscripts, thus—•^•o fi^i' -^O krya.

H — — ) —

( 19 )

The foTlov)ing are examples of, DISSYLLABLES.

7. Compounded of two words. i(^ i(c ^"""//Z^'^"5') indcpeudence, (from %^ skanr/, the foot ; and 'Jfc; yang, light, light-

footed, free).

IdJc-chho, a tool, an instrument, (from 01^1 lag the hand a& chha article). (y>( (3C ; and an i .... phak-zu, a brush, (from sT'^l p/i«_5', a hog, a and zed, a bristle). P( -{f^ i)ig ; ^^

wytf«-5/ic, "^3)'^ ; Z' ^ fore-knowledge, (from sngonfa, before former w\.^s\H'^i^shcs'par,

to know).

^U'( 5^ sak-daJc, to be sorry, to be grieved, (fi-om ^^( sa/:, the mind, or its state,

[in compos] ; and 2^ dak, to be in j^ain).

lam-hlgok, a butterfly, (from )o( thani, a thing and 5/yo/t, to ^( (C^V ; ((^)^ be unsubstan-

tial, incorjDoreal), &c.

8. Formed hj rediqjlication, or connected hg an epcnthesis.

5^\ ^\ dun dun. \ ^ drizzling (rain). ^ ^ [ ^i\ {^ 5^\ /^ dun-na dun-na

"s^X y' *^i\ y diir-ra dur-ra, full flowing, flaunting (robes). o hrgap-pa hrgoppa, loose, ricketty. \fp{ 75 i\fp ^

i i lak-ka lok-ka, unstable, fickle, versatile. (V^( -^ ((V) "^

jin-na jin-na, twinkling (as star), &c. 5^ /t) 5^ f*)

9. Formed hg prefixed Particles or Sgllahles common to mang tvords, Abscindable.

^(•^ a-ka or -^ ka, the hand. X( <^( a-dgang or «:^( aV/wwy, the leg.

"-> '^ too*^- " (^/^' sa-tsuk fez

a-thgak Jci;( %a/r, the head ^"'Sw X( XV( ,, ^ r^ ,j (^ «(', yesterday. ——

( 20 )

10. Inahscindahle.

^ ^3 ^"'j''-^ ^ ^<^§'- •^ ^( ka-td, single, alone. A/ < •^N 4%j kum-cliin(/, another. ^\ Jo( kur-thak, a king's minister.

^"--^^o-p, recess. h(-vo, the moon. ^ if( a (V) (d < fetid. ^>\ 4^^ lulc-mjcng, -^ ^)^ ma-ri, dirt.

-^ \ ^j mun-ju, awkward. <"5^ •fv munrf-Jci/ck, forked Hghtninf

/t) dC "f''-2'

^S^P'(-^if, a flute. ^( -^\ pa-Jcu, a reticule.

pur-aijam, a mole. ^\ ^( T^'^J ^'((-^'^'''} ^ store.

t^\ i^3 ''ntinri-yi'ing, a pea-fowl.

riik-ivjam, prevarication. ^\ ^( C*** (63 sa-gor, a cliff.

^llv ^^ sa-fhjar, a thunderbolt. C**' *(7») sa-n6ng, snow.

sa-hor, a star. C**' (if C**'\ ^3V sum-pyar, tail of fish. suk-vyar, mud. C**'\ 0^ ^ *(Vi>( ta-lydng, the sky.

i^^N (Xi' sung-hhjo, a spear. <$^ **^J tung-kiing, a rainbow. ^\ (^ htJc-po, string, cord, &c.

11. Commutahlc.

^\ <((\? kum-lyony, or ^\ i{(^ piim-byony, a cloud.

kniJi-thyony, pun-thymy, a kite (bird). ^\ i(J^ ) ^^ *(^V

i tii'k-mo, -^N kut-mo, theft. $\ ("5 , (^

V^ pun-nyom, {'^ put-7iyo7n, an old man. ^ 5 ^^

sitk-nyi, the day. ' ^^^ J^

(^v su-fyum, V^^" '•^"'"' '^ breeze. SV^ ) ^^ Sv ( 21 )

But of the abscindable and commutable, the instances are comparatively not

numerous. With the exception of the 2^( d particle, few of the prefixes can be

dropped, and not many changed, without altering the sense of the word.

If the order of this scheme be carried out to its full, with the syllables prefixed to each word, it will give the large number of 53,144,100 words, dissyllables alone, all of which, (though they do not really exist), may be expressed in the Lepcha language.

12.—TRISYLLABLES.

With the exce^jtions of the words to which the adjective and adverbial particles

((3 ho, and ^ la, are affixed, there are only three or four Trisyllabic words in the

Lepcha language ; the following are examples,

/«)^ 5^ ^^ num-shim-nyo, a man, human being. i/^\ ^^ (/^ nung-hjen-no, the guardian spirit of males.

^ ^)o S^ ka-thang-fi, the guardian spli-lt of females.

The first, /^\ j^ (^ num-shim-nyo, is compounded of {^\ num, one of the prefix- ed particles (here abscindable), common to many words, (the letters implying, a creat-

ed thing) ; of S^ shim, a being, (from S^ shi, to be); and (^C ni/o, a female, (literally

proceeding from). The derivation of the latter words are more complex ; the former of the two implies, the leader to

13.—POLYSYLLABLES.

There are none. ( 22 )

PART III.

THE PARTS OF SPEECH.

Formative.—Etymology.

Equally with the Occidental languages, the Lepcha language may be divided into

Article, ^^) ^ Uang-jak.

Noun, X( <-)W "'-^^««i/- Adjective, ^^J CS^ji^an(/-(/?/u.

Pronoun, (,)^) (y) hlanr/-lam.

Verb, 'Si{<^^ ii-shop.

Adverb, i€ Cd^J shop-ffi/ii.

Preposition, \

or \ ^^ iifif l>Ian(ji-h>/op.

Postposition, )

Conjunction, i'^f^ (^^ riiif/shok.

Interjection, A^ ^ (^ '"% ^''-^''•

also

Verbal particles, (^ (^ slwp-hyoi)*

Of which we will severally treat.

* Grammatical or Scientific terms do not form part of a primitive langiinge : they are the ofi'spring

of cultivation. I introduce the above, as appropriate equivalents of flio English words ; I do not in tliis work carry out this noological system, but I may hereafter compose a Grammar in Lepcha, (i'ur the benefit of the Lopchas), in which all Grammatical terms will be inserted. ( 23 )

1st. — 0/ the Articles.

The English Indefinite Article, *' «," or " cot," is not ordinarily made use of in the Lepcha, but when it is employed, it is expressed by, •^( kdt, one, as, ^<(V^ -^i fa-lyeng kdtj a young man, (^^(J^ •^( i(^ •^( ^\ ivo-mo kdt vmg kd muk, a fox crept into a thicket.

" The Definite Article the,'''' is rejiresented by, y re, as, ^(/^ V pa-no re, the king, (;2^ J^ chho re, the book.

y re, bears also an inflected form, and then becomes, y rem, as, ^\ ^(/3 y ^j hu pa-no rem shu, he petitioned the king.

Another form, but less definite than, y re, for expressing the Article, " the," is denoted by 1^\ as, •^(^'^^ S(V^ ma-ro mu li, the person said. But it is seldom if ever, unless preceded by a stated number, aflixed to the governing noun, thus, -^i -^N •^( •^( \^ kdt mu kdt kd li, the one said to the other,

^iy

It is, however, in its oblique form, and in its office of showing distinction between the governing and governed nouns, that -^N mu, is more particularly serviceable. It then changes to -^V and in this form may directly follow the noun, and may be used definitely or indefinitely, thus, «^( ^\ -^{, -^N S^ kdt mu kdt mum li, the one said to the other, \f\ i^'\ i(^ -^W^ ''"' tung-hong mum klo, '"^ '^^ •> '* /* he fell into the hole, (^ ^ y $^ ^\ :!|^ ^^ i^ lo sa-re Ta-she mum den ri sho, ^ ^ »/ A whosoever shall believe in Tashe. ( 24 )

2nd. — Of Nouns.

Substantive nouns are expressed by simple words representing the thing, thus, fat, earth siik-dum, the earth, world ^i^{, ta-ljdng, the ^ ; ^\ ^\ ; heavens, &c. Abstract and other formative nouns, will be hereafter discussed.

Srd.— Of Gender.

Gender is confined to Kving beings, male and female, and words are uninflected by either masculine or feminine. There is no expressed Neuter. Hence, strictly speaking, nouns are, in the Lepcha language, without gender.

The terms to express the gender of human beings, are different fi'om those used to indicate the gender of inferior animals.

The male of human beings is distinguished by ^j{j^ ta-gri ; the female is denoted by <$22^N ta-ayu.

These follow the rule of adjectives, and succeed the substantive, thus, -^(^

person, '"^"''" ^ ™ale person, '»«->''' ma-ro, a -^(f^ ^5^ ^'^'''P'h -^(T' ^&\

ta-ayu, a female person.

They may also be used substantively, as, ^\ ^J^ ^3 ^"' ^''"^''^ ^"'"' ^^^

is female, *' is a male, ^A ^^\ (S) ^tu ta-ayu gum, she a ^J^"^ *^3 ^""^' ^""^^' o but they are of course still a little male, ^SU^•^^ ta-ayu Imp, a little female ;

adjectives, substantives in these cases being always understood.

The distinction between sexes of animals, inferior to man, is expressed, the

male by S(0^ «'-^") ^^^ female by X((^ d-m6t. These, likewise, follow the sub-

stantive, and like almost all adjectives, commencing with 2?( d, when affixed

to a noun, may, (and here euphonically do) drop the ^{ a, thus, ^^ Ink, a fowl,

7uot, on, a horse, ''^ » stallion, ^tf //ik III, a cock, S^tfil^ hik a hen; {^ iSO\ ^^h

(3^ (-^ on wot, a mare. ;

( 25 )

terms X(0^ ^-^^ ^I'cl X((^ 0,-niot are sometimes affixed, empliatically, to the

ta-giihu, for the male and female of hvmian beings ; thus, <$ >^ (^N a male (person)

^ S^^ ("^ /ft-ff^w ^Mo;", a female (person). The males of some few animals, as of goats and pigs, are expressed by ^( Q\ d-tsu ; as, ^N /«/(:, a sheep, ^\ luk tsu, a ram num, a pig, (-^ QN moii t-su, ^\ ; (^ a boar; (^ ^( 5« dr, a goat, (^^(ON sa-ar tsu, a male goat.

A term i(^ Ion//, ( Tibetan sjt; ^/a»2^, a bull ), is used to denote the males of

; hik, J//;; lung, bull some large animals as S(3 a cow, ^^ t(^ a ; i(^^ (^ siing-vo, a buffaloe, sung-vo lung, a male buffaloe 4*^^ sa-ving, large deer *'V^ *^^ ; (^

sa-ving lung, (cervus elephas), (^ i^^ <(^ a stag ; <^( (^ tgdng-mo, an elephant,

tyang-mo long, a male elephant sa-luk, a rhinoceros, *<\K (^ *(C0 ; (^ ((\) ^;iv ((\)

*r^ s«-/o/.: long, a male rhinoceros.

The female term in contradistinction both to ^( Q\ a-ifs?<, and <(^ ^oh^^^, is

mil, female, is also affixed to express the gender of sujierior \^ a beings ; thus,

good spirit, a god, rum-nut, a goddess; Y'Srum, a Y'S ^^ E^^V'^JJ'^ <^''^ tung-hkng niit, a water goddess; <^\ i«^^ t$\ (V^( ^^ tung-kung tung-la niit, nymphs and syrens. Like a-nu'd, it is sometimes emphatically added to the ordinary gender term; so, ^ 3^'^ ji^ ta-agu mit, a female, a woman.

There are some words which in themselves express the sex of the person, with-

out the aid of any gender term ; thus—with regard to relationship,

X((0 XC(-^ «-^'^) «'«'') father, mother; ^(/QN d-num, an elder brother;

elder sister, (not so with the younger, S( i(7i o.-num, an here the usual terms would

child, be affixed ; thus, i'S^ dU^'^O^ ^ a younger [brother or sister], i^ ^ V^^ aijcng ta-gri, a younger brother,

""^'"> ^ paternal uncle u-jong, a maternal uncle; d-ngu, S( *^3 ; X( <(^ 2^(?^j an 7 ;

( 26 )

;«3^o/ir, son-in-law )iyo«?, a aunt; d-f>jat, a father-in-law a ; (5^ daughter- ^( ^ ; (^ in-law a-^o«y, a (yonnger) brother-in-law u-n(jl)p, a (younger) ; X(

Likewise, iu connection with age, the sex is rendered manifest ; thus,

man num-Iijenrf, a young woman ("g fa-lUeng, a young ; (/^ ^ i^ ; f^\ 4(\V /•^ ^ ...... ^ mo-nang, an elderly woman (^'^ pa-7i?/6?n, an old man; /^\ mcm-]>rum, an old ; ^ ^^ woman. ^ (

So also with respect to rank j!?a-?zo, a king ; "^y.^^ jnm-di, a queen ; ^ (^ ;

a-////?;^, a lord, master; "'"y") a lady a gentle-woman, &c. S(0^ X( (<^ ;

is apjalied /c»«afc,* rising to maturity; The term XCt^Vl' ^-^lI'^'^'^Oi to any young thus, y^ hiJc, a cow, \(^ i^^ bile hjeng, a young matured cow, that has not borne

3^oung; C^^i^i^ sa-dr Igeng, a young female goat; ^^f i^ hik Igcng, a young hen fo Igeng, a young female bird, &c. ; (^ 4^

d-««' is applied to a young (or until it has had young) female pig thus, ^( S^ ;

(^ \^ mm mi, a sow, (that has not had young).

X( C^j ^0^'' is * word implying maturity in female beasts, (having borne

young) ; thus, hik gu, a matured cow mm gu, a matured sow j^ (^^ ; (^ (^j

^\ (0 ^3 sung-vo gu, a matured female buffaloe, &c..

* only females the word 2( *C^ o.-hjeng^ is applicable to ; g- 4^k1 fa-lyeng^ a young man, is A, A.

exceptional, and may bo considered a distinct word. ^\ 4^^ num-lynig, a young woman, may be » num, likewise so considered ; neither ^ fa, nor ^\ has a separate signification, each being merely one

of the prefixed particles, common to many words. Both words, however, obviously take their root

from '^(^i^a-lyeng. —

( 27 )

sub (i-^om is applied to female fowls and birds, that have arrived at maturity

(season of incubation), thus, ^"'^' a matured hen horn, a matured j^(0 ^'^"^i ; (^((3 fo

female bird.

There are other words betokening qualities in sexes, consequently indicating

the gender, thus, X(*$ a-tang denotes a corpulent male beast, as, -^^J i^ ka-ju tang, a corpulent male dog mon tang, a bulky boar, &c. ; (^ <^

X(((3 ^'-1^0 is applied to an entire (non-emasculated) male beast, as, (-^ (0 man ho, a boar on ho, a stallion, &c. ; (^ (()

4. — Of JViimhers.

There are three numbers, vis.. Singular, Dual, and Plural. The Singular may be represented by the simple noun. The Dual is expressed by affixing to the noun,

ngum. the Plural affixing the word ^\ And by (,)^ sang or t,)^ 2^""ffj ^^^s

-^() ma-rd, or ^(1^«^( ma-ru Icdt, a person,

-^(^ ^\ mu-ru ngum, two persons.

'^(T' ^0^ ma-rb sang, persons.

The diffi?rence between the two plural terms, is, ii(^ sang, is applied chiefly to

inferior hman beings ; (.)^ l^ci^i/, to animals, and to inanimate things.

(.)^ pang, may, however, be made to denote the plural of human, or inferior beings, and of inanimate things, indifferently. (,)(^ sang, although it may be applied to all living animals, human or inferior, can never be correctly affixed as a

things plural sign to inanimate ; thus,

•^(T" ')(>*' «^«-''o sang, or ^(f" fc)^ ma-ru pang, people.

^"^ '^* o^' ^''^" cows. 56 P'"^Oi jO ^0*>^ •5«»i7,

li pang, (never SW t.)^ ^VV ^0^ ^' 5««y)) houses. — — -

( 28 )

These terms may be affixed to the pronoun, independently of the noun, or may sometimes stand in room of the noun, thus

S(T^ *)(>*' "''"'^ sang, these people, or animals.

(^T^ C)'^ o-rc 2^ang, those things, animals, or people. A,

C**'(*^ ^C**' sa-kon sang, Sakons, /. e., Sakou and his people or companions.

.5, — Of Declension of Nouns.

Substantive nouns being unintlected by' Cases, the latter may, be said to, be limited to the Nominative and Objective.

There are, however, certain post-positive particles which may be used to form a full Declension, thus

The Nominative is represented by the simple noun, or if the word be in the

Singular number and indefinite, •^( kdf, one, a, or an, may be added to the

definite, particle re, the, may be, either in the singular noun ; if the J^ or plural, affixed.

The Instrumental, is formed by affixing to the Nominative, the particle fy\ nun.

The Dative is denoted by the post-position •^( led.

The Accusative may be distinguished by affixing to the noun, when definite or indefinite, the particle -^N //»»», and when definite the particle X' rem. (See under head of Articles, page 23).

The Vocative is indicated l)y the prepositive particle 2? f; find, if the final letter of the word be a vowel by affixing, ^( d, or Qpf{ n

X X((0 Ki ^ « I'o '', or X S((0 ^i '' ^'-'-^ v'd, Father, ^ Siii) T^i

e. d-kup pd, child. ( 29 )

But either the preposition or tlie post -position may be, at pleasure, dropped, o thus, S S((0 « «-^^5 father, X(«^\ ^( u-lcup pa, child.

The following is an example of a noun so declined.

^ (/^ pa-no, a king.

Singular.

king. Nom. ^ (/J) pa-no, a Inst. ^ (^ /^\ pa-no nun, a king, by a king. Gen. ^ (/^ ^^ ^7«-no s«, of a king, a king's.

Dat. ^ (^ •^( p«-?jo Av/', to a king. Ace. ^ (/^ -^N ^7a-«o ?««»», a, or the king.

Voc. 2^ ^ (/3 ^?''( '^ j'^«-?«o «y«, king.

Abl. ^ (/3 /3N ^^'ft-Jio n?««, from a king.

Dual.

Nom. ^ (/^ ^N ^?a-«o ??y??;«, two kings.

Inst. ^ (/^ ^N /^\ ^?«-?io ??^;«;« nun, two kings, by two kings.

Gen. ^ (/^ <^\ 0^ pa-no nyum sa, of two kings.

Dat. ^ (^ ^N ^( i7«-«o ?!^!<»i /"«', to two kings.

Ace. ^ (/^ ^\ ^\ pa-no mjum mum, two kings.

Voc. X ^ (/») 5^^ "5( ^ i?«-«o ??^;<»J mw, two kings.

Abl. ^ (/^ 5^\ /^\ pa-no nyum nun, from two kings.

Plural,

Nom. ^ (/^ ^C*^ pa-no sang, kings.

Inst. ^ (/^ *•){>«' /^\ pa-no sang nun, kings, by kings.

Gen. ^ (^ *•)(>«' pd-no sang sa, of kings.

Dat. ^ (/O ')C«*' "^( ^^«-»o sa«j /t«, to kings. 8 — —

( 30 )

Acc. ^ (/^ ^C^^\ P(i'»o s»n9 mum, kings. Voc. S ;? (^ ijC^ X c 2}Ci-no sancj nc/d, O kings. A,

Abl. ^(/^ <.)^ /^\ i^^-'^o s«»^ nun, from kings.

In like manner, all Substantive nouns may be declined.

6. Of Adjectives.

Adjectives are primitive or compositive. The latter may be formed from verbs bv, in many instances, conjoining to the verb, X( d, by prosthesis, thus

Verb. Adjective.

(''-c^i*'»'i sour. (-{> chor, to be sour. 2?( ("C

.^X h'iip, to be astringent. X( •A') d-lcrup, astringent.

15V( hhjchn, to be sweet. S( B^( 't-J'^!J(im, sweet.

u-lchjom, insipid. (151/ Ichjom, to be insipid. S( (B>^

straight. d-ndnrj, straight. */t)( nang, to be S(

t-^ hyanfj, to be cold. S( ii/v a-hijung, cold.

to ^^glit (i^ot heavy). a-Jc>ja»(j, light. **£il ^'.y««i/) ^^ S( <*£U

(^ «

the verb ends in a vowel, the adjective generally When assumes a final m ; as,

good. n-rytan, good. TVS ^,3/"> to be S( fl'j

^^ ^n, to be bitter. 2?( j«A, d-krini, bitter.

heavy. «-'''''«, heavy. jW //, to be XCjCO

5^A <^M, to be white. 2^(^3 ('-<^'tm, white.

^^ ti, to be large. ( 31 )

-{)N dm, to be small. S( 0^ &-chitm, small.

^j shii, to be fat. X( ^3 ^'"^''''''"^ ft^t, corpulent.

X( ^J d-hrum, hot.

^M, to be alive. ^j S(-(fj a-siim, alive, living.

But all do not acquire this additional particle, for instance.

)^j ru, to be old. s(r3 «-'•". old.

/i^«j to be languid. XN S( X^ a-'''^^«> languid. ma, to be secret. ^( S( ^( «-«^«, secret. unctuous. XV( /i^Z^a> to be X( XM( «-'''^(y(i, unctuous.

The two latter formations however, are, not numerous, the examples given

being nearly all that could be cited.

The assumption of the paragogic m, has, doubtless for its cause, a regard to

euphony, but the rejection of it in homologous words, without any apparent reason

(for the adoption of it in the rejected cases, would occasion no inconsonance), seems

anomalous.

It may be remarked that all adjectives, derived from verbs whose final is a

vowel, if they do take a final consonant, it is always the final m.

hir-danc/, ruddy, ^^ S)^ blooming ; and ^\ i^j kum-dkwj, another, are

examples of primitive adjectives, derived from no verb, and having no adjective particle affixed. Other formations of adjectives, primitive and derivative, will be

hereafter shown.

Adjectives, as a rule, follow the substantives, as, (J X^^ «« o^-diim a white horse. They may be declined in the same manner, as described under head of

declension of nouns ; thus,

Singular.

Nom. -^ (T" S( tl'J ''^"''-'''^ a-rijiim, a good person. Gen. -^ ( y ^( yVj ^U' ma-ru a-rijiim sa, of a good person, &c. ;

( 32 )

Dual.

Dat. ^ (y ^( yy^ ^\ ^( ma-ro d-rijlim wjnm ka, to two good persons.

^^^- -^ ?««-'•" iT' X( ri'J 5^^ -^^ «-ry/i»j «^M?« 7MMW, two good i^ersons, &c.

Plural.

oc. ^ ^ "^l r' X( Wj ^C^ y( e ?K«-ro ('i-ryum sany nrja^ good i^eople.

Abl. and Inst. -^ )^ ( XCTT'J *')C*«' /t)N w«-nj a-njum sanrj mm, from, by good

people.

7. — 0/ Degrees of Comimrison.

Comparative.

The Comparative degree is expressed by the comparative conjunction (\> len,

than. This is placed after the nomi, (substantive, adjective, pronoun or verb) with

which comparison is >o( made ; thus, t-^ ^> {y\ 5^ (5^ 5<$ &\ i^^<^m-clmn(j len

num-slum-mjo ti ejum, man is greater than the beasts, (literally, the beasts than, man

great is) a-re len o-re ruu, that is better than this, (lit. this ; S( T' ^HS r" TV\

than, that good [is]); ^^'" better to laugh, (^, (\) )^ TT>3 ^^''^^'P '^'''-^"^ '''^"' ^* ^^

tliaii to cry, (lit. to cry than, to laugli good [is]).

Superlative.

The Superlative degree is formed by comprising a totality, and then drawing

comparison tlms, ^'" ^''" ^'^'^ i^ ^^^ ^^'*^^' (^^*- ^^ than, ; ^\ (j^\ (\> XVS //"" '''D^^i ^

, _ • /o [is] good) ""'"^ ^^'* (i-chum (jum, that is the least (lit. ; (X T' (^^ CO S( "C^ 6>^ ^"" tliat all tlian, small is).

The Superlative may also be formed, by affixing to the root of the adjective,

the word chho thus, a-lim, great, '''W' '-''''''''^j the greatest (^^ ; X( ^^ N^ (:2C —

( 33 )

if^ J^ (^ Ci\ ^^" ^"" '"^'^'^ £/'""> ^6 is the greatest. (This word {^ c/i/io, corre-

siDonds to the Tibetan «*«! mchhog, the chief, the best).

When the signification is distinct, the signs of comparison need merely be understood, thus X( T' <^^ '^iC^T' XVj "-^'<^ mjumka sa-re ryi'i, of these two, which is good, i. better, ^"«' €., X( ^^ t(7D "^C (^ ^^ CS) "'U^^ '^^"0 io i'- y«"«) who among you is gi-eat, /. e., the greatest.

8. Of Pronouns.

Pronouns, like Substantive nouns, have three numbers, viz., Singular, Dual and Plural. The words, representing the Personal Pronouns, differ in each of the numbers, they also bear inflection in the Objective case, and may be declined

similarly to substantives, as follows :

PERSONAL PRONOUNS.

1st Peeson.

Singular.

Dat. Norn. iC^ I/O, I. -^ ^\ ^( Jca-su hi, to me.

Ace. lust. (^ /^\ ffo mm, I, by me. -^ 0^\ ka-suni, me.

Gen. '^C>^\ Jca-su, of me, my. Abl. "^ (^\ ^\ Jca-su nun, from me.

Dual.

Nom. -^ ^5^ Jm-wji, we two

lust. «^*^<^ /^^ ^'^tt-mji nun, we two. Acc. or \ us two.

** / Gen. -^ S^ {^ Jca-nijl sa, of us two, •^5C\ Jca-nijum, ^_ /« -«- Dat. Jca-niji Jed, to us two. "^ j<«^ "^C 5 ^ /t)^ ^^'a-n//i nun, from us two. ( 34 )

Plural.

Nom. ^ 5j ^"^^-,?/'^ we.* Dat. -^ ^j •£^( Z-«-y« A"a, to us.

Ace. •^ ka-!/uin, us. Inst. •^ ^j /^N /irt-yw jn»?, we, by us. ^j

Gen. -^ ^\ (^ Jca-)ju sa, of us, our's. Abl. -^ ^3 /t)^ /I"'/-^« ?;««, from us.

2nd Person.

(^ ho, thou.

Singular.

Ace. hv mum, thee. Nom. ({f //(>, thou, (\f ^\

Voc. ^ '^^'^^ O thou. lust. (^ /^N 7/0 mm, tliou, by thee. X (V

Gen. (^ ^^ hi) sa, of tlicc, thy. xibl. (tT /c)^ ^'^ """; fr<^™ thee. Dat. (V "^C /'« -^"^'5 to thee.

Dual.

Nom. S(j<^ «^'//''; you two.

Ace. > you two. Inst. X( j^ /^)^ ^'-".y^ "««) you two.

Gen. «'-?;_y/ sa, of you two. ^^'"• 2^(^5^ (^ Voc. 2j ^(5^^ ^ ''''"^*' ^ y"^

Dat. '''-"^'' 7w, to XC j5^ *^( you two. ^'^^^ Abl. X(5^ ^"S '''"^' """' ^^'^"^ two.

Plural.

Nom. 2?(^3 '''y''' 3"'^"' ''^ y^' Ace. X( ^3 «-.y''«', you, or ye. Inst. 2^( ^3 /53 «--y" »"«j yoU) ^y you Voc. s X( ^3 ^ ''••?/''' ^ y^"' ^ y^ Gen. X( ^3 C**' "'//" *'") of you, your.

Abl. ''".y'' """; from yoi Dat. ^( ^3 *€"( "'".y" ^""') to you. X( ^3 /^^

Seo also remark on *t ( CJ ^'o-!/'', and *t ( '", 11. 40. ( 35 )

The radical form was sometimes inelegantly used in the Dual, and Plural, thus,

ho-niji, for ', foi* l^ut this (^j5^ SCj?^ '"'^^U' (\f tj ^i"-I/'h X( tj «-^"> form would be rarely met with now.

3 ED Peeson.

•Jf\ hu, he, she, or it.

Singular.

/m, she, it. I Nom. ^A he, or Dat. \f\ ^( /m kd, to him, her, or it.

Inst, hu mm, he, she, or it. Ace. |A /mm, him, her, or it. \f\ {^\ j

Gen. /ni sa, of him, her, or it Abl. /^N /ui mm, fi-om \f\ (^ ; j \f\ him, her, or it.

his, her's, or its. '

Dual.

Nom. -jfN S<^ hu-niji, they two \f\ ^^ Jni-mjun, \ Ace. „ \ them (two). Inst. ^\ \^ (2f\ hti-iuji mm, they two. hu-mjum, \f\ ^\ )

Gen. Im-n/jisa, ofthcm(two). -jfN S<>..^^ ^ /^\ liu-mji mm, from them two. Dat. \f\ ^5^«^( hu-nt/i kd, to them (two).

Plural.

Nom. ^\ ^J /iu->/u, they. Dat. If \ ^j •^( hii-i/u kd, to them.

Inst. If N ^j /^\ /iu-//u mm, they. Ace. If \ £ A Im-yum, them.

Gen, If\ ^j ^lU* /;i<-^« 6r/, of them. Abl. If\ 5j /D\ hu->ji<' nun, from them.

Possessive Pronouns

May be formed from the Genitive of the Personal, thus,

LsT Person.

Singular.

Nom. -^ C**'^ ^'«-*«; mV) mine.

Inst. -^ C>*'N /«)^ '''<' *" ""'^ 11^7) by my. ( 36 )

Gen. "^ C^\ C*** ^"^"^ ^^' ^^h of iiiy, of mine.

^"'^^ '^*' mine. Dat. -^ 0^\ C^ "^C ^* ^^^'j *o ™y> ^°

^^'^ mine. Ace. "^ ^;U'^ C*** "T^^ ^'* '^^ mum, my,

Abl. '^ 0^\ 0^ C%!l\ '^"^ *" *^' *""^) from my, from mine.

In like manner tlie particles of Declension may be affixed to the Dual and

Plm-al, •^5^ ^ iM-ntji sa, our two, -^ ^j (^ Ica-iju sa, our: also to the three

Numbers of each of the 2nd and 3rd Persons, (tT^A*' ^"' sa, thy, thine, X( j5^ Ca*' d-niji sa, your (two), ^( ^3 C^ «-^" ^«' your, ^\ (^ hu sa, his, her, or it's, ^^ 5^ ^ hu-nji sa, their (two), ^\ f^ C*^ hu-yii sa, their.

Recqirocal Pronouns.

Corresponding- to the English Pronouns compounded of self, are formed by the emphatic particle (% do. They may be thus declined,

1st Person.

Singular.

(i^ Nom. •^ (5^ Ica-do, I myself. Dat. ^ ^( ^Y<-(fo /?"rt', to myself.

Inst. -^ (^ /^\ ka-do nun, I myself, by ^ (*^ ka-dom. Ace. myself. myself. „ [

Gen. V of myself. Abl. •^ (% /^\ ka-do nun, from myself.

Dual.

Nom. •^ N5^ (5^ ka-mjl do, we two selves, we two ourselves.

5^ (^ /t)N ka-wji do nun, we two selves, by our two selves.

Gen. •^S

Dat. "^ S^^ (5^ •^( ka-nyi do kd, to om- two selves. ( 37 )

I -^ ^5^ (5^ Jca-nyi chm, Ace. < * -^ „ ,w ^ our two selves.

5C (5^ /^\ ka-ni/l do nun, from our two selves.

Plural.

Nom. "^ 5j (^ A"a-^M (/o, we ourselves.

Inst, -^^j (% ^\ iM-yu do nun, we ourselves, by ourselves.

Gen. "^^j (^ Cv*> l~a-yti do sa, of ourselves.

Dat. -^ ^3 (^ *^(' ^"<^'-^" '^'^ ^'''j to ourselves.

oui-selves. Ace, •• \ I -J ^0 ?«2

(7o nun, from ourselves. Abl. "^ f.\ (^ /i)N A-«-?/«

2nd Pekson.

. thou thyself.

Singular.

Nom, XC(#^ '^'-'^^''' t^^o^ thyself.

"-'^^ thyself, by thyself. Inst. X( (^ ^\ """' ^^'^^

Gen. XC(^ <>*' "-'^^ ^-'' of thyself.

"-'^'^ Z-^"', to thyself. Dat. X( (^ -e^C

iSiU^d-dom, \ thyseii. Ace. < « }

Abl. XC (^ /^^ '''^'' """' ^^'°^^ thyself. 10 )

( 38 )

In like manner may be declined, the Dual and Plural, also the 2nd and 3rd persons, thus—

Dual.

Nom. 3^(5?^ (^ a-nyi do, your two selves, you two j'ourselves.

your two selves. Obj. ^ ,. ^ \ I

Plural.

Nom. 3J( ^3 (^ ^'U^ ^"j y^^ yourselves.

yourselves. Obj . < ^ ., / "^^^ '^'' '"""*' ( x( fj (^ ^3

3ed Person.

Singular.

Nom. ^\ (^ liif> do, he himself, his self.

^°»^> ( \f\ (^ ^" ) *^ [himself. Obj.J .. Jo mum, (^\ (^ -^ViM )

Dual.

Im-nyi do, they themselves. Nom. -if\ ^5^ i''^ two

hu-nyi dom, \ their selves ( If^ )5^ (^ two ' ^' ( - Obj . . .

hu-nyi do mum, ^ -' \f\ \^ (5^ ^\ )

Plural.

Nom. ^\ ^3 i^ hu-yu do, they tliemselves.

'^^"^' ^'i'^ ^'""^" ( \f\ ^3 ] Obj. •• ( themselves, &c. I 1 ^'"-^« ^^ """"' ( \f\ ij i^ ^\ — )

( 39 )

Emphatic Possessive Pronouns

Compounded of owii, are formed from the Genitive of the Reciprocal, and may be declined in the usual manner, thus

1st Person.

•^ (#^ 0^\ J^'tt-(lo sit, \ ^ > my own. ka-do sa, •^ (^ Cm' ]

Singular.

Nom. -^ (^ C^'S ^'^-^^ 5"j ™y own.

Inst. -^ (5^ C**'^ (2i\ ^''O'-'io sti nun, my own, by my own.

Gen. -^ (5^ C*^^ C*** ^"«-^<' 5" sc, of my own.

Dat. •^ (5^ C^\ *^( ^"«-

«* { ^ (5^ (;;U'^ ka-do sum, '^ Ace. < „ [ my own. A-«-t?o 52« _ "^ (5^ ^^\ -^\ mum,

Abl. "^ (5^ 0^\ rD\ koi'-do su nun, from my own.

And so may be declined the Dual and Plural and 2ud and 3rd Persons, as,

Dual.

Nom. "^ j5^ (^^ Clv\ ha-nyi do su, our two own.

Gen. -^ ^5>^ (^ C^\ (^ ka-nyi do su sa, of our two own, &c.

Plural.

Nom. -^ ^j (5^ C^\ Tta-yu do su, our own.

« •* ^3 (%"C**'^ ko--yu do sum, \ . > our own. ^ i*^*^ tj (^ C»*'^ ^ ^ A'rt-^ii c?o 5M mum, ( 40 )

2nd Person.

Singular. Dual.

^"^'" o-do su, thy own. '^^ *"' ^^^^^ ^^'^ X( (% O*') | SCj<^ (^ C^\ "-"l/^

Plural.

S( ^j (^ C**'^ ^'^^ '^'^ *^'j your own.

3kd Person.

Singular.

if^ (^ C*^\ ^"' '^'^ ^^i ^is, her, it's own.

Dual. Plural.

\^ (5^ ^i'^-'>il/i do su, their two own. ^\ ^ui-yii do su, their own. \f\ C^\ | \f\ (^ C^\

To the above the Particles of declension may be affixed when required.

*^Ej ^'^'y") the 1st person plural of the Personal Pronouns may be spelt

•^( ^\ kd-yii, which becomes converted by apocope to •^( lea. This, •^( kd, is more frequently used in the Nominative, Instrumental, Genitive, (or Possessive), and

Ablative cases, it is seldom employed in the two other Objective cases, for instance,

«» the Dative -^ •^( ka ka, is altogether cacophonous. The Accusative •^( kdm, though

«* formerly very generally used, has become obsolete. •^( kdm, means, " a little," therefore, •^( (0 kdm bo, would express, "give a little ;" few Lepchas would now understand it to imply, "give us;" «^( ^\ kd mum, however, is still quite intelli- gible. The empliatic Particle, (5^ do, is also affixed to, •^( kd. *^ ^J ^^«-^'* is used in a general sense, and refers to a limited, or unlimited number ; •^( kd, is more definite and usually denotes the number to be limited or special, thus, -^ ^ (^\ /^ X( tX'j ^0*> "S^ (Zo J'^a-yu gun na a-ryum sang mum go, we all love the good, -^ ^ f'S Si\V^ j"^ ^^ t ka-yu rum d-ryum nyi yang ya, we know that God is good, <^( yV^ (0 ^(k O-' ^( /QJ %

*€' ^"^^ *""* '*^'* r^M/« Jo nyi shany kd, kd do sa C^\ *(V)^ y (V^ mdt pang gyum lung ;

( 41 )

ngak ka le. Let we (us) three, that we may be good, be guardful of our acts,

*£^( '^^'^ num-shim-ni/o thum-ohawj td\ j6 ^ y^C *"0 ^'C jO T^ '?-(f 6^^ fhdm-hik re zancj

beings, gum, we, human are but as the creatures of the earth, ^. /^\ •^( ()( •^^A

(>*'( "''' """ '""i^ /t)^ *^£j (>»' J"\) r'^ (*^ ^( (^ *J-0 ("^ 63( ^" ha-Du nun ka-i/ii sa

sdk-chin rum kon tdl la chintj knn f/dt, therefore, we should constrain our thouo-lits

to aspire heaven-wards.

The 3rd Person, dual and plural of the personal, consequently, also of the

Possesive, and Reciprocal Pronouns, including the singular number of the latter are

frequently elided by syncope, and are written 1^5^ ha-nyi, for |f \ 5?^ liu-nyi

If ^'"^"' ^'^^ ''" ^" ^'''"'^''' ^'^'' ^'" "'''' '^^• ^5 ^3 ^ ' ^^^ ^3 ^^

(tT (^ ''^o '^0, the 2nd Person singular of the Reciprocal Pronouns, is usually used,

when it is required to give particular emphasis to the person, thus, (^ (^ (\\ hi,

do gum, it is thou thyself, thou art the very person, (^ («^ ^^ ^ hi, do zuk ka, do

it thyself.

S((^ rt'-f/o bears less significance, and is generally used in the objective case.

It is also, by enallage, employed for the corresponding persons and numbers of the

Personal and Possessive Pronouns, for instance, the following sentences would be

rendered, «-'^^'« ^o sho, for ^*\ ((^ S(C^ (0 (^ 9» (^ (V (0 (^ go li6 mum ho

sho, I will give thee "'"'^'^ '^^'^"' ^'" '^'' ^oi' ; S((% (X 0^ 5^^ (^ (^ (X 0^ ^*^

i« di, brnig thy /^' Ao -sa f/^/w book. ^((^ ^(V) (^ (/^ «-'^o pok nun, for (^ (^

iW ()3 (/t) ^'" ^'* /i^JO;^- wo«, thy house has fallen, &c.

Among the Pronouns, it is only in these persons and numbers, that such commut- ations take place. The other persons and numbers, are used in their simple forms thus, ''"' ('-»gum bo sho, he will give you (two), ^\ X( <>^3 (0 (6 \f\t}} Ki i}j ^\

"-.y"'" '^"" ^'^ ^^^'^^ *^^ey will tell you, (0 (6 ^^«-^/" iA (> (^§ }$ (Q, hu sa on til

has fallen, nm, his horse S(Ej (a*' ^J^^-^J ^<^*^3* '^'1^"- *" thl-kling ngi-kuag, your ancestors.

11 ( 42 )

The inflected form ^ C^\ lea-sum, X((4^. «-<^'"») &C) ii^^^Y ^^ considered,

as the Particle -^N ?«;//«, abbreviated and embodied in the Pronoun, thus, ^\ hum, instead of ^\ -^ \ hu mimi, &c.

Rehtive and Intcrro(jatk'e Pronouns.

The Pronouns, who, which and what, are severally expressed by ($ to, C**'T^

sa-re, and ^\ shii.

As the Old English, who, and which, were formerly used for either persons

or things, so in Lepcha, the (^ to, and C^V sa-re, are sometimes applied indiscri-

minately, thus, <(^^%^ )3 V (S^ (^ ^(-0

K, the clouds or the winds, who (for (^ y sa-re, which,) is the swifter, but the

intermutation of these terms may be considered hetei'ocletical. The distinction

between (^ to and C^^V sa-re, may be assumed to be the same as that which is

at present observed between the English, who and which, or similar to the difference

between the number signs, (.)(^ sung, and ^"^ imng. C^y sa-re, may be applied to

inanimate to, can only be ai)plied correctly to persons. things, animate or ; ($

The above Pronouns, may be declined, the same as Substantives, thus.

($ to, who.

Singular.

Kora. (<$ to, who. Dat. (^ •^( to /id, to whom.

Ace. '''5 Inst. (<$ ^\ to nun, who, by whom. ($ -^\ mum, whom.

Gen. ($ C^ to sn, of whom, whose. Abl. (^ ^\ to nun, from whom.

To this the Dual and Plural signs, and Particles of Declension may, when neces-

sary be affixed, as, ((^ ^\ (<$ 5^N f'C 5(V (^ //" "«« ''" "t/i'>» ^'« h' sho, to wliuni

(two) I shall give it. (^ Cl(^ ^( Cl(^ /" aanr/ mat nanfi, if any persons do it. ( 43 )

($ to, who, and C^y^ sure, wliicli, are both Relative antl laterrogative. ^^

Ml, what, is ahiiost contiiied to the Interrogative, thus, -^(T^ (^ f^\ 4J ^ mfi->o to nun ziilc re, the person who did it to mm Idong a, who sent it y ; (^ f^\ 4(5 3^

*«-?'<^ wwM d-)jiun ku ma, the words which ^SV C**'T' iC^ /c)^ 5(^3 *^^ "^ '''^tJ y

I have imjDressed upon you. 2?( 7^ ^\ •^( ^iv )^ (^^ (^ a-re ni/iim kd sa-re Mm ^ho, of these two which will you select ?

^') J^( *^'" Mrtw, what thing, ^j -^( <$\ ((^ shu mat tung go, what are you

? «/;« gat shang a, what do you want '? doing ^j ^^( (.)^ X

The Demonstrative Pronouns.

'SXV "-'''' this, and (^ T' <^'''^j that, may be declined the same way as the

Relative Pronouns, thus,

X( y d-rc, this. iS. T^ '^-''^1 those. A, A, 7^ ^(^ ^\ a-rt' ?i_y«/w, these two. (^ 5^\ o-?'e ?;v/«/K, those two.

S( r' ^0^ ^'''*^ '^'^"'^' these persons. (5 T" '«)(>^ '''<-' sang, those persons. A, ^ ^ (,)^ (i-/f })ang, these people or (S T^ •)^ ^-'"^ Jf^w^j those persons or things. thing's.

To these, the Emphatic Particle (5^ do, may be added, thus,

'''<-' this very. y^ '^"''^' '^^'^j that very. X( T" (''^ '^''j (S ^^

<^-'>'^ "'''^ «y«w, these very ' (^o- ngum, those very XCT' (''^ ^^ ^^ {.^V (^ ^^ two. two. I

"''^ ^^ *'""//' these very T^ «-)^ o-''<^ (^0 P^^ng, those very X( f (^^ '?C»*' (S (^ persons. things.

To all of the above, the Particles of declension may be affixed, as also to ( 44 )

The Pronominal Atljectives, and Adverbial Pronouns.

""''^/j this much, o-M, that C^'k sa-fef, how much, how many, ^(k (^^ Likewise to mucli, ^ (J^ ta-do, one's own, ^(f- (^ ?««-?(> (fo, one's self, itseh;

The Disfributive and Indefinite Pronouns.

''•^'^'' ^°™'^' '^"«'«-'^«"^' f T re•e re, each, ^\ gun, all, every, X( S^ *^)''^3 another, &c

Compound Pronouns composed in English of, " ever, soever," are expressed by ((^tfi OO'^'unn, or

^'^^ ^«?;v/ la, whoever, who- ^'^ t^i^«' ^"^ ^''-'""«^' (^ ^(^ ^0 •>)6i W //««^ i^ ((^^t'} ^

«"-''^ soever ^^'"''^ ^^-'''"ii') o^^ (a*'^' <')6> 5'"'^^ ^«> whichever ; C^y (63

whichsoever, whatsoever ^^" yo-''"«5'> or *')^ (V> «''"' ^«"^ what- ; ^ (63*^3 ^J K

ever, whatsoever ^"'^"-'^ 5">-rM/«y, or (.)(^ (\> s«-/c?' (7«Hy la, how ; C^^ (^*T'3 (>^ much soever, &c.

All may be declined, as already shown.

Q.—Of Verbs.

In Lepcha, the form of verbs is unaltered by Number or Gender of the

rroverning Noun, and their roots (with one or two exceptions) remain unchanged

by Tense.

The Conjugation, is like the Declension of Substantives, performed by Post-

shop tyol). positive Particles, or by the aid of an Auxiliary verb, ( (^ (

be taken for the Infinitive, thus, shl, to see The root of the verb may ^^ ; ^^>

; root the Particles indicative of tense lik to call -^C mat, to do, to which may be

affixed. These Particles are sometimes very indefinite. Some of them may, at ( -13 )

times, be made to denote different tenses, oi" they may often altogether be dispensed with, the sense being shown by the context.

The following exemplification, however, may be taken as a guide for the for-

mation offenses.

The Indicative Mood.

Present Tense.

The Present Tense may be formed by affixing, to the root, the auxiliary verb

(3( b(im, (literally to remain) ; also sometimes by, y( n(/dn, (literally to sit,) thus,

^^^'' ^''I'h I call, or am calling. id j^ 0( ff*^ The Past

may be denoted by the Particle ()( id, as ^^ (3( I/'k bd, called, or have called,

but in general the simple root stands for the past, thus, (^ \^ <^( {^ (^ ^ (Jc\>

lik ydnr/ na ho ma thjo 7ic, I called, but you did not hear me /^ ffo ; (^ (jJU S( T' ^iV

ffo ayo d-re li, I said this before.

The Pluperfect

may be indicated by the addition of the word, ^( fdf, either, in combination

with, or without the past particle ()( hd, thus, ^^ ^( !i/c fat, or ^^\) ^( ()( lik

ha, had called ^"^ '^' ^''' »'<-^"'"' /"' siik fat ; C\f y^ ^^\ 0^ /O 1^( ^\ -^j ^( "^'"'ff

came, he had done it fdt, is a verb itself, signifying lose, fdt, before you ; ( ^( to to

be lost, hence by an hypcrphrasis, implying what is gone, past). The Future

is expressed by the affixed particle, (^ sho, thus, >(\) (^ lik sho, I shall call.

The Future Perfect

may be rendered by a conjunction of the Past and Future terms ; thus, \^

^i (^ i'k fdt sho, shall have called, (tf 5'# i^) C^ /0?(> i(^ 4} ^i (6 ^io di

icung sa na-hdn go zi'tk fdt sho, before you return, I shall have finished it.

12 ( 46 )

The Subjunctive Mood

expressing contingency is formed in the

Present Tense

verb, the particle ^* by affixing, to the root of the ^3 V^^^ '^^^^i jCO ^J V^h ™^y perhaps calh

The Imperfect.

This tense is indefinite. It may equally with the Future Indicative, be represented by the particle (^ s/w, and sometimes by the participle particle ^(^ shanr/, or

it may simply be understood by the context. Might, could, would, and should, imply

permission, power, obligation, and desire, so may be expressed by verbs or words bearing these significations.

The Past Tense may be formed by affixing the particle of contingency to the root of the verb, or to

Hk jm, or ^''^" the past sign, thus, ^CO ^^3 5(V ^( ^3 f"'^ ^"'' "^^Y' would, (might,

called &c.,) perhaps have ; ^^" '«<« «

The Future may be expressed by the particle ^^ shaiiff, combined with the particle of contin- gency, thus, 5(V> (.)^ ^3 ^'^' shunf/ 2)11, shall perhaps call.

The Imperative.

2nd Person. Singular and Plural

is rendered by the affixed particle (S o ', or, should the verb end in a consonant, by

the reduplication of the final consonant with, or without tlic addition of the particle

^''^> speak; di o, come, (thou (X 0, thus, 5?^ {S ^^i^ or ye); ^^ ^ Ulc lea,

'"^"^ or ^^^' ^'^ "' ^^^^ ^^ ^^^' ^^' "'"'' ^^^ ^' ^^^ perform 5C0 *^ (S ' ^ ^^ ^ ^S ; t%V /•" /^- z^" (tliou or ye). Tlie dang nffa, or <5^ > (X ^^("^ff W' ^) ™") particle ^ a, may, ( 47 ) though rarely employed, b& affixed to the verb terminating in a vo-u-el, thus, \l^ ^ li a, or j^> X (^ // a o, speak thou (or ye).

With reference to the Persons in the Objective case, the Imperative is express-

-5" * •• >• .. ed by ^nd may be declined in the Persons ; thus, (v ^''^'h •^^^V "^^^Y ^\, -^tj'

ka-sum, ka-nyum, hunij ka-yiim, Im-yiim lik kun, let me, ^\ ^ J V^ (-fe^, us two, him

(her or it), us, them call.

The word (•^ kbn, is a verb implying—to let, to permit, —the above form is therefore merely putting the verb, S^ lik, in the Infinitive, and («^ kun, in the 2nd

Imperative, and so it will be apparent when written in full ; Person thus, (^ ^\ \f\

^^" '"''' ^'""* ^'^ ^"<^'* "''' l^^j "^^ pei'mit thou to call. 5(V) ("fe" (^ (S "» him

When a verb, ending in a vowel, is succeeded by (-^ kon, the final is amplified

by the euphonic consonant termination appertaining to it ; thus,

^<- «^"''' ^^"^ ^^^ ^"^ (^^r or it), 5^ Zyi, to have, to possess. S<^ possess.

2^ sfii, to see. j^ (-^ shim kon, let him, &c., see.

to live. ^3 ^«. ^3 (^ 5«/rt ;^(i«, let him, &c., live.

jO^ ^'.y^ to gi^e. ^3^ (^ ij//« k6n, let him, &c., give.

//, to speak. 5^\> <(y) (^ //rt ^-o«, let him, &c., speak.

y^ di, to come. ^5^ (^ t/// /tort, let him, &c., come.

But, as shown under the head of adjectives, all words do not admit of paragoge; in this case, such verbs would of course retain their final vowel ; thus,

-^( ma, to be secret. -^( (^ ma kon, let it be secret.

da, to lie. 3^( 5^( (^ da kon, let him, &c., lie.

CS po, to flit, to migrate. (;5 (^ ^^ ^.^«^ let him, &c., flit. ( 48 )

The 2nd Person Imperative is also sometimes expressed, by prefixing the

particle ta, and affixing ka, ^ -^ or (^ sa, to the verb ; thus, tf\ ^ ^( ^ or ^

^i"^ ^i

There is also a Particle •^( Jcii, which, when succeeding a verb, gives a plural

hortative or a postulate signification. It is evidently composed of the substantive verb '^ ka, and the optative particle X( d. Verbs, ending in a vowel, when

preceding it, are not inflected ; thus, >(\) •^( li (not tin) kd, let us speak.

Participles.

The Present (and Gerund) is formed, if the verb ends in a vowel, by affixing the particle t^N ung, or i^^\ vmng, or, if ending in a consonant, by reduplicating in the Participle sign, the final con-

^^ sonant ; thus, S^ •s/^* wung, seeing i^iung, speaking ; -^( «i$\ mixt i^\ ; ^^ <-^\ tiing, doing; ()^ <«^\ rok kirng, reading; C^ Ct\ dang, ngung, running, &c.

The Past is formed by affixing, to the root of the verb, the particle 0( ban; thus, S^ ()( lik

Ian, having called; |f\ -^^ (3(, (/^ hu zuk lun, nm, having done it, he went.

()( Mn, may be considered to be a synrereses of the particle ()( ba, and the conjunction X^ "'*/ thus, ^\ ^^ (3(, ^\ (f^ hu =uk bfi, un non, he did it, and went. (3( hdn, is often abbreviated to () han.

The Future Indefinite (and Gerund) is indicated by the particle i.)^ shung ; thus, ^^ t,)^ Ilk shang, calling, about calling. — ^ /«- (Gerund) (^ C^ V -^^^^T^ ((/ (0 5^ ^^ ^''^ *""''^ '""'^ ^'''""^ ''^ ^'^^"^''^ ^'^ ".^' *^'° s <» *^ thou shalt be responsible for all thy doings (deeds). ( 49 )

The Future Definite is denoted by affixing, to the Present Participle sign, the particle ^iv sa, thus,

^'^'^ '^*> when, or on calling jiV **^^ C^ ^^''^ff ; and a Future Exact may be formed by affixing, to the above, the particle (\) la, thus, S^\> i'^\ (^

^ lik huny sa la, immediately on calling.

The Future Perfect may be expressed by the particle ^ shcn, thus, S(\) ^, lik s/ien, when having

called. ^ -s/icn, is, however, often used indefinitely.

The Conjunctive Particijjle

is formed by the particle i(\>\ liiiiff, thus, S^^ t^>\ li'k lung, calling.

An Emphatic Participle

- /k < - may be rendered by the pai-ticle, % del, thus, S(\) ^ ^'^<^ '^''^ calling or just about to call. To this particle, the signs of the Tenses may be aifixed, thus,

^"^ 5^ ^ 0( ^^^' (^^t ^""h calling, or just about calling; j(\) ^ ()( lik del ha, was

calling, or just about to call '''^' may ; perhaps be calling, ^(V ^ ^J ''^'"O"'; &c.

Before % dct, verbs, ending in a vowel, assume their final consonant, thus,

JVV '^ ^''^ '^<-'f, a^tjut speaking; 5^ % t/;Y dot, coming, just about to come.

Passive Voice.

The passive voice is formed by the aid of an auxiliary verb ; or more com- monly expressed through the medium of the Instrumental case, thus, the sentence,

^'" ""« iiiay be rendered, he did it, or it \f\ ^\ 4J ^''^'~i was done by him.

The Active, or Passive signification of a verb, is generally sufficiently indicat- ed by the sense of the context. But when it is requisite to make use of the passive voice, it may be formed by affixing to the verb, with a substantive verb combined

13 ( 50 )

^^^^'" ()o //w, to place or «o«, ()^ (Oj ^^) the adjective, or agentivc form of ; (/^ the preterite of i(^ «(«?y, to go.

The former ()o (() if/jo?;? Jo, denotes a local relation, and represents the seat of the object or action, and when combined witli a svibstantive verb, renders the active verb to which it is affixed, passive, thus, S^ pi^ to -^aite, ^^ {^ (O P^ thorn ho, written, (Jo 2n thorn ho gum., it is written wjct., to show, >^ (() ^\ ; ^

»«a', ^ ()^ (0 ^^U^i f^^">'^ ^"j shown, ^ Qo (() (^\ nijcf thorn ho gum, it is shown; ^( to hide, -^( (Jo ((3 ??ia jf/io;;? ho, hidden, •^( (Jo (() (M md thorn ho gum, it is hid- den, &c.

The latter (/^ ?;o«. Implies an absolute transition, and infers directly, or inversely, the object to have gone, past, —or been, and may be affixed to all verbs

to which that sense is desired to be conveyed ; combined with a substantive verb, it forms a passive voice, thus, (^ mole, to expend, (^ (^ mhk ndn, expended, to be .. > ^ ^ i i JS^ expended, mole (^ (/^ ^N non gum, is expended ; ^( male, to die, •^( (^ mdk nonw, dead, to be dead, -^ (^^N ?Ka7i; ««?« gum, is dead lolc, to injure, ( (^ ; (^

.. ' < .. > ^ . . ^ ^"^'^ ''"'* y"'"> is injured nyak, to shake, «^«/i: ?«<>« yM;«, (W (/^ (^^ ; 5^ ^^ (^ (^\ is shaken.

««'« The agentivc (^ (() ^o, may be affixed instead of the simple j)reterite,

(/D nim, but this form is unnecessary.

Some verbs are, in themselves, Intransitive or Passive, thus, j^ kri, to bo bitter, c/ffvr, (-\) to be sour 517( y;-/y«/«, to bo sweet ; i^\ nijung, to be deep sap, ; ; (^( to be shallow, &c. These verbs may be conjugated similarly to the active voice of transitive verbs.

Some verbs may have both an Active and Passive signification, thus, (^ lok, < > .. to injure, or bo injured duk, to hurt, to be hurt, to be sick go lok ; % ; (^ ((\) (3( ham, I injuring, or injured »^\ hum via dak kun, do not hurt am am ; \f\ -^ % ( 51 )

him i^ hu dak lam, he is ill, &c. The addition of the substantive verb, ; \f\ (3(

^\ f/xn/, Avould, however, render the Passive voice of these verbs unmistakable, as,

^"^'^ I ^'^ injui-ed, &c. (6> i^ 6^^ ff'^ ff^'"h

To the above, as also to all Passive verbs, the affixing of (^ non, imjjarts t ^ to the verb an acquisitive condition, thus, \f\ ^ (^ hu dak non, he has become /^ ^ /^ ill hu kri non, it has become bitter. ; ^\ >^ (/^

(/O «''») when affixed to some active transitive verbs, occasionally retains its

^ t ^ . " literal sense of "to go" thus, S^ (/^ ///;: hw?, though it may imply, called," would

" be more commonly understood to signify, gone to call," so, ^\ j<,^ (/O (Ji\ ^"' ^^^ non gum, he has gone to call ; but this is merely an elliptical form of j^^ (,)^

*^( (/O ^''''^ shang ka non, therefore in its entirety the sentence would be written, if^ f7i\ \f\ j(V) '")6 *€( {(7^ ^'" ""^' ^"'^^* ^''''^ sluing kd non, ho has gone for the purpose of callinff him.

Verbal Particles.

There are numerous particles, affixed to verbs, which are for the most part of

ma, "^« ^^' indefinite meaning, such are -^ -^(X ''j E (S ^"'" ^) 0^ iK 'h ^(T pa-ro, i^\ fung, &c.

The first three, generally, represent the Present or Past tenses, thus, ((^ y^ -^

I writing or have written ^)e> '^« ^Z"' '«« o, he has arrived go pi ma, am ; \f\ -^ (^ ;

^\^( ^ (^ /iii ;Ha7i: gam o, he is dead, ^iv (^ s« o, applies more to the present or future, thus, {(^ i(/^ {^ (X go nbng sa o, I shall go. '^^ ]M-r6, generally, implies a

tiing doubt, as ((^ S^ 7^(T" ffo shi j}a-r6, I may possibly see him. «^j is used, especially, in the Imperfect Subjunctive, thus, (E^(6> /O ^(^ iC^ ^) SitjS^

*$) yo ma go na gang go nun &-yum li tiing, if it were not so, I would have told you.

But when, through the context, the meaning is evident, these particles are ( 52 )

sometimes used, indcponclent of tense, merely to give fulness and com2:)letion to tlie

sentence. Rules, however, only require to be laid do\vn to render these and such relative particles, definite and absolute.

^( pa, is a verbal affix, giving a slight degree of emphasis, thus, TV\ ^( I'ljii pd, it is good um pa, it is nice (it corresponds to the Tibetan verbal termina- ; ^N ^( ; tion ^ p<().

(^ ne, is a particle attached to (/Q nm, giving emphasis to the past, thus, (/3 /3 non ne, gone, ^\ ^( (^ f^ hu mdk nvii no, he has expired, (^ C iQ (^

forth. 111) p)la nim no, the order hath gone (This f^ no, is identical with 9\M nas, the

Tibetan Pluperfect sign.)

J^( (hi, and -^ (^ cite na, are Adverbial Particles, giving emphasis to the verb, whether the latter be expressed or understood, thus X( ((\) 5^( d-lo dd, it is certainly

•^0 '^(7^0'^ '"'"5' '^^^'^ "^'j I shall positively go. j id '(7t)

Of Substantive Verbs.

be, expressed The Substantive Verb, to may be by ^\ (jum, ((^ r/o, ((^ (/o,

•£' ^'"> ^^^ ".y*) which all rejiresent, am, art, is, are, were, &c. Each, Cii ff^') J^ however, in a degree bear separate aijplications, thus,

(^\ (jum, is, generally, used relatively with all tlie Numbers and Persons, so,

•• • * /*^ «» /*—

-^ ''^"'' ^"'^'""' ^^^ ^*' ji gum, you two (63 (^V"-^"'"' ^3 ^3 2k(j5^ 6>) are,

X( O ^^ "'^" ^"'"' ^'^^ ^^^" '^*' ^'^ ^^^ ^^^^ interrogatively, where the subject, in the

Objective case, is expressed, thus, (^ O^T' ^4 C^ ^(T" 6^^ ^"^ '^«-''<^ ^(^ng sa ma-ro r/uiii, what kind of person art thou ?

is usually employed in the Person, (2^ //«, more 2nd and especially interroga- tively, thus, hl> go, tliou art ho to go, wlio art thou "^ (^ CCi ; (^ (<$ (^ KH}) O^

"^-11^'^ shanggo, where OC *(7D ^^ (C^ ^^-^^ ^^^^3 art thou going ? \f\ ^3 -^( t^N (^

hu iski'i mdt lung gu, what is he doing ? ;

{ 53 )

id ^^) is used more relatively, and iu negation, and without regard to 2:)erson,

tluis, iCC^^iCd ffo ma go ne, it is not go pa, it is ^ l^iOsT^Si ; S( ((V>(N> ^ (6) ^ u-lo la ma go ne, it is not even this. When unconnected with person, it is used

interrogatively in preference to thus, (^ g6 ; X( ((^ €^^^0^ <")^ X «-^'^'« «/"i

mat go shang a, why should it be ""'"'^ *'''" so? X( r' ^J ^^ ^ 0'^ te, what can

this he ?

^( ^(i, is almost wholly confined to the negative, thus, -^ ^( /Q ma ga ne, it

is not.

•^ ^'") is almost invariably combined with a particle, and generally refers

relatively to a neuter "'>'<^ subject, thus, Ki.T' ^ "^ ^ «'''« -^"a ie, what may this be

^3 *^ (^ ^T'j •-''''' ^"" ffo-rtaig, whatever it may be, ^ ^ /3 ^a c/ie na, it certainly

/"« is ; -^ (i)(^ (\) gang la, even if it were.

«* (ji\ gum, and -^ lea, are seldom, if ever, used with the negative i)articles affixed.

Of Conjugation.

^\ gum, and (^ yo, am, art, is, are, were, represent the present and some-

times the past, they are not capable of being conjugated, not admittino- of the

Particles of conjugation being affixed to them.

•^ hu, may have emjDhatic, and adverbial, particles affixed, but does not bear

conjugation.

(^ y^i i^^^y be conjugated in the Active voice, it is chiefly used, irrelative of

person, thus, XCT' iCb (^ d-re go sho, this shall be, this will do ; (^((SJ ({^ ()(

o-lom go ha, it was so sa-lom go shang a, shall it '? ; ^^ ((y> ({^ ^^ ^ how be

^( gd, may be conjugated similarly to (^ go, but chiefly in the negative form,

thus, '"'^^ ^^' "« ^'''^^ it shall nut be -^ 6>( /O (6 ; <^ >«( (\> ^(^( /D 0( «« ^/'« ^«

?»« ^« «rt ha, it never was.

14 { 54 )

^^ nyi, may be conjugated in all the tenses, and when affixed to other verbs,

forms a past tense, and sometimes a passive voice, thus, )f\ S^C ()( hu nyi bcim, he is hu hum nyi, he was, he was present hu nun zuk ; ^\ ()( ^^^ ; ^\ ^\ -^j j^^ nyi, it was done by him.

The following are examples of verbs conjugated.

(^\ gum, am, art, &c.

Singular. Dual. 5/«- •• /*- I am. 5C Tea nyl gum, two are. ((^ 6>3 ff^ V™h CS\ we

or hu or go, thou art. «-«,y* 5'"'"} (^ (Ji\ ((j^ gum S( j5^ (!)«^^ you two are.

^\ (j^\ hu gum, he is. \f\ S^ C^\ hu-ngi gum, they two are.

Plural.

*^Ej C^\ ^"«-yw 5'ww^ we are.

"'-^^ ^^'' 2?(^3 ^3 <^^ ^ ^"'"' ^^ ^J"' y^

if) ^3 &\ ^"'"^" ^^""' ^^^^5" ''^'^^•

S5^ ivji, am, was, were, have, &c

5^ ^^ ka-nyi nyi, we two were.

(^ ^^ hi) nyi, thou wast. S( 5^ 5^ «-w^« n^2, you two were.

Jf\ j5^ /m ??^/, he was. ^\ 5?^ S^^ Im-nyi nyi, they two were.

Plural.

*^^J J^ ^"«-yM nyi, we were.

X( ^3 5^ ^'y^ "^^' y^ "^^^®-

S^^ 0( My2 Saw, am being.

j5>^ ^( nglfat, was, have, has been, had been. »/— - /^ j5^ ^( (3( nyi fat hd, had, had been. ( 55 )

^^ ^( (^ nijifdt sho, shall have been. been. >5C ^j Jii/i P"j may he, may have, may have >5^ p( ^j nyi fat pu^ may have been, had perhaps been.

5?^ ^(& "t^J ^^11^ shang pit, may, might, would perhaps have been.

,.—' /^ ??^//« ^"o«, let me, us, let us have. S 5^ ("^ be ;

".y*' t^io^ or ye liave thou or j5^ (S ^j ^6 ; ye.

A*fif', S5^ •^( «yi let we be ; let we have.

S5^ i(J*'\ »2^i e47<«y, being, having.

j5^ 0( ??.y/ irt'w, having, having been.

ivji j?^ (.^^ slicing, about being ; about having.

S^ ^^^\ 0^ "^' loung sa, when being, or when having.

>5C i^y\ Ci*> ^ ''y* ^"'^y ** ^*> immediately on being, or having.

5^ i(V)\ «^i /e<«y, being, having. ^"^ - r- j^ :^ nguii det, being, or just about being, or having.

As the root of the verb is uninflectcd by number or person, it will in the following paradigma, be sufficient to show the 1st person of each tense.

( ^ shak, to advise.

Active Voice.

Indicative Mood.

Present Tense. t s//«^, I advise. iC^ ^ ff^ < •» iC^ (& 0( 9^ ^^'"'^ Idm, I am advising. Past Tense. t iC^ ^ go shak, I advised. i (63 6 0( ^^ *^*^ ^^i I advised, or was advising. < - shale I have advised. iC^ 6 &( S'^ fat, < - shak bd, I (63 6 ^( ()( i/" fat had advised. ( 56 )

Future Teuse.

id 6 (6 ^^ ^^'^^ ^^^^) ^ shall advise.

Future Perfect.

t - (^ 6 &l (^ y ^^'^^' f"^ ^^"'j -' shall have advised. Subjunctive Mood.

Present Tense.

^^M^!: I (^ ^ ^3 ''^'^ pii-i may loerliajis advise.

Imperfect, Past, and Future Perfect.

^^'^'^"^ ^^^''j I may, might, (6> <& (6 ^^ I woidd advise or have advised. «^««^ (<^ ^ <>)6 ^0 ^-'^^^^J )

^^"'^"^ -^ might, would perhaps ad- (^ ^ ^J Z^'' i^"' ''^^li

< - haijs have advised. -J

Imperative Mood.

thou. (V ^ (*^ ^'" *^'"^^ ^""'^' ^'l'"'^®

/'^"Mj advise you two. XC S^ ^ ("^ «-«^/ s/"'/"^

""//" *^"^''^ ^"^'*j advise ye. X( 5 ) ^ (*^ Hortative.

^C ^ •«^( ha-niji shale hi, let we (us) two advise.

*^"'^^ ^'^'j let we (us) advise. -^ tj ^ *^( ^'«-Z/" Participles.

Present and Gerund.

6 ^'^\ ^^'^^^' ^"".'/) fidvising.

Past.

6 OC •''^'"^" ''"'") haAnng advised. ( 57 )

Fntiu-e, Indefinite and Gerund.

t ^ ^^ shak shang, advising, about advising.

Future, Definite.

^ i-^N 0^ ^^"^'^ ^""".^ *^5 wlien or on advising.

Future Exact.

< 6 <«^N C^ (V) s/iak InoKj sa la, immediately on ad^-isino

Futm-e Perfect.

i t ^ ^ sJiaJc shen, when having advised. A, Conjunctive.

i (^ <^\ s/^ff/.r ^2»?y, advising.

Emphatic. i - (^ ^ shah def, advising, or just about advising.

Passive Voice.

The Passive voice, as abeady explained (in pages 49 and 50) may, when neces- sary, conjugated aid of the mn, or the be by verb (/^ Agentive ()o (() UUm bo, and a substantive verb affixed, thus,

Indicative Jlood.

Present Tense.

< > •• > I am advised. ^^^(i-'k ihom ho gum, ((^ 6 ()^ (0 (^0^ i'" )

Past Tense.

'^'"^ (^ ^ (^ (0 5^ ^" ^^'""' ^^ «i^ I was, or have been advised.

((^ 6 ()^ CO J-N OCi'" s^^"''^ ^^^ow io H^i Ja, /

15 ( 58 )

Future Tense.

< > «/^ ^ } I ((^ ()^ (6,9''' ^^^^''^^ ^^''''" *^ ntjislio, 6 (0 J?^ )

And so on, the Particles indicative of the tenses, may be affixed to the Passive s.

Deponent Verbs.

May be conjugated, thus.

yVj njii, to be good.

Indicative Mood.

Present Tense.

Past Tense.

/^ /i- was, have been, had J *^ been good. m TV) 5<^ 0( ^'^ ''Z^'i nui ^«',

Future Tense.

(^ H'J (6 ^'^ '",2^" *'''<'> I shall be good.

Future Perfect Tense.

(6> H'} S^ (6 •^^ '"-^'^ "^' ^^^''j

\W I J \^KJ\J .J 1 ^ J j.fj.^JJ jjg^^^ ^^^^ g,^^^^ (63 n'3 5^ (6 0( y'' '-.y" «J^ sho lu, ) ( 59 )

Subjunctive Mood.

Present Tense.

^"''" perliaps be good iC^ Ti^'S 0^ ^J ^^ ''

I might, would be good. ^ ^

I might would perhaps be good. iC^ TV}} ^^ ^3 ^'^ ''•^" s/^ff«y i^«, Perfect.

!:.,J-^^ > I may have been good.

Pluperfect.

''•^" ^"^ perhaps been good. iC^ Wj 5^ ^^ '^3 ^^ "^* P^'-> -' ^^^

Futm-e Perfect.

perhaps have been good. (^ ri'3 5^ (6 ^^3 -^^^ ''<^" "-^^ ^^'^ ^''''' " ^^

Imperative Mood.

'^0^\ TV^ ("^ Ica-sum ryum /con, let me be good.

^'" '".y" t^o^ good. (\f WS is ^> ^^

^\ ^TL/j (i^ /iiiDi ri/i'im koii, let him be good.

«-"y'' ''.y^ '^j 1^6 you two good, &c. X( 5^ ^ ' is

"^ ^j yvS ("£- />:ct-i/um ri/um Icon, let us be good.

X( ^3 ^1^3 cx '^'^'^ ''^" "» ^® y® &°^^^-

^^ ^J TVS (-^ hu-yiim njum Icon, let them be good. Hortative.

-^iS TV\ <( ^"«-i/w /•^« led, \ let we (us) be good. ^/ t-» ^ ^/ 7 ' 7 ' ( 60 )

Participles.

Present.

yVS i^\ rrjU tvunfj, being good. Past and Conjunctive.

having been good. yVj OC ''^" ^"'^i

Future Indefinite.

shanr/, about being good. TVS ^6 ''i/«

Future Definite.

XV\ t^*'\ C^^ ''^" ivung sa, when, or on being good. Future Exact.

w'^'-ng sa In, immediately on being good. yvS i^^\ 0^ ^ '"i/" Future Perfect.

'^^^^" having been good. TT'j ^ ''-?'" *^^^"'

Conjunctive.

being good. yVj <^^ >'Z/" ^«"i7) Emphatic.

yVj ^ ryum det, being, or just about being good.

Irregular Verbs,

'''"'^j ^'" ^"'""^) to rise and ./"''"^y) to point out, to indicate; *(?«) S^ ; ^r? ; t(3l inasmuch as they differ from other verbs, by bearing an inflected form in the Past

may be said tg be irregular. They may be thus conjugated. Tenses ;

«(70 n<>"ff, to go.

Active Voice.

Indicative Mood.

Present Tense.

I going. iCi ^Gd 0( ff^ ^"'^ff ^""h ^^ ( 61 )

Imperfect.

I going- iCi <(7D 0( y" ^^^"ff ^"> ^^^

Perfect.

(63 (/t) 9'^ "'^") I weut, I have gone.

Pluperfect.

(<^ (^ 0( 0'^ «"« ^«) I liad gone. Future.

(65 (^ (6 y" '"^"y *''"'' I s^i'^1^ go- Future Perfect.

'- '^^^'^^^ \^^^Q gone. (63 *(7c) (6 C( ^^ """^ *^^^ ^"'

Subjunctive Mood.

Present Tense.

I J^^y perhaps go. (63 <(73 ^3 ^^ «'''«yi^") Imperfect.

(63 *(7i) (6 ^^ '"^"i/ «''*<'' I would go "'^"y *^«"y> (63

(^ (^ ^J ^^ nun 2»'c, I may perhaps have gone. Future.

slmnrj pk^ I would, or, perhaps shall go. (63 <(?t) ""^^ ^3 ^^ "*^"^ Future Perfect.

would, or, shall perhaps have gone. (63 (<0 *?6 ^J ^^ "*^" shang pii, I Imperative,

'^C>^\ (/^ (*^ ka-sum n6n Jc6n, let me go.

(? (/O (

^\ (^ (^ /»/;« «()?» A"oH, let him go. 16 ( 62 )

^^\ (^ (^ Im-nyum nun Icon, let us two go.

^\ ^\ (^ (^ Im-nijum nun Mm, let tliem (those) two go.

ka-yt'ini kun, let us go. '^tj (/») (*^ nun

ye. X( ^3 ^'^ (S ''-^" "^ "*' so "7 ^ ^ hi-yum nun Jcun, let tlicm go. if\ ^J (/t) (*^ Hortative.

let we (us) go.

Postulate.

<53 /^C ^C '^^^'•^" "" ^*' Let we (us) go, come along, do come along.

Participles.

Present (and Gerund).

going. <{(7i <>3 «''"i^ "^«"^'

Past.

(^ OC '"^'^ ^'^'^j having gone. Future Indefinite (and Gerund).

slicing, going. <(7D ^)6 ''""i^ about Future Definite.

«(?D *' "''"^ ".5'««^ ««> when, or, on going. Future Exact.

'^^w?;y s« /«, immediately on going. *(^ *)'^ C*** ^ '"^"Zi' Future Perfect Tense.

(/») ^ "'''^ ^^''^"> when having gone. —

( 63 )

Conjunctive.

*(^ nonrj tunc/, going. *(\)J Emphatic.

(^ % «"« ^^'•'^j just about going.

Passive Voice.

As in English, Intransitive Verbs are not considered to bear a Passive Voice, so in Lepcha, the tenses of these verbs in the Indicative, and Subjunctive Moods, for instance, go non (ji'an «<^« «^«' ((^ (/^ CS^ ; ((^ (/^ 5^^ OC^^ ^a ; ((^ (/5 5^(6 0^ lion wji sho ; &c., may be regarded as only the Preterite Tense, Indicative Mood, with an auxiliary verb conjugated and aflSxed, Moreover, " I am gone," " I have been gone," " I shall have been gone," &c., may, perhaps, be looked on as question- able orthology.

This form of speech, however, is in Lepcha seldom used, but the Imperative and some of the Participles are emjjloycd in the Passive, and being expressed with- out the aid of an Auxiliary verb, may be deemed to be a true conjugation, and in locution, to be logically correct, thus

Imperative Mood.

""'* "'' thou (/t) (7i (S ''j ^^^ (you two, or ye) gone.

Hortative.

(/^ •^( mn led, let we (us) be gone.

Postulate.

(^ -^ (^ non ka le, do let we (us) be gone.

Participles.

Present Tense.

(^

( 64 )

Future Teuse.

'^^''^ or, on being gone. (/i)

""" sa la, immediately on being gone. m) */c)^ C**' ^ nimff Conjunctive.

(/t) *(V)^ ^'"'^ ^""y> being gone.

The Past Participles would necessitate the addition of an auxiliary verb, thus,

(^ j5^ 0( "^'^ nyildn, having been gone. This form, as, has been already stated,

would be seldom resorted to.

In like manner may be conjugated the verb, <(^ hrong, to rise, to ascend

Past, {^\ft hi-on, ascended ; Imperative, (^ hro, ascend (thou, or, ye). Also, <(^

to pioint out, to indicate Past, fi'oii, indicated. has, however, frmg, ; (^ i(^ fi'ong,

no inflected form of Imperative, nor has, either of these two verbs, a separate form

for the Hortative, corresponding to /^( nd.

Neuter Verbs,

to be conjugated, require the aid of an Auxiliary verb, thus,

()o tJiol, to be near.

Present Tense. > a

> ^ A ^ > I am near. ^1^'>l ngi ham, i,C^ i)^ J<^ 0( 00 )

Past Tense.

(63 0^ S^ ^^ ^^''"^ "^'' I was, have been, or, had been near.

y^^ ^'''"^ «-y^' (^ 0^ j5^ 0( ^^"^i ( 65 )

Future Tense.

iC^ (J^ j5^ (^ 0^ ^^^^^ ".^* ^^''^1 I ^^ be near.

Future Perfect Tense.

(^ ()c» S^ ^( (^ ^0 ^/io^ «y« /«7 s/w, I shall have been near.

Subjunctive Mood.

^^^"^ (^ (>« 5<^ ^3 'J'^ ^tPl^'h I may, might, would, perhaps be, or, I

slicing 2m, perhaps have been, near. iC^ 0^ 5^ ^^ '^3 ^^ t^i-^^niji )

Imperative Mood.

(\f 0^ j<^ (X ^*" ^^^'^^ " be thou near.

near. X(53 i^ 5^ ^S "''^" ^^''^ "^*' ^' ^^ ^^

Participles.

(Jo S5>^ t^'^N f^i

page 55, And so on, affixing the participle signs to, J)^ ni/i, as shown m

Common Verbs having both an Active and Passive signification, may have the Passive Voice rendered more definite by affixing to the root of the verb, an Auxiliary verb, thus,

?o/f, to injure or be injured [/o Uk ham, I am injuring ^/o (^ ; (^ (^^ (3( ; ({J^ (^^ ()(

I6k bd, I was injuring, or was injured ^o /o/c sho, I shall injui'e, or shall ; (^ (^ (^

^''^ ^'^'^'^ ^»'"» I ai" mjured ^o^ I am, be injured; ((^ (^ 6>\ ; ((^ (V\)j I bave been, or, had been ; (^ (^ ^^^ 0( injiu'ed, &c.

17 ( 66 )

PART IV.

PARTS OF SPEECH.

Derivative, and Primitive.—Etymology.

Of Advcrhs.

Adverbs may be formed, from verbs, by affixing to the root the Particle (\) la, thus,

yvS r)jn^ to be good. badly. ^ jan, to be bad. C^ (V) 7«'* ^Q!} cautiously. ^\ gijiim, to be cautious. C^\ ^ ^.y"''* ^"j

tirm. (foHi /«, strongly, firmly. (<$ torn, to be strong, to be (<$ ^

^ zak, to be right. ^ ^ s'rt/t la, rightly, correctly.

ryam la, handsomely. XSfi^ ry0.711, to be handsome. \V{ ^

(^v son, to be dry. ((a** ^ *"« ^<'> tlryly.

^ slid, to be wet. ^ (V) s/^eZ /«, wetly.

i(^ choncf, to be swift. <(^ (\> f'Z'owr; /(?, swiftly. A

pronunciation. y^'^ ^'') pronouncing correctly. ^ jel, to have correct ^ (^

Some Adverbs thus formed, may take a prefixed Particle or Syllable, thus—

(\> ^« ^«j full, brimful. (3 5«, to be full. ^ CV) 7"«-^'« ^")

(S ^> (jal la, \ ^ ^«/, to disappear. disap2)earingly. 5«-^«^ la, O^ C^ ^ ) —

( 67 )

separately, '^^ separate, to be separate. 5*kV A

to be distinct. stinctly, clearly. S^ _(///,

1 (/3 nolt, to be black. blackly

««"// ^^'' <^( CV> ) straightly. */c)( ««"i7) to be straight. 4/^\ (/^( ^> nunff-nanffla, j expressed by The last two are examples of words that may be adverbially a-mk means of the Substantive or Adjective prefixed particle i?( a ; thus, X( (/^ ^( 4, a-«« wa/, or, (/^ ^ ^( make ; 5( or, 4/^( ^ ()c» mng la tho, to place straight. But many Adverbs, though thus formed, possess no verbal root, the following are examples :

^\ ^\ (\> jmr-shu la, untidy, slovenly.

(I (\) tot la, I unpolished, roughly.

la, 5} (^ ^> i'M>--^o^ ) outwards. ^ 5^( (\) fo-(7d?- ^a, curved

slightly ajwrt. ;3 (65^ ^> /'a-^rro/^ 7«,

(^ *^^ ^ s«-r/« Za, convulsively, spasmodically.

centre, ventricose. y^\ (f" ^> rum-rom la, bulging out in

' < ... p\ gV ^ fuJc-fijek la, worn by friction.

^'^-''^ standing on end, bristling up (as hair), &c. r' fC (V^ ^«>

sa-cZw fo, slowly. C*** %^ W

^\ (^ ^ tum-tom la, swollen out. 7 — — ;

( 68 )

Adverbs may also be formed by reduplication, or, by tlie addition of a chime

word, with or without an epenthesis, thus,

<(C*^ y *(<>^ y ^°"y "^« ^'"^.5' '"'S^'i reverberating, resonantly.

)o( y ()c» y thar ra tlior ra, scattered about, here and there.

*^( *^( ^"«'' J<^^'': curling, twistingly. ra Icdr ra, •^( y •^( X' Mr ) i i i^ -^ -^ «^ /?,y«/i: lea hjah Tea, pointed, tapering to a jJoint.

(*£>J ("^ Icryimi krijlnn, unitedly, concordantly.

//^wwi, tfil "^ifi» %a«i w^ff quietly, smoothly, gently and noiselessly.

5^ (^ (6 W ^^'^'^ ^<* *^"'^ ^®; confusedly, higgledy-piggledy, hurley-burlcy.

Adverbs may likewise be sometimes expressed by the reduplication of a sub-

stautive, thus, sa-aydJc, a day, 3?l^( sa-ayak sa-aydic, daily ^ ^( (^ 2d^( (^ ; /^( .... > >> Kri/K, year, «d»« ?«aJH., yearly tok, a drop, Uk tok, drop a /3( /3( ; (^ (^ (^ by drop,

guttatim.

Sometimes verbs in the Participle form may be made to qualify other verbs

hence performing the duty of Adverbs, thus

^ ngak, to look, to observe, ^ i9"'k luwj lum, to walk circumspectly

(•Aj krijom, to agree, to accord with, (-Aj <(\)\ ^A kryom lung zuk, to act in concert,

unanimously; o-^ c/»'h^, to think, to consider, o-^ 4(V)N M\> c////(_(/ lung U, to

speak with reflection ^o, to rejoice, to be glad, <^>\ ^d /wh^ ?Hdi(, to do ; (^ ((^ ^( joyfully, gladly ()- «yo/«, to grudge, t(\>\ to give begrudg- ; (> 5(V W"^ ^""J hh

ingly ()^ ro, to fear, ''^ ^'^^^9 noiig, to go in fear, tremblingly. ; (T"*CV^^ *U«)

A Substantive with a postposition, may also qualify the verb, thus

2^( £^ «^( (3( (i-,//M^ Z'd ham, to live in sloth, sluggishly.

((/ 5^ ^N -(jj khor-de nun zuk, to act with prudence, prudently.

C*^( iTj /^^ <\A suk-rgut nun Iguk, to jump through joy, joyously. —

( 69 )

X( <}^ /^)^ j(^ d-thang nun li, to speak with truth, truly, truthfully.

sdn-lat nun tsu/c, to bear with patience, patiently. C**'( ^ /€)^ (O

d-njen set chin hji., to inform with gentleness, gently. S( ^ C*** ^^ j(V

The particle (\) fo, affixed to an adverb, gives intensity, thus

(f^ Jo( sa-tlui, when, ^^/^z )o( (\) sa-thd la, always, ever.

^«-W, where, *^''^'^' ^n^ (3( C**' 0( (V) ^'-h everywhere.

^^^'^j n-^'<»^j &c., are examples of Primitive C( X( <^ '^-"Z^'') S(*')(\) Adverbs, having no verbal root, and no adverbial particle affixed. The following is a list of

Adverbs, Primitive and FoiTuative.

Adverbs of Time.

{^ Jo( sa-thd, when. C^^^i (Ci ^T^J ^a-^^id go-rung, whenever, whensoever.

(^ }o( (y> sa-thd la, always, ever.

-(>( cha, just, just past. -^C X( ^^ ^'^^«' d-lang, just now (past).

fl-^""y) i^o""'- «-/a^'y do, even this X( •^(V S( *'")CV) (% now, moment.

^( ^ a-?;^^, presently. ^ ^ i'«/i; /(/, immediately.

y" &3 ^ ^'^ ^^' shortly, in a few days, ren, since.

first. na-hdn, before, •Jf( /i««, before, {^ \fi^ ] reviously.

(3JU ago, before, some time ago. 22^'( aga, before, formerly, a long time ago.

«>/(tii-»(i agan-na, long in S^ /O S^ /t) long ago, former times, anciently.

fl-?o?«, after, afterwards. d-sa A"d, in X( ((\) ^( -ff •^( future.

X( (^ 0( ''"^^ ^^) these times, now a days.

X /«)^ jX5V (V "'' liun pgil la, henceforth, henceforward.

C**' *(3*'' sa-tshong, when.

J3y( ^%d, j ; in a short time, ere long, presently.

J3i;( (V) 2^%d /«, ) 18 ( 70 )

^ ^ /^ /^ V ''^«'" a-lain, occasionally. (^(^ (jo-fjo, 'Ri.k Slk (^ J > sometimes.

^''-^"' X( ^)$ a-taiuj, often. (<^ C( )

''"'^ ^"^5 0( 0( ijy tm-ns, over and over again, repeatedly. I ^"'^ OC (V 0( ^ ^''^ ^« ^«' ^ /^ (^ K« la, ^ C^ M CO ^ 5?^ -?«'•"- '" ^3^,/,«.„», lalwap.ever. ^•^ I ??2« ??^^« Jit;, never.

^ h't, till, until. (y «^o^, early, betimes.

jyJu la, late, too 5W (\) ^^'" ^") ^'''*<^5 behind hand, too late. ^^ ^ late. The following may be considered more as nouns expressed, adverbially by re- duplication, or, by the addition, of another adverb, or, of an adjective or post-posi- tion.

S( ^y\f XC jM^ a-th/jin d-thjln, at times, time by time.

*^( vPO Jcat-tliyin, once, once on a time, some time.

*^( \i^ *^( vP^ hit-tliijin hat-thijin, sometimes.

•^( 5^ hlwi-lhijin, seldom. (^0) j)^ rjrop.thjin, frequently.

many times, oft times. C^^ )J^ ^y'''i'-^%"') ^( ^( •^( kam-init kci, in a short time, shortly, for a short time.

^^.^^ ^( y^ huin-jnit rcn, a shortsi time since, lately.

''"^'^"' X( (P *-^( ^fJ "-i'^'^' at times, sometimes. (P5

X( (P C*^ X( (P^ (i-^^/w 6rt d-ji/io, time by time.

^\ ^ ?/ut let, for a moment, momentarily.

>Cj 0^ >Cj 0^ c/ihu-ts/tal chhu-lsh(cl. hoiu'ly, horaly. ( 71 )

4 t C^ S^( 0*> ^k sa-aijdk sa-aijak, daily, diurnally. ^\ (^ ^\ (^ dun-h-uk diin-hrok, weekly, liebdomadally.

(\> ((^ (\> (^ /«-iio /«-yo, monthly.

nam nam, yearly, /0( /^( /3( (^ ^( Ha>?e >to;- Avi, by cycles of years.

/0( (ZV "^C ««'» y.^*^ -^'fl) % centuries.

-$ 3^ ta-ayan, last year. (^\ (\j sum-hjat, next year.

^ 5^ *^^ **""'^^' '^'''' o ) by day. so-wf//) /I'd, ^ ((^ /;)( ^( by night. <>^\ sa-ivjnm ka, (^ •^( ) O (C*** /t)C (C*** /^( so-««/' so-nap, nightl5^

/^( (^ •^( nap-mo ka, in the evening. ((^ *(^v •^( so-song kd, at dawa.

{^ t(j^ sa-rowj, to day. (^ t()^ (Jo sa-roncj tliok, now-a-days.

^«^"' (v>5 ) <, < , .^ } to-morrow. ^> S -^( //'

(V^3^/«/^/«^/, )

*£-( i(^i»' ••^( kat-tsJwng kd, the day after to-morrow.

•^(;2^( kdt-chham, tlu-ce days hence. •^( (:2C kdt-chhut, four days hence.

i<^-so, c'l/o-fs/ionr/, the $ (C**' yesterday. (^ *(C»*' day before yesterday.

days aijo-chhot, i& y^i (lyo-chham, three ago. (^ (;2f four days ago.

Adverbs of Place.

(^ (3( .sa-Ja, where.

(^ S() s«-6/, where, (nearer and more definite than, ^iiv ()( sa-bd).

C**' 0( (^ ^T' J sa-i« (jo-riing, wherever, wheresoever.

(a^ 0( iV ^^-^'^ ^*) everywhere. (^ 0( /^X sa-W wwre, whence.

X(C( "^''' '^^^^^ 5C 50 ^^'^h liei'e, just here.

tliere. there, just (S0( '^^''i C<§^0 ^-^h there.

X( 0( /Q\ «-^<^ «"«j hence. ^( ()( ^( a-i« kd, hither. ( 72 )

(X 0( fd\ ^-^^ '*""> thence. (S 0( *^C ''"^^ ^"«) tliitliev.

(near) in this direction. there (near), in that direc- X( 5^ '^"•^' ^^^^' (S jt" ''A

tion. •^( 5^ Mt-fi, somewhere, in some direction.

whether, in what way, in what direction. ^ (yj sa-lcm, A, • ** o-^ew, thither, in that way. S( CO «-^t'»*j hither, in this way. (S (V)

^ ^ ^ . on what side. '^^""j on this side. o-Z^ow, on that side. (^ (() s«-Wk, X( (() (^ (^

^( S^3V a-pyin, on the other side, beyond.

S( *M a-thang, above, up, hero. (X *)^C o-thdng, above, up there. X(}^J a-^^'"» above, up above here. iSiY^j o-thu, above, up above there. X( ^3 o.-chhu, below, down here. (^ ;2Cj o-chhk, below, down there.

*''"^<' whither, which way. C**' (W ^ ^"'j

""^'^ hither, this way. o-fo Z«, thither, that way. S( (^^ (^ ^*> (^ ((\) (V)

la, la, ;^c-?0H, i'^pc-lon kun, pe- ^ pc-fo^ ^ ((V) (^ p(?-W^ ;3 ((V) ;3 (^ ^ ^

pc, there, thither, that way, there in that dii'ection, &c.

there, just there. S^ Vh y*^ OC V^-^^i there, thither. "^ PUO'T,

there, thither, yonder. I

in that direction. 5^ 0( PUi-l-vd'h tliere, yonder, yonder. ^i"^ Pl/dp-pa, there, away

'««-^*'. '"^-^^ '«e-^oZ/a, we, X»*e-«, 0(»*«-^«' 50 ^ ((V^ (^ ^«) -^ (CV> (V> ^ ^ ^ ^ "^ A, A» A ^ '^

down there, below yonder, there below (distant). ^ (C^ me-lou,

^-^Simi/il-vdn, ) S^myil, ) , , •^ ° downwards. below, down, under. . a ^ ( 73 )

'"^^'^ ^''^ '"^''^ tlown, far far down below. ^tS^ ^ St5^ (V ^'h

td-thaa[/, above there, up there. ^( ^«> ^( S ''''<^5 ^( Sv ^''"''' ^( 0( ''«-^«) -$( *M

tal-van, upwards, aloft, ou high. ^( (\) /d^ la, u\) above. ^( ^(

^<^"^'') t^^re up, above (high). (^ ^'h ($ (<§ ^^-^) (^ 0( ^P

fo-fo«, upwards, straight upwards. (^ )o\ to-thu, up above, over above. (^ (v\) A A or far). ^\ till, ^\ vV ^«^ ^'') up above, (high A A ''"> f-^o^e, high (or far away) above. $^ (V) ^^ ^ ^«^ ^<' ^"^ A /« A ^ ^\ ^( tul-van, ^\ (-^^ tul-kon, upwards, upward direction.

(•^ c/io, (-^ (S <-'^'!<^-^) ("0 0( '-^''J-^a, down there,

cho-chhii, cho-chhii la cho-chhid la, (^ ^\ cho-chu, {-^ -^K (-^ ;2^j) (\) (-^ ^j ^ down there below, low down, far below.

;'/««/- nigh unto, at hand. X((>» a-tJiul, near. (>o(3( Jd, near,

^f^N ma.nim, for. ^^'^ ^ T^^ ma-rum ma-rum, far far, far away.

to the right. ^''''" '^"'*) to the left. (Z>V "^C ffl/^''"^ ^''h >0 "^C

The following are Postpositions as well as Adverbs.

d-.''i''«, below, X( i.)C^ a-plang, above, on, upon. X( J'S under, underneath.

X( (^ (i-/o«, above, over above, over-head. ^\ %( tuk-dam, above, over against.

•sf'-^'"'!'", below, beneath, underneath. C^ 6Jh( within, inside. (ydw^, out, outside, &c. C*** *i)(^ s«-^«"^) <(^(

Adverbs of Quality and Manner.

0^ (W sft-fo, ^>v (^\> sa-lom, how, in what manner.

rt-^ci'«) this way, this manner, thus, so. ()-/c»w, that manner, that way. 2( CCV^ (^ (^ A

•^'''"^'^ sa-Zo^ any way, any manner, ^ CW ^ ^"' ^ ^^^^ ^ ?«, every wa3% 19 ( 74 )

C*' ((^ ((^*r'3 ^"^'' go-rung, any way wliatsoeyer.

O*' ((\) <.)(^ CS> sa-h gang la, straightly. uprightly, */t)( (V) "'"'i/ ^<^j evenly, 2 straightforwardly, fairly,

^Ci W y ^*) divergingly, obliquely. 2 dishonestly, basely. [honestly.

)(\) (\) //«^ /«, slopiugly, inclinedly. 2 favouringly, partially, unfairly.

0( (\) ^'''^ ^«) across, athwart. (^\>^f!J^^<: ^«> transversely, intersectingly.

2;^ ^ ilijar-ra, i:)arallel with, along side of. ^ (\) pra /«, abreast.

(^ (^ (/o/:> la, \ ^\ (\) tulc-fijm la, horizontally. _ (^ _ — — ' opposite, vis-a-vis. ^ <^''y«"^ ) <^^ ^^ ^«) vertically.

C**' (SS (\) ««-^'"2' ^«j obliquely, sideways. ^{ ^ /7o /«, straightway, directly.

«)^^ ("€- llning-kon, length-wise. i(X5V (-^ fijmg-lcon, breadth-wise. *^ < < < •^ (*^ (V) /^""-^o/^ ^«, crookedly, winding. (^N 0" (y) 52<^"->'^" la, taperingly.

}°( /t) J*^ /D tltan-na ihjan-na, unevenly, irregularly. i(Ci ^ ^'^''"y ^«> evenly.

(^ ^ '"'^"2 ^«) strongly, stoutly. X^ W ^'^" ^'^^ weakly, feebly.

j6 (V) ^^"'''^ ^«j tiglitly. <^\ t(^ ^ hnmg-hrgong la, loosely.

rd\ y /0^ T' "«'-'« nur-ra, gently, mildl}-, calmly.

«C ??ye« la, gently, meekly, good-naturedly. ^ C^/ i(^ (V) sa-gang la, gently,

• «• smoothly, softly, slowly. f^\ -^ /^\ -^ num-ma num-7na, softly, velvety.

^ (\> ^ (\) ^''^^ ^« y*'^ ^«j soft, sleeky, silky. '^\ (^i ^jmr-mU la, knotty, rugged.

>" yeng.nga, iE y *5 yc^'U-nga leisurely. X ^ ^"'«'' ^«; deliberately.

ngol ngol, slowly, lazily, sluggishly. (5^ i'^ t^?#\^ 6rt-r/« /«, slowly, gently.

0^ *£v( W sa-kgdm la, gently, quietly, silently, tacitly. /»^ /«- /«- C _ /*r /*r (j^grarn, ) quickly, if ^ if ^ /lai-la hal-la, I'^i^til}', 2:)assionatcly. /.. /w 1 nM ^ ^ ^^ 111 : ^ y^'"'" pa-het la, 65) 6^ ^'""^J ) speedily. 7^ "^ ^ ( 73 )

*£^( (^ ^""W ^'^'j excitedly, nervously. ^ ^ //•«/« la, anxiously, apprehensively.

roughly, ruggedly. gry6n-na, harshly, gratingly. ^ 0)3 ^^ i'«-^''«^ ^«) (^;j ^ /« • _ _ 4( ^ ~'^>i-na, harshly, oppressively. (-^ (\) e/w;« Za, oppressively, tyrannically. i < (^ (\> (/o/f la, conformably. ^^ ^ hjalc la, contrary to, reversely.

po /a, becomingly, befittingly. C*** *^( (\) s«-^"«'* Z«, suddenly, abruptly. (^ ^

C>*' (^^^ (V sa-li/on la, suddenly, unexpectedly, startingly.

iA*'( <$ ((V) ^ suk-ta-lo la, unconsciously, absently. 2 by chance, accidentally.

(^ ^j'oni la, easily, with facility. (^^^ ^jo-dila, conveniently, opportunely.

%\ /^\ (7«7i: «;<», "^ ^\ ^\ Ica-tuJc nun, with difficulty, laboriousl}', trouble-

[dubiously. somely. ^ (\> (y^/jW /«, with difficulty, embarrassingly.

bewilderingly, perplexingly. (}o go-thoni la, doubtfully, iC^ ^ •f/^"'''^ ^^'t {(^ (^

-^'^^ ''^''^ fickly, shilly-shally. (CV ^^ ("^ iV ^* ^'^'j changeably,

(^ ^ jcm la, neatly, tidily. ^\ ^j (^ mun-jk sa, awkwardly, clumsily.

t(^ (^ myong la, skilfully, masterly. ^V( ^ mya la, diligently, devotedly.

*(^ ^J""9 ^"; by practice, through experience. <(p^ ^^««^-»y«, superficially.

(J (\> Mcr Za, skilfully, dextrously, adroitly, expertly, aptly. '^

0^ "0 (\) sa-chen la, sjiontaneously. c)i3) (V) P^'f^^^O ^^j simultaneously.

"'^"^ coucordantly, unanimously. A"o/^ Za, unitedly. (^ (V^ ^'^ (^ ^ "5 U' (^ >««->'o do, naturally, of one's self.

^ (^ (0 $^ ^"'^^ ^*^^ ^"^^ *^f one s own will, through one's own accord.

*^^ f/, \ only, simply, merely, ^( ^ pd-ta, vainly, fruitlessly,

^' gratuitously. uselessly, protitlessly, 5^ (V ^'') )

iS^ (^ tl'iy-J(>k, at length, at last. ^( (^ •«^( a-tyol: ha, in conclusion, finally. ( 76 )

Adverbs of Degree.

,. .. ^ o » ^ A"aw 20H, only a little. ^4i ^^^^ ^"''''» ^"») o^^^y ^( ham, a little. ^( (-jf -^N -C^C

^^^"^^ ™*^^'^' a very little. J^ ''-^"j ™oi'C) jet- 5^ ^^ * '^''' ^°^^^' ^'^* and again. S^ ^( *)^ "'^ "''' *' ™oi'<^ ^^^ more, agaiu

^\ ^ piir-tset. ;3\ Ofi' puy-tshet, partially, moderately. -^ ^ . . , t/yowi Z«, comparatively. {^ (y> ro« /(/, middling, moderately. (^^ (y)

S^ ^ ^/ la, greatly, largely. -^N ^ dm la, smally, minutely.

-^( chd, -0( •^( cArt c/id, <(

-^^ i > ^'<5 sufficiently, satisfyingly, amply, }o( ^^ //;<(/; /«, ((j[> (^ /^V^z/'V^ ^«) (C^ ^y*^^

la, additively, supplementarily. adequately, plentifully. ^ (\) ^«w .. > pum-brom la, ^ (^ (^ PC'-P^ ^"} proportionately. ^\ ((\ (V) disproportionately.

a-tI/>/il d-thf/il, successively, $)^ ^ %'^ ^"' X( j}^ S( J^^ consecutively,

respectively, specifically. y^ y re re, f^ (\) rcl la, each, A, A, A,

6^6^ .s7«<^-/rt shal-ta, one by one, drop by drop.

'""'" ^'^^ ^""y ^^^> decreasingly, abatingly, attenuatingly. ^C ^ <0( ^ ^'^•'*^J

(J3V ^ p}J^>n la, decreasingly, collapsingly, defectively.

i«i; la, incrcasnigly, augmentmgly, developuigly. (3 (^ (^ ^ e/if>/; /«, in ad-

dition, over, above, in excess. <(^ (\) ro??^ /«, abundantly, plentifully, profusely.

^'''''^'^ ^'' ^'^"^' supcraljundantly, (X ^ (X (V) ^"1 0^\^ ^^ ^'"•^ ^''' redundantly.

/O "«'") ^ "5 nam-ma, /Q /^ ««/« h«^//, 5^( ^ mjak-ka, much, very, very

much, exceedingly, excessively, extremely. (/^ ^ no-met, too much.

^ -\)(i-'«-cZ!(W-, almost, nearly. (-A^ ^ A-yyo/ /«, almost, nearly all, about. "y? ( )

X(Ci)j o-Uim, more, mostly, chiefly, principally, especially. o o Y^ 7^ J*^ 7S iliycp-pa thjcp-pa^ perfectly, effectually, consummately, thoroughly.

^'^ plmk-lca^ jJ3 ^( *^ pJiin-cUk-ka, "^^ ^ ^;^«? fo, altogether, completely, entirely, absolutely, utterly, downright, outright.

(X-S om-ma, wholly, entirely, completely, integrally, bodily, en masse.

C^\ (%i (jun-na, all, every, whole, entirely. ^\ ^( (\) gun-jam la, {^\ ^( ^ 5i«?;?-

jam la, all, wholly, totally. <^ ^ tijancj-nrja, altogether, entirely, completely.

(^ ^ ^/io/i: fo, perfectly, the utmost, culmiuatingly, to an acme, to a climax. ft

^'^; completely, perfectly, completively, finally. ^C (V) i^''*^

Adverbs of Interrogation,

as, has already been shown, are expressed by (^ shu, what ? ^JU' (i\) sa-lom, how ?

C**' 0( s«-^rt, where ? ^[iv (V sa-lem, ^^ ((\) sa-lon, whither ? ^iv }"( sa-tha, when ?

And compound, by, ^3 ^( shu-niaf, why, wherefore? ^;U'((\)(2^sa-foyo, how is it? i

^;iv *"'''^ i^ what way ? s/^i tun-du/c mm, T" ^-^ (Oi ^""i/ i'") ^^ ^\ (^ /^\ ^J

(•^ /3^ *'^'" ^"^'* ^^"'^j for what reason, for what purpose, for what cause ? &c.

Adverbs of Affirmation and Allegation are chiefly formative, thus, ^ ak, yes, ay, yea. ^-^ ak ma, S *^ "0 /*) ^^'^'^

c/ie ««, yes, it is so, it certainly is so, &c.

"^*'''' X( (^ iC^ ^'^'^ U°i ((\^ iC^ ^"^ U'^) 5^ ^ ^^ ^^'^* ^* ^^ ^''j ^^ ^^ ^'^' ^0 ^^ ^t) '^c.

(or (oi" certainly, (^ ^( 5'«i'«> (63 C5 5'''i^'')) S^ 0( ^'Z/«« ^^h S'^\ 0( «^'"« ^«)>

truly, it is so, it is certainly, &c. ((\) lo, certainly, surely, undoubtedly. ^ far ^-' -^ n=- /*- (}o ^ (y) ^/!o/t c/i/iwif fo, (q ;2f (^ /so cliliatla, certainly, surely, assuredly, positively,

indubitably. ^N «(«, exactly, precisely, Avhat else.

40 — —

( T8 )

la, truly, X( i)^ a-ilm\(j, ip > thing-nfja, S(5> X(<8 «-^/'«»y '^-Z^'J»y> VC W ng6.

verily, really, indeed, actually, in fact, in good truth.

The Negative Adverb

No, is expressed by ^^ f^ ma-ne, ^i^ man, ox ^^mdii-ne. Other forms of negation will be hereafter given.

The qualifying term may be often expressed in the verb, thus

d//6r, agaimt. ^( pli?/d, to break asunder, to tear apart. (3^ to lean

to meet round, to circumYent. (>- nrfol, to put «s«(fe, (^ (7yo?j, to swell out. ^ vai, ;&, t to put OM^ 0/ the tvaij. (^ ^or, to ward of, to guard ar/ainst. $ tck, to knock at/ainst, to stumble ar/ainst. ((^ tsho, to take correct aim, to shoot 2&c^^.

pla, to issue forth. (PJ' j;/io^, to burst out. C^

-^ chcn, to cut o/^c», to dmcct. ()o ^/io^, to separate from, to (detach.

^st«, tor/etlicr, to (•^ e/^o???, to be drawn torjethcr, to be eo»?pressed. QX to meet conjoin.

5r( Md, to cut through toith one stroke, i^ ^ozy, to cut smoothly, evenly.

\\j thyak, to spring iqnvards. (^ klyot, to leap oi'cr. )o thet, to jump doion, 6;c., lye.

2. Of Poslpositions.

The Part of Speech, which in European languages is generally represented by

Prepositions, is in Lcpcha chiefly expressed by Postpositive particles or words.

These may be simple or compound, may be formed by the aid of adverbs, substan-

tives, or verbs, or may be unexpressed, the tense being inherent in the verb.

Under the head of the Declension of nouns, some of the simple Postpositions

have already been shown. But ^^ m, -^ik'l, /0^ ^^2"^ besides bearing various ap])]i- —— —

( 79 )

cations, possess in their quality of Postpositions, other significations than merely

those indicating the cases of nouns, for instance

Cvif sa, of, im^jlies also—for, with, along with, in, belonging to, regarding, con-

cerning, with respect to, &c, thus,,

the palace the king. ^ (/O C**' i^ ^CT' pa-no sa plm-ruwj , of

^)o ^^ ^;iv ^ tliang sliancj sa sho; a glass for drinking out of.

"^ ^ so so sa ma wjui ne, there is no food /or eating.

0( C*^ (V' ^'''* *^' nr/ot, to cut vjith a knife.

^J (^ ^( (6 ska sa par slio, tvHh what shall I buy it ?

\f\ C^ *(7«) (6 ^"' *''' "'^"y '^^^^j I shall go luith [alone/ tvith) him.

(^ (tf- C**' -^ 0( /D (^ ^^ ^^" ^^^ "^* ^'^'^ "'^^ ^^'''j I shall not live ?y/;'/i you.

\f\ O^ 2?(^( 5^ ^"' ^'^' o-'^JUk^ '^Wh lie has much hdongincj {app&rtammj) to him.

W (E C**' ^ 0( "5^ ^*'^<' ^* *^^f' ^'^"* ^"""> li'^G not in [in connection with, or, in

performance ofj sin.

C^ C**' X( 5^^ ^^' ^^ o.-gyit, a generation o/ frclated toj vijiers.

X( 6j (O" C**' in 6>3 ^ CJ^ (6 «-^'* ^'^^''^'^'^ ^« ^"' ^?<«-?2a %o s/io, he will listen

to all respecting (or conccrningj your affairs.

(S T' C^ C^ V iC^ S( (% jM r" o-''<^ sa sa-re go d-dom li re, xoitli reference

to (^tvith regard toJ that which I sjooke to you of.

(•€- (6W ^Cr' C*^ (^ '''^<^'" illjofa-ngo sa on, a horse ^yor//^ {tvortlvj of) five hundred

rupees.

«^( A"d, to, also, —on, upon, over, in, at, for, for the purpose of, in case of, in the

event of, in order that, &c., thus,

^\ O^ "^C i(^ ^"' ^^''^9 ^'^ "^'^ li® ^^s gone to the plains.

*j^ ^ *^^ (^ s/i/rt^-^e A'a ^/w, place it ?«/yoM the table.

*$N ("^ •^( '^^ tung-h'om ka dga, lay it o?« the floor. ( 80 )

^"a tho, clotli over the child. X( *^^ *^( %^ ^T'C (J** a-^"Mi' dum rang spread the

iX" •^( Jo( roMi /:« thap, put it m (or, intoj tho box.

\ )c» /«( d-s(j;« a-than d-gydp ka ham, he lives in (or, •Jf ^( (^ 3?( ^( (j^{ ^( (3(

?'« //ic midst ofj plenty.

^ ^( sJiu ka, for what '? for what purpose ? "^ ^ . , (-(f ^( •^( (/^ so jidr kd nbn, gone fo buy [for the purpose o/" buying) rice.

^ *^( (^ <(V^\ (5 w^f''^'^ ka pvk lung bp, take aim and fire «^ the target.

(S T^ (^ C^ *€( ''''^ to-tshat ka, at that time.

X( T^ 0^ 2^( "^C ""'"^ sa-ayak ka, on this day.

^\ -^ ^5^ t/^\ ^( (^ i(^ ^\ /i!« ma di nimg ka lib nbng khu, in case of (or, in

the event ofJ his not coming you can go.

4ij *^( W ^( -" ^"'^ *<"" 5'^'^) ^'^ 0''^ order to) live, you must eat.

/^\ «?»?, from, by, also, —with, out, out of, and sometimes, through, on account of.

ri f^\ C^^ifd *€-(i^<'^ nun gga-nbk ka, from Tibet to China.

'""^ to //<>;« <(Xi^( /l)^ C^ ^U''"^0 i^^) depart the place.

J^( 0^ (7)i\ X( T^ J^( tlidm-lu nun a-rc ihd, this is eaten Ig insects.

(^ "^ C>^\ fdi\ {Y^ ^'" ka-su nun thop, you obtained it from me.

* /*- 'O < /*^ S-^ /^\ 2^( mi nun dk, pluck it out o/tlio fire.

a-renundak Mm, through [on (^ X( r' /ON '^ 0( 9'^ account of, owing to) this, I

am sick.

These Particles, though capable of giving expression to the above extended sio-- nifications, are by no means the sole mode whereby such terms may bo expressed.

As Particles of Declension, however, they necessarily form an important part of speech, and are generally brought into conjunction with other words forming compound Postpositions. ( 81 )

The following are some examples of Postpositions ('with applications).

'^(i)C d-jjianff, on, upon. iX( (^ X( ^^ hlang-lco a-plang^ upon the shelf.

X(OC«^( a-phmg l:a, on, over, above, moreover, besides. [gave clothes

SCC-if XC*-)^ *^( ifV^^ J^ «"~^'" d-plang Jed Im dumhgi, besides food, he

jT' (<^ X( ('^ J^Vk ^ (>^ S( '^^ *^( ''% ^" "''''^'" ^* *'^ -5" o.-plang M, over

and above, the words which I spoke to you.

2?C (^ c'l-ion, over, above. (V(*(S X(($ 'Wv ()^ /a-o«^ d-/o« %«« tlio, hang it over

the lamp. ^( )aj^(

$N5^( tulc-dcim, above, over against. t^jS" T ^^C^ Ki^l^ *' ^\i^

^'^ ha. Jcyong tuk-dum ding iigi, the fortress

on a hill, over against the town.

S( 5"^ ''"'"'"' under, underneath. (^( ^^(i SCj^ //ya-Zi ''<«'-»"'«, below the chair.

^ c/i/w a-min, underneath the book.

^(i-gi'dm, below, under. /a^ sa-gram, C**' (^"^C ^ (^ ^( below the ground.

'''^'^ sa-gram iing-da CX 0^ O*' 6C>\( ^Sj*^ %( 5^ ^" da ngi, a lake lay at the

lase of the hill. /© /O /© /© H«-/^r/«, before. a-/o?i, after. '^-'"^ /^ ^( X( ((\) X( f S( ^ /D if ( «-/ya?J sa

na-hdn, before this event. ((^ <(o^ X( (^V ^o-song a-lon, after day-break.

«'-^«<^, 2'«<^, beside, '«* ^ut ngdn-na, sit beside the fire. X(-(f^ -if A j^ -^\ ^( /3

dguj}, /;« dgaj? no o, liim. y^ along with. ^\ ^^ (^ ( j^, go along with

^ tet, to, till, until. 2^(^ /^\ X(^ ^ d-gak mm a-tel tet, from top to bottom. ^- < _ » /^ .

'"'^'^'^ i'^i '"'"^^ ^'^^ ^'^ death I am yours. ^( $ ((^0 S( (% C*** j5^ 9'^ "^') /^ < -^ J, ^ C^f('^ ^"; throughout. ^^ S^ fy (\) sa-nyi fak la, throughout the day.

X( ^J n-//""! without, void of. ^{,^4 0^ ^\ ^iCij '^"*<'"' *« <^''""* d-guii, with- out food or clothes.

21 ( 82 )

^( man, ^i (^ man-pu, ^( }7iaf, except, besides, save. ^\ -^(^3 XCH^J 4^

(0 (^ ^ "5 S^^ (^ '*""* man-p6 a-ryum zuk ho to la ma mjin ne, except God,

there is no one tliat doetli good. [I have nothing.

shit la mjin ne, except rag iC^ ^\ (5^ "^C 6j W "5 j^ t7) .'7'' dum-Jdok mat ma a

^( (() rt-Jo?«, on this side, cis.

the river.

"' S(5^^ d-juy/«, on the other side, beyond, trans. ^(((^ 'Siji^i/^^'^"^'^^^^"

pi/in, beyond the ocean.

^^y^ pa-hli/ok, astride. (^ ^(XV 0Hpa-hI>/6k, astride the horse.

across. kihif/ lum prat la da, the tree lay across ^( (V) P''^^ ^*j <«^^ ((\) ^( (^ ?^( the road. 4^ ^( ^ ((\ vijeng prat la hrul, bar it across the door.

< /a inside, amongst, amidst. a-foh sa-gang t**' •^(^ sa-gamj, within, X((^ 0^ ^C^ f^\

mm, from amidst the debris. ^^ O^^C^ ^' sa-gang, inside the house.

<^( lyang, out, outside. ^\(^

/''*'' ""^'^ a-^'^c^-, between rails. S((V (i-i.ye/f, between, betwixt. JD^VO S((V the

5^/, towards, in the direction of. (5^j^ -^i ngbtfikd, in the direction of the (cultivated) fields, jl^j^ J^ pa-likfi, towards the open grounds. (^ kon, towards, in the direction of, for, on account of, regarding, resjiecting, with

reference to, &c. /0(5( (\^ (^ (W j^ (V) «" ^'' hrom km I6m dl le, come ^ _ let us walk towards the market. 2?( Ej ("^ (6i X( r' "^( 0( «-^'< klm go d-re

for you I am doing this. m&t Urn, (^ /^^ ^(^'3 if) 5^*^^ ^^ ^^ 5^ 0(

(t-^iiw/, ha (^ ^f\ t**' ^( ("^ j(\) ^'^ """ mik-krdp ham gang It ha go hu sa m(xk

hbn li, when I said to you that lie slcepctli, I spoke with regard to his death. —

( 83 )

kon shu gom-thom la ma nyin ne sa-re gyu ka sa-thd la ma mat tun, with reference to

sin there can be no doubt under {-^( kd,) any circumstances never commit it.

The above examples are likewise adverbs, and may be directly conjoined, or

with the exception of such as have the adverbial Particles affixed, (as, ^ (\) fak laj,

or are affixes in themselves, (as, ^55-/^ —may be connected to the noun by a relative

Particle, thus, ^J(^ XC^-)^ 0^ pun-hroj} d-plang tho, or, (> §( c)C: ()o sa a-plang < •• < ., /-^ or, U tuk-ddm, or, S*-iV ^J %( C;U/ ^J 5^( sa tuk- (Idm, over against the house, &c.

'S^4\ «-^«'j is an adverb, adjective, or postposition, and literally means, close, near to,

soj ""-'"'' 5^ ^-^ "" S^ ^ ^^"^3 "" '^^ ^^'^"^' ^^ '^) *^^ "^ ^"^ A-a,—all

imply—beside, close to, nigh to the fire.

The following are examples of Postjiositions formed from nouns : c /-^ 'if /•-• (^ ^( lam ka, (from X( ^ a-lam, a substitute) in room of, in place of, instead of. c /^ X( y ^ *^( (S T' (0 "-''^ ^"^" ^'« '''^ ^'^j instead of this, give me that.

•€-yr§ *^( kur-vong kd, {-C\

X(*(Zb *^y(0 *^( Md-gong kur-vmg kd, in front of the temple.

5^\ •^( f/«« Z-a, (honorary presence), before, in presence of.

^"« (6) iJ5 (/^ ^_N •^( H/0 0( U^ i^«-«^ '^«« "<^''^ ^^'">h I aiii going before (into

the presence of) the king.

^ 6^3 *^( /«-^w'» kd, (<$ {;33 ^«-y"'«) the back), behind, at the back of, in the rear of.

6^ (0 ^ C^J *^( g^^'^i-^o ta-giim kd, behind the monastery. t,Qxi -^C nong kd, {iQ^ nong, the interior), inside, within, among, amongst, amidst.

«-/''^'^ a-^" nmg kd, some X(5*^V S( E3 *(70 -e^C among you. ^CT C$" C^) i(73 ^( d-re j6k pro nong ka, in the midst of this tumult. —

( 84 )

tlirough, of. *£- ^^ ^* '"'"; (froca S(*€- ''•'^'''j *^^^ hand), by means

thop^ I it of (through (^ -Jf N ^iv •^ /^N ()<> go hu sa ka nun obtained by means him

his patronage, power, authority).

^<^'» ^<^'") a road), (W ^^ ««") (((\) through, by means of. ^;3' ({) (^ (v\> /^N

(JipC ))^ (^ 7^^ ^(^ '5« ^(^«* ««« Jcha-chhet thik sko, the contract will be executed,

through the medium of an agent. Q\ ((\) -^ >5^ /^ ii<« /<;?« ?«« nr/in nc, there

is no mode (way) of carrying it.

<^J^( '[ynw^, (a place), of, the object of, the means of. y( i^i^{ ngan hjdnij, a place

for sitting, a sitting place. )^i ^( (5C X( Sv} *(\!lK ^ ^^ ^ /Q^ 5^ (^J

tham-cliunfj (jun-na lea nu?n-skh}i-v//o u-fijum hjmg c/uiii, to all animals, man is an

object of awe.

^ m?, since. X( (^ j6 T^ (<* O XC^OkJC C^J ifd /T) fl-'^<^»« «^"' ''"^ fo-^/"'^ "-y^'V^

This word is evidently a synizesis of the article, X^ re, and the postposi-

tion, nun so, the sentence may be written ' from the time I f^\ ; above ; saw

you.' &c. It is also a Conjunction (see jiage 87).

Also the Postposition may be affixed to the verb, thus— ()o thor, to be free;

()o i^j( ^ jC^ (7) iJt'>^ (^''«y "'« «y2« ne, there is no means (way) of escaping.

The verb -^( mat, is productive of numerous compound terms, thus

mat ha, QX ?nm ?«ai! iri, waiif Z'ti, ^( (3( ^( ()( ^ ^( ()( sa ^( ()( ?«a7 ^'aw,

•^( Y'm trrn, through, by means of, by reason of, &c., (literally, through being

done). •^(X*') i^) ^( C( ^"«-^" ««« ""^''^ ^"') through me. C^ (^ C*' ^iOi

\f\ iSj*('£i' (i^^ 5rt-j»'> sa mdl hi hu uDfj-kijonf/ hyok, by means of a raft he crossed

('S^ the river. ^^ f^\ ^( (3( (or, ^( y^) /«-67ie t/o nun mat ban, (or, ?«(»/ r(;«),

through, by means of Tashe himself ( 85 )

The following are a few examjoles of postpositional terms, conveyed in the sense

of the verb. [to transfer.

^-(1 cliim^ to pour over anything. 5^( ddl^ to pour from one vessel into another.

(^ tot, to hold between the teeth. i(^ tong, to be covered with dirt.

{^ set, to stick iuto^ to 2'«sert. XV ryem, to exult over^ to triumph over another.

3. — Of Conjunctions.

Conjunctions are expressed simply or compositively. They may be primitives,

or verbal formatives, or they may be rendered by Adverbs or Postpositions,

and may be Co-ordinatives or Subordinatives, according to the relation they bear in

the sentence.

The Copulative Conjunction, —and—is expressed by the Particle C**' ^<^j thus,

(^ 0^ (63 (5C *(/«) (6 ^^^ ^« y^ c^'J'^ ""«,!7 5^'*') you «"'^ I will go together. 4^((-^

O*' C**'(

shet nyim ho gum, the elejjhant and rhinoceros are great «hc/ strong animals.

The Conjunctive Particle is often repeated after the connected word, this may

have been affixed to effect a distinction between (^ sa, the Postposition, and (^ sa,

the Conjunction the two conjunctively also ; represent the co-relatives, both—and,— thus, (^ ^ (63 5 ho sa go ya, might be understood to mean— I know you (about concerning you)— but the repetition of the (^ sa, removes all ambiguity, so, (^

^^" *^' ^^ *" y^^i ^^'^ I ^^^h know hence, the C^ id C^ t ^J"> ; above examples may

be written, i<^((^ tydng-mo (> O (^ (> ^'U-C SCj^ (>*' 6 J'^^ (0 Ci) sa

sa-Iok sa tham-chang d-tim sa shct nijim ho gum, hoth the elephant, and rhinoceros are 4, ^^ z*^ animals great and strong; or, t

tydng-mo sa sa-l6k thdm-chang d-tim sa shet C**' ^^ nyim ho sa gum, the elephant and rhinoceros are animals, both great and strong. 22 ;

( 86 )

and sentences. X\ mi, is a co-ordinative conjunction chiefly connecting clauses Qo It bears also an additive sense and implies, yet, still, &c., thus— t(^ (/^ ^^

^^"^ """ "'^ to-tshat ghjang U yan-tan ($(> i-6bii <( 12 (> C^^ ^0 >3 ^^ ""^ sa phyuk bo ngun mm, the child grew up, and in the course of time, became learned and wealthy (>^ ^^ "•''^ P'^^O «« «-^ow, ««(7 after these things ; X^ X( T' O X( (W

W'* *^'^^ (give more). X^ (0 ^'^J y^^' S^^^ under The Comparative Conjunction, ^ ^ct?, than, —has already been explained head of Degrees of Comparison (page 32).

The Conditional Conjunction, if, provided—is expressed by the verbal Particle

^"-^ «^« ^^'<^j think, ^(^ gang, thus— (^ S^-^ ijC^ C^iifd (^ ^« ^^"«y O^'^ff ^f J^^ you will remember.

Its Correlative,—also, likewise—is represented by the emphatic Particle (\) la,

the word, gun, thus, ^( <.)^ (or, (^ AcJ ?wa^ y««^ or, by ^^ (^ ((^ (^ (^ ^J) ^( also. go la, (or, ^o ^'tm,) mdk sho, ifjou. die, I shall die

The Disjunctive Conjunction,—except, unless, —is expressed also by <,)(^ gang, with the verb in the negative, thus, X(E3 ^3 ^ 5^ ^ ^ ^ '^ ^(^ i,^ -^^X

"-^" /"'' ^* 5^"'* ^* '"<'' ^^ '^y^^ ke-chhi sa-re la thyep ^^y^ ^ )iv ^ (/^ /c) P!/^i ff'^^d ma khun ne, unless you diligently and perseveringly strive, you cannot accomplish any great work.

r Ten, since, as. (? <$ ^ IT Ws(^ ^3 (0 ^(& ^5 ^C i^} ^ 5?^ /O ^" '« y« rett o-c?o»> rfwn Jo ihong shk gat tung ma nyin ne, since you know already (or, from the

fact or circumstance of your knowing, &c., see page 84), there is no necessity

to tell you. arc expressive Conjunctions, they imply •?6^ W U^^ff^^i iC^^T'j y-^'^'^i/) —though, although, but, however, yet, albeit, nevertheless, notwithstanding, &c. They at the

their co-relative terms, thus (or, same time include — "^ C^\ ((^ iC^

( 87 )

((^ -^ •^( ^ (^ ka-sum sit ffo-r&nf/, (or, ffanj la,) go ma mat na sho, although, even if

you kill me, yet I shall not do it.

^t y^^ff^ iE yoj t^i^^s, so.

The latter Conjunction, (^ yo, and the verb t§( mat, to do, in connection with

<^c., form a of conjunctive terms, thus ^Ci Sf^^ff) ^Ci (V) ff^'^ff ^^) number compound

if so, in that case, then, (5 ^C^ y^ ff'^i^ffi &c.

although, it so, nevertheless, &c. it ^Ci (V l/^ ff(('iff ^*j be

''*" if it not so, else, elsewise, (^ -^ (^ /^ *r)^ y ff^ '** y^''^) were otherwise.

(E 0( y'^ ^^^y i^ being so, this being the case, &c.

(^ y^ yo ren, since it is so, in that case, &c.

«^ '««« "««^ ^'^^ «'^ ««^ »»"^ ^««- X /3) ^( 0( X ^ ^( 0( X /S) ^( *(\)3

oV nun mat lung. ^ -^( .^( «V ?rtaif ^d, on this account, hence, then, therefore, &c.

(^ ^( y sa mat ren, since, hence, inasmuch as, forasmuch as.

The following are also Simple and Compound Conjunctions.

^i^^ y^^j however, nevertheless, notwithstanding.

?ya, take either this or that. to ... ^ ^ 5^e« la, is a significant conjunction, implying—then, but, yet, still, however, moreover, &c.

^( g&n, is a simple and an expressive conjunction, signifying,—then, after that,

thereupon, if so, in that case, since, therefore, &c.

2 T" «'' ^en, since then, in that case, &c.

^ (!)Ci •^( a'r jo^aw^ ^d, JJ <(\)^J(*^( «''' (yd^y /^ra, on this, thereuijon, consequently, &c.

^ (^ -^^ a'r kon kd, for this reason, on this account, hence, therefore.

i i (^ ^ (?oA; /a, C^ (^ W *** ^<^^ ^'^j *>M 2«»y) as, so, thus, accordingly, in like manner. ( 88 )

shall you reap. 'SiSS "^i i^ ^ ^ i^ ''y" P^^ ^^^ ^* '^^^^ ^'^^' ^^ y*'^ ^°^' ^°

act, so shall ^'^ ()*' '^"^" "^'^^ ^^""^ ^^'"-^^ ^^^^' according as you you X( "^C *')-i^ (^ receive, &c.

The Compound Conjunction—for, in order that, for the purpose of, as already stated under the head of Postpositions, may be expressed by affixing the Particle

verb or it is more fully represented by combining the ^( led, to the root of the ;

'««" Postposition to the Future Participle, thus, ^CT (>* S"^ O ^^ "^i <<^i *(Jd ro sa chit tsak shang kd lydng noncf, to go out for the purpose of inquiring after a per- son's health. It may also be rendered by the nominal postposition <$Y^ *^( iim-dok

Jca, for the purpose of, for the sake of, on account of—so, |f\ (^ (^^ ^X^/OC ^( ^V

(5^ .^( ^\ 5iiv "^^ ^"' ** IdfH pa-?iaj) mat tun-dok ka hum hryim mat, to punish him, for the purpose of improving his ways. It may likewise be exiDressed by the verbal Part- icle ^ ^^ c)^ ta sa yang, the first word preceding the verb, the two latter words suc- ceeding, thus, ^(r'<$ 5( c^ ^t >^( scri'C -^3 '^'^''''^ ^'^p^^' ^^ ^^"-^ ^^'°-'"' ^-^i/f^^ suk, to ornate an article, in order to induce a person to buy it, f^\ )^i'^$ $ O^

num-shim-nijo ta tat sa yang Jum-ho tong, to give alms, iu order to obtain <>)£ ^N (0 *(^

praise of man.

The adverbial Ordinals may be considered to be numerical conjunctions. These

may be expressed by affixing to the cardinal numbers the Agentive Particle (() ho,

or any one of the following nominal suffixes, i^( lydng, (-^ km, ((\) I6m, combined

with the postposition <( kd, thus, ^( (0 -^( ^""'^ ^o ^^a, in the first place, firstly,

^ (0 -^C ''^^'^ *" ^''"' ^ *^^^ *^^ "'^"'^ ^^'^'"^ '^'"' ^ ^"^ *^^ "'^^'^ ^'"" '^'"' ^ ^^ *^( Tliis form bo H_y«^ Z(>?» /id, in the second place, secondly. may also rendered simply,

by aid of the Postposition C>^ sa, expressed as a conjunction, thus, •^( (^ kdt sa,

with reference to the first, firstly, &c. 45$ ((?" -^i, tlng-jik kd, X((

at length, at last, may be also considered to be Adverbial Conjunctions. ( 89 )

Conjunction may be effected by means of the Conjunctive Participles, present,

past or futiu-e ; thus, i{{^ <(\>N Jm luwj ziik lei, ^\ ^J) (\> nmy he finished it, as he

went along, (literallv, he going-, along finished it) hu nm Ian zuk, ; \f\ (^ (3( ^J

he went and did it, (literally, having gone, he did it) ; if\(^ 5^^ *^(5^ ^^\ 0^

hu-do thi ^\ X((-if (-(f (^ U ka vmncj so. hu a-zom zo sho, on arriving at his home, he

will eat hi.s food ^(i (5" *''"' vmnff sa la hu Mo lung mak, ; i^N ^ (V) \f\ i^\ ^i

immediately on seeing it, he fell down dead, (fell down and died, or literally, falling,

died).

The Particles of Declension may be combined witli the Participles in forming

Conjunction, thus, \f^ i,-^ (> ^((0 (> 4i T C)*^ i^) -^C ifj ;3V (V) (7c) ^"'"'^c

sa a-ho sa mak re thijo wung ka, hu i»ja la nun, on hearing of the death of his father, he

fainted; (" {^\ nun,'''' might here also be put in room of •^( kii, to impl}^, ' through

hearing, &c.' but it would generally be expressed in full, (^\ ^( ()( nun mat la, &c.)*

The sign of the past tense, (3( la, tvhen followed by a connecting clause, con-

junctively defines the time, and corresjjonds to the English conjunction, when, thus,

^^"' (6^ \f\ C^ 5^ 5^ ^^ if ^ ^ 0( /O [/(> ^^^ SO' a ^« '''w '«« *«'« ne, when I arrived

his house, he was not at home ; and similarly in the future, \)o at (^ 0( "^ OC /«)

^j tlti sho la ma lam na puy when I shall arrive, he may, perhaps, not be at home.

4. — Of Interjections.

The following are some of the Interjections.

«-^-^« «-^^« ^-yo «-^-^^« «-/-^« S( O ; XC D X( Ce ; X( DC ; 5( D( 5( 5( «-.y'' ; S((a

a-tso ^^'^ exclamations of vexation, pain, &c. ah ! oh ! &c. ; X(5 ^'U^j

* The sign of the future Participle Definite ^>v sa, may be, iu fact, considered to be the particle of Declension aiJixed to the Participle Noun, and as a Conjunction bearing an extended meaning, as exemplified under head of Postpositions (Pages 79, 80). 23 ( 90 )

i-y' »-*f <*« SiiiSiH '!/« ; X( a « '-Hi-'" ; S( a ; S( O X( ' ; S( D SS

(i7-5c ?', are exclamations denoting surprise, wonder, also pain, &c.

X( "C^ a-c/ni, an exclamation expressive of cold.

(tS ^(-^ ot-fa-di/ul, an exclamation of fright, on being startled.

> exclamations of wonder, astonishment ; Lrramercy I

^( *\;2^ ^ a-c/tht'k-/ca, an exclamation of disgust ; fie ! tusli ! faugh !

(3( bd, is an ejaculation betokening vivacity, impatience, &c., thus, (3( {(^ t (6 ^"^

(yo n(jaJc sho, hold ! bah ! I'll look to it, I'll do it.

; eh ! hullo ! "If ( ha, a respond on being called

rling-vga rong-nga, expression of grief, sorrow, lamentation alas ! <(^ y i(y" Y an ;

alack ! woe ! &c.

^H^( (Jj (/O ^d-ma hhycn no, an exclamation implying grief, wonder, amazement,

&c. (It is derived from the Tibetan g'^'^^dai'^ Ma-ma mkligcnno^ the Priest

knows.)

(S6 (S6 '^'^^^'^ o-s/(c, (-^^^C (*^^ liO-chlie Ico-chlie, are deprecatory exclamations,

do not, pray do not, forbear, mercy, &c.

^(;2f^ (^ d-chhu-le, is an exclamation of admiration, praise, joy, &c. hurrah ! bravo!

well done ! &c. ( 91 )

PART V.

PARTS OF SPEECH.

Formative and Derivative.—Etymology.

Numeration, &c.

1st. —of Formatives and Derivatives,

T he verb is the most simple form of the Parts of Speech, and is the root from

which very many of the Nouns, and most of the Adjectives and Adverbs are formed.

The Conjugation of verbs has already been shown ; it may be here meet to

connote some of the

Verbal affixes and diverse Formatives.

The Conditional

is formed, by the affixed Particle <.)^ gang, tlms, (/^ 5^\> ^(^ go li gang, if I speak,

^^ 5^^ (^ ^(j^ ^'" ^^" ^^^'^ ^^"'^' ^^ ^^ should arrive. Both tlie protasis and apodosis,

of a Conditional sentence, may be connected by means of the above suffix, with the

addition of the emphatic Particle la, thus, la, (\) ^(^ (^> gang even if ; also by

((^'r3 ^<'-'-««5'. though, however; so, ^^ (^ «'^ C^^4) § <)€'^iSSi)

^Ci (V> (or, (^ir3) S((Zi ^ S^ /^ ^)6^ ^3 f5U<$ C^ ^ Sird ««

ma-zxifan shang Jca hgi gang la (or go-rung) a-go ma ngin na gang, shi'i p/idn-to la ma ngin

ne, and though I give my body to be burned, and (yet; have not charity, it profiteth

me nothing. Contingency is expressed by the Particle ^jpu, as explained under head of Conjugation, so,

so-n6ng yu ]ou^ it may, perhaps, snow. Forms of (C*^ i(7«) E^ «3j ( 92 )

Precatives

head, thus, lo le, please give me have also been given under the same (() ^ ; 2?(0C

let us *£^ "^ «-^« nunj)o chc, prithee depart hence nd yd, do go ; -{f ^ fd\ C^ ; /^( ^(

-(I ziik ka die, pray let it be done.

Optatives may be formed, by affixing the Particle 5( d, with, or without the redujolication of the final consonant of the verb, thus, \f\ ^( <§( /«« w^aZ; d, or, ^( -^ 5( «2aZ: A-ffl a, may he die. An Optative may also be rendered by the Imperative sign, thus,

'"^ ^'^'^ '^^'^ ^^^5 ^^ ^^1^5 king live. *5 ^^ r' 0( "^ (<§ i'«-'^^ ^) ^^y Interrogatives may be expressed by the Particle ^ «> ^Oj (v ^((iV J^ S ^''^ '^•^''^'^ ^' *; <-^i

so yu vnuuj a, is it raining ? <:U')o( h!> say so ? ((> ^\ i<^\ & (^ (jj> C)^ 2^ sa-tU arrive (See also under head of klnja shanrj a, when will you ? (23 !J^i ^^^ (6> ^''j jjages 52, 53).

Dubiousness, or io-norance of a circumstance, may be imjjlied, generally, in the form of Interroga-

the affixed Particle te, thus, j -(f -^ <$ shu zuk Jca te, what can be done tion, by ^ ^ J j

•^ (/^ ^\ (^(3( f^\ (}o <$ ^ja-?io /-«(/; sa-hd nun thop te, whence can we obtain a prince ? Potentials may be formed by such verbs as, (J\ Mii, implying, to be able, so, ^3 0*^ ^vi/t k/m,

^'^'^ sho, if able to do i)(^ 0^ il'^»'J ^"^^ I could, I would. to be ; ((^ (J) 4} i€

Desidcratives may be expressed by the verb, (^{ (jdl, to wish, as, (^ i(70 (^( 'Jo nlmrj (jdt, I want to go. Obligatory Verbs may be rendered, by adding to the Desidcrativc, the Substantive verb j)$^ niji, thus. ( 93 )

i'*^ "^^'5 it J it necessary, y*'^ is necessary to learn Cdij<^ U^^ "11' X( 6>(j'N ^^^''i^ ;

*'*^'"' -^^i'^iO nyi, ^ r( (>^ ».1^ X( *^3 ^"^^ J*^ ^^ "^3 »^'^'' '^^''^-''''V^ ''''^'V^ ^i^^^P P'i"I/ ffai

(or, gat tumj iiyi), to obtain wisdom, learning is necessary.

Causal Verbs are formed, in some instances, by the addition of \) h/a, to the simple verb, thus,

()o thor, to escape, t1>>Ji>r, to cause to escape ()<=» thop, to ()cv ; knock down, ()a^

^Aj/o/, to cause to knock down ^;oZ:, to cast down, to depose, ; (^ (XJV' pyoJc, to cause to cast down, to cause to depose.

When a verb ending in i nf/, takes this causal, the final is changed to n ; thus,

/"'o;;^, to ascend, /;r^o«, to cause to ascend «(\^ (^ ; i5^ dang, to run, ::]^ (7yrt«, to fling away, (literally, to cause to flee).

When a verb, composed of the consonant /^ na, assumes this causal form, the

(^ na, is changed to ^ nija, thus, iQ^ nong, to go, (^ nyon, to cause to go nak, ; /^^ to straighten, <>^ ngdk, to cause to straighten, to rectify.

But this form is not common. The usual mode, of expressing the causal, is by affixing the verb («^ kon, to permit, to cause, (as stated under head of conjugation) thus, ^'"^"j to l^cat, 0\ (.^ buk km, to cause to beat (.^ suk km, to 03 ; ^^ cause to work, &c.

A Causal may also be expressed by means of

Transitive Verbs,

formed by adding, ^( mat, to make, to do, — to an Intransitive verb rendered adverbially, thus, 5l^( khjam, to be sweet, 5i^( (V) ^( Idymi la mat, to sweeten ;

torn, to be strong, to be firm, ^\> turn la mat, to strengthen to (^ (^ ^( ; (^ g6, be

S^^

Some verbs such as, (^C ngon, causal of to go (-^Ap /i?-_yo«, 4(73 """."/J ; causal of

/i/-o«^, to rise, ascend hji, (7yaH, i(^ ; to give to cast away ; and such like, ^(^ ; ^ 24 ;

( 94 )

are often affixed to other verbs, p^iving' an emphatic Transitive sense, thus, (^ <>p, to

discharge, (as, arrow, gun), (<5 (<^ op nijun, to fire off; Q^ tsun, to lift, Q^ (^

tell to, relate; fo«« /»7/o??, to lift up ; i^\ fZiiH, to tell, 5^N S(3^ (/«« i^/, to to \V^ *^ "^ < -. "75 »^ ^ ^ ^ ri/dk, r^a/i: to cast out ; to J]^ jwow^ to expel, ^( S(\; %/, i(^ i^<>«^, renounce, 4(^

c(ya«, to renounce altogether, to cast off, &c.

Some Compound verbs, bearing the sense of each verb, convey a modified signi-

fication, thus, (3\ \^ hu di, to bring, from (3^ hu, to carry, and ^^

I^rocecd, ^^' wo?;_9', to take away to learn, S{\J /i^(y) hyi, to ()\ <(/t) ; X( J'-^'-^P, X(

teach. The last is, an example of, a neuter verb, changed to a (compound) transitive.

Acquisatives may be formed by combining, with a verb, the verb 4(7«) "om^, to go, or, *(\ ngun,

to hru, hru nong, to become hot ; hyang, become, thus, ^J to be hot, ^^A iQ^ t-J/y

to be cold, t-J/y ^^ A ligung ngiin, to become cold, 4^ ^j (/^ ^W^''^H ngiin nm, it has become cold.

Incei^tives

commence, such as, are formed by words implying, to ^^ mjit, i^ j'cng, Q^ /.'««,

tsdm, &c. ^^*^' means to create ; /cw^, to found j'at/w, to lift 0( 5^ <^ ; Qj and all imply to begin. These generally precede the principal verb, thus, ^^ (f^ o <^ * 1''^^'^ to commence to learn to read (W'l^ ; <^ -^Sjeng zi'iJc, to begin to work X( ^'^kh ; this is, however, merely an elliptical form of the Conjunctive Particle, and may be expressed in full, thus, (^^ Q^ <^\ -^S n/jok tsun lung zuk, to commence work,

3?(*?(V) T" 0( *^\ J^ n-lang rcn isiim lung pi, commencing, from the present time, to write, i\y (;3^ 2^( 0( *^^ 0*^J '''"^ ^'''^''^ "^ ''^'<''" ^''"^ isdt-dung, to take up and propound a new thesis. Frequentatives may Ijc expressed by the repetition of the verb, thus, ^j) -(fA ^-^''k ^'ik, to work and work, to work often, also continuously. ( 95 )

Continuatives may, likewise, be formed by the Compound verb (^N i(/^ hi nong, to carry on, thus,—,^)^ fyitl; to jump, ^)\^ <(^ ti/uk hu nong, to go jumping along, ()J 5^ Ph to write, S^ CS\ ifd 1'*^ ^" «") continue, follow on the writing, (^ ^^ (y\ (/^ ayok zuJc hu 710, carry on the work. Persistence may also be rendered by the reduplica- tion of the verb, expressed adverbially and with the aid of another verb, thus,

firyop, to cry, hrijop la lirghp la mat, to weep (ifiiJ (^ (\> (^ (^ ^( much and long—or similarly, by the Conjunctive Participle, thus, \^ 4(\>N y^ t^N }o\ dik lung dik lung tliuk, to effect by continuous striving.

Habitude may be expressed by the addition of the verb, -^( mat, thus, j-^ chl, any fermented or spiritous liquor, (.)Jo thang, to drink, y^ Y» ^( chi than mat, to be in the habit of drinking beer or spirits kJidp-chong li, ; (JiiQ^ ^'^ to tell lies, (/(t(^

S(^ ^( khap-chmg U mat, to be in the habit of lying.

Comjjletives

be expressed by the verb, Id,* to be finished, ^iJiVt'/, may (V> y^ (\) to finish writing.

Of Abstract Nouns.

Abstract Nouns may be formed, by affixing to the verb, the Particle (V) lat. thus, nl)k, to be black, j^o/i' /«/, blackness torn, to be firm, (/Q (/^ ^ ; (^ (^ ^ tlm lat, ^^^ ^o be fresh, <^^ firmness ; "^ ^^ ^^^^! ^"^; newness, freshness shom., Xi 2C( (V) ; (^

to be stale, s/joh? lat, staleness y^'^ rit, to be old, worn, rw /<;;?, (^ ^ ; ^j ^ old- ness, wear jon, to be young, ^jon lat, youth ^d», to be old, ; {f^ (^ ; (^( (^( ^ yd/j /«/, oldness, old ago; ^\ nu, to dare, to presume, /^\ ^ nu tut, presumption.

(literally, road, way), may be, sometimes, used to form nouns, (^\> /w«, thus, (^ hyok, to intercourse with, hgok 16m,, intercourse mat, to have (^ (^^ ; -^( do, •^( (A)

A

* lei. is Potential, implying, to be able but in colloquy is seldom used in ^ also a ; this sense. ( 96 )

mat lorn, conduct. It may, also, be affixed to a Substantive, forming an abstract

noun, thus, ^^CS^ jnin-jmn, an enemy, ^\^N ((V pun-jum Um, enmity. Like- wise to a comjDound noun, thus, ijU ajjcng, a younger brother, ^-^ sang, like unto,

after the manner of, A-d ayeng sang, a friend, •-''".!/ ^''"'j friendship. i^ <^^ ^^ (^ '^U^'^^O

^\ ?«, an affix, imjilying, mode, way of, may also form such nouns as embrace the above sense, for instance, lik, to call, Ibm, to walk ^^ (^\) ; ((^ ^\ (^ \^

(V)N 0^ (VV (\^^ h^( ^'^ ^"f «« ^'/'^ ^« sa Um lu thgalc, I recognised his voice and walk,

(mode of calling and walking) ; 5^ thjam, to dress, 5^^ ^\ (^/«w /«, mode of

dressing = fashion; -^( H;(i/, to do, ^( ^Vwiiiif /;?, mode of doing = way, habit, custom, &c.

Some nouns may be formed from verbs, by prefixing the vowel X( o, thus, (^ go, to love, a-go, love gijc, to conquer, «-^y^> victory ^fc* //w/, ^((2^ ; ^0^ X(dV ; to obtain, a-thop, acquisition thi, to arrive, a-thit, arrival, &c. X(()^ ; yfo c?C ))^

Sometimes other syllables are prefixed, thus, i('^y krgmg, to jiraise, ^i(xV ^'^- •• krgung, praise, commendation }oj^( thgam, to arrange, pa-thgdm, ari'ange- ; ^ XV( taent, adjustment; sa, ta-sa, well, health cha, to {^ to be well, ^(^ ; -\) annoy, to /^ ^- i i vex, i/QN -(> nung-clia, annoyance, vexation Mak, to revolve, circumvent, ; ^( ^5'(

ta-kldk, a revolution, a cycle, a circuit dhp, to be precipitous 4)~'\ rung-dop ; (^ (^ a precipitous place.

In the conversion from verb to noun, the sense, sometimes, becomes modified, thus,

*$j tting, to lean, to rest upon, "^i^Spa-tkng, a walking stick; () ngo, to be old,

^(7" ta-ngol, grey hairs, (symbolical of old age), &c.

As may be perceived in the last example, some nouns, formed from verbs ending in a vowel, assume a final consonant. Advertence, to this subject, will be hereafter made.

The Participle form, both Present and Future, may be expressed as nouns, tims,

5iV I'h to speak, ^^\> 4^\ liwung, the words, the speech; ^{mat, to do, -^( i<$\ —

( 97 )

mat the deed male, to die, -^ ^""''^ .j/ia»^ f/^w- lyang tunff, ; ^( ^( ».)^ (^ <^( j5^ /O

ma nyin ne, there is no escape from death.

This form may be rendered more definite, by the addition of the Article 4, I,

y^ ^"''^ ''(-'j re, or the Plural sign, thus, (^\) luk, to expend, ((y) <^\ V ^"""^ the

exjjenditure /'^(^Z^, to be in excess, ^'^^''' /««_(/;•(,', the excess, the ; (X (X **^^ T^

svirplus; -^( i-^\ ^^ vtdk hung re, the mortality, ^( t,)^ (,)^ ?««7^ sliamj pang, mortals.

It may be also observed, that -^( (.)^ mak shang, which was, in tlie former example,

a Subjective noun, in the latter, changes to an Objective noun.

The Infinitive, (the root of the verb), alone, may often be used to represent the

noun, especially in combination with the afore-mentioned Particles, thus, ^)o thi,

to arrive, ^)o ild re, the arrival ngi, to y ; ^.j^ have, to possess, *^<:l ^"^ ngi j>ang, the possessions Ilk, to call, ^'" '^'«-*« «'« ; ^^\> (^ -^C^\ ^^ ^ v)^ */^^ »§ ^* %<'

?2?«;_5' «, did you not hear my call ?

There are other modes of expressing words substantively, thus,

Nouns may be formed from verbs by affixing the word ^ shct, which implies, strength, power, also for, on account of, thus, tsdn/, to hold, (v ; Q( Q( tsam shet,

the handle, the purchase //, to liu shet, the ; M^ speak, M\> ^ means of speaking, the tongue ngan, to sit, «ya« slict, an article for sitting on, the seat, ; y( y( ^ &c.

Some verbs may, in themselves, represent Nouns, Adjectives and Adverbs; thus, o o to hu sa lujop sho, I shall (i^ ^'^Pi accompany ((^ ^N (^ (-J/y (^^o accompany him,

'"^'^) to accompaniment, to accompany, ''^''''"^ (i/i/ ^ ( ^''i"' make (:2C (-J/v r' ^^U'^P >'o, o the accompanying book /«{ sa /^^o/:> no o, go along with liim. ; \f\ ^ (-^i (/^ (<§

The Agentive is expressed by the affix (0 bo, whereby may be formed, llie English aiiixes er, 25 ( 98 )

thus, ?>iaf, to do, "'^^ ^ tloer -"^"j ^o work, 0?i^ man, &c., •^( ^i (0 ^'h ; ^^ ^^ ((3

sid, to kill, (^*v siit ho, a slayer (jan, to be old, Jo, a worker; ((^ (0 ; (^{, (^(^ (()

^ /««, to be mad, A^ (() y/« io, a mad- man ro/r, to read, ()^ ''o/t io, a reader I'liyoilc, to sweep, (J3V ; (^ ((} ; (py (() jphyok ho, a sweeper, &c.

Before (() ho, verbs, ending in a vowel, assume their final consonant, thus, j(\)

to speak, ^'^^ ^'^j ^ speaker */»', to see, ^(ij s/j/zw ho, a seer, a /«, ^^V (0 ; ^^ (()

di, to '''''' comer, &c. beholder ; S^^ come, j^ (0 ^^) ^ Nouns may also be formed from Adjectives, by affixing to the latter the ^^article

ho, thus, a-rijum, good, «-''y""< ^o, a good one a-plang^ ((3 XCri'j XiTlfj (0 ; XC*-)^ above, XC**)^ (0 "-/'^""^ ^'''j '^ higher one, a superior, &c.

Particles indicative of the (() Jo, may be aflixed to the following Tense, ()( lam,

67n»M, the euphonic alteration of the Future sho, or, ^\ $]m ^idef, present ^\ (^ ; the ;

sign ; 2«y^- ho, the emphatic Present Participle thus, ^j ()( (0 Ja«« one who is work-

"''^'' ^^""" ^''j °^® ""'^^'^ '^'^^^ work ^-^i/c (/t'Z Jo, ; -(f 5^ one who is "^o ; -^J <^^ ^^ j (()

just about to work working or ; S(^^ <> 3<((X>,5^*^( 6( (0 <-)C>5 ^( ^ (0 <>

a'-t/^tii! *« a-lon, mik-hnip ham ho sunj, mak dct ^( (^ (0 *'' *<^' ^^^ *^') ^^ J^ lo sa mdk von ho san;/, tijanci thyu Ituuj da niji, after the battle, the sleepers, tlie dying and the dead, all lay co-mingled. <-, ^ affixed to all Auxiliary and Compound verbs, thus, It may also be ^\ (^ ((^

causes ^"^<^ ^^Z ho, one lias ziik Icon ho, one who work ; -^j C\> (0 who finished work-

^"^^ ^'^""' ""^ capable of working. in"-; -{if J O" (0 ^"^i

The Particle, ^\ (() ahiuii ho, is, very generally, affixed to verbs, forming nouns

ofage'it'}, thus, (^ ngot, to cut, (^ ^N ({) mjol slium ho, an instrument for cutting,

; j"«, to write, y-/ iZiww Jo, material fur writing, pens, a cutter S^ ^;!3 ^\ (() &c ; ( 99 )

(3\ lu, to carry, (3N ^^ (0 ^'^ «/iM?« ^t*, means of carrying, a vehicle; %( (/d, to lie,

^( 6^ (0 "''' ^^'ui>i J>o, an article for lying on, a couch, &c.

All Ageutive formatives may be exj^ressed by afiixing to a Substantive, a

t < - verb in the Agentive form, thus, (^ aijolc, work, (^ -^( (() a>jok mat ho, a worker, a workman ?;((i«, game, f'J'iJ^: to follow after, to ; -^ W^ i)ursue, ^ yT;( (() man

rijalc ho, a hunter (/ ??.f/o, fish, tiam, to catch, ??yo /.5(!;« io, a fisher- ; Q( (^ Q( (()

lan «/, to solicit, to beg, ^$C sa-mjim, alms, charity, .s;«- man ; '^J (^ (^ Sju, to train, to disciijliue, on, a horse, ; ^\ (<^ (

ort /y?< io, a horse-breaker (^N Z^?/, a load, i?<, to carry, 5i< ho, ; (3^ (3\ (3\ (() J«m

porter; ;«««, drugs, ;

a house, (/o^", to own, '^^ f^<^^^ ^o^ s, house owner c/i/w, a book, (5^ ^^\> (^ (0 ; (:2C

^a, to know, '^^'''^<' ^^'^^ ^ scholar tj^" ^ language, mijd, to ^ (:2C ^ (0 ^'^i ; '""^i') ^^( be versed in, ij)~'^V( ((^ ;7«y ?«_ydw io, a linguist; -^( QN kdr-tsu, astronomy, ( Sfi, sA-tfr, a star, QN tsii, calculation), i(^V niyong, to be skilled, •t( Q\ i(^V (() Z:dr-

fsjf myony ho, an astronomer naJ: im, («|C1 j^^/y, black), black arts, divination, ; ^( Q\

/^( Q\ ^ (() nah tsu yum ho, (or, ^V( ((3 H;y(i/« Jo, i(^V (0 myony ho, &c.), a diviner, a necromancer, &c.

Adjectives may, in like manner, be formed by the affix (() ho, by which, either simply, or com- bined with other fonnatives, the English Adjectives of quality and manner, &g,

terminating in able, ible, ful, &c, may be expi-essed, thus—- )T^( ryam, to be

beautiful, ''^'"" '^^j beautiful yan, to be old, ((_") yan ho, old, aged XVi, (0 ; (^( (^( ;

^^ ^^^ troublesome, yyan ho, troublesome nat, to hurt, to be ^^V i/!J'"'> (^ (() ; (^ rsr /»- injurious, /J) ((3 "«^ ^^; hurtful, baneful, &c. >^ And so compound formatives may be expressed, thus, (-t^ kitni, silver, money, ;

( 100 )

'^"<''» possessor of money, wealthy 5^ wji, to have, to possess, (^ 5<^ (0 «Z"''« ^^'j ^

shet, strength, S'^^c^ "^'''« ^"j strong, vigorous Z"/w, use, profit, ((/ ^ ^ ^^ (0 ; ((/

khcr, skllfulness, dexterity, ^5C (0 ^"/'o «y/«^ (0

nijiiu ho, skilful, dextrous rang, to watch, to guard, ?«« ^^^ watchful, Ichcr ; ^Y^ y (0

^''« talkative; ^"' «'^ p'( (0 ; jomj, a horse, ^''"'"'' ^^ ^"^^^^ "« ^''"'^ ^"' ^ I'i*^*^^'' ^ horseman i^ to >33 ^^ ^3 ^0 ; be accustomed, to be practised in, (J "p^ 4(^5" (0 on thul jong ho, an experienced equestrian, &c. Passive Adjectives

may be formed, from Active verbs, by affixing ()o (() tJiom ho, the agentive of the

()o ///o, to place ; thus, U, to speak, (^ th!m ho, spoken ^ji, verb ^^ ^^\> (>> (0 ; ^^

write, (>o ^^/ ///o?h Z^o, written 2«Z", to make, (>> •s''''^" /^'om ^o, to ^;3 (Q ; ^^ 4j (0 - <-j > made, fashioned; ^ /«iJ, earth, ^ -ffj()^ (0 fat suk th'm ho, made of earth, ear-

^"^'^ ''^"^'" earthen then, 0v^ /^"' ^ cooking vessel, 0^A ^ .(^3 (J^ (0^"/«^ ^^) "^^

vessel ()o llinh, to weave, ()o ()o if/^o/.; //'owi Z^o, woven, (^ tor, silk, cooking ; (()

;s. < > > . ^'''" ''^'"'''^ ^^"'''* ^'^^ woven silk ,y?(Z-, a letter, ()o ^/;o, to register, ($ C)^ ()^ (0 ; ^\

^\ ^Jo ()o (0 ^2

tlon with the relative Particle (^ ««; thus, {V ro, to fear, ((^ /ow, a road, (p

'« ?'''«"^ *« '''^'") ^ fearful road >c^ Ihjan, to laugh, Jcy; t^\ i^\ 0^ (^ ; ^^ (J^

laughable affair w/d/-, to die, dak, illness, %rnj «?^«// S(t o;iok, a ; ^( ^ ^( *.)^ (^ 5^

%'i«y, to coax, one/ kiij>, a child, «;(i/;- .v//r^j/// s« (hik, a mortal disease ; i((\j 4(^ ^\ o *" '^"y ^'(/'> ^ coaxing, winsome child (-(f .to, to *(TV'*V^<>*' *n*^ "^^ ^.y'^"Z/ ^'[/""[/ ;

.. ^ „ .. > fruit, ^o *^'«'« ^^ *« thdm-piit, an edible cut, Jo( (^ //nim-pot, a (-(f ^\ (0 (a^ }^( (^

t''!- ''<', an overseer of work, fruit; ifX 5^ oiiij-rhhi, oppression, ^ (0 i(^ ^^ ^"C

'"'[/-c^'l^i mat iunr/ sa ka ho, an oppressive task-master. t<$^ C**' *^ (0 ;

( 101 )

Nouns and Substantives may, in like manner, be rendered Adjectively ; thus,

lamentation, i\^\ yu-muk, mourning, t\^\ C^ X(

hiinrj, lamentable occurrence ; wood, rom, a box, i-^J (f" i^j 0^ CT' ^'''"i/ «« roin, • • • •

a box of wood, a wooden box ^\i^ pun-jenff, iron, 0"" ta-rol, a bar, ; ^ ^V^Jf ^

pm-jcng sa ta-rol, ^iX^ an ii'ou bar; ^(^0v) -/'''^ *'' fU^h an earthen cooking vessel.

This form may be expressed elliptically, thus, i-^J ()^ A-«h^ rom, a wooden

tox ptin-Jcnj ta-rol, an iron bar; ; ^V^ ^ ^T^ ^ 0V^/«^/2'") fin earthen cooking

cjal, to break, ()o vessel, (;3( ^ gy\ (^( (() /«;; /^m (jil thorn ho, a broken earthen cooking vessel, &c., &c.

Nouns and Verbs, &c.

are occasionally formed by a compound of two words, some of which may be used

only in composition thus, )<=»( thdm, separately, and some ; a thing, is prefixed to a

number of words. It generally gives a modified sense to the affixed word, thouo-h in

some instances, the latter, in a disconnected state, may bear altogether a different

meaning, or may not be employed in Lepcha so, pU, to fructify, ; (^ Jo( (^ tham-put,

fructified thing, a fruit hang, a ( X( (^ a-i^<>0> ; «.)(3 (X(«.>0 o.-hang), a foundation,

a stem, (,)(3 tham-hang, a support, the produce of the J<3( earth, &c. ; i,-Q chang,

•< -•- /•— to foster, Jo( 4-0 thdm-chang, a quadruped, animals inferior to (claiming tlie cherish- » < •• * ' ment of) man hik, means a cow, but, >o(^() ; ^(3 tham-hik, implies, an insect.

so, rain, 2, the weather, 3, (in compos.) the state of the weather or atmosphere (C*^ ; song, to clear, i(C^ be to be pure, {C**> ^(O^ so-song the morning dawn

^ fngar, dim, obscurity, {(^ ^ so-mgar, the shades of evening; C^lg6p,

so-hjbp, to flash, iXj^ (^ sheet-lightning. (^( sak (in compos.), the mind and its

< "» S' t ^ state, ryu, to be good, sdk-ryu, to rejoice tip, to support, yV^ C^iW^ ; (^ (^( (^ sdk-top, to uphold the mind, to encourage, to comfort. lot, to return (^\) ; prefixed gives signification of repetition, corresponding to the English particle re ' thus ' ' 26 — ;

( 102 )

suk, to make, lot zuk, to re-make ^^o^, to obtain, ()«> /6^ ^Ao/?, to ^\ (^ ^j ; (Jo ((\>

recover to give, W!f %«', to restore, &c., &c. ; ^(\; %/, ((\) ^(\; Nouns of Magnitude

be exjn-essed the affixed Particle mo, a'-?«o, may by (^ ( 2^( (^ mother), so—

j(^ //, a house, S(V)(^ V ^^ '""^ ^^j ^^^ large house; <)^\ J^^^J '"""ng-nijit ung,

the river Rung-nyit, *T'^ j^ *Sj (^ rung-nyit ung mo, the great Rung-nyit

river, &c. Affixed to verbs of magnitude and quality, it forms

Nouns, Adjectives, and Adverbs of Intensity, thus C^i^gyop, io be much, to be numerous; S^ ti, to be large, to be great;

'""' very much, very numerous (-g ^Ji wo, very large, very great (j*V( ("^ ^^"i' ; j^

<$y^ ^-^ S(*' ^^^ ^^ <^V "^^ tun-rot-pot a-tyum ti mo sa gydp mo tyiil nga)i, the grapes hung in large and numerous clusters (-^ S^ r/r/ ; (^ {J^(

^^d/> ?Ko sA/, I saw numbers Aaffj ^^li/ mo hyi, give him much, ; \f\ (^( (-^ jO^ plentifully ; abundance.

A Patrial

?«o, to the name of the country, is formed, by affixing (^ thus—^ ;>«;, Tibet, ^ (^P«^ w'O) a Tibetan; iS^Ji'J?"", Butan, ^3 (^ pru-mo, a Butian, or, (as com- called) a Butia phi-ling, Europe, phi-ling mo, monly ; jJ^O^ 5?^*^^ ("^ an European, &c.*

* Observe (-^ ?«o, as a particle of magnitude, with the Latin suffix supre-nw, extre-mo, pri-mo, ulti-

?no-est most, &c., Ac. mo, &.Z. ; also Sax. ma, more ; mast, =

This (^ wo, is simply the basic creative m, (See 7re, and Diagram in Powers of Letters,) with the vowel

its(!lf verbs, is, am, was (it means also, to pray, affixed. In Lepcha,-^ m, in forms one of the substantive ; syn-

" ask and ye shall receive ;" whence Lep- mo, := ti-mo, onymous with, to create, to make ; (^ ^( (-^ =

"in, mother, Eng. am, [being] (so Lat. a-mo love, the flow that engenders [itself], produces, Heb. DS a ( ) j

(being, ; likewise, the capital, makes). ]n Tib. 3J »! represents an indefinite article, a, an, matter) the stock,

hence also, mother. In Sanskrit fn md, means, to create, to produce, (the Source, whence all floweth) ; also, I* La water, semen, a motlier, (productive lluw) ; Persian m&, we, (beings) mother. 'Arabic ma, ; Lepcha ;

( 10.3 )

Nouns of Diminutiveness

are formed, by the affix -trj kup, (S(-^\ d-Jcup, a child, little); so, ^^ ^\ li kup, a small house, a cottage hup, a pipkin ; ^^ ^\ fyu ; tf^ 6n

ong kup, a little child rung-ni/U ^^ ; *r'>)5^ <5j -^N iimj kup, the little Rung-nyit

river. Like (^ 7?«o, it may be affixed to a verb, implying minuteness, forming and giving emphasis to

""'> ^ female, (sex) ; Chin. »-^ mo, mother; Sax. moder, Lat. mater, {ii-rjrpa. I O a womb) ; mulier &o. ; a

genitrix (so, ; milk, the flow and power of m, productive force flowing from the ij.aixji.a, the productive source ;

see I, k, &c. in P. of L.) The word irinn is compounded of above creative m with the basic formative «, flow-

ing with primitive force ; hence 7nan (Chin, min men,) simply signifies, the y^ created being ; emphatically,

above all other ani-ma. It was formerly, like the Lepcha ma-ro, applied ^(; to either sex ; so he-man,

she-man, also &c. ; so wo-man, (root, Lep. V?** w, to be worth}', worth ; Privative, Sax. wa, sorrow, woe, (' iu

sorrow shalt bring forth children") Sansk. we, to weave Sax. thou ; ^ ; wefan, to weave ; tcef, wif, a woman,

a wife, a weaver so Lep. wo-mo, a spindle, a spinning-wheel, symbolical = ; (v (^ — of the flow of the life, and work of a woman. Sax. wer, a man (the primeval flow of w,) is applied to the male (see w r ; &c. in Powers of Letters),

The same word man is seen flowing with privative force in the Lep. -^( man, to wan, to want, to be minus, adverb, no, not ; Sansk. W md, no, not, non ; Heb. ]^iD man, to refuse, to deny Ai'ab. ci^'o ; viun,

to forbid Sax. man, sin, evil ; Lat. mal, malus, &c. &c. have it again ; We mth primitive power in Sansk. ^•r man, the soul, the spii-it, ITTST man, honor, (honor, literally, flowing with high, living spirit : privative, Fr. honi evil, dishonor). In Latin we find mo, as a suflix to ho, ho-mo, signifying man, (not radically, as has been but simply rendered, from humus earth-bom; bom of or created with h, (life). In Chinese ho, is a radical and

a primitive flow, frequent recurring word, implying as, ^j ho, to breathe forth ho, air • ; Li ; yC ho, fire

ho, river, (all flowing forth) Ao, sound ; ^PJ a ; ho, good, (primitive) ho, P^ ^^ ; u^ to unite, (the flow round, the circular flow); ^o, grain, (the fuel, the support of life) ho, 7N ; IllL hie, blood = (the flow = life)

So Heb. TlAj, il^'jah, TT' >-Ai, lit- existing, being, (the Being, ato) &o. I ; Arab^t ''o, /(i«, he is, (the Being)

Being Arab, l^ the air, spii-it) [jJk Heb. Nin hoa, he, the ; hoa, (the ; Hind. Jioa, _yA ho, was ; art ^* hi, is ;

(the Being), Jcc, &c. Take examples of h in the pronouns, (the pronouns, primitively, representinu- the First

ho thou, (the Being) Lep. hu, Sax. Being) ; Lep. ; and Eng. he, (the Being) (\f \f\ ; Lep. \f\ (^hu-s,

Sax. and Eng. his, (the Being's) Inflection, Lep. (of he). ; ^\ hum. Sax. and Eng. him; (Arab. *^ ham, a mutual flow', [of the Persons]), Sansk. ?fl ham, we (Sax. hicdm, whom;) Lep. S(^J ''-y". Sa5ax. eow iiJns —

( 104 )

Noun, Adjective, and Adverb, o thus -Q\chu, to he small, -\)\ -^S y^ dm kttp re, the small one, the little one;

~o chu hup wji lain, there is only a very little rice •^\ -^\ (^ -^\ ^\ ^5^(3( ; ^\

^"' ^^'^' '"^^ "^''^ ^"^ '^^5 ^^^ o"ly f^'tc very little.* ^C ^ (-if /i) ^'^'i^

The Season, or Approjiriate time for anything, is expressed by the suffix {^^ ron, and may be affixed to Substantives, yr, you ; Lep. \f\z.J ht-yil, Sax. lieo, Jiii, &c. Eng. tJiey ; Inflect. \f\^J hu-yum, Sax. lieom, hem, Eng.

them Sax. ; liiera, higher, ; Gen. hi-ra, of them, (relatively, of the being) ; comparatively, Sax. heah,hiah,\\ig\i

(Gr. Upo's, appertaining to [t€, «i/x,t the Being] the Gods, [the eternal flow], Lat. Jiwrcs, the heir, the succes-

sor, [the flow on flow]), Ger. lierr, man, (hon.) ; Sax. hcrra, a lord, Gr. ijpws, Lat. heros, a hero, (emphatically, a man, a being). So we have Arab. ^J^ mai, implying extension. Sans. 'Ji^ ma-Aa, great, (high flow, life), &c.

In the Ho language, lio, means a man. (For the root and the power of h, in these, and in all other words, see li, in Powers of Letters.)

The Lepoha word -^ {j^ma-rd, is seen flowing with primitive force in the Heb. ^<^Q mard, erect (as man), high, exalted, Chaldce ma-ra, a great man, (Arab._^ mir), a prince, a lord; (Sax. mere, Lat. maris, Fr, mer,

I^.'o [mere, mother,] a lake, a sea, (whence the waters [the spirits] flow and return) ; Hind. mera, mine, (the

Lord's). Compare also Lep. -^ ()'}Ha-?-o, with the Latin word mas, {ma's, oi or belonging to the being), dropping the r and resuming it again in the inflection, ma-ris, whence, Mars, martial, A'c., so also, mos, mo-ris,

of, or appertaining to the (primitive, the right) way of man = nio-ral, etc. The privative force is at once seen

s? in such words, as Lep. "^ j; ma-ri, dirt, pollution, Sansk. mri,MJ:_-^ ma-rd, Lat. mors, mortis, (/iopro's,) of ^-w or appertaining to the (/xopos) destiny of man = death; Pers. mard, (prim.) a man; i!^^ mur-dah, (life

lyKJ'-ra, evil spirit of great malignity [Sans, /to/)/xw] ^T"" an fix Gr. whose influence is fatal ; so, Heb. "1^

a «prc«f/wy evil, [Lev. xiii. 51, mi^QD translated, a//r/)'/Hy leprosy], "ID bitter, San.s. fl^ a desert, with-

[without spii'it, life] ; so, Gr. fxapaivta, papavm^, flow out water, ^jj a to naught, to death ; Eng. to mar, murr,

murrain, &c., &c. ; —see, definition of primitive and privative letters in P. of L.). So also Lep. -^ m, nega-

[yo tive, privative, not, without ; Tib. f mti, not, Pers. mud, dead, (without a), Ileb. /1Q mat, dead, (without

^I'j'^ repose, death, (without of), &c. &e. (see ?h, at), Arab. mot, ; l^c. in Powers of Letters).

In making, here, these few desultory observations, it is not my object to give an exposition of the

nor would it be possible to so within limits powers of letters, do the of a foot-note ; but I hope, shortly, to

publisli a work, with a diagram, showing the true Powers of Letters; exponential of the basis of all language

and tongues. o * *^\ Klip, a cliiia, a cuh, &c. ( 105 )

or verbs, thus, aijok^ work, wyo/t ro«, work time lijlm^ (2^ (^^ (f ; (^^ play, (^V^ - - ;S ^ . < (7^ /yo?? ;'o?i, i)lay time; ^(/'a^, to sow, ()^ ^Ja^ rd;^, sowing tiuie aijeh, ^( ; 2^^ to reap, 2^ ()"' «^e/i: ron^ reaping time, harvest, &c.

Nouus expressing—time, the period of, —may be expressed by the word, (}o thok^ thus, i(^ onr;, a child, i(^ {}o oiij thok, childhood pa-nyum, an old ; ^(^ man, ()c» ^(^ (^ •^( pa-nijdm thok ka, in old age ; S^ ?«/, a man, S^ ;«/ ^/^oA", a generation, a period of one generation. It is also affixed to verbs, in the form of abstract nouns, thus, 4j ^^h to live, 4j i)^ "^^siim thok ka, during lifetime, &c.

Adjectives expressing worthy, deserving of, fit for, proper, may be formed from verbs by affix- ing the suffix (;2C chhok, thus— (\)\ lun, to reprimand, (V^ (^ ^"" chliok, fit to be reprimanded, blameworthy, reprehensible krtjm to praise, (-£v krylm ; (-^ (:2C chhok, deserving of praise, praiseworthy, commendable so, to eat, ; ({f ({f (^ s6m chhok, fit for eating, edible. o This form of speech may be also expressed, by the verb )o\ thup, to be fitting

'^ o to be admissible, &c., thus, (^ )a\ slm thup, admissible food, food fit for eating,

&c. ; it likewise may be rendered by the particle '^Jict, for, on account of, ^ so, ({f ^ s6m shet, for eating, edible, (see also, ^ sliet, p. 97).

Comparative Similitude may be expressed by the suffix, t.)^ zang, thus, <.)-^ a-rc sang, like this ^(^ ; (XT^

0-re sang, «'-

^a??«7, like child, d-^wp a childish ; i(^ (.)^ o??^ .jah^, boyish ta-mju ; ^^\ ^^ sang, womanish ^'^ ^^'"-^''^ ^'^"^' ™f^"ly '-an'J, king-like, ; ; ^(/O *?-(f i^«-^20 kingly ^J^ ;

so-sang, cold, /io so-sang re sang nglmg, {,0^ ^^ (^T ((^ *.){? f (.)-(f <(^ do you feel cold, (literally, after the manner of cold).

27 ,

( 106 )

External Rcsem1>lance

i i luay be indicated by the particle -^y«?<, thus, r^ dak, to be sick, "i^ ^\ dulcmu

mu, deathlike ', som eatable appearance, palatable sickly ; -^( ^\ muk {^ 1^\ mu, an looking, &c.

From Substantives, derived from the Tibetan, Adjectives of intensity, express- ing possession, fulness, &c., may be formed by the addition of the jjarticles, -^ chcn, and ^ den, (derived from the Tibetan adjective formatives, z^ clicn, %^ Idan), thus, (^ A,

''"^ nor-dcn, rich, wealthy "0 valuable, costly ; "0 vor, wealth, (/^ 5^ ; jr' ^^^^'h t(7t)

chcn, ('^s '^^i snang-chan, full of light) invaluable, very precious -0 ii-chcn, nlmci ; 2?^ headed character, ('>5 '^^i dhu cltan, large Tibetan character). A superlative may be

< formed by the suffix (;2f clthok, as explained under head of Degrees of Comparison,

(page 32), &c.

2«f/. — Of Ncfjation.

The negative, no, is expressed by, -^( /^ mu 7ic, ^( ?Hd«, ^( /^ mrhi ne, as

stated under head of Adverbs.

A verb is expressed negatively by prefixing the particle, -^ ma, and affixing (^

know, '"« '*'^' "°* *° ^'"^o^ *''"'5 *" see, nc; thus, ^ ?/«, to ^ t ^ ^" ! j6 -^^^ /^

*/« to see sow, to be dry, -^ ma, sou nc, not to be dry. ???« Hf, not ; (CV ((^ /^

Verbs ending in a vowel, may generally have a negative n surposed ni addition

wy/, '"'> to the one affixed, thus, *^5^ to be, to have, -^ 3

to have k/iu, to be able, -^ (JN ot« kkiin ne, not to be able. ; (J\ /^

When a verbal Particle forms part of tlie sentence, it follows the negative sign,

"''"y'"* and the /O wc becomes changed to /^ ««, thus, ((^^«(70 /O 0( i'^ »^« ;

( lOT )

Urn, I not going, ^'" "'« "''"^ "^ ^'''^j ^^^ ''^^^ ^^^ "^ am \f\ ^ i(7i) td (^ ff^ ! i/^N

s/

In the emplo3'ment however of the jn-eseut participle, the negative particle is

participle sign thus, ivung, speaking, S^^ incorporated in the ; S^ i^^^'N H -^

li speaking mat lung, doing, ma mat nung, not ma nung^ not ; •^( i$\ ^ ^( i(2i\ doing. • Another negative particle is expressed by, /^\ num. This appears to be a *'*"' ^"^

na thus, i'o^/j/ ma o, I am coalesced form of the particles ^ wa, {^ ; (^ ^^ -^ (^ writing, ((^ -^ ^^ (^\ (^ //o ?«« pi num o, I am not writing, or, I shall not write, »^ /^ (instead of ^ ^^ /^ ^ (S ma pi na ma o, which would be long and inelegant) ^ ^ _ »^ . '''''' i^ ^o^ (•£u ^'^ ^ )5^ */l)^ -^ (6i /D^ (S %^'" '"^ "

Adverb, without the intervention of the verb, thus, •^( ^\ (^ ma niim o, not so, by no means. A Negative Agentive

** may be rendei-ed by affixing (() lo, to the preceding j^article, ^\ man, united to a

verb ; this forms nouns and adjectives of negation, represented in English by the prefixed particles tat, in, ir, &c. thus, to experienced, ; <(Jjr Jung, be ^ i(^ /^\ (() ina Jung num ho, an inexperienced i^erson, inexperienced ; ^iiXl^J '^^(^ ft)\ (0 A'

Igeng ma Jung num ho, an inexperienced youth him, to be able ; -^ ; (J\ (J\ (^\ (()

o •• 7?m A"/;e»« w?0K ho, unable, imjiracticable ?«« ^/"'/^ num ho, imjjroper ; -^ JoN /^N ((3 ;

< .. I „

''^« ^y''^'^ """* unlike ma zaJc num ho, incorrect ^^> ; /^\ -^ (^!^ /^\ (0 ^ ^ (() ; X(

d-tgan, occurx-ence, nimi bo, an unlucky ^ an X(^ cJiik, to measure, measurement,

^^"'''' '"'* ^"^"'^ '"^^^ ^^5 immeasurable ^^A A'r/;? so, gratitude, j"C "^ C^^ /^)^ (O ; (^^

^"'"^ *^ '"" «"''* ^0, not to know gratitude, ungrateful 5*€) (C*** ^ E /^^ (0 ^« ; ^A^ ( 108 )

hrkt, counsel, (;2^ chhom, to agree, "Aj -^ (;2^ /^N (0 /-;•«)' ?»« cJihum mim bo, not

agreeing iu counsel, dissentient, &c.

The English privative particle "less", &c., is particularly expressed by affixing to

5^ /Q\ ((3 W2« nyin num ho, one not possessing, without ; thus, <5( (0 -^ ^ ^ • o >^ ** ^"^^ "'"*' "y " '*""* ^''j without a father, fatherless -^X «{<- j5^ f^\ (0 ; ^( ^ j /^^ (0

d-^Mj» ?«« ?i^m ;»»« ho, childless '"* *'^"' '""'* ^^> hojjeless ; ((i^ "^ )<^ /«)^ (0 Z/'"'''* ;

- _ * ^ .. ^ c/(/ie^, strength, ;2^ -^ S^ /^\ (0 clihetma nijin num ho, without strength, feeble, &c.

An Adjective

signification may be given, by affixing the particle ^iv sa, to the Negative Partici-

Jcho, to be useful, i(^\ ma Jcho nuncj sa tham, or, ple, thus, ((J* -^ {(J (^ Jo( ((/ ^

^"^''^ ''''^^ tluim, ^C

Adverbs of Negation

?«« ??7/Mj «c, to the affirmatives, ^ /^ thus, ^j^/^ \o(

)c»( ^ s«-//;d ('rt, (^ /^ (\> i/wZ: «« /«, ever, (^ (^^ -^ ^^C /^ s«-«f/^a /« ?«« ?ij//« ne, (^

s/fo/i: «rt la ma nyin ne, never -^ -s«-^'« ^« ina ^ W -^ J<^ /O ; (^ 0( (V J?^ /^ nyin

ne, no where -^ ^^ ^'' '"^' "-^'^ "^' "^ *^"® -^ *''"' ''^^ '"'^ ; ($ ^ j^ (^ ! 6J (V) J^ '^

«///« ne, nothing ^^ <^ ^"'^''^ ^''^ '"^* "y* "<^) i^o way, no means, no ; (^ ^ ^ j /^ manner, &c.

Verbs in the negative form, may be used adverbially, thus, '^ clihcf, to stop,

w'<^ clihct ne, not to cease ^'^ rain, to cease, -^ ;2C /.) ; i^C^ ^\ U'h to ((^ -^ -^

50 ??;« t'////(/f ??« yn, to rain without ceasing, incessantly 0"" ;•», to fear, /^ ^\ ;

•^ (y/c) <(?«) '"f' '" "" «'^«y) to go along fearlessly; this form may bo more fully

by adding the conjunctive participle expressed sign ; or the Auxiliary verb, -^( maty

be introduced, thus, -^ i^-{) «^>N ma chiny lung siiJc, may /Q ^J na or, -^ i^"^ /*) ( 109 )

'"'^' cliing zuk, or anything without thinking, thoughtlessly. ^( -ff 7 na mat to work do

Negation is emphatically expressed, by the adverbial particle ^ la, affixed to the verb, and a repetition of the latter in the negative thus, ^""^ ; ((^ ()( (\) -^ 0( /<) fJ^ la Jtia ham ne, I shall not remain at all i(^ ^'-^ "<^«^ la ma iwii(/ ne, ; (^ ^ '5'Ut) /c)

I shall certainly not go, nothing shall induce me to go, &c.

Verbs compounded of two syllables, when expressed negatively, the syllables are

separated by tmesis ; the negative particles being affixed to the iinal syllable ; thus,

))u7c-krdj}, to sleep, -^ inik ma krdp ne, not to sleep k//6n- j^^-A( j^ •A( /^ ; ("^^ dijak, to pity, (-£1; '^7"« '«« '''^"'''^ "«^) i''ot to pity t^-^ sak-ching, to think, ^ %i> /O ; (^(

^'^'''^ "^'^ chinr/ ne, not to think deii-ri, to believe, -^ C**'( ^ <^"C /^ ; ^ST^ ^ jT~'/t) * .^ *» ^ s /»- c?e« w« r/ ne, not to believe.

But this disconnection does not take place, when the dissyllabic word is a sub-

stantive, or a verb rendered as a noun, and governed by another verb ; the negative particles in this case, affixed thus, (or, would, be to the governing verb ; (^-^ ^^

nc, compassion, \^ y^) ^ E /t) kyun-ihjak (or, kyun-dit) ma ya not to know to be heartless, pitiless, merciless sak-chin ma khun ho, one ; O^L j"^ ^ (S\ /t)^ (0 num unable to think, a fool, an idiot, &c.

The negative is, sometimes, expressed by either one of the two particles singly,

negative particle be surposed or, as before remarked, a may ; thus, -^ ^ '"'^ I/c-j or,

»i« don't know ma khun, can't, impossible shin, ^ £ yoh ; -^ (f\ ; -^ j^ ma can't see mat ma mat, doing or not doing; "''^^<^ "'' ''^"'^"j ; ^( -^ ^( -^( /^ -^d -^j /t) 4j

^M ?ja ^«, dying or not dying, living or dead.

the particle A form of negation was expressed by affixing to the verb ^ (^ ta-o ; thus, ""''^ '^""5' *^' '^"''" muny myon ta-o, I would ((^ KiT^ ^-^ C**' J°(

( 110 )

not dream of siicli a tiling. This form, tliougli sometimos found in books, would, now,

be ver)^ rarely used in colloquy.

The Tibetan Negative

particle -^ met, (^s mod), is sometimes afHxed to verbs derived from the Tibetan ; thus,

^Gd "^ iiunrj-mct, without value, valueless, (from '%^' i^s snanr/ mrd, destitute of light); A », _ _ (5^ -^ dolc-mcf, (^:^l^•^s Macj med), without an owner, ownerless; Sj "5 "-w?(?^,

( , SQ^'CUS^C (^^^i' mcd, without a head, headless), the small Tibetan character.

The Negative Imperative

ne, into nun thus, is formed, by changing the affixed particle /^ f^\ ; ^ 5^^^^^^

li speak '"'^ '"'' """> ^^ "ot fear. ma mm, do not ; -^ iV (7i\

When the verb ends in a consonant, the final may be redu])licatcd and embodied

in the negative postposition, or it is optional not to do so ; thus, -^-^( ^N mn mat tun,

°i"j ^'^"^' ^'^ ^^^^' don't majokhm, not make a noise "^^ '"'"' ; -^ *CN do "^ ^C rd\ (^ ;

w^ff hrtjop imn, do not cry C)Jc» y\ ?h« M««r/ ngun, do not drink, &c. ^ (-^ ^\ ; ^

or, /^\ ???««, may, at pleasure, be used with all ; the reduplication of the final, how-

ever, is in general to be preferred.

"ird.— Of InJIcdion.

There is not much inflection in the Lcpcha language, but some words, when

ti-ansmuted from verb to noun, or adjective, or before certain particles and auxiliary

verbs, undergo a degree of change.

Substantive nouns are uninflected by number or case. The form of inflection,

in the declension of pronouns, has been given under the head of pronouns.

Verbs, ending in a vowel, when changed to the simple form of adjectives, by

the addition of the prefix X( «j invariably, (when capable of final inflection), assume —

( 111 )

the final ?»; thus, ^3 ^"> *o ^^ ^^o*; to be pungent, ^{(^J a-sim, hot, pungent; (see also under head of adjectives, images 30, 31).

All verbs are not inflected, (as exemplified in pages 31 and 47), but such as do take inflection, take it before auxiliary verbs, (not indicative offense), such as ^\ khu to be able Id, to be finished gat, to desire mat, to ; (V> ; C^{^ ; ^( make, to do, &c. Also before particles and words forming adjectives and nouns of ageucj, manner, j)lace, &c., as (0 io, ^ lat, ^^ hi, i^VM( hj^»i(l, ^Vc

Nouns or formative adjectives, formed from verbs ending in a vowel, when in- fleeted, may assume either of the three (3) finals, in, n, or t, according as custom or a regard to euphony may have prescribed. Nouns generally take the last men-

'^ tioned final, only a very few, formed with the prefixed 2^( d, possess the final n,

(not including such as are derived from verbs ending in ( ng).

The following are examples

Verb. Adjective. Noun.

^j shu, to be fat, S( ^J ('-s/nim, fat, S(^3 ''*''^"^' fat.

saJc-rguf, ryii, to be good, a-rijion, good, C^( ri'J pleasure, ^j S( TVJ I ' cheerfulness.

' X( J% a-dit, a coming. N^ di, to come, S( 5^ a-dim, coming, ' (a'^C S( j^ sd/c-d-di/u, pleasure,

satisfaction.

^nk-tsi'im, I (>^( ebullition q3 ^*") to boil, S( Oj o.-tsum, boiling, Oj of spirits, gaiety, hilarity. '

2^ a, to be warm, S( S «-««^ warm, X(X n-««^ warmth.

^)o tin, arrive, fJ^^i to 5>^ (0 ^0, Ag. arriver, ^( j)^ o-//»7, arrival.

'itf^\ dyu, to fight, ^3 ^^ ^^-^"^ ^''' ''^ fighter, Xi^\ d-dijut, war, battle.

^^' "^"'"' *^^ ^'^^^ ^ff<^ct of tu, to be ominous, ^'''" ^'^j ominous,g ^3 $\ ^) (0 jI the omen. — „

( 112 )

T'X ma-nim, far, -^!!» r „+- t> / ' ?»«-n«», far, atar. J ,, l^n sometimes «-'«'»> i^ XCf^ )

'^'^"'""' ^'^^^*- i^3 /"•«> to be hot, X( ^3 "-^"•««^» liot' SC^3 and from Further intlection takes place, m the change from (ij o, to (^ <>, 4 «y,

/O 1 to «. The foUowmg are examples :

Change li'om (S °' ^^ (^ <^-

Adj. eating. eat, ^<^'» ^0, a-s'ow, food. (-(? ^0, to (-(f (0 I X((-^

Ag. eater, )

location, ,^ ,, , Adj. placing, /T' ^ • in- !> \ ^ Cj. stallation. Ag. placer. )

Adj. giving, the giving, dona- to ^ ^ ^ (OH give, Xi^l^C^lmho, {.(^^Unlat, Ag. giver. tiou, gift.

Exceptions.

^^"^ey™^^ (C;U/ so, to convey, ((> (0 so ^ Ag. conveyer, j(c> ^ so M, l vehicle.

Adj. fearful, ) ()^ ro^ to fear, { ro?« io, (^ (() \ Ct'CO ''^'" ^'^^j fear, dread. fearer, Ag. )

m'^n'^er of ^-/o, to fall, (5- Idom ho, a faller. /t/ow ^k, (^ (0 \ (^ (V\ •^ falling.

Change from i ng, to ?«.

C>Jc> ;A«w^, to drink, )o ((3 //;«?? Jo, a drinker, X( Jo u-f/ian, drink.

C)^ ''fl^y, to watch, y^ (() r«« l/o, a watcher, y~ i^\ ran lu, mode ofwatching.

i'i^ run, ?(t "''"* chaiff, to :!^ (0 dan ho, a runner, *^V( ('A'''^; means of, or place for running.

i(^ Jdonff, to send, (^^ (0 //(>« Jo, a sender, {^ ((y) /^-/()« /o;«, way of sending.

<(^ lliwj, to lead, (^> (0 lin ho, a leader, (^^ (J\ Im khu, to be able to

lead. —; ;

{ 113 )

S-0 cU lyan ho, (VVj( (V) It/an lei, J-V VWV^( VK}f A J M vwv \v ^ handed ,^

cup-bearer, ) round, distributed.

f^«« s-^'^^, means of tf%

\ searching.

,_/ , , ,. I WTT;( (A /^//:ry«« Jo, / 2(TT>( a-rtfd«, the crow of , cv\/ »'» ; J" ' "v \«^ >/ > ^ j i7T;( njang, to crow, (as a cock), j

a cock that crows, ) a cock.

Excejjtions.

myong, i(^ to be versed in, <(^ (0 "'Z'^^y ^o, one versed in.

i(^ jong, to be accustomed to, <(^ iOj^'^ff ^^> one accustomed.

(^ /(!o«^, to be low, i(^ (() huiij ho, hollow.

soHv/, i(^v to be endowed witli, i(^ (0 ^^"ff ^^y endowed with.

i(^ shonj, to dry, ^^ i(^ <^( s/^oh^ /ydwy, a drying place.

All verbs, capable of final inflection, assume their special inflection, when prece- ded by the adjective, and nominal particle X( a ; but all verbs that bear inflection, do not necessarily take this prefixed X( a ; thus, the verbs ^^^ U, to speak; ^^ shi, to see

Qo tho, to place ^^"^ *o dig hgi, to give, &c. ; may all ; be inflected, as, ; ^3 ^(\j ^^

shim Jehu, to able to see ()o thvni hjling, a place (/\ be ; 4^!^( for placing on, a rest

ho, to dig ^3 *^ ^^ (Uinjmrj one accustomed ; y^Q^ (0 hjhiho, a giver, &c. In such verbs, the a, could not be correctly prefixed, A-hyin, a-shim, Sec, would not be idioma- tic. An exception occm-s in //, to speak, for though a-lin, would not be accurate, ^(-

o-//, is so the sense, however, becomes modified to the instrument of speech 5^ ; the tongue.

Inflection is not affected by the intervention of a word or words between the

inflecting li, inflected and verb ; thus, ^^ to speak, ^^ (j^ lin Mm, to be able to speak, -^ lin ma khun ne, to be unable to speak ^^n ta ^(^> (J\ f^ ; S(V) ^ ^ /D ma ne, not to dare to speak; ^(V) X( ^( -^( (0 ^"* 0i-9!J"F »2«^ ^'^^ oiie who speaks much ;

C^ dang, to run, ?|^ i,\-^ (J\ (() dan chdng khtim ho, one able to run swiftly, &c. 29 ;

( 114 )

Inflection does not take place in verbs that are directlj^ derived from the Tibe-

thus, sit, ^'"'j sitter, (never bo), tan ; ^jju, to ^\ (0/" ^ j«« &c.

No inflection takes place before verbs or particles indicative of tense, or voice, or that boar merely a transitive sense, nor before the particles of declension, ordinary

particles, the adverbial la li hyi, tell postpositive or particle (V) ; thus, \^ jO^ to ; «(^

5C klmj ivjm, to send off (Jo tho cujat, to place down, to leave off, to leave alone; ; ^

*^" ^'''""* ^^^ t^G thing seen, the view ()^/^\ ro nun, through fear j^ ()^(0 ; ; (-(f ^

aijdt zo sa, for eating, &c. (Not, lin hji ; Jcloii wjon ; thorn ; shim thorn bo ; rom mm ; s<)in sa ; unless the two latter were altered to nouns, then, X( (T' /c)^ a-rom nun ; 3?(- > correct). (-(f ^^ d-zbm sa, would be

An exception to this rule is met with in the particle "i^ dot ; verbs, ending in a

vowel, are inflected before it ; thus, S^ ^ lin det, speaking, or just about to speak

>J^ ^ dit det, coming, or just about to come. (No other verb or particle, representa- tive of the tense, such as bam, ngdn, sho, fat, shang, lung, &c., occasions inflection. The

verb ("^ kon, [before which inflection takes place], is indicative of the imperative mood, and is an auxiliary verb similar to kliu, Id, tVc). a, nong, to go, no inflection takes place non, form- Also before the verb <,Q^ ; (/^ ing a past tense, as, ^\ 5)^ (/O hu thi non, he arrived, of course does not inflect,

auxiliary verb as, and though sometimes acting apparently as an ; ((^ -^^ '>CQ (6

^'' to go ziik nlmg sho, I shall go and do it; ^N5

The above are rules for inflection and non-inflection, as far as can be laid down.

the learnor A little observation and practice will soon enable to acquire the knowledge

of what words do, or do not take inflection. —

( 113 )

4. Of Numeration.

The Lepcha Numerals are similar to the Tibetan. The figm-es, and the written e5>

denominations, are as follows :

Cardinal Numhers.

"^ 1 ^ •^( hut^ one. 6 ^ T' ta-ralc, six.

at two. 2^5^ nil ^ 7 \) *^ *£v Jca-lci/aJc, seven.

3 ^ ^^( *(i»?, three. 8 < •^ -^\ A-«-Z-?<, eight.

4 )(y)/a-//, four. '^ (^ *^ ("^V ^ca-Jajot, nine.

5 H ^^ fi-ngo, five. 10 9 ^5^^'^"^'-'^ ten. o Eleven, twelve and the 'teens are expressed by affixing }o( thaj), to the dibits

combined with -^j^ ka-ti^ ten, thus, [twelve

11 •^'^^'i^)o{ka-tihattliap, eleven. 13 9^ | ^^ •^5^ ^ H ^"«-^»^«^ ^/w^o,

Tliis form is generally abbreviated, by leaving out ^ ^^ /-«-//, thus

13 ^5 C^i)^i ^""'' t^^'Oj}, thirteen. 17 ^0 '^•^)o(^Jca-kyaJcthdp,sQYe-D.iee\i.

)o( /«-/« IJ, ^w ^ S (\> ^/(o/^, fourteen. 18 ^< ^^J>o(/^Ta"„//ia;>, eighteen. o ^ o 15 <}y\ ^ (y }o( /a-?;^o i'/io/j, fifteen. 10 ^ (? ^(-£y )o( ka-k>/6f thap, nineteen.

16 ^^ ^y J^( ta-ralc thap, sixteen. 20 ^ <> (j"( •^( ^"^(i -^'^7, twenty, one score. adding and so on, one, two, &c., and then proceeding on by scores, (y^ ^( /l^ .^

khd katsa kit, twenty-one kha katsa njat, twenty-two, ; (/(-^C C*^ <^ &c. ^( ; ((( /^

kha kat sa ka-ti, thirty *^( >=( k/ui kdt sa ka-tl kat ^^^ ; (Ji-^iC^ -^^^ thap, or,

^^^'^ ^^^t '^" '^"a^ ''''«'>; thirty-one >o( CTC -^^C (>*' -^O^C ; (/( -^C (> «^ ^Vw y^-a^ sa mjat thap,

thirty-two, &c. (J{,'^klid wjat, forty; l:hd wjat ; (/(^^Clv^^^ sa ka-7l,m\y, &c*

* Tliis form was of course very cumbersome and awkward, entirely preventing the teaching of

ordinary arithmetic. A decimal mode was necessary ; which the Lepchas, on being taught, at once saw the advantage of, and learned with avidity. In a school which I established, during the short period I

the opportunity of conducting it, had the Lepchas made great progress in arithmetic ; and now, on all occasions when counting, they adopt the decimal mode taught them.

^- ^«- , S.Sccw M\o n^ ^t 1 ( 116 )

For the reason mentioned in the foot note, I altered this mode of reckoning, b y

introducing a regular decimal system. -^ ka, is an abbreviation of, and stands for

^^^ ka-ti, ten, therefore from ten upwards, the notation may be expressed, -^ -^^ 0^

lea leaf leaf, ka kit sa ni/at, twelve, &c ; •^ •^( -^ (i£i; •^( sa eleven ; ^^ •^( (^ ^ C*^ ka hit sa ka-k>jot, nineteen.

20 ^0 *^ 5^ ^i^^ mjat, twenty.

21 ^^ -^ 5^ (^ •^( /^rt ??^«if s« Ay/7, twenty-one.

22 ^^ "^ 5^ {^

ka-kijot, ivrQnij-\\m&. 29 ^^ -^ <^ C*** "^ ("^U ka nyat sa

30 "5 <* -^ 0*>^ ^^«' ««'»> thirty.

50 HO -^^(.t ^Mfa-ngo, fifty.

60 ^<* '^^y^ ka ta-rak, sixty.

i 70 \) ** -^ "^"^ ^^^' ka-hjak, seventy.

*> ^"« /<^«-/"') eighty. 80 < -C^ ^*^^

90 (^^ •^'^i'&t ^"' ka-hjot^ ninety.

100 ^ * <> (^ "^C //yo kat, one hundred.

^''"'^ *^ ^"^' ^^^ hundred and one. 101 ^ " 9 (Zv *^( C**' *^( ^^''

^"^ nyat, one hundred and two. 102 ^ *^ r^^)*^( C*^ ^ .^^''^ ^'•'^^

** ^"^ ^^ /ra-^«, one hundred and ten. [eleven, 110 ^ ^ (T'v *^( (a*' *^ )*$ Oy^

^'"'' '''" '''" ^"''^ ''*'^' ^'''^' °^^^ hundred and 111 <) ^ ^ rZ^J *^( C*** "C' *^( C*** *^( 5'.y"

** ^'^^ c>"G hundred and twenty. 120 ^^ C(jS^ "^C C*^ *^ 5^ 0!J^ ^'^^ *'^ ".y"^)

*" ^'^^ *"'"' '^"'^ hundred and thirty. 130 <) ^* (^V) *^( C**' "^ O^^ilV^*^'''''^'

o 200 ^ * (^\J "^(IIJ^ nyat, two hundred.

300 ^ o * r^ ci^C ^3^" *"'"' ^^^^'^"^ hundred. four hundred. 400 ^0 (7>V ^5^^ 'J!J''fi^-^h

o five hundred. oOO H (7>N' ^ ()" i/y^>-"i"^) ( 117 )

600 'J'o o ^^ ^ y-- gyl) ta-rah six liundred.

* ** 700 \) CC^-^"^ 'JU^ hi-hjak, seven hundred. 800 <»o (^ ^-^NyyoA-rt-Zra, eight hundred.

900 (^ <» (l^ -^ (-^V [lUo Jca-lcyot, nine hundred.

(i(t(l 999 (70>) "^ (-^f C*"^'^ (-£i» (> -^ (-£11 y,y« AY^-Z-yoi! s« ^-a ^a-Z^o^ sa ka-

hi/ot, nine hundred and ninety-nine. 1000 <)0 o o t(^(\^ ^( tong-hrokUt, one thousand.

o 1010 ^ « 9 <(-$ C^ *^( i^** *^5^ tong-hrok kat sa ka-ti, one thousand and ten. > - - o 1011 ^ ** 9 ^ <($ (^ "C^C C*^ *€^( J°( tong-hrok kat sa kat thap, one thousand and ^ _ _ eleven. o "^ 1020 9 0^ *($ (l/^ *^C C^ "^ tong-hrok kat sa ka ngat, one thousand and ^ _ twenty. 2000 ^0 o o i($ (^ 5C tong-hrok ngat, two thousand.

10,000 ^0000 5]^(6*^ -^i hri-tsho kht, ten thousand, one myriad.

63 ((j^ <"( ^""* ^^'''^'^ ^"'*^> ^^ Oj "^C ^''"^ ^"'»^) one hundred thousand, one lakh.

^"'^'^j million. iiC^ EC *^( ^''^'^ ^^^ -^ (^''''•^C c/ie-«i»(> kat, ten millions, one -^von i^j -^j -^( tiing-chhiir kat, a hundred millions.

Jo '^ ^( ther-lum kat, a thousand millions.

(^ 5^ *^C ^"'"''^ ^'''''^ ^'•''^5 ^ hundred thousand millions.

{^v ('^tv E( *^( s6s6-gd kat, a billion.

The large numbers are taken from the Tibetan.

Tlie Ordinals

from the cardinals are formed by affixing to the latter the particle (() bo; thus, «^( (/^ kat bo, the first; ngiit bo, the second ^'^'^ ^<^; (0 ; the third ^ ^( (0 j ^5^V iO f<*-^^ bo, the fourth, &c.

30 ( 118 )

To tliis an adverbial signification may be given by adding (^ sa, or ^( ka ; thus,

^""'^ ^^' ^'''"^ ^'^ "^i*^^ reference to the first, firstly, or *^( (0 C**' ^^ '^'') *^( CO *^( ^'^j i^^{

lyanj, may be prefixed, so, i^( •^( (0 "^C (y««5' ^'"^ ^o ^"«> in the first place, firstly.

Multiplicative terms,

expressing times, fold, are effected b}^ affixing to the cardinal numbers yli^^ thyin, or ^ _ »/o — ^ (i^ ilijom ; or by prefixing {'^ pho ; thus, •^( S^}c\} hut tlvjin, •^( (^ifsy katdijom, or (J^" — '^ — . " , ^ ^ , -Qi^pho Jcat, one time, once; <«^ j)^ «^«^ tlujin, &c., twice; (;;iv( (^^ sa«» djum, &c., thrice; four times, phofa-wjolorc^ the fifth time, &c. (fj^j^^'?'^''-^ ' (fj^ ^(^ (() y

Distributive Numerals may be formed by reduplicating the cardinals with (^ sa, intervening; thus, •^( ^;iv

^( katsakat, one by one, ^ w^«^ sa nijat, two by two, &c.

Collective Numbers are denoted, by different words, according to their significations ; thus, the term to ex. press two (persons or things), is expressed relatively (as shown under head of Pronouns)

to the pronomi ni/i, as, hu-iiiji, those two persons or things by affixing ^^ ^\ ^^ ; 5^\ ovjum, the two, both. Double (joined together) is rendered by ((V hryok, &c., as

hryok ho, a double barrelled (^v^*^^ COk^ (0 sa-dyar-mi gun. Numbers, crowds, mimyho, flocks, herds, &c., are expressed by i(% (0, ^J (0> ^um ho, ^H^^ a-doj),

&c. thus, rni-mmcj, a crowd of people, Ink dop, SCC/^ d-?ior, ; ^^<(^ ^\ (;^ a flock of sheep, 50 (^ ^^^^ "''''' ^ ^"''^ of cows, &c.

A time, a turn, is expressed by (^3 (V> po-len, (sometimes, (J3 ^> pho-len) ; thus,

'^C^\ C^ ^ ^^ ka-su po-len gim, it is my turn, &c., &c. —

( 119 )

PART VI.

SYNTAX; FIGURATIVE AND HONORARY SPEECH;

EXPLETIVES, &c., «S:c.

1. Of Syntax.

The simplicity of the Lepcha language; the paucity of inflection, obviating the necessity of forms of concord in gender, number or case, or in the government of verbs

already, in this &c. ; and with what has work, been said on the subject, leave little

explanation from syntax a ievf that needs : remarks, liowever, may be deemed requisite.

sentence, In the formation of a the governing noun or the subject is, generally

first, the predicate follows the object in the placed ; predicate clause precedes tlie verb thus, C^ ("^ <-^3 C-^V '^«-'^"<'» -^'""^ ^l/^t^ Sakon felled a tree, (literall)-, Sakon tree felled).

The Article is seldom expressed, but when required the numeral adjective •TY/trtV

the particle mu, may be used or, if a or ; one, ; ^\ definite, the particle y re, (as head of Articles, page explained under 23) ; when employed they follo^v the noun- as

<-0( 6JJ *^"( chang-gii Ht, a wolf.

with the prefixed a, Adjectives formed 3^( as a rule, follow the noun; thus, <-0(/^^

X(^<$ chang-gii a-tim, a large wolf. Sometimes, however, the adjectives may precede the noun thus, '^-"'^' ^""^ ^ secret road; but this ; S(^( (^^ may be considered to be an hyperbaton, not the regular form.

article is employed with a When the noun in apposition, or with a noun and adjec- tive, it follows the subsequent noun, or attribute; thus, C**'^-^ ^i% ^ iCS V sa-Jcon ka-nwrjemhorc, Sakon the artist; cUng-cju (-<^((^J) ^i)$ f a-tim re, the large wolf. ( 120 )

The objective case of a sentence, (either simple or compound), may be distinctly

form of the article; thus, rendered by the inflected i-^(^^ S(j^ V (V)^ '^\ S("

•> • /*- •^\ y )ey^ cliang-gu a-tim re luk-lmp a-chum rem tha, the great wolf ate the small lamb,

(lit. wolf great the, lamb small the, ate) ; C*^^)^ f^\ C**'j-C 0^ ^CS9 C^ (

nun sa-chi sa-gyeng sa-tgo sa-lur sa-ka ^U/ -^ C*^'^^\ T' T^ 0^ *^( ^^ (C**' sa-thang sa-jyguk re re sa kcit mum sot, thar, choral, hog-deer, musk-deer, barking-deer, ibex, oueofeach was killed by a tiger, (lit. a tiger, different animals, of each, one killed). But

in general, the articles are dispensed with altogether ; they however become useful in in- dicating the objective case, in a sentence which might be ambiguous without inflection.

Adjectives commencing with 2^( (i, when joreceded by a noun, may sometimes drop the 3^( d; thus, S(^J «-^"'"«^ liot, i^^ ^J >f»g hr&m, hot water; X(*i/il

a-h?jang, eo\d, ung kgang, cold water d-ham, pure, unadulterated,

(^ ^ j'er ham, pure, unalloyed gold; 2?( i/vV'"%") j^^'^i^^; simple, without its adjunct,

(^ ^\ so hgu, plain rice, without the husk, -^ '0^ ^A ka-kyup hgu, a plain ring, without its stone, &c.

But the retention or rejection of the a, is mei'ely a matter of euphonic considera-

tion, it is in general more elegantly retained; thus, ^i^Jk^ S(*/«)C fC'-^'J^ng d-ming,

straightforward youth (^N ^" » heavy load chi d-chor, a ; S( j(V) ^'^"'h ; ^-^ ^( (-^ sour beer, &c.

Nouns, when qualified by participial* or other verbal formatives, or by nouns con-

relative participle sa, succeed their attributes thus, nected with the ^ ; ^( <.)^ ^

* It may have been perceived that in former occasions I have spelt the word jiarticiple in its form of an

tliis occurred in the first instance by an adjective the same asitisspolt whenanoun ; error of the compositor's qualify another, being overlooked : so, considering that one noun may be made to also for uniformity's sake, I continued to have the word thus printed. In the present instance the adjective being somewhat eeparated from the noun, I have spelt it in its usual accepted way. It would, however, in my opinion, be

better, if not more correct, to spell and pronounce it i^articipal, the same as principal, (from princeps, particeps); adverbial might likewise be improved by being shortened to advcrbul. ( 121 )

Jo( gat sliang sa thdm, a desirable thing hung sa mi, a blaz- C^ ; >^i i«^\ ^lU' S^ ^^I/^^

mg fire; (^ (/^ (0 C*^ j(^ (^ luk nonbo sa gi-chho, damaged goods; ^(<< (>v "* /'^ .-^ . . sha-nye sapa-hip, &\ea^eia.-pi'pQ, &c. (see, also, remarks on this subject, ^\^ ; page 101).

Two nouns may be united together in the form of a relative possessive case, or,

in regimine ; in this form, the order of the words is the same as the English. When

the affixed noun commences with S( "> the vowel is, invariably, dropped; thus,

X(j^ a-^/, an eg^, i^^^fo-ti, a bird's eg^, (instead oii^^ ^^ ^i})kfi ^'^ ^-^h ^^^

of a bird) A-sJidp, a nest, fo-sJidp, a bird's nest d-t/ui, honey, Qgg ; Sii 6( (jy^C ; XO^N ^ .. »7r /.- ^ (^JoV ^NJoV i^N^N )c»Y (^^^ )o\ ^'oif-^/^i, hu-thu, tung-him-thu, sa-im-thu, (dif-

ferent sorts of) bee's honey o.-r6ng, a horn, hik-rong, a cow's ; XC^U >(5 <() horn ;

'^'^"> ^^1 ^y^ (of needle, &c.), >'Uum-gu, a needle's eye a-tJujaJc, X(5^ T^'^H^ ; X(J<=i;(

a head, ^}^(^jat-thgdk, a pin's head; SCT'j «-'""'^", a young shoot, {'^T'j po-nik,

a shoot a-fZoif, the remnant, the balance, a-^ow f?o^, bamboo ; X((s^ X((-(f(5^ the

remains of food, &c.

But when ownership or possession is directly implied, the genitive case is more

emphatic; it is also more dignified, and when significance is desired to be conveyed,

this case would be, judiciously, used should «', the first ; X( be letter of the succeed-

it correctly retained thus, ing noun, would be ; ((\> ^ (^ SCj"^ lo-pa>i sa d-mik, the

eye of the master; Qi\S^ (5^ 0^ X((V^ num-shim-nyo sa a-lut, the heart of man ;

(^v 0^ XCCC*** ^^^" '5^ n-smi, the spirit of life, &c.

Possessive pronouns precede the noun ; when the latter commences with 5( a, the vowel may, or may not be dropped thus, ; •^<^\S((0 C^^^-^i ka-su d-ho sa li, kd, or, "^ (^\ (0 C>^ jCCf -^i ka-su bo sa li kd, in the house of my father. The elliptical

form, ^ ^ivN S( (0 j(V *^( Ji^c-su a-bo li ka, my father's house, is sometimes express- ed, but this form, here, is slovenly, and rendering the sentence incomplete, it should not be acknowledged. 31 { 122 )

Some nouns, commencing with X( «, may bear elision when standing simply,

but especially, when followed by some relative ; thus, d-ka, the hand noun 2?(«^ ;

•^{J^ ka-j6m, the fingers, -^^N ka-tup^ the fist, "^(^^ ka-dom, the thumb, &c. X(-

4()a a-i'/iowy, the foot ; t()e>(^ thonrj-jom, the toes, 4()>=»4^W/;oHy-;'««y, the heel, i(J<»

(."^V thong 61, a foot print, «S:c. o-thijak, tlie head )o^{^{ thjdk-ddm, the py SXY^i, ;

crown of head, )^ii(,^ t/ii/Ak-onr/, the skull, )£:\)(^'^^ thi/dk-kd7n, a \^i\low, &c. ^(-

d-dydwj, dijdnrj-hj6k, ^J*^^^; 4^^( the leg ; 4^'( (y,^ the sole of foot, i'^^i^ (^ '^^«"i' to 1^ * > , ^ kick forwards, 4^;^( (^ (^^ '^ll^ng (jor ayok, to kick backwards, &c. X( J^ d-m'tk,

the eye ; >^ (-^ mik-chom, the eye-lash, S^ i(%V mik-irij/onf/, the eye-brow, 5"5*^J

'^'"/*^) mik-gruny , a tear, &c. ^ tooth, fo-nycl, the gums, (^({i^y^'-yw", ; X((& (^5^ «»

/o-saZ, /o-Ji^, the molar teeth, (^ -(f the incisors, (^S() the eye-tooth, a tusk, &c. > . > . ^ ^* X((0 d-ts6m, the hair, (Q *W ''*''"^ W(?«y, a single hair, (Q S)^ ts6m-rik, a pig-tail,

(O ^i"^ tsom-chong, a hair-knot, &c., &c.

Postpositions, commencing with 3?( a, may, likewise, when affixed to a noun,

often drop the vowel, whereby the sense may in a degree become modified ; thus,

VV (a** X( <')^) ^^y 5^^*^^*"^^ li sa d-plmig, or, U d-plung, upon the house, ^(\>

(.^C li-plang kd, on the house-top '''^ d-plung, upon the horse, ^( ; (^ XC*-)^ -^fN (^

c)d }o^ hu on-p)lung thiil, he rode on horseback. "-/"<«, the side of, 5(^J ^0»J( (C*'*' ^3' <

Other prefixed particles, besides 2J( d, are sometimes dropped, but chiefly when < with a following word, forming a compound term thus, ^C'- in conjunction ; C*^

tsuk, the sun QN -^ tmk-kyar, the west, fsiik-ndng, the meridian, QN ; Q\ 4/3( 0\

tsiik-tsur, a sun-beam, &c. ^ C^ /a-so, yesterday, ((^ (^v so so, lately, CC**^ ^

y^((0 *" ''^" tliydkho, an acquaintance of yesterday, &c. (^S^ sa-nyim, the day, ( 123 )

nijim-fhjet, mid-day, S^^ \' Jiy^w^ r<>/ la sa ajjok, daily work j^ iS^ ^ (^ (^ ;

' » O o _ o < so-nap, night, ruip-mo, evening, ^w^" (^v /^( the /^( (^ the /^( )5 ^j *^ *"V^ i»«

^"a, evening and morning, &c.

A word may, sometimes, assume a prefixed syllable without any change in the

part of speech thus, ayo, or, sa-ai/o, before, formerly, (time) ; han, ; (22U (^ (J^ •^( or, ^Jf( na-han^ before, prior, antecedent, (time or space), &c. 4,

syllables bear a legitimate ; Some prefixed degree of change thus, ^ {^^ pa-zuk,

^U-(f /)z

7i>/6m, an old man; ((^-^ so-mat, (lit. the state of the weather), altered to i^^N^

sun()-mat, (commonly, but not so correctly spelt

(see, also, &c. ; under head of commutable prefixed syllables, page 20).

Different local pronunciations, however, and often ignorance, &o., render the change, in the first syllables of dissyllabic words, very common, and, sometimes, very irregular ; this disorganizing ten- dency should be, altogether, discouraged ; and the proper prefixed syllable of each word, when de- cided on, should be adhered to. This principle should be laid down as a canon, and systematically impressed on the Lepchas.

In the use of the Plural signs, when the noun is indefinite, the sign is affixed ;

w2«-ro sany li, the people thus, ^(T' ')C«*' j(\) spoke. But when the number is defined, the sign is unnecessary thus, hik tndk, ; ^0 ^j^^ %i fa-li four cows died.

Where the plural may be inferred, through tlie aid of any connecting clause,

single sign may be sufficient to pluralize several nouns thus, a ; ^j ^\ ^(^, (^C, (^

*J^ ^7^ ^^ &( f^^^ ^^^) ^h nyot, sa shing pang tgupfat ; or by summing all to a climax, the sign may be dispensed with thus, ***** * ; 45^, 4^( <^, <{V^ &(**** shing,

lyang tijang, tyup fat, the enemy laid waste the houses, fields gardens and ; or, the houses, fields, and gardens, the whole country was laid waste by the enemy.

But where no infei'eutial word or clause exists, it is better to attach the sio-n to each noun thus, ^"^ iipa'iff, shi pang, ; ^W O' J^ '^^'C^ *5^ (^ (/O sa shing J

( 124 ) pang dop nSn, the houses, household goods, and gardens were burned.

When a noun, in the plural, is qualified by an adjective, the plural sign may suc- ceed, or precede the adjective; thus, ^(f' ^iTV^^C^^ o^") ^ (H <)<>*' XC H' the ma-ro a-ri/um sang, or, ma-ro sang a-ryiini, good people. The former is, perhaps, more idiomatic.

Pronominal adjectives, generally, precede the noun; thus, XCT' (>C ''''^ ^^^<') this book ««-''^ ma-ro, which man ? or, any man, &c. ; {^f ^(T'

90-rung, gang la, and ^«> may be The Postpositive Particles (,C^ t)^3 ^(^ ^ (V>

word, or clause thus, ^^ 9o- separated from the Pronoun or Adverb by a ; (<$ (^ ifJ

ma-ro go-rung, what person, soever, rMM<7, whosoever '" (^ 5^^ (^ ; ($ ^ (T (^ *r3

there may be. ^a-re gang la, whichso- iy"^ to I'^i go-rung, whosoever <> f <.)6> CV)

««-''^ 5'"^ 9(^^^9 ly<^, whichsoever you please, take. (^ ever, (> f (5C ^)6> (V>. ^ K

la, whosoever; (63 ^(^ (\>> HlOi 00 to gang ((^ ($ <> S( -^^ C^C^^]i(S 5? *^3

tvung a, whosesoever child I be, d-yl-2

^^"' ^'^' ^^i^tever, whatsoever, every what business is it of yours. ^3 '^ ; ^3 ^ ^

^"^^ «.^*'' o^"^^' «^'" <§:^ shu la ma nijin ne, nothing, ((/ 5<^ ^* ^^ ^jiCf C^^S"^ ^

*'''" ^^° Mo /a »?« ngm ne, it is of no use, ^^ (^^ ^> ^ (/) '^ ^^^^'^ ^^ ^"' ^^"'^ "'^' ^ hear nothing. (^ (V ^o ^«; every one; ($ ^(f'-^C CV) ^ 0( /O ''o '««->•" ^^^aif ^« '«« id?M jze, there is not one single person remaining.

Dissyllabic verbs, compounded of two words, may be separated by a qualifying word • thus, J^ Sy den-ri, to believe, 5^ •^( S)~' c?ra Ardw r?, to have little faith,

e (?ere A-d»J ri bo sang nga, ye of little faith %on- g »^ ^'l[ ^)^(() (.){^ y( ; (•£y ^j^

dyak, to pity, to feel compassion, (i£y /^ ^ %ow nam dyak, to have exceeding

compassion, (see, also, the same construction in the negative form, page 109). ;

( 125 )

this does not take place where the is But disseverance word a substantive ; thus,

Jci/on-dit, compassion, pity (-£1; ki/on-Jit d-tim, great pity ^N (l£u 5^ ; ^^ SCj^ ;

if^ tuk-iium, a nose, $\(/0 <*^V("^ (0 ^«^''-«'^'« '^'««y-'^"''»^ Jo, an acquiline nose, &c.

Pi'onominal adjectives and adverbs, when expressed relatively, may, abbreviated,

be repeated emphatically after thus, the verb ; (^ (^ ^> t(7Q (\> ((^ (\) i(7c) (6 ^o sa-lem ndng lem go la nmg sho, whither you go, thither will I go also ; (^ ^^ >(3 (3(

So iC^ (V) 0( (^ ^^" s«-i« id/« i/^o /rt ham sho, wheresoever you dwell, I shall also dwell; (if Ca** )°^ "^C J^C (63 (V) "^C (^ ^'" sa-i'/i« wd/c ^/;d _j/o la male sho, whenever you die, I shall die also ''"' ^^''^'^ ^"^' ^^> ^'^ ^"^ ^^''j ; \f\ C*>{j^ 4}j (j^, ((^ (\> -^3 C^ 3^ as he does, so shall I do ^'" ««-^'t'^' ^uJc let go la si'ik sho, ; ^\ ^ "h 4j k iC^ (V) 4j (6

I will do as much as he does *')-0 a-gu sa-re ; :Si^\ C^T T' C^V CSiT' i)^ (6

eking re, sa-re gat re thop sho, whatever you think, whatever you desire, you shall obtain, &c.

The preceding adverb may be omitted, and the succeeding verb and adverb may, then, be expressed as a compound noun ; thus, (^ ^\ i(/^ ^ iQ^ (^ go hn nimg lem nbng sho, I will go where he goes, I will go his whither-ward.

In speaking of the Is^, 2nd and 3r(7 persons, singly, the singular number (not as

in some languages, the plural) is always employed thus, or, ; ((^ X((^ (^ -^\ j(V) go d-dom, or, ho mum U, I spoke to thee; ^ (2f\^\^C^ ^^^ '>^i^n humly'i, thou gavest him, &c (not even in honorary language does this form ever change). ;

The instrumental case, when the noun governs an active verb, may, generally, be

thus, or, hu li, or, hunun li, he used instead of the Nominative ; ^N j(V) \f\ f^\\^ said. But it cannot be, correctly, used in connection witli an intransitive verb

(not, hu dang), he ran. It may often be, advantageously, thus, ^V^ ^'" dang, mm employed in indicating the governing noun, especially in a compound sentence, where the word may happen to be far separated from the governed verb. It is

32 ;

( 126 )

also, sometimes, made serviceable as an intervention between two symplionous let-

ters thus, hu nun hum hiji, (instead of, hu hton hiji), ; ^\ f^\ ^\ ^^ ^\ \f\ ^^ he gave him.

Words, capable of direct inflection, (as pronouns), may be inflected, when governed by transitive verbs thus, a-yum li, I told you, or, I spoke to you. ; (^ ^itjj^ ^

Verbs signifying -sending and conveying- when governing nouns, referring to a

person, require the aid of a postposition thus, (or, second ; ((^ f^\ \f\ ^( ^\ t^V(

or, ii^^-^^) nun hu kd, (or, hulychifj, or, hu li/dnr/ kdj yuk htjut., I tf\ ^\(\) ffo ,

letter to him, (not, him a letter -^ go hu ka hi yuk rem sent a ) ; ((^ ^\ •^( ^\ T^iC^

klong, I sent the letter by his hands, or, in his charge, ( not him with the letter),

&c.; ^(^^

verbs go, yo, do not inflect a noun thus, The Substantive {(^ (^ Sfc, ; ((^ \f\

yo hu yum, I am he ^'« '««-'•« re C^\ ; \f)^(rX^Ciiy i$ rd) SC^}

(not, rcmj yum, to nun d-Jyut kd gye fat, he is the man who conquered in battle.

mood, the verb km, inflects tlie noun thus, In the Imperative (-^ ; '^C>^\ C^

is (•^ ka-sum nm km, let me go ; not so in the Hortative mood, which expressed by means of the particle •^( kd ; thus, -^ ^J i(70 "^i ka-yu nony kd, let we (not us) go. Nouns are not inflected, by simple postpositions, (as in English they, generally,

; thus, ho sa, of thee, ( lit. of thou ^"' are by prepositions) (^ (^ ) ; if ^ ^^ (^ "^i

account, (lit. on account of he) yo hu km iip, I fired tun-dok kd, on his ; ({^ if\ ("^ (5

towards him (he). &c.

In referring to a subject, said, thought or done, &c., as usual the noun or ^xo-

noun, in general, comes first ; the verb, preceded by a relative adverb, the last

thus, ^f^ 163 if353 -^C' -^ ^3 X(^ 5^ 6v M (V> ^ S^/^ f^' ^t SS /^« nun,

hu-yii kd, ka-su d-mlem ik sa-thd la ma shi na sho, yany li. ho said unto them, you shall

****** never see my face again ( lit. he uuto them, ^ thus said ); ^(^ "^(j (^ (^V { 127 )

^-tf, o« J?<-(7/, dun na, tell the groom to bring the horse, (lit. 5^, (J£ 5^\ /J) /d-^a« i/ang to the groom, the horse bring, thus toll «"" ^'W'«j '"^ ) ; ((^ {^\ \f\, (^ {Si. (E ^V\^i'^

0, ,yo /;', I told him to go, ( lit. I to him, go, thus said T^ ^gN (J^ ) ; ((^, X( 5^( ^ ^(,

A-^ -^ /7^, d-re ivjuk ka um pu^ jjang cJiing ma, I thought that this was very nice, ( lit.

1, this very nice is, thus thought ).

Causive Conjunctions are, generally, affixed to the verb ; thus, l^(y^ X( (0 j5^

(oi'' ho mji mat ha, (or, mat mat renj, /c)^ '^i 0( /«)^ "^C r' )? ^^N E (O C^\ ma-ro UUp mm ^^ kum-yam ho gum, tlie man is clever, because he is learned. Illative conjunctions are,

usually, detached; »^«-'-" thus, ^(f X( (0 S^' S /Sj ^(i(\>3 if}*^} 6(0 ^J hldj) ho iigi, ar mm mat lung hu kum-gam ho gum, the man is learned, therefore he is clever.

In the foUowuig sentence, I give examples of some conjunctions and adverbs,

by which it may be seen how tliey may be employed. They may be distinguished

in the transliteration, by being printed in Roman type, and in the translation, by

being printed in Italics, tf^ 4i 3) ti Si (^ M i 6} *E( /^ Ki (VV (^ W}

55»^ i^j, ^^ ^j iC^ ()^ ^^ -^ ^"^ /O Jill mak nun mat ban, go sak-dak gum, yang na

a-lo do ryii pii, a'r nun mat bii yo ma go na gang, hu na zk gang, hu-do sa ma-su sa

a-lut ka d-duk zak ho ka-ta zon ma go na re, shen la hu sa num-nu sang gun na ka fram Igang

nyi iiing, yang shii go-thom la ma ngin no. I am sorry that he is dead, hut, perhaps, it

is better as it is, for if it were othenvise, had he still lived, there can be no douht, that not

only he would have been afflicted in body and mind, hut would have been a source of

anxiety to all his friends.

The peculiarity, in the verb -to give - represented by ((3 ho, and >0^ hyi, not

having been noticed before, may be here shown. The former is used, whon gov- ( 128 )

erning tlie 1st and 2nd persons; the latter, when governing the 3rd person; thus, /•-' •> •> •• */^ w'-f/owj io, give thee liji, ^"«-5«?» ^0, give me ; hum give -^C>^\ (0 ; X((^ (0 if p(V

him ^*3 ka-yiim ho, give us; "^"'» ^^^ gi^e ye ; Jm-rjum ; ^ ^0 SC^} (0 ^'^ij^C^

if verb be used in a transitive sense thus, I'ji, give them. It is the same, the ; -^ ^\

S^> ka-sum li ho, speak to me \ ^"'"^ ^^"'^ ^^^1 bi°i' ((3 ; -^f 5^N j(V %^

In speech the future particle (^ s/w, like the future sign in English, is generally-

thus, '"^"y *^*^) would be pronounced '6 (Jo nbncj abbreviated ; (^ i(7D (^ ^^ {(^ i(^

I'll so, \ '6 ^tu di sh\ he '11 come ho mat sh\ thou 'It do it, &c. sh\ go; if 5? ; (\f^V^

Neither prescribed time nor s^jace will admit a particularizing of every little point that may occur in

the formation and construction of sentences, enough, however, has been said to facilitate the learner in

acquirino- the language, and this is the object of this work. I shall conclude this subject, by showing au

example of the diversity of significations, which a single word may possess, and the influence these exert

in modifying expressions of speech.

Though the language abounds in synonyms, yet numerous words bear many

various meanings, both simple and in combination with other words, effecting great play and power of speech. I shall take, as an example, the word ^( mcit, giving some of its significations. _ - i :^(;««7, to do, to make, &c. 2, to become, to acquire; {-X.^ ^i fd ^C^, %\

"^^'^'^ muk-nydm hjdng miin-po, 5^( *C^( "^(r^) CO W^'C "5 )^ (^ "** ^^^^ ^"' ^"'"^9^ von hjdng ma wjin ne, unless you become holy, except to the land of departed spirits (hades),

place shall you go, Ta-she sung, Tashe's history). 3, to effect ^A to no other ( ^ ^ <0*'\ ;

huim-no mat ham, he affects, assumes the king. 4, to suppose 7$ (/O "^C 0( ; X( y ^^ imagine, assume, Y' -^^ <$

to befall -^ ''" ^" sa-thizak, misfortune has befallen him. 6, to make 5, ; \f\ -^^ Ca*'j)^ a custom, habit of; ^\ ()- (Vv ^^ '^'^ "<^"^ ^''^' ""'^^ ^^ ^^ ^" *^^ habit of rismg early.

as a substantive, for the thing, or, action 7, used ; \f\ S(<.)(V) *^( ^( J^ Si^ ^^i

li, a-wje kit mit li, he now says one thing, presently another. ^C S^ ''" d-la7ig kit mat ( 129 )

8, except, only f'l-thol mat ma nong ne, I shall ; S(()^ ^( ^ 'Ut) (7i go, only, a

short distance, ( lit. except near, I shall not go). 9, till, until ; \f\ ^ ((^ ^(

^ 5^^ (7) ^"' ^«-^o mat ma tin nc, he did not arrive till yesterday. 10, including, ^ o - along with, in addition to Jcom mo sa a-kitj} mat, ; ^-^ {,% C^ 2?('^> -^( including the capital, and interest %N A-ow «« /ok 7nat, to work also {^ (^ ^{ ; sometimes expresses, emjjhaticalli/, to do, or, effect ; thus, 3^( ^^ a-?«iyt, the eye, j-^ ^( wu'yt mat, to spy, to pry into ^« «-ya»y ^« '»« '««;^ we, but it was, indeed, ; ^Ci W S('^( ^ ^ ^i,/7) ff'^^if

purpose the sense is of no effect, answered no ; also sometimes modified; thus, ^(-

-^\ a-hq}, a child, ^\ i((\) kuj) mat lung, to adopt, and bring up a child ^( ; (^ (^

foO« sa mat, to make preparations for the road a-mlem mat, to ^( ; S(^ "SC make a

: its face, to be sulky, sullen, &c ( see also agency in forming a causal, page 93 ).

12, implies also, to have sexual intercourse, ta-ayumdt) (^5^\ -1§( ; ^( ^-^mat zang, an assistant, an abettor; also a concubine. 13, preceded by <,)^ shang, intention is inferred thus, iQ^ shang ; (^ ^^ ^(, 4^( S(<>)CV> ^ <(75 /O (^ !)'> nmg mat, gang d-lang ma nong na sho, I intended to go, but I shall not go now. 14, when preceded by

zang, it signifies pretence thus, '«« *^"' '«a^, <.)^ ; -^ 5^ /^ ^^ "SC «« *««^ to pretend not to see. 15, succeeded by (3( ha, ()( ia«, <(V)\ ^««^, or ^ m?, gives signification of,

through, by means of, on account of, &c so, ^o c^«''"< ; (-(f ^J Ca*' ^( <(V)^ «« '«a^ lung, provisions for (on account of) the road, (see pages, 84 and 87). J 6, -^( ()( mat-hd, pre-

ceded by sa, implies comparison thus, '''^o C^ ; (X C^ ^( 0(. 5^V^ X( •<>> 6^^ «« mat ha, li a-chum gum, compared with the hill, the house is small. 17, followed by t,)^ gang, forms a conditional thus, ^'" ^'«- ; (^ < C^) (0 ^( ^C^> iC^Kii^ ^ S^ ^ ^^

,?»;« ho mat gang, go a-dom ma ki na sho. If, or, jirovided you give it to me I shall not

33 —

( 130 )

it expresses prosecute you. 18, followed by ((\> Ww, conduct ; so, if^^^((^X(•

hii sa a-suJc bis is ^\ C^\ mdt-lom gum, conduct excellent. 19, witb (\)\ /?<, affixed,

- ' - it signifies, mode of doing anything, fashion, rule; so, -^((V^N (^ ^> ^( mat-In dok la mat, to act according to fashion. 20, with the plural sign affixed, a substantive is

-'^( pang, actions, mat pang sa formed ; thus, i.)^ mat ^( if^ (^ S( (^ -^ (^ /O a-pbt ma thop nc, not to receive the fruits of one's labour. With the participle, present

future, (Gerund), it also expresses nouns thus, t^( 4^N '"' ^^"^ and ; ^\ S(5^ ^J lung a-tim suk, he performed a great deed, X(<.)^ X', 'SiiX'iF '^( ^^^ Wj ^ S^ ^

(S a-lang ren, a-do mat shang, ryu la nyi ma o, from the present time let your deeds be good. 21, with «,)^ •^( shang ka, affixed, it may refer to a period of time; thus, (^

9'^ sa-uyuk mm mat shang kd zuk lei sho, in the space 0^ S^( C^i "5( ^^ "C^C -ifJ CV) (6

it. with of three days, ( lit. in the work of three days ), I shall finish 22, <.)^ shang,

emphatic and special, - what ought and the article y re, affixed, it may be rendered A,

to be done, - so, ^( ^^ X' (X Cb\ "^''"^ *^«"^ '"^ ^^'^^^ 0^"^h the necessary thing, is adverbial the religion. 23, with (\) la, affixed, it acts as an medium between verb

its .subject qualification thus, ''^" ^'^ ^"''^ ^" ''''''^'' <^o i* "^^^^ and or ; fpj (V^ ^( ^ -^J

it also acts the part of a postposition, or, English pre- ( after a goodly fashion ) ; (

la ngak, look towards the west, &c. position ; as, >- tsuk-kyar mat ) QN -£v ^( ^

2. Of Figurative language.

What, in Lepcha, may be considered a distinct part of the language, is, t^\ (()

tiing-hor, (or, >«>((0 thdm-bor), lit. a hint, an innuendo; therefore, <$\ (0 iyT tung-bur

ring, may be called, a figurative language. It is formed of words, to which a figurative,

or metaphorical meaning is attached; thus, S^% •^( mik cham, to close the eyes, hence,

to die (5" klot, to be stiff, =to die, {^y (0 ^lot ho, a stifi" 'im, &c. In this language, ;

the Lepchas arc fond of speaking, constantly interspersing their colloquy with it; ( 131 )

hence, it is necessaiy for the person desirous of being conversant with the Lepcha lan-

guage to acquaint himself with this mode of speech ; not only to the end, that he

may attain a thorougli knowledge of the tongue ; but, also, to save himself from the

imputation of being considered dull of comprehension ; for as the Lepchas say,

>na-r6 ^un u ^Cr'iid ^y *(o ^)3 r, 54 <)

The following are some examples of words,

English. Tung-hor.

^N^( (^ tur-jdm mo.

^^\t i% tung-yalim.

^\ ^( (-^ tur-fdm mn.

/c)\ (^ ("^ num-ormo.

i$ji(0^ tuny tshbng.

^(5^ ma-ri. /^\ <^ (^ num-fyeng mo.

't^\(& i^ pun-shal mo.

fy\^j (^ mim-jur mo. o *(0 ^( (0 ^ong gylip ho.

^\ ON lum bu.

*(0^ (0 hongjakho. o <^3 ^^ ^^ tung-gop )no. ( 132 )

English. Ordinary words. Tung-hor.

Monkey, C^ ^\ sa-lm, ^ XV\ (0 "'^'^'" ryiim bo.

Woman, <$ SU\ ta-ayu^

A Lepcha, i^ rbng, (^^\ S-^ mo-tim-chi.

A Hindoo, i5*^*

A priest, ty^\ 'juk-mun, y=*^ S^i' CO ^^"''« ^'^"' ^<'-

ta-gol tuk-dim. An orphan, iyv -^N ^'u^t k^Pi ^(65 ^v^j'^ > - A rupee, (•^ •^( kom kat, ^ (0 zer bo. A,

num-bong lop. An eight ana piece, M^X *^C tha-U kat, /5yrO (W

A road, ((^ lum. ^ (^ ta-mo.

A tree, ^^ ^^ sa-shim.

num-ngal mo. Fire wood, i^( shdng, ^\ y ( (^

A large basket, *$y(Z^ tung-gryimg.

A net. •^ (-^ ka-chor.

To bite. y^( niH.

To be born.

Day to break,

t .. .. "sr ^ Stolen goods. ^\i'^C^)^i fiik-mosa tham, f^\(^ (-^ nianshal mo.

The house is burned, ^(\) (5^ (/^ U dop nun, <• ^ To part with, yo( (^ M(i?« /yoif, OvJ (5^ vyalnyon.

^"^ dor-jc-Ung ka pur-gyeng bi zo nym alio, (v Ct^

lentils will you will have to eat (Ervum lens) in Dorjeling ; moans, you be put into jail, if you go to Dorjeling. &c. &c. —

( 133 )

3. Of Honorific Language.

respectful language shc-so ring), may also be considered Honorific, or ( ^ (Civ i^)^

a distinct part of the Lepcha tongue. It is used by inferiors to superiors ; likewise, among equals, when a polite and courteous mode of speech is desired to be employed.

It may be called the court language ; most of the words are derived from the Tibetan, as may be seen by the following examples.

English,

To walk, to go, ( 134 )

English, ( 135 )

English, —

( 136 )

Letters and despatches always commence with, and are, generally, continued in

a complimentary strain thus, ; (Sj /^ (J t/0) C^ 4^^ i^J C^ :3 (/O (^ (0

•^(j '^\ "^ "^( ^«" "« Myc« WMw_j/ zu ivung sa bo ka, ^ C^ <(^Y '«)^ 6^ m pa-no krok vyd Jivp, ka-bim mat houj, ymuj shu, to the great king, the omniscient and all-seeing, his humble slave, with folded hands, thus prefers his address, &c.

4. Of Expletives^ — 0^\ (i3V tshuk-pryum.

Numerous words in the Lepcha language are found, to each of which a second word is attached, the latter often bearing no apparent relative meaning. Some of these may take their derivation from words in other tongues, or, like w^ords in Timr/- lor ring, may have lost the peculiar signification they may once have possessed. A few admit of a degree of disconnection thus, nicit shop, ; •^( (^ to do, to act, ^( if^

(^ ^75 iii('t pany shop pang, deeds, actions, «S;c; and some do bear a correlative meaning; as, C*«'0^ C^y^ sa-tsiih sa-mik, (the latter formed from 3^( S-^ a-mik, the eye, = most precious), the sun — the most glorious orb. Many however undoubt- edly have no distinct signification, corresponding to their preceding words, and may be regarded as mere expletives. The following are examples, of words and their expletives.

English, i, Expletives.

<(V)^ j'^ lung-ming.

^ let. A. (5; nyo.

$^kit. ( 137 )

English, — ;

( 138 )

5. Of the call to Animals ; and Infantine language.

The Lepchas have special terms for calling all descriptions of domestic animals ; and the words used when addressing infants foi'm, in themselves, quite a little dialect.

I sliall not weary the learner with a detail of the above, but it behooves him, who

this parlance would master the Lepcha language, to make himself conversant in ; otherwise he may incui' the displeasure of the husbandman, and be disdainfully told,

^"'^ thum-chang how to call ani- (V J^(*"\^ "^ -^ E /t) ma ma ya ne, you do not know mals ! or the indignant mother may reprehensively exclaim, (^ *S^*(0 OT'"? Y^i

/^ ho ageng-hung ring ma thgcik ne, you are not acquainted with infantile speech !

The terms may be found in their resjjective places in the Lepcha Dictionary.

Q.— OfProsndg.

The Monosyllabic form of the Lepcha language renders the pronunciation very easy. Tlie Lepchas are remarkably uniform in the pronunciation of words, and to this we must look to obtain correct spelling. The orthography is governed by the orthoepy.

In the pronunciation of dissyllables, whether the word be simple or compound, Si' the accent, as a rule, falls on the last syllable ; thus, (^ (^ sa-rgiim, an otter

/0\(d iium-vum, united in the wedlock, married; -^ QF ka-Ja/c, the fore-finger; ^'^ '*' /-' ^ '^ . id-chok, a whip, to-dui, equality, 4 ($ tan to, to know by experience, ^((-^ (<$ ^ uniformity, ^^ 5<$ mk-lik, a pearl, &c.

In words compounded of the particle (() ho, and other suffixes, the.accent necessa-

tl\e part of the word tlius, mi-bo, rily rests on the first syllabic, substantive ; ^^ (0

modes, fashions, &c., to-mo, trousers, a trance, ^( CV^^ (6 (V)^ '""^ ^" *^"^7' ^«) ($(^

(^ (0 ^"'" ^"j '* walker, &c. In an interrogative sentence the voice (as in English, &c.,) rises on tlie final

accentuation thus, *''<-^« "''«^ shang a, where arc you going to ? ; {^ (3( <(7c) ^^ S

*/"'< ^J *^ $ '''f' (^') wliat is it '? ; —

( 139 )

The Lepchas have no books written In verse. When reading prose they are

fond of reciting the subject In measured cadence, and the wandering Bards (tlieir

priests), chaunt their tales and legends In sonorous and rhythmic strains. They

have numerous songs, but many are hardly Intelligible, being chiefly composed of

i$> (0 tunrj-hur, the inference of which has been lost, and of expletives to complete

the numbers. The numbers run smoothly, in general from five to ten measures ; not they, however, are always regularly sustained ; the verse Is mostly Iambic. Tiie

following Is a specimen of the commencement of one of theli* sono-s u- u- u- u —

5«-;;«' tumj-fjnm a-nim \ \ sang mjA, C**'J^4$V,J\ S(C/^ *?(a^ y( I

sa-mur n>jo hii chhct noii lie \ \ a. C*^"^^(^0^ X (/^/^ S \ which may be paraphrased

From behind the fire, sisters dear.

The flood has ceased to pour good cheer.

An allusion to the female cup-bearers, sitting behind the fire -hearth, to whom " the Bacchanalians are calling for more good cheer." -^N(johu, is in mythology, the serpent that led the waters from ^^ % ta-h/a da, the profundity i of waters in tang-dek, the regions under the *.V ^ earth ; hence, running streams ;

(in contradistinction to ^\ (5^ «(q mur-ivjo lunr/, still, standing waters, lakes). The

Is romantic in the extreme, full mythology and of interest ; it has its abode in dream- land, and teems with spirits good and evil, with fays and fairies, wraiths and gob- lins. But since the Tibetans forced on them their barbarous Buddhist creed, and especially since the Influx of Europeans, and natives of the plains of India, they have become contaminated; the Lepchas are losing all their slmjjliclty and liveliness of fancy, theli' innocent and attractive Idealism, their artless, guileless character are fast dying out, and being replaced by that which has been taught them, —duplicity, cal- culating selfishness, and all that Is vile and evil. ( 140 )

7. — Of Division of time.

The Lepchas aj^irortion tlie day into periods regulated by the rise and decline

of the sun; thus, {O^'^CO^ so-sung, day-break; <>«'0\0( sa-tsulc tsar, the first ra3''s

of the sun, sun-riso sa-tsuk chi li, ; C**'G\ j"^ 5^^ when the sun has fully risen ; to

sa-lsuli sdn li, when the sun is in full power to sa-tsuk C*^0^ -(?( j(^ ; (^ZS\

7idnff, when the sun is in the zenith, meridian, noon after ^^*' ; which ^lvO^ C^ j^

fsiik f/ije li, when the sun commences its declination, afternoon, to about the end of the

< */^ /•— i quarter; vflicn third C^^\(^^S^^ sa-tsuk tjo li, begins and continues ; till(;;kvO\ — o ^ )o sa-tsuk that, sun-set; after which /^((^ nap-mo, the evening sets in.

sa-aydk, is a of 2i hours including su-n>ji, 0^ 3^H day ; (^\^ the day and o (Ca*' /c)C so-ndp, the nio-ht.

^^ (^ 'lun-Jiruk, is a period of seven da3-s, (derived from the Tibetan qjai'^si hdun-phrag, a week, a se 'n-night. The following are the Lepcha days of the week ;

mi sa-aijdk, Sunday; t^^ sa-uydk, Monday; ))^ C^^^ C^^{, ««i/ <.)(V) (>Sl>(

/«?z^ sa-aydk, Tuesday ?«ye» sa-aydk, ; 5^ Cx^ 22^( Wednesday ; i^N -^ ([lU/ 3&'( s«»y-

«i«if sa-a^a^, Thursday sa-aydk, Friday; 2^^in-jcng sa- ; ^ ^'^{ fat "^Sx^ C^'^i,

aydk, Saturday. But these are seldom employed now, and in fact are becoming

obsolete ; the Tibetan terms are almost invariably made use of, these take their names

from the planets (^i^q yzah, a planet ; including the sun and moon) ; thus, «lFQ'SI5«i

(jzah-hihtn, the seven planets.

nyi-md, (the Sun) Sunday. •if( )<^^( ^"

4i, 5^(^( zd dd-wd, (the Moon), Monday.

-{fC 5'^^^'''^' ?>n7--;Ha, (Mars), Tuesday.

•^'''' Itldk-lo, (Mercury), •ff( X((0 Wednesday.

{f( J3^j(0 stip^n'tr-ho, (Jupiter), Thursday.

•if( ^(*<>*'( 2

^( C5 (0 za phcm-ho, (Saturn), Saturday. — ;

{ 141 )

Tlie months are calculated by moons, of wliicli tliey allot the usual twelve to

the year. The mouth or moon is called (y) (^ la-vo^ but the name of a month, as a

period, is (^ wjom. The following are the order and names of the months ; 5^

(5^ aijit nyom, y^ (^ rd w/um, -^( (^C mar lujom, ^\ ^^IL (^C hur-ntjlt wjum, ^\

<({>*' (<^ hir-sonc/ wjom, (>o (5C thlm-ivjom, <^ (5C sa;«. h^ow?, /^\ 0( (^C mnn-tsam 1 > .. .. > ^ C > ^ - «^ow, /um, {^^

«a?)?, is /^( a year, in Lepcha. The new 5'ear ( /^( (^\ nam-hn), varies according;

to the date of the new moon, and according as the period is altered by the addition

of an intercallary month (^>(^ (^ la-vo s/io, or (y> (^ 5^ la-vo n//ct), which is added

about once in three years to regulate the lunar with the solar time.

Long periods are computed by cycles of 12 years ndmkor, (/^( (^ or ((\) (^

lo kor [of'Sfx], lit. a cycle of. years), the following are the names and order

Ij *£- CVV) /^C '^"«-^«'''^ «a'« the rat year. 2, i(^> /^( W«^ «(i;«, the ox year. 3, C^ij)o

f^{ sa-thang nam, the tiger year. 4, ^yOc^; /^( Zw«-%oHy W(iw, the eagle year.

sa-dyar 5, O*'^ /i)( nam., the thunder-bolt year. 6, 0^ /i)( ^'« ""''^j the serpent

year. o« «a«/, the horse /«/t 7, (^ /^( year. 8, (\>\ /3( nam, the sheep year. 9,

«''^^'j the <>*'if^/0('5«-''"' ape year. 10, ^\f ^( /»7c «aw, the fowl year. 11, ^-

Q^J /*)( ^"''-7" "^''"j the dog year. 12, (^ /^( «/o;« «a;«, the hog year.

8. Colloquial Sentences.

How are you how is your health ? ; r? (a^(^> Cld, ^4) ^d Si 5 ^'o sa-lo

go, ma-.iu ^Img ham a.

What is your name ? X((% 5( ((^^

\Yhat are you doing ? C^ ^^i, <^\ (Zj /'" shu-mat tung go. 36 ( 142 )

Where are you going ? (^ (a*'C( *(?*) i*t\ X ^'" sa-ha mn(j wjxmg a.

Where do you wish to go ? (^ {a^OC <(?») 6^( •)6 X ^^<^ ''^"^'' nmg gat

shung a.

AVhere is your home ? ^((S^ 0( iC^( (^ 50 5^ *^3 S «-f^«

id/« /y(i«'7 s«4/ ngi loung a.

Is it far or near ? -^ \'\ ^( (Jo ^ ma-rum d-tlwl a.

do ? •5«-^'^^« When you return C**'}°C (^V *(?») '^^ S ^«^ »''«^ shang a.

Give my compliments to youi- father ? 2^( (0 ^( (/( ^)-' ::g( {i-ho ka. Icham-ri mat.

business is ? What he employed in ^\ ^^ (^ (^N i^^N ^ /(Z« s/iw ^e« hu loung u.

Are the crops flourishing ? (5C ()c> ^ i^^N ^ j?^o^ t/tok tar rung a.

is There not likely to be a j^lentiful ()<=»^0^'5 {^(j^ (^ "^^ thoh pa-lta la ma

harvest. go na pit.

Why do you think so ? ^"^ s/iM-?«a^ (\f ^}}^i X(((fe ^S"^ *^^ ^

a-fo?« clung ngiing go.

It seems as if it would be so. (i-fow X((W )'J ^^ *^ ^J (Wk^ «y«« 57i«»^

ha pu Igolc.

There has been little rain this year. /^( ((^ *^V( ^( S^C Hdwz so-myang man ngi

How far is it from Dorjeliug to Tibet, via (^ iJ'tS^ /5) ^ •^(,rt(CS" C*' (^ /^,

Sikim. C***^ T'^ S dor-je-Ung mm pat ka, ren-

jong sa lorn nun., sa-tet ru a.

You arc hungry, have something to eat (\f ^-A ^l^ (^V X( (^ X()° C**'^' Wl^ ^"'

and drink. krit-dak gum, d-zom d-tlian sa-rc Iga.

No thank you, (it is 5-ourgraciousness), I ^(,>»3^ 5^'(<^S*^ -^ i /O) ^^^Ci

not hungry I have no appetite. "'««> //(^M-yc e/z/d/, yo /«•// am ; ^ (\>j /O ma

dak nc, Idng-ko ma la nc. ( 143 )

Drink some beer, S-O (,))c» M cJd tlimrj le.

It does not agree with me. \f\ -^(^\ )^( (^ Im ka-sum that sho.

Plain water and food alone agree with uic. ^''^''"* 4«g3 (^ *^^( (-(f *^(a*'^5^ ^^ ""^

^a zm Jca-smnjit sho. [ma.

Select whatever you like. (^ C*'}^ CiiT^ )^ ^ ^<-o sa-re gat re thani

Cook the food. '^-^™' "^'^• X( (5 -(l3 -

Boil the soup, boil the meat, and roast ^N$ ^, ^ (>',6*' J^ 5^ tuJc-tak ka, man /»—

the fowl. «^o, sa hik il.

Make a meat stew. """^ ^''^ -^ {^ 2?(("0 -f^J d-chom zuk.

Toast the bread and infuse the tea. (/j j^, ^^iv (-() (^ ^"/iw i, sa chopot.

Bake the bread and bake the potatoes (J^ (^V o3 C^\ C^ iC*>\ 5^ ^} khu

in the ashes, also the arums in ditto. su., huk hijiq), sa sung-kri ayur.

Eat slowly, do not gobble your food. (a^ i(^ (^, 2?( (^ ^ ^ %\ sa-gang so, a-zdm ma fam mim.

Do not stuff your mouth with food. ^( (^ ^ (^^ ^\ d-som ma mop pun.

snuff, Do not smoke, or chew tobacco; (^^N -^ <.)^=» -^ (Cf -^V{>v S^tS(\) -^

they are filthy and injurious habits, ^)o '^\ (^ <^\ (^ :^\ (^^ ^.^X ^ i(^-

(6 ^^ tbm-ku ma-thang ma fum mtm,

sa phi-ling ma thang ngun, ngbm mung sa

mu luk kitng sa lung-sho gum.

Wash your face. XCC'i^ X(3^ (^ ''-'^<' d-mlem Jlet.

Give me my shirt, coat, waistcoat, trow- '^0*'\ 7ii\f> (•^)<$5^' (^(^ *()^ ^V

sers, socks, and shoes. (X (0 (S ka-su pa-huk, ko, ta-li, to-mo

thong-shuk, hloni ho o. ( 144 )

Where is my comb 'and brush, I wish to ^^ (^ ;3^\ <^0( 5^ *^) S' ^^

comb my hair ? XCCO*^ Cdi ^"''^ ^^^ ^)«7i;-5'M sa-bu ni/i /•—

7vu)!f/ a, ffo a-ts6m krat gat.

< < /^ < I going out, be so good as to give am {^(J^ i^C ^CCd (6. *^<>*'^ ^^^^3' *^^3' ^

"^ ''^''"^ '^'''^j ''"'-*" me my hat, gloves, and stick. i<$3 (0 (V i/^ "''"^

tuk-iiiJi, ka-s/iiilc, sa ini-ilinr] ho le.

Bring that box, bundle, and umbrella. (XT' (r'>0)(>*' ^J 0^ j'^ ''"''^ ''^'"' ^"^'

sa dt'i htt-d/'.

<)"'( dii rawj sa lot hjup. Open and re-close the umbrella. ^J C^*/ (^> ^\ Wliat is the price of this, at what do ^Cf X(§( C^h^ C^\ <(<^ *>> (7^ f^ A s »/

you value it ? d-?'c a-/f/>' sa-tet, ho sa-tct rjonr/ nrjun(j cjo.

It is very dear. «-5'^^'/' ^'« S((^( *^J (^J ff»'n. ^^„i_ I think it cheap. ((^, "^ ^ jC)^ *5"^ ^^ ^^' ^'^ "'^'' ^'*'"^ ^^"""^

It is not worth as much, I would not es- (^^ /O. (6> iS$ 5^ '^ ^'^'^^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^

timate it so high. ma wa ne, go o-tet ma ri ne.

hyperbolically, without thinking. t^"^ I spoke (^ ^ /^ -^C -^ -^i ^(i(\>\ 5^ Z/^

ma ching na mat, kijum-hgal mat lung It.

What is the matter with him. \f\ •^( ^ y^ i/7)\ CCd ^'" ^""' *^'" *',^""

?»?«// go.

fever and dysentry. '''« '^« '^ft'^" «'' He has \f\ ^\ % {^ (V^^^( *-^ J -^

luk-md miing sak.

Give him some medicine, he will recover. ^\ (^ ^;( J)(V'if^ (^ (^ ''^"'» '«'^« ''y«'»

l)gi, Im hrok slio.

I am helpless, there is no remedy, he (^ i(0 ^ Wl? /^' K' ^ >5^ /O- if \ ^( /»— will die. (^ 5''' ^''«^ ma hjck nc, ihga ma ngin nc hu mak sho. ( 145 )

to do sometliiug to You must contrive (\f ^\ ^\ (^ (V)^( <.)6, (^ V ^ )^i- — — • > f -J enable him to recover, nurse liim -svell. ^j ^( {^(, V^ TT'^ ^ ^ ^^" ''"''

7iM»^ sa la mat shang, sa-re la thdm-jk mat

gat, la hum ryu dak. ^^(i]^ g/^^,;

I shall do all in my power. <$' ^^'''''^ ^"''"' '^^^j (^, C^y (S\ ^ (6 ^J'^->

I am happy to hear it. ((^, (Jq; i(J^N (>, (>( J^ ^ ^''' ^^'^'^

??7fH// sa, sak-di ma.

It has become night, it is dangerous (C^/^( ^Q (7^ (f-^C <^( <( J^ E(

•» • in the hills groping about in the ^ *Uc) ^^Y (T'^Wl^C ^^ so-nap non

dark. nc, ruk ka tyang ka thap yap la nlnig

iigung, rom lyang gum.

You have no torch, we will wait here (O-f^j ^S^ ^' ^^^^ ((X«S ^ Si

till the light of dawn. (^ lok-zu ma nyin ne, a-hd so-um tet ham

sJio.

Can you read and write? (^ if^jT^ E i^^\ S ^'^ rok pi ya vmng a.

neither, no taught me. I can do one ever <^\ ^ ^ J^vC /»)> (^ (V) X( "^ (0 /«)

nyum la ma ihyak ne, to la Map ma ho ne.

Induce your elders to teach you, exert y (0 ^C^ X( (0 ^^ *J^ ^> Itf^ (^ C^

youi-self also to learn. ^ ("^ <.)^ ^ (^ ^( ^ ran ho sang Map

ho shang tJiyeng nga, Ji6-do sa la ko shang

nyer la mat ta.

Whose land is this ? <^"''^ ^'^ 2J( y (^ ^^ ^ j<{<- X 5«/«^ ?2^« a.

It belongs to the state, it is common ^((3 C^S'^i S(^ (^V

property; it was confiscated by hosanyi,a-dergum,jungjen6n.

Government. 37 ( 146 )

Wliat amount of wheat and barley do (-^ "^C -^C *€--C 0^ (*6> *U>^ C**'^ (J^

get for ? ^^"* ^'*^ ^"^ ^(*'-^^^^>' ^" ^f'- you the rupee i)^ X ^"i/^ *'''"i/

fe# ihop slmwj a.

"^^^ measure of about You will obtain about eighty lbs. 5^ *^5^ ^ ^3 ^^ ^ ^^

8 lbs.) ka4i tshet nip sho.

"Wlien will we reach our resting place ? (^ 4^C C^}o{ (Jj (^ ^or (ya??^ sa-tkd hhja,

sho.

Can you see the tents ? •^3 *')^ 5^ ^\ ^ ^""''i'""i' *^""* ^-^^^^ *•

We will arrive presently. XC^ J^ ^^ ""'^^'^ '^^^ ^^'^'

There is a poor man, give him some ^(T' ^ i(*£i; (0 j5^>^)^yO *(<""*-''^

charity. jan kyong lo mji, Jiumjum-ho tong.

Let no opportunity of doing good es- 'SiiX^^ ^i^€'^ii,^^((j^^^'^ k\ -^^

cape, emulate each other in virtue /3\ •^( •^( •^\(t *^^ 0( *^^ ^^

and purity, be humble, pray to <$y(^ *^( ^ /c) CVV XC5j(^

God and trust in Him; farewell. (JliX3 ^^ ^' *^^ ^^ "'^J ^ *^J

"^«^ 5S^' n>3 (v> cc ^ (s «-^'z/«'«

shang kajo-tshung ma hjbt tun, kit nun

kat ka hum-go kum-ld tung-gli tung-slmg

ka ggaii na le, d-yu-dom nyom-chhung

mat ta, fum ka via lung tat hyi ; ryk la

lam ma o.

END OF GRAMMAU.

I'l'J'