Bilingual Dictionaries for Indigenous Languages

Doris A. Bartholomew and Louise C. Schoenhals

Second Edition Edited by Thomas L. Willett

Doris A. Bartholomew and Louise C. Schoenhals

Second Edition

Edited by Thomas L. Willett

Publicado por el Instituto Lingüístico de Verano, A.C. 2020

Primera edición 1983 Impreso en México

Segunda edición 2020 Versión electrónica actualizada

Para comprar una copia impresa, visite lulu.com. Contents

Preface to the frst edition ...... xvii Preface to the second edition ...... xix Acknowledgments ...... xxi Figures and Tables ...... xxiii Introduction to the bilingual dictionaries of the Summer Institute of Linguistics xxv

Part I Lexical meaning

Chapter 1 The lexical unit ...... 3 1.1 Contrast ...... 3 1.2 Variation ...... 4 1.3 Distribution ...... 9 2 Three levels of lexical analysis ...... 11 2.1 The word list level ...... 11 2.2 The glossary level ...... 12 2.3 The dictionary level ...... 13 3 The procedures of lexical analysis ...... 15 3.1 Lexical items to be included in the dictionary ...... 15 3.2 Collecting the words ...... 15 3.3 Discovering the meaning of the words ...... 17 4 Outline of lexical structures: Overview of the dictionary and its articles . . . 19

Part II The entry form and psychological reality

Chapter 5 The psychologically natural citation form ...... 25 5.1 The basic stem ...... 25 5.2 The natural citation form ...... 26 5.2.1 The necessity of a natural citation form ...... 26 5.2.2 The choice of a natural citation form ...... 27 5.2.3 Discovering the natural citation form ...... 28 6 Practical criteria for selection of the citation form ...... 29 6.1 Characteristics of a good citation form ...... 29 6.1.1 Simplicity ...... 29 6.1.2 Brevity ...... 30 6.1.3 Frequency ...... 30 6.1.4 Productivity ...... 30

v Contents vi

6.2 Problems related to specifc forms ...... 30 6.2.1 Imperative ...... 30 6.2.2 Infnitive ...... 30 6.3 Derived words ...... 31 6.4 Compound words ...... 31 6.5 Idiomatic phrases ...... 32 6.6 Orthography of the citation form ...... 32 7 Special considerations for agglutinative languages ...... 35 7.1 Principles underlying the inclusion of compounds and derivatives as lexical entries ...... 35 7.1.1 A change in the grammatical category ...... 35 7.1.2 Pressures from the language of wider communication ...... 36 7.1.3 A translation equivalent contrary to expectations ...... 36 7.1.4 Identifcation of afxes ...... 37 7.1.5 Frequency of occurrence ...... 37 7.1.6 Characteristics of the local audience ...... 38 7.1.7 Historical record ...... 38 7.1.8 Semantic importance of specifc categories ...... 38 7.2 Principles underlying the omission of compounds and derivatives as lexical entries ...... 38 7.2.1 Transparent meaning ...... 38 7.2.2 Adverbial compounds ...... 39 7.2.3 Regularly formed stems ...... 39 7.3 General principles underlying appropriate translation equivalents . . . . 39 7.3.1 Simplicity ...... 40 7.3.2 Grammatical congruence ...... 40 7.3.3 Omission of implicit lexical components ...... 40 7.3.4 Omission of explicit cultural restrictions ...... 40 7.3.5 Appropriate phrasal translation equivalents ...... 40 7.3.6 Relationship to a literal translation ...... 40 7.3.7 Elimination of irrelevancies ...... 41 7.4 Special considerations for translating compounds ...... 41 7.4.1 Types of compounds ...... 41 Concomitant action ...... 41 Included object ...... 41 Modifed action stem ...... 42 Phrasal construction ...... 42 7.4.2 Types of translation equivalents for compounds ...... 42 Single word ...... 42 Coordinate phrase ...... 42 Subordinate construction ...... 42

Part III The display of lexical meaning

Chapter 8 The translation equivalent ...... 47 8.1 Format ...... 47 8.2 The purpose of the translation equivalent ...... 47 8.3 The translation equivalent qualifed by a comment ...... 49 vii Contents

8.4 The translation equivalent qualifed by a juxtaposed translation equivalent ...... 49 8.5 Translation equivalent promotion of the translation of the entry word in the sentence ...... 50 8.6 The explanatory phrase ...... 50 9 Illustrative sentences ...... 53 9.1 Rationale for the inclusion of illustrative sentences ...... 53 9.1.1 Delineate the area of meaning of the entry word ...... 53 9.1.2 Use the word in a correct grammatical context ...... 53 9.1.3 Distinguish between applicable and non-applicable senses and contexts of the translation equivalent ...... 54 9.1.4 Clarify potential ambiguities due to multiple meanings of the Spanish translation equivalent ...... 54 9.1.5 Display local culture and local literary style ...... 54 9.2 Components of adequate sentences ...... 54 9.2.1 Characteristic attribute ...... 55 9.2.2 Characteristic behavior or action ...... 55 9.2.3 Characteristic use ...... 55 9.2.4 Characteristic position or location ...... 55 9.2.5 Characteristic material ...... 55 9.2.6 Characteristic subject, object, or instrument of an action . . . . . 55 9.2.7 Contrast or gradation ...... 56 9.2.8 Cause-efect relationship ...... 56 9.2.9 Examples of abstractions or of general classifcatory terms . . . . 56 9.2.10 Part-whole relationship ...... 56 9.2.11 Synonym or class name ...... 57 9.2.12 Comparison ...... 57 9.3 Working procedures for obtaining illustrative sentences ...... 57 9.3.1 Sources of sentences ...... 57 Non-native speaker ...... 57 Translated materials ...... 57 Text materials ...... 58 Native speaker ...... 58 9.3.2 Suggestions for obtaining good sentences ...... 58 9.3.3 Selection of sentences ...... 59 An extended meaning rather than the central meaning is illustrated 60 The word to be illustrated is not in focus in the sentence . . . . . 60 The context of the sentence is too general to provide supporting semantic clues ...... 60 An antonym or other meaning is as appropriate to the context as the desired insertable word ...... 61 9.4 Evaluation of illustrative sentences ...... 62 9.4.1 Self-containment ...... 62 9.4.2 Centrality ...... 62 9.4.3 Contextual clues ...... 62 9.4.4 Cultural relevance ...... 62 9.4.5 Clarity ...... 62 9.4.6 Consistency ...... 62 10 Sense discriminations ...... 63 10.1 Variation in areas of meaning ...... 63 Contents viii

10.2 Occurrences of sense discriminations ...... 64 10.2.1 General percentage ...... 64 10.2.2 Common words ...... 64 10.2.3 Grammatical extension ...... 65 10.2.4 Figurative extension ...... 65 10.2.5 Restricted or specialized usage ...... 65 10.3 Shades of meaning and separate senses ...... 66 10.3.1 Nuances of variation displayed in individual usage ...... 66 10.3.2 Synonyms ...... 66 10.3.3 Sense discriminations ...... 66 10.3.4 Interlocking meanings ...... 68 10.3.5 Parallel sets of sense discriminations ...... 69 10.3.6 Idioms, compounds, and derivatives ...... 69 10.3.7 Homonyms ...... 70 10.4 Discerning senses of an entry ...... 70 10.4.1 Collection of examples ...... 71 10.4.2 Translation of the sentences ...... 72 10.4.3 Grouping of diferent translation equivalents ...... 72 10.4.4 Decision making ...... 72 11 Qualifying comments ...... 73 11.1 The contribution of qualifying comments ...... 73 11.2 The mechanics of qualifying comments ...... 73 11.3 Specifc situations necessitating qualifying comments ...... 74 11.3.1 Meaning restriction on the Spanish translation equivalent . . 74 11.3.2 Co-occurrence of restrictions on the vernacular word . . . . . 74 11.3.3 Delineation of specifc areas of meaning in the index for the language of wider communication ...... 75 11.3.4 Identifcation of semantic domain ...... 75 11.3.5 Scientifc nomenclature ...... 76 11.3.6 Brief description of unidentifable item ...... 76 11.3.7 Sociolinguistic information ...... 77 11.3.8 Regional Spanish ...... 77 11.3.9 Cultural information ...... 78 12 Identifcation procedures within semantic domains ...... 79 12.1 Procuring lists ...... 79 12.2 Process of identifcation ...... 79 12.2.1 Spanish translation equivalent ...... 79 12.2.2 Reference books ...... 80 12.2.3 Field trips ...... 80 12.2.4 Local description and observation ...... 80 12.2.5 Treatment of residue ...... 81 12.3 Possible pitfalls ...... 81 12.3.1 The shortcomings of reference books ...... 81 12.3.2 Lack of popular scientifc nomenclature ...... 82 12.3.3 Local confusion in terminology ...... 82 12.3.4 Uncritical transfer of standard nomenclature ...... 83 12.4 Ethnobiological classifcation ...... 83 13 Variant pronunciations and geographical variants ...... 85 13.1 Advantage of including lexical variants ...... 85 13.2 Procedural suggestions for obtaining variants ...... 86 ix Contents

13.2.1 The choice of a basic dialect ...... 86 13.2.2 The choice of which additional dialects to include ...... 86 13.2.3 Entry forms, illustrative sentences, and cross-referencing . . . 86 13.2.4 A Spanish base ...... 87 13.3 Techniques for displaying and cross-referencing variants ...... 88 13.3.1 Dual cross reference ...... 88 13.3.2 Simple cross-reference ...... 88 13.3.3 The Spanish section of the bilingual dictionary ...... 89 13.3.4 The vernacular section of the bilingual dictionary ...... 89 13.3.5 Inclusion of text ...... 89 13.3.6 Sample from Tzotzil dictionary ...... 90

Part IV Aspects of the dictionary involving the language of wider communication

Chapter 14 Spanish equivalents and refnement techniques ...... 93 14.1 Sources of Spanish equivalents ...... 93 14.1.1 Bilingual speaker of the vernacular ...... 94 14.1.2 The compiler and reference books ...... 95 14.1.3 Representatives of the national culture ...... 96 14.1.4 Santamaría’s Diccionario de Mejicanismos ...... 96 14.2 Techniques for obtaining Spanish equivalent ...... 97 14.3 The translation of illustrative sentences ...... 98 14.4 Improving and refning the translated material ...... 99 14.4.1 Accurate equivalents ...... 99 14.4.2 Semantic domains ...... 100 14.4.3 Culture-specifc items ...... 100 14.4.4 Standard usage and syntax ...... 100 14.4.5 Appropriate social level of vocabulary ...... 100 14.4.6 Regional Spanish ...... 100 15 The Reversal index ...... 103 15.1 Semantic clarifcation in the Reversal index ...... 103 15.1.1 Juxtaposed translation equivalent ...... 103 15.1.2 Qualifying comment ...... 103 Classifer or indicator of relevant category ...... 104 Synonym or standard Spanish terminology ...... 104 Brief defnition ...... 104 Subtype distinction ...... 105 Grammatically based distinction ...... 105 Lexical restriction on co-occurences ...... 105 15.2 Editing the Reversal index ...... 105 15.2.1 Basic goals of editing the index ...... 105 15.2.2 Synthesis of multiple entries ...... 106 15.2.3 Omissions and additions ...... 108 15.2.4 Management of subentries ...... 108 15.2.5 Special treatment of regionalisms ...... 109 15.3 Meshing two grammatical systems ...... 110 15.3.1 The use of Spanish grammatical designations ...... 110 15.3.2 Handling unexpected lexical meanings ...... 111 Contents x

15.3.3 Handling diferences in grammatical categories ...... 112 Generic vs. masculine/feminine distinctions ...... 112 Difering categories of pronouns ...... 112 Non-pertinent masculine/feminine distinction ...... 112 Pertinent gender diferences ...... 112 Pluralization diferences ...... 112 Double grammatical designations ...... 112 15.4 A concluding checklist for the index ...... 113 16 Loan words in the bilingual dictionary ...... 115 16.1 Determining specifc loan words for inclusion ...... 115 16.1.1 Extent of usage ...... 115 Widespread usage of a borrowed term for which there is no common vernacular equivalent ...... 115 Common usage of a borrowed word paralleling that of a vernacular term ...... 115 Limited usage of the loan word ...... 116 16.1.2 Degree of variation ...... 116 Semantic shift ...... 116 Non-predictable pronunciation variation ...... 116 Predictable or minimal variation in pronunciation ...... 116 16.1.3 Social and cultural infuences ...... 116 Extent of linguistic borrowing ...... 117 The efect of omissions from the lexical display ...... 117 Purity of the indigenous language ...... 117 16.2 The spelling of loan words ...... 118 16.2.1 Tradition ...... 118 16.2.2 Native speaker reaction ...... 118 16.2.3 Degree of divergence from Spanish ...... 119 16.3 The marking of Spanish origin in the entry ...... 120 16.4 Historical processes afecting loan words ...... 121 16.4.1 Semantic shift ...... 121 16.4.2 Phonological processes ...... 121

Part V Linguistic aspects of the dictionary

Chapter 17 Grammatical designations and standard word classes ...... 125 17.1 The historical development of word classes ...... 126 17.2 The logical and linguistic bases underlying grammatical category classifcations ...... 127 17.2.1 Descriptive versus historical viewpoints ...... 128 17.2.2 The relationship of semantic and formal criteria ...... 128 17.2.3 Form versus dependency relationships ...... 128 17.2.4 Paradigmatic versus syntactic relationships ...... 129 17.2.5 The principle of opposition ...... 129 17.2.6 Infectable versus noninfectable forms ...... 129 17.2.7 Word and phrasal constructions ...... 130 17.2.8 Words with multiple grammatical designations ...... 130 17.3 Inclusion of the grammatical designation in a dictionary entry . . . . 130 xi Contents

17.3.1 Correlation with the grammatical sketch ...... 131 17.3.2 Check for consistency ...... 131 17.3.3 Aid to the speaker of the language of wider communication . 131 17.3.4 Value to the speaker of the indigenous language ...... 131 17.4 General considerations relative to grammatical designations . . . . . 131 17.4.1 Designation by traditional labels ...... 131 17.4.2 Comparative functions of the grammatical designation and the grammar sketch ...... 132 17.4.3 Relationship of the grammatical designation to the entry word 132 17.5 The standard word classes of Spanish grammar ...... 132 17.5.1 Nouns ...... 133 17.5.2 Adjectives ...... 134 17.5.3 Pronouns ...... 136 Personal pronoun (pronombre personal) ...... 136 Interrogative pronoun (pronombre interrogativo) ...... 137 Possessive pronoun (pronombre posesivo) ...... 138 Demonstrative pronoun (pronombre demostrativo) ...... 138 Indefnite pronoun (pronombre indefnido) ...... 139 Relative pronoun (pronombre relativo) ...... 139 17.5.4 Verbs ...... 139 17.5.5 Adverbs ...... 143 17.5.6 Prepositions ...... 145 17.5.7 Conjunctions ...... 147 17.5.8 Interjections ...... 148 18 Special grammatical designations for indigenous languages ...... 149 18.1 A sampling of subclasses in indigenous languages ...... 149 18.1.1 Animate and inanimate nouns ...... 149 18.1.2 Alienable and inalienable possession of nouns ...... 149 18.1.3 Unique pronominal categories ...... 150 18.1.4 Numerals and numerical classifers ...... 151 18.1.5 Prepositions derived from body part terminology ...... 151 18.2 Verbal categories ...... 152 18.2.1 Transitivity distinctions ...... 152 18.2.2 Stative verbs ...... 155 18.2.3 Impersonal and meteorological verbs ...... 155 18.3 The classifcation of afxes and dependent words ...... 155 18.3.1 Treatment of afxes ...... 156 18.3.2 Treatment of dependent words ...... 157 18.4 Grammatical designations for atypical entries ...... 159 18.4.1 Irregularly infected forms ...... 159 18.4.2 Infected forms with specialized meaning ...... 159 18.4.3 Compounds ...... 159 18.4.4 Idioms and other phrasal expressions ...... 160 18.4.5 Multiple grammatical designations ...... 160 18.5 Other types of information ...... 163 18.5.1 Morphological class designation ...... 163 18.5.2 Indication of semantic domain ...... 163 18.5.3 Designation of the origin of loan words ...... 163 18.5.4 Dialectal designations ...... 164 19 Essential linguistic information and cross-referencing ...... 165 Contents xii

19.1 Essential linguistic information ...... 165 19.1.1 Alternate verb stems ...... 165 19.1.2 Plural or possessive form of nouns ...... 165 19.1.3 Verb class designation ...... 166 19.1.4 Animate-inanimate or other dichotomy ...... 166 19.1.5 Syntactic restrictions ...... 166 19.2 Cross-referencing in the dictionary entry ...... 166 19.2.1 Synonyms and antonyms ...... 166 19.2.2 An alternate stem or principal parts ...... 167 19.2.3 Compounds and derivatives ...... 168 19.2.4 A reference to the grammatical sketch ...... 168 19.2.5 A summary of the uses of Véase ...... 168 19.2.6 A sample network of cross-references from the Huave dictionary 169 20 Subentries ...... 171 20.1 Types of subentries ...... 171 20.1.1 Derivatives ...... 171 20.1.2 Compounds ...... 172 20.1.3 Generic/specifc compounds ...... 174 20.1.4 Idioms and other phrasal expressions ...... 175 20.1.5 Specialized meaning of a variant of the entry ...... 176 20.2 Guidelines for the inclusion/exclusion of specifc items ...... 176 20.2.1 Idiosyncrasy ...... 176 20.2.2 Close relationship to the main entry ...... 177 20.2.3 Primacy of the main entries ...... 177 20.2.4 Synonyms vs. analogous words ...... 177 20.2.5 Avoidance of redundancy ...... 178 21 The grammatical sketch ...... 179 21.1 Purposes of the grammar description ...... 179 21.1.1 A contribution towards presenting the language as a coherent whole ...... 179 21.1.2 The grammar as a vital section of a self-contained book . . . 180 21.1.3 The touchstone of text translation ...... 180 21.2 General considerations ...... 181 21.2.1 Description vs. identifcation ...... 181 21.2.2 The audience to whom the description is directed ...... 181 21.2.3 Organization of the presentation ...... 182 21.3 A description coordinated with the dictionary entries ...... 183 21.3.1 Word class designation ...... 183 21.3.2 Obligatory afxation of the entry form ...... 184 21.3.3 Essential linguistic information and collocational restrictions 184 21.3.4 Cross-referencing system ...... 185 21.3.5 Subentries ...... 185 21.3.6 Particles and miscellanea ...... 185 21.4 A description of the grammatical system of the vernacular ...... 185 21.4.1 Phonology and morphophonemics ...... 185 21.4.2 Major word classes ...... 187 21.4.3 Grammatical categories and the infectional system ...... 187 21.4.4 Derivation and compounding patterns ...... 189 21.4.5 Closed sets of word classes ...... 189 21.4.6 Open classes of uninfected words ...... 190 xiii Contents

21.4.7 Bound morphemes ...... 190 21.4.8 Complex entries ...... 191 21.4.9 Paradigms ...... 191 21.4.10 Syntax ...... 193 21.5 Style of the grammar description ...... 194 21.5.1 A digestible outline ...... 194 21.5.2 Clear explanatory material ...... 194 21.5.3 Examples in context ...... 194 21.5.4 Charts, diagrams, and paradigms ...... 194 21.5.5 Sample outline of a grammatical sketch ...... 195

Part VI The structure of the dictionary book

Chapter 22 Principles of alphabetization ...... 201 22.1 Reasons for a traditional sequence ...... 201 22.1.1 Necessity of systematic arrangement ...... 201 22.1.2 Pressure from the national culture ...... 201 22.2 Ordering of diacritics and digraphs ...... 201 22.3 Ignoring of diacritics ...... 202 22.4 Inclusion of irregular forms ...... 202 22.5 Explanation of the alphabet ...... 202 22.6 Arrangement by word rather than by root ...... 203 22.7 Possibility of alphabetical subdivisions ...... 203 23 Introductory material ...... 205 23.1 General introductory section ...... 205 23.1.1 Title page La portada ...... 205 23.1.2 Dedicatory Dedicatoria ...... 205 23.1.3 Table of contents Contenido ...... 206 23.1.4 Prologue Prólogo ...... 206 23.1.5 Preface Propósito ...... 206 23.1.6 Acknowledgments Reconocimientos ...... 206 23.1.7 Introduction Introducción ...... 206 23.2 Instructions in the use of the dictionary ...... 207 23.2.1 Alphabet Alfabeto ...... 207 23.2.2 Pronunciation guide Aclaraciones ...... 207 23.2.3 Abbreviations Abreviaturas ...... 208 23.2.4 Structure of the dictionary article Estructura del artículo del diccionario ...... 208 24 Illustrations and appendices ...... 209 24.1 Reasons for including illustrations ...... 209 24.1.1 Stimulate interest and the recreational use of books ...... 209 24.1.2 Increase comprehension of specifc semantic domains . . . . . 209 24.1.3 Enhance the outsider’s understanding of the local culture . . 211 24.2 Practical considerations ...... 211 24.3 Appendices ...... 211 24.3.1 Lexical appendices ...... 211 24.3.2 Ethnographic appendices ...... 212 24.3.3 Bibliography ...... 212 Contents xiv

Part VII Progress toward publication

Chapter 25 Evaluation of the dictionary article ...... 215 25.1 Correctness: The individual entry ...... 215 25.1.1 Adequacy of the translation material ...... 215 25.1.2 Grammatical uniformity within an entry ...... 216 25.1.3 Logical treatment of sense discriminations ...... 216 25.1.4 Identifcation of misplaced idioms ...... 216 25.1.5 Evaluation of juxtaposed translation equivalents ...... 216 25.2 Consistency: The entry compared with similar entries ...... 217 25.2.1 Harmony among related entries ...... 217 25.2.2 Justifcation of cross-references ...... 217 25.2.3 Lucidity of the Spanish translation equivalents ...... 217 25.3 Completeness: The entry in relation to the total dictionary ...... 218 25.3.1 Comprehensive coverage of semantic domains ...... 218 25.3.2 Practical applicability of the dictionary ...... 218 25.4 Cultural aptness: The choice of illustrative sentences ...... 218 25.5 Conciseness ...... 218 25.6 Clarity: Instructions in the use of the dictionary ...... 218 26 Consultant service ...... 221 26.1 The contribution of the consultant ...... 221 26.2 The process of consultant evaluation ...... 222 26.2.1 Introductory tutorial ...... 222 26.2.2 Thousand word check ...... 222 26.2.3 Review of semantic domains ...... 223 26.2.4 Format check ...... 223 26.2.5 Preliminary Spanish check ...... 223 26.2.6 Consultant content check ...... 224 26.2.7 Spanish editing ...... 224 26.2.8 Editing of a print-out ...... 224 Spanish proofreading ...... 224 Consultant editing ...... 224 Editing by the compilers ...... 224 26.2.9 Linguistic check ...... 224 26.2.10 Consultant check of the Spanish index ...... 225 26.2.11 Approval of illustrations ...... 225 26.2.12 Approval of front and back material ...... 225

Part VIII Use of the dictionary in the village area

Chapter 27 Use of the dictionary in the village area ...... 229 27.1 Prestige of the indigenous language ...... 229 27.2 Acquisition of Spanish ...... 229 27.3 Intellectual growth of individuals ...... 230 27.4 Contribution to bilingual/bicultural education ...... 230 27.5 An aid to local speakers of the language of wider communication . . 230 27.6 Language standardization ...... 231 xv Contents

27.7 A record of cultural roots ...... 231 Appendix A Psychological awareness of some lexicographic concepts in indigenous languages of Mexico ...... 233 A.1 Introduction ...... 233 A.2 There is a higher degree of awareness of homophones and minimal pairs than of sense discriminations of a single word...... 234 A.3 There is greater awareness of variant forms of the same paradigm than of derivatives and compounds sharing the same root...... 236 A.4 There is more psychological awareness of classes of independent words than of dependent words...... 237 A.5 The dictionary should represent the entire range of the psychological reality of a language...... 238 Appendix B Bilingual dictionaries in Spanish North America ...... 241 B.1 Historical reasons for bilingual dictionaries ...... 241 B.2 Roman Catholic religious orders ...... 242 B.2.1 Nahuatl ...... 242 B.2.2 Otomí ...... 244 B.2.3 Tarascan ...... 244 B.2.4 Northern groups ...... 245 B.2.5 Mixtec ...... 246 B.2.6 Zapotec ...... 246 B.2.7 Maya ...... 247 B.2.8 Guatemalan languages ...... 248 B.2.9 The nineteenth and twentieth centuries ...... 248 B.3 National governments ...... 249 B.3.1 Mískito ...... 249 B.3.2 Navajo ...... 250 B.3.3 Tzotzil ...... 251 B.4 Works by individual scholars ...... 251 B.4.1 Nahuatl ...... 251 B.4.2 Tarahumara ...... 252 B.4.3 Totonac ...... 252 B.4.4 Chinantec ...... 253 B.4.5 Ixcatec ...... 253 B.4.6 Mískito ...... 253 B.4.7 Puerto Rican ...... 254 B.4.8 Aztequismos ...... 254 B.4.9 Mexican Spanish ...... 254 B.4.10 Glyphs ...... 255 B.4.11 The Swadesh analytical dictionaries ...... 255 B.5 Summer Institute of Linguistics ...... 255 B.6 Other notes ...... 256 B.6.1 Zapotec ...... 256 B.6.2 Tarascan ...... 256 B.6.3 Tojolobal ...... 256 B.6.4 Maya ...... 257 B.6.5 Tarahumara ...... 257 B.6.6 Navajo ...... 257 B.7 Concluding evaluation ...... 259 Appendix C Basic vocabulary of Mexican Spanish ...... 261 Contents xvi

Appendix D Annotated bibliography of reference materials ...... 329 Appendix E Bibliography of bilingual dictionaries in Spanish North America . 339 Appendix F Implementing the MXB model in FLEx ...... 341 F.1 Confguring the MXB model ...... 345 F.1.1 Step 1: Choose Hybrid confguration ...... 345 F.1.2 Step 2: Create custom felds ...... 345 F.1.3 Step 3: Adjust feld styles ...... 347 F.1.4 Step 4: Adjust entry confgurations ...... 347 F.1.5 Confguration summary ...... 349 F.2 Implementing the MXB model ...... 351 F.2.1 Headword ...... 351 F.2.2 Grammatical category ...... 351 F.2.3 Translation equivalents ...... 352 F.2.4 Qualifying comments ...... 352 F.2.5 Illustrative sentences ...... 353 F.2.6 Cultural information ...... 354 F.2.7 Scientifc name ...... 354 F.2.8 Linguistic information ...... 354 F.2.9 Cross references ...... 355 F.2.10 Subentries ...... 356 F.3 Sample entries in the MXB model ...... 357 F.3.1 Main Entry – Basic Form ...... 357 F.3.2 Main Entry – Complex Form ...... 358 F.3.3 Minor Entry – Variant Form ...... 360 F.3.4 Reversal Index Entry ...... 360 General references ...... 363 Index of topics and terms ...... 367 Index of languages, proper names and publications ...... 379 Preface to the frst edition

The original audience, and still the primary one, envisioned for this book is the group of feld workers in Mexico under the Summer Institute of Linguistics. As the book began to take shape, we were encouraged to think that it might have a wider applicability to other countries of Latin America since the language of wider communication used for the illustrations would also be that of those areas. By extension, we trust that the principles stated herein will be helpful in still other areas of the world. Our principles and procedures have been developed through the process of consulting and advising the compilers of the dozen or so dictionaries that have been published in the Mariano Silva y Aceves series which have made the illustrative sentences a primary focus of the dictionary article. We have learned much through this process; our knowledge and expertise have grown; and we would like to share our experience with other compilers of bilingual dictionaries for indigenous languages. Obviously, our experience and the examples available to us are from a limited part of the world. In our opinion, it was worthwhile to include the illustrative material with which we were familiar and to refect our work with languages in this area of the world. In the interest of broadening the audience for this book, we have translated the Spanish of the examples into English. We regret that our energies did not extend to an extensive reworking of the material, but we ofer the book with confdence that colleagues in other areas can make necessary adaptations and develop creative solutions for their own unique problems. No matter what language is the subject of a new lexicographic project, the principles previously learned must be applied to new situations and decisions must be made in light of the features of the specifc language. Our material is somewhat slanted towards publication in the series of bilingual dictionaries produced by SIL for Mexican languages. Sections of this book dealing with our particular series, however, may easily be ignored by compilers elsewhere if they fnd such material irrelevant to their situations. If others engaged in compiling bilingual dictionaries for indigenous languages around the world fnd this book helpful, we will be grateful to have been of service to those lexicographic projects.

Doris Bartholomew Louise Schoenhals Mexico City January 1983

xvii

Preface to the second edition

The model of lexicography described in this book has stood the test of time. It has proven to be an efcient and efective way to compile bilingual lexical databases for indigenous languages. It has served as the basis for an extensive series of published bilingual vocabularies and dictionaries in Mexican languages,1 as well as for languages of other countries.2 For several decades it has been taught in workshops to SIL feld workers and native speakers of indigenous languages of the Americas. Doris Bartholomew Murray (retired) and Louise Schoenhals (deceased) have clearly paved the way for anyone who wants to do practical lexicography. Although the theoretical basis for this model is still solid, the technology frst used to implement it has long since become obsolete. For this reason, we have revised the entire book with the goal of making it compatible with current technology. Specifcally, we have reduced discussion of computer applications within the body of the book to a few footnotes, and we have eliminated the chapter titled "Computer aids and dictionary format." In its place we have added an appendix to show how this model is currently implemented in FieldWorks Language Explorer3 with the intention of updating it as the program develops. In the process of updating the references to technology, we have also updated the linguistic terminology to conform to current usage, and we have updated the examples cited to conform to our current standards of formatting in our most recent publications. The reader who is interested in seeing how this model has evolved over the years can refer back to the formatting of the same examples in the original publications. The reader who is interested in how this model has been implemented more recently should consult dictionaries in the VIMSA series since 2015. We believe these revisions are warranted because we believe this model of lexicography is worth preserving and continuing to implement for the following reasons: Focus on the native speaker as primary user Given that the bilingual dictionaries we compile may be the frst ones produced in their languages, this model keeps the presentation of dictionary entries as simple as possible, especially at the beginning. Thus, for example, etymological information and lists of infectional variants occur after the basic information for each sense is presented, instead of after the headword, as is the common practice in major language dictionaries. 1http://mexico.sil.org/publications/i-vimsa, often referred to as the VIMSA or Silva y Aceves series. 2For instance, Ticuna (Peru; https://www.sil.org/resources/archives/69858), Dholuo (Kenya; https://dholuo.webonary.org). 3https://software.sil.org/feldworks

xix Preface to the second edition xx

Clear explanation of meaning in the language of wider communication Of the information provided in the basic part of the entry, the citation form, the translation equivalent, and optional restrictions work together to provide a clear and concise presentation of the meaning of each lexeme. When there is no good translation equivalent in the language of wider communication, a short descriptive defnition is provided instead. Use of illustrative sentences to discover and present meaning Illustrative sentences serve both the compiler of the bilingual dictionary and the user. During the process of obtaining illustrative sentences, the compiler becomes aware of sense discriminations, co-occurrence restrictions on classes of lexical items, or grammatical restrictions which might otherwise have been overlooked. For the user, illustrative sentences provide clear examples of correct morpho-syntactic usage in the language. They also open a window onto the indigenous culture which amply illuminates their unique form of thinking. These reasons are discussed further in Appendix F, preceding the explanation of how they are currently implemented. Many valuable discussions of other lexicographical topics are presented in this book, all of which we believe are useful to those compiling lexicons for indigenous languages. We welcome feedback to clarify the discussions or improve the explanations of how to implement these topics. This edition was produced with the encouragement of Doris Bartholomew Murray and with the editorial assistance of Stephen Marlett, Lydia Good and Valerie Hillman.

Thomas Willett Tucson, Arizona May 2019 Acknowledgments

Our sincere appreciation is extended to all of our colleagues who have ofered helpful suggestions, who have read and criticized earlier drafts of this book, who have attended workshops during which the principles presented in this book were being developed, and who have ofered encouragement and moral support during the long hours of writing, revising, and organizing the material. We are indebted in a special way to Dow F. Robinson since his Manual for bilingual dictionaries (1969) was the pioneering work upon which this present book is built. His was the original conception of the model we are attempting to apply to the indigenous languages of Mexico. We are also indebted to Alfa Delgaty for the material in §13 on the handling of dialect variations in a bilingual dictionary. Similarly, we are indebted to Velma Pickett for much of the material in §16 on Spanish loan words. They, along with Kathryn Keller, Shirley Stewart, and others of our colleagues, have also been responsible for editorial suggestions which we have found valuable. Emily Stairs prepared the original index. A special word of appreciation is due the colleagues who have prepared the more recent dictionaries published in the Silva y Aceves series. We have learned an incalcu- lable amount from them and have used their material for many of the illustrations in this book. Dr. Luis Fernando Lara of the Colegio de México graciously permitted us to examine and use his lists of the basic rural Spanish vocabulary of Mexico. This material was of great value in the preparation of the Spanish word list included in this book. Over the years, the staf of the Benson Latin American collection at the University of Texas in Austin has been a source of patient help. Especially appreciated is their willingness to permit inspection of the rare colonial period bilingual dictionaries. They have made a major contribution to the supplement on the historical development of bilingual dictionaries in Spanish North America. Certainly, no publication is completed without the assistance of a large number of people, some who have been mentioned here and many who have not been listed by name. To all of them, we are very grateful and appreciative of their eforts to make this book a reality.

xxi

Figures and Tables

Figure 1. The lexical unit and related words ...... 6 Figure 2. Simplifed lexical structure of English word fre ...... 7 Figure 3. Lexical structure of the Spanish word camote ...... 8 Figure 4. Sample page of illustrations ...... 210 Figure 5. The Hybrid Confguration in FLEx ...... 345 Figure 6. Custom felds in FLEx ...... 346 Figure 7. Senses in the MXB model ...... 348 Figure 8. The References Section in the MXB model ...... 348 Figure 9. The Minor Entry in the MXB model ...... 349 Figure 10. Literalism in a translation ...... 354

Table 1. Custom felds in the MXB model ...... 346 Table 2. Styles in the MXB model ...... 347 Table 3. Field styles and surrounding text in the MXB model ...... 349 Table 4. Comparison of Lexeme form and Citation form felds ...... 352 Table 5. Comparison of Gloss feld and Defnition feld ...... 352 Table 6. Comparison of Gloss and Defnition felds in diferent senses . . . . . 352 Table 7. Use of qualifying comment felds ...... 353 Table 8. Main Entry – Basic Form ...... 357 Table 9. Main Entry – Complex Form ...... 358 Table 10. Minor Entry – Variant Form ...... 360

xxiii

Introduction to the bilingual dictionaries of the Summer Institute of Linguistics

The Summer Institute of Linguistics has been engaged for many years in the linguistic study of the indigenous languages of Mexico. It is appropriate that its series of bilingual vocabularies and dictionaries be dedicated to the memory of a great Mexican linguist who was active during the years when SIL began its work in Mexico, Dr. Mar- iano Silva y Aceves (1887-1937).1 Early vocabularies published by SIL have become some of the main sources used by comparative linguists in classifying languages and in reconstructing proto-languages. The more complete dictionaries produced in recent years attempt to give fuller coverage of a representative sample of the lexical resources of a given vernacular language (from three to fve thousand entries). A coordinated grammar sketch gives the essential linguistic information for infecting the words contained in the dictionary. Special attention is given to presenting the dictionary information in a form that will also be accessible to the native speakers of the indigenous languages who want to learn Span- ish. The authors of the English-Khmer dictionary (Hufman & Im Proum 1978:x-xii) expressed three objectives for their work—objectives parallel to those of the compilers of dictionaries in the Silva y Aceves series. One objective was to provide a basic corpus of Khmer vocabulary useful for students interested in learning Khmer. A second objective was the provision of the frst comprehensive English-Khmer dictionary for Khmer students learning English. The third objective was to provide a research tool for linguists and other scholars interested in the study of the Khmer language. It is to be expected that a linguistic institute interested in the indigenous languages of a country should share the results of its investigations with all those interested in studying the language. In part, this sharing is accomplished by the current series of bilingual dictionaries which provides useful resource material for other people, both those interested in a particular language or language family, and those who are interested in general linguistic theory. The Institute acknowledges a responsibility to the countries in which we work to make available the results of our studies. It is hoped that the series of bilingual dictionaries will meet this responsibility to some degree.2

1Dr. Silva y Aceves was founder and director of the Instituto Mexicano de Investigaciones Lingüísticas and editor of the journal Investigaciones Lingüísticas. 2All of the materials produced by members of SIL in Mexico, both published and unpublished, have now been archived at: http://mexico.sil.org/publications.

xxv Introduction to the SIL bilingual dictionaries xxvi

The bilingual dictionaries currently being prepared by SIL are primarily designed to be of beneft to native speakers of the indigenous language who want to learn Spanish, and to Spanish speakers who want to learn something of the indigenous language. Each word in the dictionary is identifed for grammatical category, or part of speech, paralleling, where possible, the word classes of Spanish. Sense discriminations for words having more than one meaning are each given a translation equivalent and a number. There is a system of identifying contextual limitations of translation equivalents where needed. Many words are illustrated by sentences employing the word in a way that indicates its meaning and shows how the word is used in the indigenous community. Subentries list idioms, compounds, and derivatives related to the entry word. A system of cross-references directs the user of the dictionary to synonyms or otherwise related words. In addition to the catalog of lexical items, each dictionary usually has an accompanying grammatical sketch specifying the main patterns of infection for nouns and verbs. Characteristics of the other parts of speech are also outlined. The sketch includes a brief account of the phonology of the language and its writing system, with explanations of the pronunciation of non-Spanish sounds. The particular conventions utilized in the dictionary are spelled out in an introductory section on the structure of the dictionary entry. Items of special interest in a language area are listed together, each group or classifcation in a separate appendix. Limited resources of time and fnances make it necessary to restrict the Spanish section of the dictionary to a simpler format than that used in dealing with the indigenous language. There is, therefore, a restriction on the goals of the Silva y Aceves series. Nev- ertheless, the reader will fnd a complete index of all the Spanish words and phrases used as translation equivalents for entry words in the indigenous language section. We do not attempt to present an adequate dictionary of Spanish. However, in compiling the words for inclusion in the indigenous language section, standard word lists for Spanish are utilized. Although it is beyond the scope of this series of dictionaries to provide a thorough treatment in the local language of the lexical items of Spanish, such a project would be most worthwhile. Hopefully, the information that the current series of dictionaries provides will be helpful toward developing a dictionary of this type. Even with a limited development of the Spanish side of the dictionary, a considerable foundation is laid for understanding the language of wider communication since the Spanish equivalents of the indigenous entries are listed. Yet the primary reason to compile these dictionaries is to highlight the richness of the indigenous languages themselves. By comparing them to a well-known language, we demonstrate that they are, in fact, just as legitimate a means of communication, with all the resources and creativity necessary to express their unique knowledge of the world around them. It is our hope that these dictionaries will help everyone, especially the speakers of these languages, realize how valuable they are and how worthy they are of preserving for generations to come. Part I Lexical meaning

1 The lexical unit

The word is the basic lexical unit. It is a linguistic unit, and as such, it has features that distinguish one unit from another. The word has variants which are part of the same lexical unit. The syntactic properties of a word and its collocational restrictions with respect to other lexical units are part of the distributional aspect of the unit. The dictionary entry in the bilingual dictionary should refect the lexical structure of the word. It should enumerate the distinct senses of the word, including both central and extended meanings. It should include any essential information for forming the paradigm of infected forms for that word. It should distinguish the word from others related etymologically to it, namely its derivatives and compounds. It should distinguish the word from other words with the same phonological shape (homophones) or with shared semantic features (synonyms, or near synonyms). It should identify any idioms that employ the word. The entry should give the grammatical classifcation of the word (noun, verb, preposition, etc.). Other chapters of this manual deal with the recommended format for indicating this information. In this chapter the lexical unit will be discussed in terms of its features of contrast, variation, and distribution.

1.1. Contrast A word contrasts with other words either in phonological shape or in semantic features or both. A homophone is a word which has the same phonological features as another word but difers in semantic features. A synonym is a word that has similar semantic features but difers in phonological shape. Most words difer in both phonology and semantics. Some words have been derived from other words by means of a derivational afx. The meaning of the derivative shares some semantic features with the meaning of the word from which it was derived. It also has additional semantic features of its own. Often the derivational afx correlates with a diferent syntactic valence; that is, the derived word has diferent possibilities for combination with other words in syntactic constructions. For example, the addition of y to the noun fsh makes it an adjective: “There is a fshy smell to this place.”“It looks fshy to me.” Semantically, the derivative and the word from which it was derived may develop in diferent directions, and if the phonological relations are obscured, the relationship between them may no longer be evident. For instance, immense very large, vast, huge, enormous is not immediately connected with measure from which it was derived via the negative prefx as not mea- surable. Monolingual dictionaries often give the etymological origin of complex words

3 The lexical unit 4 but frequently the etymological meaning is obsolete because an extended meaning has become more common. Compound words are like derivatives in that they share a common root morpheme with another word and thus share some phonological and semantic features. The compound contains a second root morpheme and thus introduces a link with still another word. But the compound, like the derivative, is a separate lexical unit and often develops extended meanings that are far removed from its constituent root morphemes. 1.2. Variation The word as a lexical unit may have inflectional variants. The word may belong to a given conjugation or declension in which it combines with infectional prefxes or sufxes. The lexical meaning of the word remains the same, but the infectional morpheme adds information about number, person, or tense. For instance, consider the English verb forms cook, cooks, cooked and bake, bakes, baked. The infection of a word may involve diferences in the phonological shape of the stem, as in the case of take, takes, took or have, has, had. The patterns and rules of infection should be described in the grammar. Any unpredictable details of infection for a particular word should be indicated in some way in the dictionary entry for that word. The word as a lexical unit may have semantic variants. It has a certain range of meaning, and within that range there may be several diferent senses. The senses are linked by some common semantic features and they share a common phonological shape. Because of these facts, the diferent senses are perceived as being part of the same word. Yet the central sense and the extended senses may indicate quite diferent referents in the real world. In other words, the senses of a given word may be discrete, even though they are variants of the same lexical unit. These discrete senses should be distinguished in the dictionary article. The discrete senses of a word are perceptible to the native speaker, although they are not at the same level of awareness as diferences of meaning that correlate with diferent phonological shapes of words. The perceptibility of the discrete senses is due to paraphrase possibilities. When a word is used in a specifc context, it is often possible to restate the content of the phrase or sentence in other words, using synonyms or a paraphrase. The same word in a diferent specifc context may not lend itself to restatement with the same synonym, but it might be restated using a diferent word as a synonym. Thus paraphrase or synonym relationships serve to discriminate between diferent senses. Consider the following uses of table.

(1) a. It would be nice to have another table in the kitchen. b. Consult the table for the value of that combination. c. After crossing the mountains, you hit a stretch of tableland.

For context (1a) it would be appropriate to talk of more counter space. For context (1b) it might be possible to substitute chart or matrix for table. For context (1c) the adjective fat might be substituted for table. All three senses include the common feature of something with a fat surface, but that feature is much less prominent in (1b). Some senses involve a change in the grammatical category. The change may have come about by the abbreviation of a syntactic construction through the deletion of 5 Variation certain words which are understood in the cultural context. If table means basically fat surface, its use as a noun referring to a piece of furniture with a fat surface could be explained as the deletion of furniture from the noun phrase table furniture, leaving the adjective to serve as a noun. Table has taken on a verb function through the deletion of an understood verb, as can be seen by comparing the following sentence (2a) with its paraphrase (2b).

(2) a. They laid the motion on the table. b. They tabled the motion.

Other senses involve a figurative extension of the central meaning. Figurative usage applies the word to contexts where the literal meaning could not apply, but where there is some similarity that justifes the application of the word in that fgurative sense. Thus, “Don’t cast your pearls before swine” spoken in the context of critical opposition makes pearls refer to words of wisdom. One dictionary defnes pearl as a smooth hard, usually white or bluish-gray, abnormal growth of various, usually roundish shapes, formed around a parasitic worm or other foreign body within the shell of some oysters and certain other mollusks: it is used as a gem. It gives as an extended meaning: anything pearl like in size, shape, color, beauty, or value, etc. The fgurative use of a concrete word makes possible more vivid and picturesque expression. New fgures are particularly vivid as opposed to old fgures that by frequent use have become prosaic and may have become the principal or only way of expressing some idea. In the following example, the frst part is a new fgure; whereas, the second part is an old fgure that has become almost an ordinary use of the verb.

(3) The sea made fsts and pounded the shores.

Figure 1 is a graphic representation of the lexical unit (enclosed in the large circle) with several possible sense discriminations (a smaller circle in the center to represent the basic meaning and contiguous circles to represent extended meanings). Arrows point to derived words (represented by a small circle and a triangle standing for an afx) and compound words (represented by two small circles that stand for two or more roots). The derived words and compound words are separate lexical items that are related to the main lexical item by virtue of the root they have in common. To the left, is a rectangle which represents an idiomatic phrase featuring the main lexical item. The idiom is also a lexical unit because of its partially unpredictable meaning. Yet it difers from the words constituting the main part of the lexicon in that it still retains certain properties of the phrase. The lexical unit 6

Figure 1. The lexical unit and related words

Figure 2 is a simplifed representation of the lexical structure of the English word fre. The frst or central meaning is that of a blaze or a burning. From that meaning the second sense has developed: a refraction of light, a glow, a sparkle. A third meaning, a fgurative sense, is enthusiasm, ardor. Some of the idioms that include fre are: catch fre, on fre, and set the world on fre. A derived word is freless, formed by the addition of the sufx -less. Two examples of compounds are frefy and frewood. An English-Spanish bilingual dictionary treatment of the structure of fre would be something as in (4).

(4) fre n. 1. fuego 2. incendio 3. fuego, ardor ♦ catch fre encenderse ♦ on fre estar ardiendo ♦ set the world on fre cubrirse de gloria frefy n. luciérnaga, bicho de luz freless adj. sin fuego frewood n. leña

7 Variation

Figure 2. Simplifed lexical structure of English word fre

Figure 3 is a graphic representation of the lexical unit for the word camote in Span- ish. The lexical unit 8 camote Lexical structure of the Spanish word 3. Figure 9 Distribution

A bilingual dictionary treatment of the structure of camote would be something like (5)-(6).

(5) camote s. 1. batata sweet potato 2. bulbo, cebolla bulb, tubular root 3. mentira lie, fb 4. cardenal, verdugón bruise, black and blue mark 5. enamoramiento (fg. y fam.) infatuation 6. amante, querida lover 7. un tonto, bobo a fool

(6) Derivatives camotear to go on a wild goose chase; plant sweet potatoes camoteo action or efect of camotear camotero sweet potato grower camotal sweet potato feld camotillo candied sweet potato; a wood with violet color; a plant for food color- ing Compounds camote de ratón a kind of edible root camote del monte a kind of edible root Idioms tragar camote to have a lump in the throat tomar uno un camote to take a liking to somebody Proverbs “Come camote y no te de “If you know what’s good for pena; cuida tu casa y deja la you, get your nose out of my ajena.” business.” 1.3. Distribution A lexical item usually belongs to one of the word classes (also called parts of speech or grammatical categories) of the language. All the words of a given grammatical category (or subclass of that category) have the same infectional possibilities. For instance, nouns may be pluralized; verbs may be infected for person and tense; adverbs are generally uninfected. Words belonging to the same word class also share certain properties required for combining with other word classes in syntactic constructions: adjectives modify nouns; prepositions introduce a phrase in which they are followed by a noun; demonstrative adjectives and cardinal numerals usually precede the noun, whereas qualifying adjectives and ordinal numbers may follow the noun; etc. The grammatical designation of the part of speech for each entry should correlate with information in the grammatical sketch concerning the possibilities for infection and for syntactic combinations. Any idiosyncratic behavior in infection or syntax should be cited in the essential linguistic information for a given entry.

2 Three levels of lexical analysis

There are two levels of preliminary lexical analysis as opposed to the level of a relatively complete analysis of representative lexical units. The frst two preliminary levels are termed the word list level and the glossary level; the third is called the dictionary level.

2.1. The word list level The term word list refers to the results of the common practice of using a word list in one language (Language A) to elicit the corresponding words in another language (Language B). Words secured in this way have proved useful for a preliminary idea of the nature of a language. Word lists have served well for grouping languages according to their linguistic afliation and even for comparative reconstruction of lexical items of the parent language. A word from the word list of Language A, given in isolation, seems to stimulate in the hearer the basic sense of that word. For this reason, a bilingual speaker will respond with the word in his native language which corresponds to that basic meaning, or possibly to the most frequent usage of the word in his experience. Most of the time the sense in which the words are equivalent will also be the basic sense of the word in Language B. Sometimes the word in Language B will only correspond to one of the extended meanings of the word in Language A. For the following list of eight English words, the most likely Spanish equivalents would be:

(1) a. boy muchacho b. paper papel c. eat comer d. leave salir e. loud fuerte f. truly de veras g. but pero h. with con

If one started from the Spanish, probably the original English words would be volunteered as equivalents except for letter e. Here the central meaning of fuerte corresponds to strong in English, not to loud.

11 Three levels of lexical analysis 12

The strength of the word list approach is that it usually identifes the basic or most frequent sense of the word in Language A. Its weakness is that there is no guarantee that the specifc sense given is also the basic meaning of the Language B equivalent. There are additional difculties when the words in the two languages are diferent in degree of generality or specifcity. Neither does the word list approach uncover any other senses of the given word in Language B. 2.2. The glossary level The term glossary refers to the type of vocabulary that is included in language learning books; one which supplies the learner with equivalent words or phrases for the Language A words as they occur in specifc contexts. The glossary is usually complete for the selections from Language A that are in that particular textbook. Equivalents are given that are appropriate to the specifc contexts in which the word was used in the text. Such a meaning may be a basic meaning, an extended meaning, or an idiomatic meaning. Some words in the glossary may show only an extended meaning or only an idiomatic meaning. On the other hand, the glossary will cite several equivalents for the same word, provided that those senses are exemplifed in the text. The same eight English words are cited below as they occur in the glossary of A New Shorter Review Grammar (Rodríguez Castellano & Barrett Brown 1958). Designations of the grammatical category are omitted in the following examples and abbreviated phrases are written out in fuller form.

(2) a . boy muchacho, niño, joven b. paper papel; (newspaper) periódico c. eat comer; to eat dinner comer; to eat up comerse d. leave (exit from) salir (de); marcharse (de); (leave behind; postpone) dejar e. loud fuerte; in a loud voice en voz alta f. truly de veras g. but pero; (after a negative) sino, sino que h. with con; the one with el de; with me conmigo

Note that the glossary separates the senses with a semicolon. It frequently identifes the senses with a qualifying comment in English. Paper, when referring to a newspaper, corresponds to periódico and not to papel. But, when it occurs after a negative clause, should be translated with sino or sino que and not with pero. The glossary also cites phrases in English which require diferent Spanish translations: to eat up comerse (not comer); the one with el de (and not el con). Where appropriate, the glossary translates a single word in English with a phrase in Spanish: truly de veras. The glossary level is one step closer to the dictionary level because it examines a word as it is used in context and presents the appropriate equivalents for each context. The glossary is as good as its sample of contexts for the words it includes. If the sample is severely limited, the glossary treatment of a word may omit its basic sense. 13 The dictionary level 2.3. The dictionary level The term dictionary suggests a relatively complete treatment of representative words. Most dictionaries represent the careful research of a team of scholars and pur- port to be somewhat authoritative in their conclusions. The total information given concerning a specifc word or entry is called the dictionary article. The dictionary article should identify the basic meaning of the entry word and its most common extended meanings and idiomatic usages. The eight words previously discussed are handled as follows in the Williams Spanish and English Dictionary (Williams 1978). In parentheses are listed some words and phrases related to the headword.

(3) a. boy [bɔɪ] s muchacho; mozo (criado); (coll.) hombre (boyhood, boyish, boy scout)

b. paper [ꞌpepər] s papel; periódico; va empapelar (paper blockade, paper- bound, paper clip, paper cone, paper cup, ...)

c. eat [it](pret ate; pp eaten) va comer; comerse (producir comiendo); to eat away corroer; to eat crow (coll.) cantar la palinodia; to eat humble pie hu- millarse cediendo; to eat one’s heart out sufrir en silencio; to eat one’s words retractarse, retirar sus palabras; to eat up devorar; destruir; vn comer

d. leave [liv] s permiso; licencia; despedida; by your leave con permiso de Ud.; on leave con licencia; to give leave to dar licencia a; to take leave (of) despedirse (de); (pret & pp left) va dejar, legar (por testamento); to be left quedarse; to leave alone dejar en paz, dejar tranquilo; no meterse con; no probar (el vino), to leave of dejar, cesar; no ponerse (una prenda de vestir); to leave out omitir; to leave things as they are dejarlo como está; to leave to dejar al criterio o elección de; leave it to me! ¡déjeme Ud. a mí!; vn irse, marcharse; salir (un tren, vapor, avión, etc.); to leave of cesar, desistir; (pret & pp leaved) vn echar hojas

e. loud [laud] adj alto; ruidoso; fuerte, recio; (coll.) chillón, llamativo; (coll.) charro, cursi; (coll.) apestoso, maloliente; adv ruidosamente; alto, en voz alta

f. truly [ꞌtrulɪ] adv verdaderamente; efectivamente; felmente; truly yours su seguro servidor, de Vd. atte. y S.S.

g. but [bʌt] s pero, objeción; adv sólo, solamente: prep excepto; conj pero, mas; sino, sino que; que no, p. ej., she is not so tired but she can keep on talking no está tan cansada que no pueda seguir hablando; all but casi; cannot but + inf no poder menos de + inf; no poder dejar de + inf; nothing ... but no ... más que; the last but one el penúltimo; but for a no ser por; but little muy poco

h. with [wɪð] o [wɪθ] prep con; de, p. ej., covered with snow cubierto de nieve. (withal, withdraw, withdrawal, ... withheld, ... within, without, withstand)

The bilingual dictionary prepared by an individual compiler in collaboration with a small group from the community will seldom represent the amount of research involved Three levels of lexical analysis 14 in dictionaries of better known languages. Nevertheless, it is possible to describe the principal senses of the lexical items in the indigenous language. It is possible for the compiler to process a sizeable sample of text material with the help of a computer concordance which sorts out all the occurrences of a given word with a stretch of context for each.1 The Spanish translations of the word in that range of contexts give a foundation for the dictionary article. The concordance of text material may be incomplete for some words and therefore need to be supplemented by a speaker of the vernacular who can search his memory for other uses of the word. It is to be noted that a computer concordance of the vernacular is related to a glossary in that it only includes the specifc contexts contained in the original textual corpus. Additional input is necessary by the compiler and collaborators to assure coverage of all important meanings of a given word. Some linguists who have given thought to the nature of the primary sphere of reference of a word, suggest that it is possible to train native speakers to identify the primary senses (both basic and extended) of a word. Michael Reddy (1973) worked out a set of guidelines for the determination of the primary senses of English words and taught them to university students of English literature with a considerable degree of success. (See Appendix A.) Although there are doubtless degrees of adequacy and completeness of bilingual dictionaries on this third level, the compiler of the bilingual dictionary for an indigenous language should assure himself that he has met at least the minimum requirements of that level. As the compilers work on a dictionary together with native speaker collaborators, they develop skill in identifying the principal senses of a word. The comprehensive coverage of these senses is probably the most important criterion placing a bilingual dictionary above the level of the word list or the glossary.

1This can be done easily from a corpus of texts in FLEx. 3 The procedures of lexical analysis

3.1. Lexical items to be included in the dictionary The fnished dictionary should be a representative sample of general information about the lexical resources available in the vernacular. It will also include the results of specifc investigations conducted during the compilation of the dictionary for publication. The lexical fle may begin with commonly used words that form the nucleus of the dictionary. Added to the nucleus are local equivalents of standard Spanish word lists, especially equivalents of the most frequent Spanish words used in that country. The dictionary list should include the vocabulary that refects the unique culture of the vernacular speakers. In instances where there is no acceptable Spanish word to use as a translation equivalent, the entry word is defned or explained. The dictionary should include entries from text material in the indigenous language. Computer concordances can be very helpful in cataloguing such items. Texts, whether written or oral, may provide additional words. Special vocabulary items which appeared in translated materials should be included, although these entries should be studied for their applicability to other contexts. A complete coverage should be given to conjunctions, prepositions, and other words that function as the mortar providing coherence to the local discourse. Thorough studies of certain semantic domains should be refected in appendices as well as being included in the body of the dictionary. The procedures of lexical analysis are treated under four headings: (1) collecting the words, (2) discovering the meaning of the words, (3) getting the Spanish equivalents, and (4) checking the accuracy of the Spanish equivalents. The frst two topics are considered in this chapter and the others will be discussed in the section that focuses on the aspects of the dictionary that involved the language of wider communication (part IV). 3.2. Collecting the words The dictionary compiler will obtain words from two main sources: elicited words and words used in natural contexts.

15 The procedures of lexical analysis 16

Elicited words may be stimulated through Spanish; that is, by using a word in isolation, a phrase, or even by discussing a situation in Spanish and asking how that situation is talked about in the vernacular. The investigator may also use a monolingual approach to elicit single items or responses to given situations. Depending on the compiler's knowledge of the language, his elicitation may be done entirely in the vernacular. Elicitation, whether bilingual or monolingual, direct or indirect, permits the compiler to retain a certain degree of control over the meaning of the words collected by this method. It gives important clues to the meaning of a word, or at least to one of its meanings, perhaps the basic or central meaning. However, the investigator should not assume that he therefore knows the meaning of the word. Its range of meaning must be investigated in the context of words encountered outside of the elicitation process. Standard Spanish word lists can guide the compiler in eliciting the most common words. The list appended to this manual in appendix C is a compilation of basic words in the Spanish of Mexico from three sources: (1) the starred words in the word list with sentences in the Manual for bilingual dictionaries (Robinson 1969), (2) the word list used for the language archive project of the State of Oaxaca,1 and (3) high frequency words in the corpus of rural data for the Diccionario del español de México (DEM 2010, through the kindness of its director, Dr. Luis Fernando Lara). A study of vocabularies and bilingual dictionaries published in the country will suggest other important words to be included. Early (16th and 17th century) dictionaries in the same language or language family may provide words that would otherwise be overlooked. Compiling lists of words in given semantic domains is another type of elicitation. For example, one could write down all the names of birds that come to mind. Or the lists may be of trees, terms referring to the local weaving process, or the beams and other parts of a house. At this point it is not important to include Spanish equivalents; these can be acquired later while exploring the meaning of the words. Such words may not have one-word equivalents in Spanish; but they can be described and illustrated, and are partly defned by the semantic subclass to which they belong. A classic pioneering study using semantic domains was done for Hopi by the Voegelins (Voegelin & Voegelin 1957). Rapid Word Collection is a method used in recent years that builds on this strategy. It involves an intensive word collection workshop with a team of speakers of the vernacular language, using a questionnaire designed to elicit words in nearly 1800 diferent semantic domains. It has been used to collect a fairly comprehensive lexicon in a short period of time. 2 Non-elicited words make up an important part of the collection that should be included in the dictionary. Data collected in the community provide words that are essential to communication and would rank high on a frequency count of vernacular words. Recorded text material will provide vital function words such as prepositions and conjunctions as well as further lexical items. Words gleaned from natural contexts can be supplied with Spanish translations by a bilingual native speaker. The compiler should bear in mind that such translations often denote secondary or extended meanings of the word. These may be appropriate

1This archive later became a national archive and is now housed at El Colegio de México (http://cell.colmex.mx/index.php/publicaciones/libros?layout=edit&id=118). 2For more information, see https://www.sil.org/dictionaries-lexicography/rapid-word- collection-methodology. 17 Discovering the meaning of the words to the specifc context, but not necessarily appropriate for the basic sense of the word, or for its use in other contexts. 3.3. Discovering the meaning of the words The goal of the procedures suggested in this section is the identifcation of the principal senses of a given word (primary and extended, literal and fgurative) and the designation of appropriate Spanish equivalents. The evaluation of the equivalents will be discussed in the section dealing with topics related to the language of wider communication (part IV). We have already pointed out that the words in the lexical fle may be only partially identifed for meaning. In the case of words elicited in isolation, the meaning on fle is probably the central meaning of the word; but there may be other senses in which the word is used and these should be uncovered and described. On the other hand, words gleaned from natural conversation or text material may have been translated only for their contextual meaning, which may be one of the secondary or extended meanings of the word. For such words, a central meaning needs to be added to the fled information. The collaboration of one or more native speakers is crucial in this stage of the investigation. The goal is to produce an adequate display of both the central and secondary or extended meanings for each word in the lexical fle. We assume that the native speaker competent for this task has an adequate knowledge of the range of meaning of words in his own vocabulary. A young speaker, however, may not have as wide a vocabulary as an older speaker and there may be diferent items in the repertoire of speakers from diferent age groups. Some speakers may be familiar with specialized vocabulary, such as terms for fora and fauna, words used in curing ceremonies, etc. Other members of the community should be interviewed to discover the basic meaning of unfamiliar words. The corpus of language material accumulated by the investigator can supply important clues to the basic sphere of reference of a word. A computer concordance is useful because it lists together the instances of a given word in the corpus of text material. It also supplies context, both preceding and following the entry word, for each occurrence. A study of the concordance display for a word often reveals several meanings or sense discriminations. Conclusions based on such a display are valid to the degree that the concordance compilation process has adequately sampled the language. Seldom is the sample really complete for the vocabulary items it contains, and the concordance must be supplemented by exploring the experience of native speakers. The practice of having a native speaker construct an illustrative sentence for each word in the fle can uncover a secondary or extended meaning. Such a meaning often appears to be a contradiction between the translation equivalent given for the word in isolation and the way the word is translated in the illustrative sentence. There are, of course, some cases where the contradiction is only apparent and the two Spanish translations are synonymous in that they refer to the same sense of the vernacular word. Sometimes the contradiction is due to an idiomatic use of the vernacular word, in which case the idiomatic phrase should be listed as a subentry. In his manual, Dow Robinson suggested that a speaker be asked to compose a dozen sentences for words that are suspected of being semantically complex (Robinson 1969). The procedures of lexical analysis 18

If each sentence is deliberately made as diferent as possible, it is likely that most of the senses in the basic sphere of reference will show up. Such a set of constructed sentences becomes an important diagnostic tool for discovering the various meanings of a word. As each sentence is translated into Spanish, care must be taken to translate the word as naturally as possible in each context. Translations for the word as they appear in the complete set of sentences are then examined and classifed according to their separate senses. The task of identifying the range of meaning and the discrete senses of the vernacular words is a huge one. Are there any ways of cutting it down to manageable size? There are probably many words in the language that are very specifc and that have no breakdown into diferent senses; they may constitute as much as two-thirds of the lexicon. Nomenclature for species of fora and fauna probably pinpoints specifc meanings. On the other hand, names for more common plants and animals frequently have secondary and extended meanings. The very specifc words also tend to be infrequent as opposed to those words that appear high in the frequency count. The words high in frequency tend to be polysemous, to cover several diferent areas of meaning. Body parts, for instance, often have fgurative extensions of meaning. The more common the word, the more likely it is to have several senses. An awareness of the likelihood that common words have more than one sense discrimination is perhaps the most important step toward discovering the diferent senses of a particular word. The study of a concordance display of occurrences of a common word can reveal several of the senses. The construction of a number of illustrative sentences can enable the investigator to come close to a defnitive list of the separate senses. Both of these techniques can serve to alert the native speakers to the nature of polysemy, so that they can search their minds for any other uses of the words. Dictio- nary compilation is more than accumulating an impressive number of words in alphabetical order. The process also involves diferentiating the various meanings of the polysemous items. 4 Outline of lexical structures: Overview of the dictionary and its articles

The main body of the fuller bilingual dictionary will be composed of approximately 5,000 vocabulary items in the indigenous language together with the necessary supporting information to present all of the important aspects of their meaning and usage. The following comments relative to the display of lexical structure specifcally refer to the recommended format for dictionaries in the Silva y Aceves series. In addition to the catalog of lexical items, the dictionary will have an accompanying grammatical sketch specifying the main patterns for infecting nouns and verbs, as well as outlining the characteristics of the other parts of speech. The grammatical sketch as well as the designations of grammatical category which occur in the dictionary articles themselves, are as nearly congruent as possible with grammars based on standard word classes of Spanish. A brief account of the phonology of the language and its writing system is given either in the grammatical sketch or in an introductory section. Explana- tions are included of the pronunciation of non-Spanish sounds. The particular editorial conventions utilized in the dictionary are discussed in an introductory section on the structure of the dictionary entry. Appendices include specialized vocabulary topically classifed for the purpose of highlighting aspects of the culture or environment. Immediately following is an outline of the general structure of the dictionary entry or article, at the conclusion of which are some explanatory comments. Each topic of the following outline is covered in more detail elsewhere in this manual. The entry or dictionary article has the following general structure: 1. Entry form in the vernacular — A psychologically natural form of an infected word

2. Enumeration of the diferent senses — Classifed according to Spanish equivalent(s):

a. Grammatical category (part of speech) b. Translation equivalent(s), or explanation of usage c. Qualifying comment on the translation equivalent (where necessary) d. Diagnostic illustrative sentence of the entry word in context and a natural translation of the sentence into Spanish

The parts of (2) are repeated as necessary for each separate sense discrimination.

19 Outline of lexical structures 20

3. Essential linguistic information — Conjugation type, principal parts of verbs, etc.

4. Cross references — Other entries related semantically or morphologically

a. Elements of a compound or a basic stem of derivatives (morphological relation) b. Synonym or antonym (semantic relation) c. Similar words (morphological relation)

5. Subentries that relate the word to other lexical units — Entries which share the same root and other words semantically related to them

a. Derivatives: nouns from verbs, transitive verbs from intransitive, etc. b. Compound words utilizing the same root c. Idioms, idiomatic phrases

The full elaboration of the dictionary article is essential for the vernacular section of the dictionary. For expediency, the article on the Spanish-vernacular side will be simpler in structure. It will, however, include the following ingredients:

1. Spanish entry form (word or phrase) 2. Designation of the grammatical category for single words 3. Enumeration of the vernacular words that correspond to diferent senses of the Spanish entry. Each vernacular translation equivalent will be followed by qualifying comments as necessary.

The requirement that the headword represent a psychologically natural form of the vernacular word is based on the assumption that there is one of the infected forms that more naturally lends itself to a representation of the lexical item because the infectional elements can be interpreted in a more abstract manner (see §5). This approach permits the entry form to be equated with the traditional form of a given word class in a Spanish dictionary. The translation equivalent is not a formal defnition (as in a monolingual dictionary) but the closest Spanish equivalent which could be substituted for the entry word in a given context. If there is no single-word appropriate substitute, an explanatory phrase or restrictive comment may have to be included to project an accurate translation. The discrete senses, or variant meanings, of an entry are numbered and the most general or basic meaning is placed frst in the listing. In the case of juxtaposed translation equivalents, the more general term appears frst, followed by the more specifc equivalent. Likewise, the locally known Spanish equivalent is given frst, followed by the more standard equivalent. Essential linguistic information appears on a new line after the senses and is primarily for the beneft of the non-vernacular speaker. In addition to classifcatory information on verbs, some compilers may wish to include essential syntactic restrictions, pronunciation details if the orthography is ambiguous, etymological information, or source of loan words. 21

Idioms may be listed as subentries only if they do not require an illustrative sentence. If an illustrative sentence is needed or desired, the idiom can be made a main entry appearing under the frst word of the phrase. Idioms and other subentries are discussed in more detail in chapter 19. Derived words and compounds are lexical items in their own right and require separate entries. These are then cross-referenced back to the major main entry which gives the basic form from which they were derived. The listing of derived words and compounds as subentries under the major entry, or the simplest form of the word, is a cross-referencing device that also serves to display the processes involved in the formation of lexical units. The listing of subentries is especially useful to the language learner if the processes of word formation are not completely regular. Subentry listing is unnecessary if the compound or derived word has the simple stem as its frst element because the main entry for the derived form is alphabetized in close proximity to the basic stem.

Part II The entry form and psychological reality

5 The psychologically natural citation form

Languages with a literary tradition have had the citation form of infected words in dictionaries frmly established for many years. For many languages, this citation form is an infnitive or otherwise minimally infected form. Some dictionaries even employ an abstract form that is not actually usable in normal texts or conversation. If the bilingual dictionaries we produce are the frst lexicographic works in specifc languages, conscious thought must be given to the choice of a citation form. In a sense, tradition and lexicographic standards are being established for those languages by means of these dictionaries. A number of factors infuence such a decision; the most important of which is the viewpoint of the native speaker of the language. Words are of two types: infected and uninfected. Uninfected words present no problems for a dictionary listing because they have only one form. Infected words have many forms, determined by specifc infectional afxes occurring with the stem and by the morphophonemic efect of those afxes. If the stem never occurs in natural speech without an afx, one of the infected forms must represent the whole conjugation or declension as the citation form or entry form for the dictionary. Spanish dictionaries use the infnitive as an entry form for verbs: caminar walk. For adjectives, the masculine form is listed followed by the feminine ending: blanco, ca white. Nouns referring to animals or humans which change to a feminine ending to indicate a female referent likewise are listed according to the masculine form of the nouns, followed by the feminine ending: perro, rra dog. The choice of the best form to represent the infected words of the indigenous language should conform to two important criteria: (1) the form that is closest to the basic stem, and (2) the form which native speakers regard as the natural citation form for that lexical item.

5.1. The basic stem The dictionary entry for a given lexical item should be as free as possible from infectional afxation. It should be the stem of the word from which the rest of the forms in the paradigm can be generated. It should also represent the expanded forms generated by the use of optional adverbial elements with predictable semantic efect. Sometimes one of the forms in the paradigm is without afxes, or without an explicit morpheme for a certain infectional category. For instance, Zoque, Totonac, and some dialects of Otomí have no afxes for a third person singular subject. In many languages, present tense is unmarked in contrast to the afxation for other tenses. English verb 25 The psychologically natural citation form 26 infnitives are unmarked for person or tense. The unmarked stem of these forms is a good citation form for the infected word. Sometimes the paradigm for an infected word in a given language will not include an unmarked form; the stem will always be accompanied by some infectional morpheme. This is the case for Spanish adjectives which are marked for masculine or feminine gender. One of the infected forms must represent the word in the dictionary. It is true that some vocabularies and dictionaries have been organized according to the roots of the language. These are abstracted from the forms of the words which actually occur in normal speech. Some Sanskrit dictionaries are set up this way. Linguists sometimes fnd it convenient to catalogue lexical items according to the underlying form of the stem, which serves as a base for predicting all the forms of the paradigm. Even though an abstract stem is useful for such purposes, dictionaries designed for more general use normally list full words as citation forms for lexical items. Full words are recommended for bilingual dictionaries of indigenous languages. Dow Robinson (1969) recommended the use of a natural citation form over an abstracted stem form because of his experience in helping to train bilingual teachers and his observations of the difculties they had deducing abstract stems that are not used alone in normal speech. The infected form chosen as the entry for the dictionary may or may not provide the information needed for predicting the rest of the forms in the paradigm. For the regular verbs of Spanish, the -ar, -er, or -ir of the infnitive ending can be removed to obtain the stem; the set of endings for person, tense, and mode can then be added to the stem to generate the whole conjugation. The infnitive of irregular verbs, however, does not provide the stem for the rest of the paradigm. Additional linguistic information is necessary. Some Spanish dictionaries list diagnostic forms of the paradigm from which the rest can be produced. Other dictionaries list in an appendix the paradigms of irregular verbs which serve as models for other irregular verbs. The model paradigms are referred to in the specifc dictionary entries for similar irregular verbs. The form of the word selected for the head of the dictionary entry should match the stem as much as possible and should serve as a base for predicting the other infected forms of the word. This criteria is, however, subordinate to the criterion of the psychologically natural citation form. 5.2. The natural citation form

5.2.1. The necessity of a natural citation form In this series of bilingual dictionaries, we want to give priority to the orientation of the native speaker of the vernacular. Therefore, rather than listing an abstract stem, it is imperative that a psychologically natural form of a lexical item be cited as the entry form in the dictionary listing. A form should be chosen that is most apt to come to the mind of the indigenous user when locating something in the dictionary. It is important to choose a citation form that, from the perspective of the native speaker, is easy to understand in isolation and that in some sense represents the basic meaning of that lexical item. If the natural citation form does not provide the most efcient base for generating the rest of the paradigm, essential linguistic information can be appended to the dictionary article to meet this need. 27 The choice of a natural citation form 5.2.2. The choice of a natural citation form Some languages may have already developed a citation form that native speakers use to refer to a lexical item. Totontepec Mixe has such a form for verbs. It showed up in a folklore text when the story teller paused in his narration to explain the meaning of the word he had just used. At that point he used a form which was relatively uninfected and which allowed him to refer to the verb in the abstract in order to discuss its meaning. Later, other speakers confrmed the use of that form in comparing the meanings of words. Mixe verbs have two major stem alternates and the citation form is the most common of the two. It is, however, a palatalized form; the unpalatalized alternant was also included in the dictionary entry. For languages which do not have a unique citation form in use, one of the infected forms of the word can serve in that capacity. There is usually one infected form that naturally lends itself to represent the lexical item. The infectional morphemes in that form are then generalized to a non-specifc interpretation. A frst person plural inclusive afx can be generalized to things that we all do or things that people do, or things that are done. A third person form, especially if there is a zero marking of third person, progresses in generality from he does it to somebody (indefnite) does it, to it is done. An imperative form, with second person unmarked, is generalized from (you) do it to it is done. When both second and third person are morphologically marked, the third person appears to be less marked semantically than second person. For certain groups of Nahuatl and Otomí speakers, the third person singular, present tense of the verbs has been chosen as the basic citation form. The third person singular past tense has proved to be the most satisfactory citation form for Copainalá Zoque verbs. Some languages favor the morphologically marked frst person plural inclusive as the citation form for a lexical item. This is especially true in the case of obligatorily possessed nouns. Thus our hand comes to be interpreted as people's hand, and therefore, hand in general. Some Zapotec and Mixtec groups have preferred the frst person plural in the future tense as a verb citation form. In the minds of the speakers of the vernacular, a natural citation form might include a range in the area of meaning rather than a specifc or fnely demarcated point. If such is the case, the specifc form should be chosen from among the acceptable ones by the practical criteria discussed in §6. It is also possible that a certain form is the most acceptable one for a great majority of the words in a given class but that there will be exceptions for semantic or cultural reasons. It is permissible to choose another form to represent these exceptions, as long as the criteria for choosing them are explained in the introduction to the dictionary. In the sixteenth century, Fray Alonso Molina1 struggled with the necessity of choosing an appropriate citation form for Nahuatl verbs. He instinctively felt that the local people would not respond to an uninfected stem as they would to a form that was a complete word. His own instincts and intuition regarding Nahuatl were also valid since he had learned to speak the language as a child. When possible, Molina put all verbs in the frst person present indicative; otherwise he used the third person indicative as all verbs occur in that form. Spanish verbs were listed in the infnitive following Nebrija’s example (Nebrija 1492). Molina (1571) placed a comma between the prefx complex and the root of the verb to indicate the lexical heart of the entry. He also cited

1For a further discussion of Molina and his dictionary, see §2.1 of appendix B. The psychologically natural citation form 28 possessed nouns in the frst person plural (prefx to-) because he noted that it was unnatural to refer to the noun in its non-possessed form. He acknowledged that some of these nouns are also found in the non-possessed forms and these he also recorded. The word for hand occurs on the Spanish side as follows: mano del hombre [man’s hand] maitl.toma; and on the Nahuatl side as toma. la mano, los brazos [our hand, our arm]; noma. mi mano [my hand]; maytl. mano [hand]. The possessed form of the noun is not the best representative of the stem, for this reason: when the pronominal prefx is added and the absolutive sufx is omitted, phonological changes sometimes take place at the end of the stem. In the above data, the -tl sufx is dropped and the stem fnal y is lost. In spite of the truncated stem, the naturalness of the possessed form infuenced Molina to use that as a citation form. He compensated for the truncated stem by also listing the non-possessed form. 5.2.3. Discovering the natural citation form A practical procedure for discovering the natural citation form is the Spanish infnitive test. In this procedure, one or more bilingual native speakers are asked to supply the indigenous language equivalents for a list of Spanish infnitives. If the same infected form of the verb consistently appears, one can assume that it is the natural citation form. The procedure can be reversed by beginning with the proposed natural citation form in the indigenous language and requesting the Spanish equivalents for those words. There seems to be a tendency for the infected form with the least overt marking to function as the psychologically natural citation form. In some languages, the least marked form for transitive verbs is diferent from that for intransitive verbs. Coatlán Mixe intransitive verbs have a zero third person subject and thus serve as a convenient citation form. Transitive verbs have an overt subject marker in third person and thus do not lend themselves to being used as a citation form. However, the imperative form of transitive verbs is not marked for subject and therefore is closer to the stem. The citation function of the imperative form was demonstrated for a related dialect of Mixe using the procedure of the infnitive test. Imperative forms were volunteered as equivalents of Spanish infnitives. Later, a native speaker was asked to supply the Spanish equivalents of the Mixe imperatives and he responded with Spanish infnitives rather than with the Spanish imperatives. Nouns that are normally used in their possessed form should be cited in one of the possessed forms. Since body parts and kinship terms are often obligatorily possessed nouns, a procedure similar to the infnitive test described above can be used to obtain the most frequently volunteered form of these nouns. 6 Practical criteria for selection of the citation form

For the vast majority of English words, it is possible to choose a basic form without prefxation to represent any specifc lexical item in the dictionary. Many languages, however, employ obligatory bound prefxes on nouns or verbs and it is no easy task to choose the form of obligatorily afxed words which should represent a certain class of entries in the dictionary. In many indigenous Mexican languages, there is no form corresponding to the Spanish infnitive form of the verb and one of the fnite forms must be chosen as the citation form for entries of this class. A choice must be made of a specifc tense or aspect to represent the verb in the entry. For some word classes in certain languages, a specifc person or number must also be chosen. If nouns are obligatorily possessed and the possessor is indicated by a bound prefx, a decision must be made as to which personal prefx to employ on the citation form.

6.1. Characteristics of a good citation form Characteristics of a good citation form include simplicity, brevity, frequency, and productivity.

6.1.1. Simplicity Simplicity is an important factor in choosing an entry word. If a large number of grammatical features are explicitly or implicitly included in a single form of the verb, it is usually quite unattractive as a citation form and a simpler form (less complicated) should be chosen. The illustrative sentence can employ any form that is in the infectional paradigm of the entry word, but the compiler should avoid an entry form that is too complex; the entry words should all be recognizable in the illustrative sentences. Alternatively, if one felt that the illustrative sentences must refect details of the entry form (person, tense, aspect, etc.), the context needed to use that form in a natural sentence would be difcult to construct and there would not be much variety from entry to entry. Choose a form that has as little afxation as possible. If several qualify, choose from among them the one with the broadest and simplest meaning, the one with the fewest implicit grammatical categories, while adhering to the previously mentioned criteria.

29 Practical criteria for selection of the citation form 30 6.1.2. Brevity A corollary of the above proposition implies the selection of as short a form as possible, one with relatively few letters. Particularly in agglutinative languages, the longer the word, the more restricted the meaning because of the addition of various afxes specifying one aspect or another of the context. Such lengthy words are often more difcult for new literates to decipher than shorter, less complicated forms would be. A profusion of unnecessarily long words as citation forms, especially if accompanied by their repetition in illustrative sentences, also adds to the total size and cost of the dictionary. 6.1.3. Frequency Compared with complex words, simple or less restricted forms of nouns and verbs occur more frequently in normal conversation or text material. The chosen form should be applicable to many types of verbs or nouns and not be unduly restricted semantically. An everyday, frequently occurring form is also more likely to generate satisfactory sentences. 6.1.4. Productivity A very important principle in the choice of a citation form is relative productivity. The form chosen must be as good a starting point as possible for the construction of the other forms in the paradigm. If the entry form can harmonize with that traditionally used in the appropriate national language, it is advantageous that it do so. It is important that this representative of the paradigm lead smoothly and unambiguously to the construction of all regular forms. Irregularities must be separately listed and cross-referenced to the basic form. The base form should be chosen to facilitate the derivation of as many forms as possible following the rules laid down in the grammatical sketch. Unpredictable derived forms can be listed as subentries under this basic form. 6.2. Problems related to specifc forms

6.2.1. Imperative In many languages, the imperative carries little or no afxation and therefore might seem to be a good choice for the citation form of verbs. In actuality, this is seldom true. Usually there is a large number of verbs that have no imperative form. Verbs referring to weather conditions are a case in point. Secondly, imperatives occur rather infrequently in comparison with other fnite verb forms. The cultural implications that result from casting every verb in the imperative may also be undesirable. 6.2.2. Infnitive In Spanish, the infnitive form meets the qualifcations listed above: little afxation, high frequency, brevity, and productivity. However, in many indigenous languages no such form exists and should not be manufactured by stripping afxation from the root form. If there is an infnitive form currently in the vernacular, it may have very limited usage, not be applicable to all verbs, or have a diferent and more restricted area of meaning than that of Spanish. 31 Compound words

An acceptable citation form must be chosen in accordance with both psychological and practical criteria. Such a choice must not be made at random, but only after due consideration of all the criteria and pressures involved. For example, because of lexicographic tradition, it is advisable to use the infnitive as the citation form in the Spanish index. 6.3. Derived words The citation form of the dictionary entry should represent all infected forms of that word. The same root may occur in a derived word which is not part of that infectional paradigm and which must be cited as a separate lexical item. The stem of the derived word often contains a derivational morpheme which diferentiates it from the simple stem. In Sierra de Juárez Zapotec, adjectives can be converted into verbs by the addition of a verbal aspect marker (Nellis & Nellis 1983):

(1) a. bitsi adj. seco [dry] b. ibitsi v. i. secarse [to dry out]

(2) a. bitha adj. mojado [wet] b. ibitha v. i. mojarse [to get wet]

Nouns can be constructed from adjectives by the addition of a prefx:

(3) a. chulla adj. oscuro [dark] b. laꞌchulla s. oscuridad [darkness]

Whenever a particular meaning or grammatical usage of a word correlates with the presence of a given derivational morpheme, a new lexical item should be distinguished. A possible exception is when a derivational morpheme is so productive and predictable as to be handled as part of the paradigm for the simple stem. This may be the case of the nominalized form laꞌ. 6.4. Compound words A new lexical item, and thus a diferent entry form, is called for when a stem is compounded with another root. Again, the principle is that if the addition of a specifc morpheme to the word correlates with a diference in lexical meaning, the combination constitutes a distinct lexical item. Examples from Sierra de Juárez Zapotec:

(4) a. cuéqquíá v. t. sacar [to take out] b. cueqquia lí v. i. afrmar [to confrm] (+ Ií derecho [straight]) c. cuéqquíáíqquia v. t. inventar [to invent] (+ íqquia cabeza [head])

English examples:

(5) a. fre fuego, lumbre b. frefy luciérnaga c. frearm arma de fuego d. freside hogar e. frewood leña Practical criteria for selection of the citation form 32

Some compounds are lexical items of two-word units. The component words are linked very closely in phrasing and the meaning belongs to the two-word unit rather than to the separate words which comprise it. Sometimes there is a phonetic diference between a two-word closely-knit phrase and the parallel two-word compound; the phrase preserves the suprasegmental phonetics of each word, whereas the compound subordinates one element to the other so that there is only one suprasegmental contour. Example:

(6) a. white house (meaning the one in the next block) b. White House (meaning the residence of the President of the United States)

The dictionary should have entries for white, house, and White House, which could also be cited as a compound under either white or house or both. 6.5. Idiomatic phrases A word may be so heavily infuenced by the surrounding words in a particular phrase that its original meaning is obscured and the meaning of the phrase as a whole is somewhat independent of the meanings of its component words. The idiomatic phrase is a type of lexical unit in its own right. It is in a diferent dimension, however, than the ordinary catalogue of words. Because of this fact, idioms do not generally fgure as dictionary entries, although they are listed as part of the dictionary article under one of the principal words in the vernacular. Example:

(7) fre ... ♦ to set the world on fre cubrirse de gloria [lit. to cover oneself with glory] ♦ to be under fre estar bajo el fuego del enemigo [lit. to be under the fre of the enemy]

The entry forms and the number of separate entries for a set of words which share the same root refects the analysis of that set into basic stems, derived stems, compound stems, and idiomatic phrases. 6.6. Orthography of the citation form The bilingual dictionary usually employs the practical orthography of other publications in the indigenous language. Specialized linguistic symbols are not normally a part of this orthography. Professional linguists can consult the introductory material of the book and published technical articles for specifc information on pronunciation and other details of interest to them. However, in some cases, the practical orthography does not distinguish all of the phonemic features of the language. For example, some indigenous languages are written without overt transcription of phonemic tone since the functional load carried by these features is relatively light. Linguists using the dictionaries as source materials or tools for research need to have all phonemic contrasts in the language indicated in the orthography unless the information can be imparted through a very clear and explicit set of rules. No doubt there are several possible compromises the compiler might make in deference to this segment of his proposed audience. One such solution is to indicate tone designations (or any other phonemic contrasts not normally included in the practical orthography) 33 Orthography of the citation form following the citation form of the dictionary article but omit them from all illustrative material.

7 Special considerations for agglutinative languages

The compilation of a bilingual dictionary for an agglutinative language presents some unique challenges. In some languages, compounding and regular derivation are so extensive that it is often difcult to know exactly which and how many of the numerous derivational possibilities and compound words should be included as full lexical entries, and which are somehow subordinate to the main lexicon. The formulation of satisfactory translation equivalents for compounds and derivatives also presents special problems characterized by conficting pressures. It is important to distinguish between the afxation representing derivational processes and that signifying infectional changes on paradigmatic forms. A change in grammatical category represents infection if the lexical meaning is left intact; conversely, a shift in the meaning of the item and possibly in the grammatical designation probably refects some type of derivational afxation. It is also the task of the dictionary compiler to distinguish between the regularly formed derivational words and those with enough lexical or syntactic shift to warrant their inclusion in the dictionary as full entries. This chapter will be devoted to a consideration of some principles that may be applied to determine the inclusion or exclusion of specifc compounds and derivatives, and to the problems of supplying these words with accurate and concise translation equivalents.

7.1. Principles underlying the inclusion of compounds and derivatives as lexical entries

7.1.1. A change in the grammatical category The derivational afx frequently changes the grammatical category of the original entry or the transitivity valence of the stem. Often there are syntactic consequences of the addition of a derivational morpheme. The new form may combine with a diferent infectional system or conjugate according to a diferent pattern. The fact that morphological properties change depending upon whether a verb is considered intransitive or transitive, is the reason for normally including both forms of the verb as dictionary entries. If the derivational morpheme keeps it in the same paradigmatic class, e.g., transitive vs. bitransitive, there is no morphological reason for including the form as

35 Special considerations for agglutinative languages 36 a separate entry and the decision must be made in accordance with other principles. The -er series of English nouns derived from common verbs such as walk, drive, swim, etc., is an example of a set of regularly derived forms whose members are nevertheless normally included as dictionary entries since their function as nouns is very diferent from the normal infected forms of the verb. 7.1.2. Pressures from the language of wider communication The translation equivalent in the language of wider communication may be a discrete lexical item which speakers of that language would normally expect to fnd in a bilingual dictionary. At least one of the Mixtec languages employs the compound hand + tree to refer to a branch. Such a compound belongs in the list of entries and should be translated as branch. Many languages join the causative morpheme to a verb root and thus form another common verb. In Totontepec Mixe, causative + learn = teach; and causative + eat = feed. Even though the combination of causative plus verb is possible for the majority of verbs, not all of them necessarily warrant a place in the lexical entry fle. However, those representing common words in the language of wider communication and not requiring translation by a circumlocution should be included. 7.1.3. A translation equivalent contrary to expectations If the translation equivalent in the language of wider communication is not the expected and transparent sum of the parts of the indigenous derivative or compound, the item should be a full dictionary entry. Much derivation is quite regular in process and resultant meaning; but not all members of even the most common set of forms necessarily share a common meaning. Consider the following English examples (Zgusta 1971):

(1) jail::jailer — a person keeping people in jail prison::prisoner — a person being kept in prison

(2) red::reddish — similar to the color red (but not a defnite red) girl::girlish — typical for a girl (behavior, appearance)

A careful study of derivation is required since the system usually is not as transparent as is grammatical infection. It is, of course, possible to exclude the common derivational patterns from the dictionary and only include the exceptions to the expected meaning of the forms. For example, one might exclude the -ly series in English as transparent and routine in formation and meaning. However, to want or need something badly does not quite ft the pattern of quickly, slowly, brusquely, etc. That particular sense of badly approaches synonymy with greatly; although bad and great would certainly be considered quite disparate by English speakers. There may be occasional paradigms that do not maintain a consistent meaning throughout all of their forms. Sometimes sense discriminations are based on diferent forms of the paradigm involved. For some specifc afxes, it may be difcult to determine if they belong to the infectional or derivational category. Ladislav Zgusta addresses this problem and provides an example from Swahili (Zgusta 1971): 37 Frequency of occurrence

Sometimes a certain regularity of parallel forms and their corresponding meanings can be observed; such a phenomenon can then be conceived as being on the bor- derline between lexicon and grammar, but it is certainly worthwhile to mention it in the dictionary, too, supposing that it is not a purely grammatical phenomenon observable in any respective item. The Swahili example:

(3) Singular Unmarked plural Prefxed plural a. rafki friend rafki friends marafki circle of acquaintances b. baba father baba fathers mababa forefathers c. simba lion simba lions masimba pride of lions 7.1.4. Identifcation of afxes It may be appropriate to include afxes as dictionary entries in spite of an emphasis requiring most dictionary entries to be full words. In many agglutinative languages, afxes carry lexical meaning as modifers, prepositions, or conjunctions — areas of meaning that in other languages may be expressed by independent words. It should be possible for the dictionary user to break the words encountered in the text into their component parts. Therefore, it is often advisable to include afxes as dictionary entries accompanied by translation equivalents or defnitions and one or two examples illustrating their combination with various roots. Such entries need not be included in the index for the language of wider communication if there is no lexical equivalent in that language. 7.1.5. Frequency of occurrence Frequently occurring derivatives and compounds are candidates for inclusion in the dictionary even though their meaning and composition may be transparent. Dictio- naries using this approach are designed to include a representative sampling of the language. If a computer listing of all the words in the illustrative sentences of a given corpus were generated, the compounds and derivatives appearing in such a list would provide that representative sampling of a given language. A sampling of the combina- tory forms should be examined to ensure the inclusion of at least two or three sets of each pattern to illustrate the similarities. Any regular patterns should also be discussed and illustrated in the grammatical sketch. It is also to be remembered that frequently occurring combinations are likely to be the very ones that take on additional sense discriminations or become less transparent in meaning, and thus qualify on other grounds as independent lexical items. The compilers of the Francisco León Zoque dictionary collected numerous words from conversation and folktales, recorded them in notebooks, and eventually processed them for the dictionary (Engel & Engel 1987). This running record of words as they surfaced in the normal course of events (as opposed to systematic paradigm entries) was the source of the sampling of compounds and derivatives that appeared in the fnished dictionary. For various reasons, our goal is not to produce unabridged dictionaries. It is therefore best to aim for a representative sample of lexical items from everyday life and fll out the fle with entries for the words occurring in the illustrative sentences already in the corpus. This procedure should ensure adequate fulfllment of the compiler's responsibility. Special considerations for agglutinative languages 38 7.1.6. Characteristics of the local audience The needs of the potential audience and their level of sophistication also infuence the inclusion of regularly derived and transparently compounded forms in the dictionary. If the potential users are not expected to be experienced linguists, much more will be specifcally included. The compilers of the Navajo dictionary (Young & Morgan 1980) specifcally aimed their publication towards children in a bilingual school program and outsiders desiring to communicate with the Navajo people. If a strong bilingual education program is underway or expected, probably many more derived forms should be included in the dictionary. 7.1.7. Historical record If the dictionary is to represent a dying language, a closed corpus in a sense, an exhaustive list of words may be included regardless of repetitious patterning. Most of the Greek concordances of the New Testament come under this classifcation. 7.1.8. Semantic importance of specifc categories There is at least a theoretical possibility that some derivational categories may be either more universally important or at least crucial for a specifc language. If such degrees of semantic importance exist, they would provide further guidelines for the inclusion or exclusion of derived words. Perhaps the afxes representing the greatest instability of meaning are somehow semantically more important and their representative forms should be included in the dictionary beyond the level of random or frequency sampling. 7.2. Principles underlying the omission of compounds and derivatives as lexical entries

7.2.1. Transparent meaning If a compound or derivative is transparent in meaning and composition, it is not necessarily a lexical unit. If the whole equals the sum of the parts, the word should be exempt from inclusion in the main entry listing. This principle refers to the exhaustive inclusion of certain types of words and is not in confict with the sampling principle discussed in the previous section. Even if regularly derived, included subentries should normally appear as full entries since the compiler's frst responsibility is to the main alphabetical listing of entries rather than to subentries illustrating principles of derivation which are found only as part of another entry. A considerable amount of space in the publication can be saved by omission of transparent compounds and regularly derived forms. However, the compiler should be careful that in the elimination of these, nontransparent ones are not excluded, such as huckleberry. Many stabilized compounds will be included under the sampling principle. Individually coined compound words will not stand the tests of frequency of occurrence and unity of designated meaning and will normally not be included. However, some compilers may prefer to include regularly derived forms as main entries with a cross reference to the word from which they were derived, but without the normal illustrative material found in the entries. The formal regularity and semantic similarity of a given group of words should be thoroughly investigated before a decision 39 General principles underlying appropriate translation equivalents is reached to exclude them. The tendency of many compilers is toward unwarranted omission of words rather than redundant inclusion. Derivatives omitted from the main body of the text may be listed in an appendix on derivation and word formation if the language is rich in regular morphology and word formation processes. 7.2.2. Adverbial compounds Adverbial compounds formed from a verb root and an adverbial afx often need not be included in the dictionary in greater depth than a random sampling would indicate. If they illustrate a regular productive process, the dictionary should not be padded with numerous examples. Likewise, derivatives corresponding to prepositional phrases may also be adequately represented by a sampling, unless of course a specialized meaning or sense has developed from the juxtaposition of the noun and preposition. Examples from Francisco León Zoque:

(4) a. pactzøyu v. i. quedó atrás [he remained behind] b. pacꞌeꞌpøꞌu v. i. se cayó al suelo (con todo el cuerpo) [he fell (full length) to the ground] 7.2.3. Regularly formed stems It may also be unnecessary to list the combinations which include stem formative afxes. For example, the compilers of the Francisco León Zoque dictionary eliminated the combinations formed with the sufx -øyu which merely signifed that the item in question included a given element; e.g. tiraꞌøyu referred to something with tiras strips on it; cuꞌyøyu designates an ax with a handle. However the same compilers felt it important to include a generous representation of the verbalized forms composed of a stem plus the verbalizer -neyu. Perhaps it was the change of grammatical designation for the resultant combinations that caused them to intuitively feel they were more discrete and worthy of main entry status. Semantically, certain ones are the sum of their parts; but the majority are not transparent in meaning. It is necessary to make as clear a distinction as possible between infectional and derivational afxation since the former category is eliminated from the lexical listing except in the case of idiomatic expressions. Often a few derivational afxes are also eliminated on the basis of extreme productivity; that is, almost any word of a given word class can be combined with them. Stable meaning in all occurrences is often a characteristic of extremely productive forms. 7.3. General principles underlying appropriate translation equivalents As for other lexical items, the ideal translation equivalent for compounds and derivatives is a concise, one-word equivalent that can be inserted in context with the same meaning as the original word carried in similar contexts. An efort must be made to fnd such a word and preferably consign the collocational restrictions and peripheral elements of the multi-morphemic word to a qualifying comment. The frst translation equivalent given by a native speaker for an agglutinative word is likely to contain a greater or lesser degree of expansion or explanation and may actually be a whole clause. The compiler must decide which elements are appropriately placed in a qualifying comment and which must remain as part of the translation equivalent even though the result may be more than the concise and accurate one-word ideal. Special considerations for agglutinative languages 40 7.3.1. Simplicity Aim for a one-word translation equivalent. Remember that the translation equivalent should be usable in similar contexts to translate the entry word. Often the best substitute in the language of wider communication comprises only one word even though the indigenous language employed a complex word for the same concept. 7.3.2. Grammatical congruence Aim for a word or phrase that matches the grammar designation (part of speech) of the entry word. For example, if an entry is translated la orilla [the edge, shore], but the grammatical designation is listed as an adverb and the word appears to function as such in the sentence, the translation equivalent might be changed to por la orilla [by the shore] This change would give a more accurate adverbial cast to the translation equivalent even though it no longer is a one-word equivalent. 7.3.3. Omission of implicit lexical components Place in a qualifying comment anything that corresponds to a separate lexical item when the word is used in a sentence. If an entry has some component requiring or implying the presence of another lexical element in the sentence, that element is appropriately placed in a qualifying comment as a type of co-occurrence restriction. These items often take the form of prepositional phrases or objects of one type or another in the actual translation of the illustrative sentences (for him, for it, in its place, etc.). 7.3.4. Omission of explicit cultural restrictions Place in a qualifying comment cultural implications that are not likely to show up in the translation of the entry in an illustrative sentence. For example, many kinship terms are restricted to one side of the family. The term for the brother of the wife may be diferent than that for the brother of the husband. Such information would not be spelled out in detail in an illustrative sentence, knowledge of the diferences being assumed. Neither should it be made explicit in the translation equivalent. 7.3.5. Appropriate phrasal translation equivalents Use a phrase for a translation equivalent when that phrase as a unit translates the entry word in a sentence. Verbs often have incorporated objects but function as simple intransitive verbs even though they must be translated by skeleton clauses. Often one- word equivalents in an indigenous language will be used for such phrases as el año que viene next year, or mano izquierda left hand. In these cases, the phrase used as a translation equivalent functions as a tightly knit unit and actually corresponds to the morphemes of the entry word as opposed to phrases which translate only the implications behind the entry word. 7.3.6. Relationship to a literal translation The translation equivalent plus its qualifying comment should resemble a literal translation of the word, but not necessarily a morpheme-by-morpheme translation. Where the translation equivalent difers from the translation in context, the translation equivalent should be closer to a literal translation of the word. The translation in context may be heavily infuenced by the specifc context. The compiler should be assured that the translation equivalent is as accurate as possible, whereas the sentence translation should be as natural as possible in that specifc context. If possible, it is 41 Types of compounds desirable to narrow the distance between the translation equivalent and the translation of the sentence by use of a diferent sentence that may refect a more central usage. If not, the gap must remain. 7.3.7. Elimination of irrelevancies Sometimes an expanded translation equivalent contains unnecessary information. If parts of it seem too restrictive or redundant, they should be deleted altogether. The Totontepec Mixe dictionary (Schoenhals & Schoenhals 1965) contains some translation equivalents that in retrospect seem redundant:

(5) vinje̠nvaꞌach v. i. sufrir (en la cara una herida levantándose la piel), raspar (la cara), raspadura (en la cara) [to sufer (a wound on the face that opens the skin), to skin (the face), skinned place (on the face)]

The latter two phrases would have been sufcient and the frst circumlocution could have been deleted.

(6) vincuva̠p v. i. poner en contrapeso (cosas colocadas en direcciones opuestas, una junto a la otra, como duermen los cerdos) [to counterbalance (things placed facing in opposite directions, one next to the other like pigs sleep)]

Some improvement should be possible in this entry, but it also serves to emphasize the difculty of translating some compounds and derivatives in agglutinative languages. 7.4. Special considerations for translating compounds The translation equivalent for a compound may not be parallel to that of a simple stem, or even a derivative. For most lengthy and preliminary translations, the task is to separate a translation equivalent from material pertaining to an appropriate qualifying comment. However, the translation equivalent for a compound needs to refect all the component morphemes relevant to the equivalent translation. Compounds may be any one of several constructions and single word translation equivalents may not be possible. Multi-word translation equivalents will vary with the specifc type of construction.

7.4.1. Types of compounds

Concomitant action Often two verb roots are juxtaposed and the meaning of both must appear in the translation equivalent since they are concurrent and infuence each other in a way that gives the word its particular semantic favor. For instance, dar de comer [give to eat = feed] or ir a comprar [go to buy = go shopping]. Included object As previously mentioned, many indigenous languages of Mexico may include the direct object, or even an indirect object, in the verb word. Often the whole then functions as an intransitive verb. An example from Totontepec Mixe:

(7) nvitupojpa [I-clothes-wash-present.tense] I'm washing clothes Special considerations for agglutinative languages 42

Modifed action stem A modifer may be combined with a verb stem to express a meaning beyond the capabilities of the simple verb. For example, to think big may mean to respect. Phrasal construction Functions that in many isolating languages are flled by locative or other types of prepositional phrases may be juxtaposed to the verb root in a compound verb. For example, talk with or say to. 7.4.2. Types of translation equivalents for compounds As has been noted, the translation equivalent for a compound should include both semantic components of the respective roots, however they are expressed. Juxtaposed verb roots are likely to present the most problems translating. The particular translation equivalent chosen in a given instance may be afected by naturalness of expression in the national language.

Single word A single word in the language of wider communication may often translate a compound. If a reasonably common word exists for the concept, it should be used even though a suggested translation equivalent might be put in the form of a phrase. For example, argue might be expressed as to fght while talking or some similar compound in the indigenous language and this construction may have been refected in the initial translation equivalent. Coordinate phrase Often the only way to accurately convey the semantic content of a compound is to provide it with a translation equivalent containing the parallel juxtaposed verbs separated only by a coordinate conjunction; e.g., salió y brincó [he came out and jumped]. Normally, the complete translation equivalent will be overtly expressed in the translation of the illustrative sentence. However, in the case of a sentence composed of two clauses, there may not be exact duplication since the second clause may echo some of the information contained in the frst, thus obviating the necessity of including the complete translation equivalent for the verb in the second clause. For example:

(8) pyajcotzijcu v. t. pelar (de un golpe)[to skin (from a blow)] Noꞌndye tzaꞌcos quejcu y pyajcotzic chumi. El borracho se cayó contra una piedra y se peló el codo. [The drunk fell against a stone and skinned his elbow.]

In this entry from Francisco León Zoque, the fact that the drunk fell was mentioned in the frst clause; any explicit mention of the blow in the second clause as a translation of the entry word would be redundant in Spanish. Subordinate construction One of the juxtaposed roots may be placed in a subordinate position in the translation equivalent. Spanish provides two ways of accomplishing this: by the use of an infnitive phrase or by casting the subordinate member of the pair into a gerund or a participle. 43 Types of translation equivalents for compounds

(9) a. brincar (saliendo)[to jump (coming out)] b. salir (brincando)[to come out (jumping)]

(10) a. pegar (para quitarle algo)[to hit (to take something away)] b. reventarse (al golpearse)[to split (upon being hit)]

Naturally, this solution is not applicable to juxtaposed verbs which seem genuinely coordinate and equal in the original compound (as was discussed in the preceding section). If a phrase is used as the translation equivalent, the item must appear as a subentry under its headword in the index for the language of wider communication. Qualifying comments transfer and fll the same role in a reverse index; phrases move into the subentry position in that section. (See §15: The Spanish index.)

Part III The display of lexical meaning

8 The translation equivalent

The translation equivalent identifes the meaning of the entry word by means of an equivalent lexical item in the target language. The lack of exact equivalents in the two languages can be compensated for by the use of qualifying comments or juxtaposed translation equivalents. For words that have no translation equivalent, an explanatory phrase is used instead of the translation equivalent.

8.1. Format The translation equivalent appears in regular type immediately following the entry word in bold face and its grammatical designation in italics.1 Examples from Otomí:

(1) a. ngu̠ s. casa [house] b. ijoni v. t. buscar [look for] c. rántjëni adj. rojo [red] d. nttzëdi adv. rápidamente [rapidly] 8.2. The purpose of the translation equivalent The translation equivalent in a bilingual dictionary difers from the defnition given in a monolingual dictionary. The translation equivalent is an equivalent word, or phrase, in the target language which matches the entry word from the source language. The translation equivalent should be a literal translation of the entry word, if at all possible, matching it in word class and in other grammatical information implicit or explicit in the citation form of the entry. The citation form for verbs frequently has to be a fnite form with a bound subject and sometimes a bound direct or indirect object. However, because of Spanish lexicographic tradition, all verbs are translated with the the infnitive form. For example, Mixtec verbs are cited with a frst person plural subject in Pensinger (1974), whereas stative verbs and change of state verbs are cited in the third person singular.

1See Appendix F for details about how FLEx should be confgured to create this output.

47 The translation equivalent 48

(2) a. nducuxi si v. i. ponerse mohoso [it is getting moldy] b. nducu yo v. t. buscar [we are looking for it] c. ndu-ihñi yo v. i. dar calor [it is making us hot] d. ndu-ityi si v. i. estar seco [it is dry]

Tzotzil verbs are cited with third person subject and, for transitive verbs, third person object in Delgaty & Ruiz Sánchez (1978). Examples:

(3) a. ta sjachꞌ v. t. cortar [he cuts it] b. ta sjachꞌes v. t. hacer que caiga [he makes it fall] c. ta xjulav v. i. despertarse [he wakes up] d. ta xjul v. i. regresar [he returns]

Totonac verbs are cited with third person subject and with third person as direct object of transitive verbs and indirect object of ditransitive verbs (bitransitivo in Spanish) in Aschmann & Aschmann (1973). Examples:

(4) a. scꞌupa v. i. encogerse [it shrinks] b. scuyú v. t. ahumar [he cures it with smoke] c. ma̠pꞌaksi̠ v. t. mandar [he sends it] d. ma̠lakacha̠ní v. bt. mandar [he commands him (to do) it]

For nouns, the Spanish equivalent of the vernacular word has obligatory gender, which may not be a property of the vernacular word. In this case, the translation equivalent should refect the appropriate Spanish gender. If the vernacular word can be translated using more than one gender, both should be included. Examples from Southeastern Tepehuan (E. Willett & T. Willett (2015)):

(5) a. jobiiꞌñ s. zapote b. mistuiñ s. gato, gata c. mulh s. tortuga d. naan s. pos. mamá e. taat s. pos. papá f. xicuꞌ s. pos. hermano, hermana (menor) g. xiix s. pos. hermano, hermana (mayor)

Stative verbs which parallel Spanish adjectives lexically, but which have a predicate function, should include a copulative verb in the translation equivalent. Example from Otomí:

(6) rá ntjëni v. e. ser rojo [is red]

If the word has both predicate function and modifer function, the copulative verb is not necessary. The principle of employing an exact translation equivalent for stative verbs is often subordinated to a strong Spanish tradition. This tradition maintains that the adjective grammatical category is independent of the predicate function, and that the latter is expressed by a copulative verb plus the adjective. The situation is complicated by the existence of two copulative verbs in Spanish, ser and estar, which are used in such a manner that the choice of one or the other for the translation equivalent is somewhat arbitrary. Thus, there may be good reason for departing from the principle of the use of an exact translation equivalent in the case of adjective-like words. 49 Qualification by juxtaposed translation equivalent 8.3. The translation equivalent qualifed by a comment The translation equivalent sometimes is inadequate for identifying the meaning of the entry word. A qualifying comment in parentheses is one way of making the translation equivalent more accurate. The qualifying comment may include metalanguage that abstracts the relevant semantic restrictions on the translation equivalent. An example from Totonac (Aschmann & Aschmann 1973):

(7) a. ti̠lancꞌa adj. ancho (que hace linea continua como una hilera) [wide (that makes a continuous line)] b. maksquiti s. criada (la que ayuda a moler) [maid (the one who helps grind corn)]

The combination of the translation equivalent and the qualifying comment approxi- mates a defnition for the entry word. Chapter 11 discusses in detail the use of qualifying comments. 8.4. The translation equivalent qualifed by a juxtaposed translation equivalent Often a word in the source language has not one, but several translation equivalents. Sometimes the diferent equivalents correlate with diferent sense discriminations of the source language word. See §10 for a treatment of sense discriminations. Other times, the diferent translation equivalents refer to the same sense and are synonymous. If two or more equivalents can be interchanged as translations of the source language word in the same contexts, they merit being placed side by side, separated by a comma, as juxtaposed translation equivalents. As synonyms, juxtaposed translation equivalents are substitutable in the same context with the same meaning. For example:

(8) tapón m. 1. stopper, cork 2. cap

Cap and cork cannot be used in the same context. Words usable as synonyms in one context would not ft in the other. Common synonyms or words with a large overlap in their respective areas of meaning should be used as juxtaposed translation equivalents. Esoteric synonyms that send even an educated reader to the Spanish dictionary are not very valuable as juxtaposed translation equivalents. The use of juxtaposed translation equivalents acknowledges the existence of more than one translation equivalent for the entry word. The juxtaposed translation equivalents also serve to modify or qualify each other in such a way that the meaning they share in common is the meaning that corresponds to that of the entry word. Examples of juxtaposed translation equivalents from the Totonac dictionary (Aschmann & As- chmann 1973):

(9) a. makchꞌíi v. t. amarrar (para hacer bulto), envolver, atar [to tie (to make a package), to wrap up] b. ma̠ke̠nú v. t. apartar, quitar, retirar [to put aside, to take away] c. maksko s. luz, candil [light, candle] d. maktakꞌalha s. cuidar, vigilar [to care for, to watch over] The translation equivalent 50 8.5. Translation equivalent promotion of the translation of the entry word in the sentence The use of the entry word in a vernacular illustrative sentence may suggest a diferent Spanish translation from the one used as a translation equivalent. If the Spanish translation of the entry word in the sentence is interchangeable with the translation equivalent in the same contexts and refers to the same sense of the entry word, it merits promotion to translation equivalent position as a juxtaposed translation equivalent. An example from the Tzotzil dictionary (Delgaty & Ruiz Sánchez 1978):

(10) mutsel v. n. encoger, acortar [to shrink, to shorten] Scꞌan mutsel li jpeqꞌue yuꞌun toj nat. Necesito acortar mi mecapal porque está muy largo. [I need to shorten my carrying strap as it is very long.] ♦ ta smuts v. t. acortar, encoger [he shortens it, he shrinks it] ♦ ta xmuts v. i. acortarse, encogerse [it shrinks, it gets shortened]

There are times, however, when the Spanish translation of the entry word in the illustrative sentence is too heavily colored by the context and contains elements foreign to the meaning of the entry word. Such an equivalent is quite permissible in the translation of the sentence, but it should not be promoted to the status of a juxtaposed translation equivalent. The compiler should beware of such false translation equivalent promotion. The translated equivalent of the entry word in the illustrative sentence that is not interchangeable with the translation equivalent for that word may indicate a diferent area of meaning (see chapter 10). Alternately, it may be an indication of the presence of an idiomatic phrase where the particular translation equivalent is restricted to a specifc context. In this case, it should be listed in the subentries as an idiomatic phrase (see chapter 11). But if the translation of the entry word in the illustrative sentence is neither a separate sense discrimination nor part of an idiomatic phrase, and if it refers to the same sense as the translation equivalent but is not interchangeable with it, it should remain in the translation of the sentence but not be promoted to the status of a juxtaposed translation equivalent. A very specifc translation equivalent introduced as the translation of the entry word in the context of the illustrative sentence should not be promoted to the translation equivalent position since it is not at the same level of generality as the designated translation equivalent. On the other hand, if the translation appears to be at the same level of generality as the original translation equivalent, perhaps it should be promoted as a juxtaposed translation equivalent. An example from Huave (Stairs & Stairs 1981):

(11) ayacüch part. llevada, dejada [brought, left] Posol mas nembeat ndot may- acüch iniüng. La cal sale más cara entregada a la casa. [Lime is more expensive when it's delivered to the house.] 8.6. The explanatory phrase The explanatory phrase is used in place of a translation equivalent in those cases where no translation equivalent is available. The explanatory phrase in a bilingual dictionary is very much like a defnition in a monolingual dictionary. It explains how a word is used and something of its lexical meaning. Such a phrase should only be 51 The explanatory phrase used when it is not possible to indicate the meaning by a translation equivalent with its qualifying comment. The Ch'ol dictionary (Aulie & Aulie 1978) has a large number of adverbs that tell something about the manner in which an action is carried out. Spanish seldom has an adverb to translate these Ch'ol adverbs, although other elements in the Spanish translation of the sentence often express some of that meaning. Examples:

(12) chilicña adv. Se refere al sonido que da una cosa sobre lámina. [It refers to the sound of something hitting aluminum.] Chilicña woliꞌ jubel tilel jaꞌal ti lámina. La lluvia suena al caer sobre la lámina. [The rain makes a noise as it falls on the aluminum roof.]

(13) chuaꞌuiña adv. Se refere al sonido de un líquido moviéndose dentro de un envase. [It refers to the sound of liquid moving around in a container.] Mi mach butꞌulic jini jaꞌ ti lata, chuqꞌuiña che baqui ora mi laj cuch majlel. Si la lata de agua no está llena, se moverá mucho dando sonido cuando la carguemos. [If the can of water isn't full, it sloshes around noisily when we carry it.]

(14) chʌcꞌchʌcꞌña adv. goteando [dripping] Chncꞌchncꞌña woliꞌ yochel och jaꞌ ti mal otot chaꞌan woliꞌ jaꞌal. El agua cae goteando por la gotera, porque está lloviendo. [The water falls dripping through the leak because it is raining.]

Note that in spite of the fact that Chꞌol adverbs ending in -ña usually do not have translation equivalents, there are some that do. If they do have translation equivalents, the explanatory translation equivalent should not be used. A qualifying comment may be used in addition to the translation equivalent to specify relevant semantic features. Qualifying comments and explanatory phrases have in common the fact that they may use metalanguage to abstract and identify crucial semantic features. The translation equivalent, on the other hand, should be an equivalent lexical item in the target language which may be used to translate the entry word from the source language.

9 Illustrative sentences

Illustrative sentences serve both the compiler of the bilingual dictionary and its user. During the process of eliciting illustrative sentences, the compiler becomes aware of sense discriminations, co-occurrence restrictions on classes of lexical items, or grammatical restrictions which he had overlooked. His recognition and indication of such features make the dictionary more accurately refect the indigenous language.

9.1. Rationale for the inclusion of illustrative sentences The goal of an individual illustrative sentence may be to help the compiler improve the translation equivalent, to add new information regarding the meaning of the entry word, or to clarify the reader’s comprehension of the lexical entry. Illustrative sentences perform one of the following specifc functions.

9.1.1. Delineate the area of meaning of the entry word Illustrative sentences often document the existence of the separate senses discriminated by the lexicographer. The dictionary compiler will fnd that collecting illustrative sentences helps to accurately defne the indigenous words, thus arriving at more adequate translation equivalents. These sentences also help to identify the sense discriminations of the entry word and idiomatic phrases which use the word. The representative of the national culture who wants to learn some of the indigenous language also fnds help for defning the vernacular word, especially if it is very specifc and does not have an exact Spanish equivalent. 9.1.2. Use the word in a correct grammatical context The illustrative sentences serve to provide grammatical information in a more palat- able form than even the most popularly written formal grammatical sketch. The professional linguist will fnd the sentences useful as source material for further studies of the language. These sentences give evidence of the syntactic word class of the entry word, suggest any semantic or syntactic restrictions the word may have, and justify the enumeration of sense discriminations. The speaker of the language of wider communication fnds that the sentences provide examples of the use of the word in syntactically correct constructions and in natural cultural contexts.

53 Illustrative sentences 54 9.1.3. Distinguish between applicable and non-applicable senses and contexts of the translation equivalent Sentences demonstrate that the chosen translation equivalent is an honest and natural translation of the entry word in a given context. The free translation of illustrative sentences into Spanish illustrates a normal, natural way of expressing the equivalent thought for the speaker of the indigenous language. 9.1.4. Clarify potential ambiguities due to multiple meanings of the Spanish translation equivalent The dictionary consultant can detect and correct inadequacies or errors in an entry if any contradictions are found between the translation equivalent and the way the word is used in the illustrative sentence. The Spanish editor may suggest better translation equivalents or juxtaposed translation equivalents, reacting to the supporting semantic elements in the sentence contexts. 9.1.5. Display local culture and local literary style Good illustrative sentences act as a window through which the dictionary user can view the local culture in areas of folklore, customs, beliefs, agricultural and economic practices, and social relationships. Various groups of people who use the bilingual dictionary can beneft greatly from this exposure to vignettes of indigenous life as expressed by the local people. 9.2. Components of adequate sentences A good illustrative sentence supplies a specifc context which helps to defne the word being illustrated. Such a sentence should include at least one of the salient characteristics of the word under consideration. In many instances, it should be possible to deduce the meaning of the word even if one were unfamiliar with the translation equivalent. Characteristic subjects or objects may be used with verbs to provide mental clues as to the specifc action indicated. Other useful contextual ideas for verbs include instrument, location, or cause and efect relationship. Casagrande & Hale (1967) studied the methods and types of explanations used by Papago parents in explaining new words to their children. The defnitions were composed of descriptions of the new item, a statement of its use or a comparison with something already within the child’s experiences. The descriptions fell into a number of categories similar to the ones that follow. A good illustrative sentence will probably include as context one or more of these associational categories. Several examples are given which illustrate each category more clearly than would attempted defnitions.1

1Some of the illustrative sentences in this section have been taken from Instituto Nacional Indigenista (1967) and Delgaty & Ruiz Sánchez (1978). 55 Characteristic subject, object, or instrument of an action 9.2.1. Characteristic attribute (1) a. El arco iris tiene siete colores. A rainbow has seven colors. b. En la orilla del mar la arena es muy fna. At the seashore, the sand is very fne. c. La jícara dura más porque no se quiebra pronto. A gourd lasts longer because it doesn’t break quickly. 9.2.2. Characteristic behavior or action (2) a. El albañil construye una pared de ladrillo. The mason builds a brick wall. b. Los aviones vuelan rapidamente. Airplanes fy rapidly. c. El armadillo puede esconderse dentro de su caparazón y hacerse bolita. An armadillo can hide inside its shell and make a ball of itself. d. El sarampión es una mala enfermedad; da mucha calentura. Measles is a bad disease; it causes a high fever. 9.2.3. Characteristic use (3) a. Mi abuela tiene un armario en que guarda su ropa. My grandmother has a wardrobe in which she keeps her clothes. b. El niño toca a la puerta con la aldaba. The boy knocks at the door with the knocker. c. El almidón que se usa para la ropa, también sirve para hacer engrudo. The starch which is used for clothes can also be used for paste. 9.2.4. Characteristic position or location (4) a. Al saco de mi papa le falta un botón. My father’s jacket is missing a button. b. Mi papa dejó su canoa a la orilla del río. My father left his canoe at the river’s edge. c. El ciempiés vive en lugares húmedos. The centipede lives in humid places. 9.2.5. Characteristic material (5) a. Guardo mi juguete en la caja de cartón. I keep my toy in the cardboard box. b. La banqueta de la escuela es de cemento. The sidewalk at school is cement. 9.2.6. Characteristic subject, object, or instrument of an action (6) a. Su tía está a punto de dar a luz. His aunt is about to give birth. (The subject has to be female.) b. Hay que arrancar las plantas del frijol porque están secas. The bean plants should be pulled up because they have dried out. (The object is a plant.) Illustrative sentences 56

c. El hombre está buscando su caballo, pero no lo encuentra. The man is looking for his horse but he can’t fnd it. (Animals get lost and have to be looked for.) 9.2.7. Contrast or gradation (7) a. Mi hermano ya no es un niño como yo; es un adulto. My brother is no longer a child like me; he is an adult. b. Mi mama es mujer; mi papa, hombre. My mother is a woman; my father is a man. c. Si hoy es sábado, ayer fue viernes y anteayer fue jueves. If today is Saturday, yesterday was Friday and the day before yesterday was Thursday. 9.2.8. Cause-efect relationship (8) a. Con el dolor de muelas, se le hinchó el cachete de mi hermana. Because of her toothache, my sister’s cheek is swollen. b. Porque tiene lombrices, este niño tiene la barriga muy grande. Because he has worms, the child has a swollen abdomen. c. El hombre está descansando porque acaba de venir del trabajo. The man is resting because he just got home from work. d. Quiten de allí este hilo; si no, el niño se va a enredar con él. Take that string away or else the baby is going to get tangled up in it. e. Los borrachos se pelean cuando toman demasiado. The drunks fght when they drink too much. f. En el tiempo de lluvias a veces graniza. In rainy season it sometimes hails. 9.2.9. Examples of abstractions or of general classifcatory terms (9) a. El maíz, el frijol, la carne y frutas son alimentos nutritivos. Corn, beans, meat, and fruit are nutritious foods. b. La for del naranjo y del limonero se llama azahar. Orange and lemon tree fowers are called blossoms. c. El ramo de fores de papel es artifcial. The bunch of paper fowers is artifcial. d. Macario no vino hoy a la escuela. Está ausente. Macarius didn’t come to school today. He is absent. e. No hay viento, ni lluvia, ni ruido; el campo está en calma. There is no wind, rain, or noise; the countryside is calm. f. La gallina ciega es una clase de gusano muy mala porque se come las papas. The white worm (literally the blind hen) is a bad kind of worm because it eats potatoes. 9.2.10. Part-whole relationship (10) a. A la carreta se le rompió una rueda. A wheel broke on the oxcart. b. Este es un barrio de mi pueblo. This is a section of my town. c. De granito en granito, llena la gallina su buche. 57 Sources of sentences

The chicken flls its crop grain by grain. d. Mi mamá prepara una bebida con frutas, miel y agua. My mother is fxing a drink with fruit, honey and water. 9.2.11. Synonym or class name (11) a. Las ventanas de la nariz son los hoyos que tenemos en ella. Nostrils are the holes in our nose. b. El café es una bebida conocida en todo el mundo. Cofee is a drink that is known world-wide. c. La sosa es un arbusto. Saltwort is a bush. d. El papa es el más respetado entre los sacerdotes. The pope is the most respected of all the priests. 9.2.12. Comparison (12) a. La viruela loca no es tan mala como la viruela negra. Chickenpox isn’t as severe a disease as smallpox. b. Le sale salpullido en el cuerpo como picaduras de pulga. He has a rash on his body like fea bites. 9.3. Working procedures for obtaining illustrative sentences

9.3.1. Sources of sentences There are various sources from which sentences may be obtained, some more adequate than others. Avoid translating a stock sentence from Spanish. The compiler should collaborate with native speakers to ensure that the sentences display the characteristics of the indigenous lexicon, the results should be more germane to the local context than a translation of a stock sentence in Spanish. Therefore, the basic word list of 2,000 Spanish words for which local equivalents are expected, does not include suggested sentences.

Non-native speaker Sentences constructed by a non-native speaker, perhaps a feld linguist, are possibilities but these need to be considered with caution as fnished products. Such constructions are more useful as a teaching tool in the training of native speakers. A non-native speaker neither controls the language nor understands the culture well enough to contribute illustrative sentences of high quality. Translated materials Sentences taken from translated materials are also less than desirable due to the possible lack of natural expression in an utterance which originated away from the local scene. There is also the possibility that such sentences will illustrate a peripheral or fgurative sense of the word rather than the central meaning. Furthermore, a translated sentence may have implicit information contained in the context from which is was taken that will likely not be understood in isolation. Illustrative sentences 58

Text materials Folklore, personal narratives, or descriptions of local culture are all sources from which adequate sentences may be extracted. A computerized concordance of the language is an excellent source of this material. Care must be exercised lest the extracted material be too long, redundant, cryptic, or difuse for the purpose at hand. Sentences extracted from text at least were composed by native speakers. They were also spoken to other native speakers familiar with the culture and often familiar with the specifc story. Such sentences should be evaluated to ensure that they are understandable in isolation and can communicate to the outsider in a meaningful way. Native speaker Collaborators may be asked to compose several sentences illustrating a given word and the best result chosen for inclusion in the dictionary. Naturally, it is necessary to reinforce the positive by making clear to the helper which sentences are particularly appealing and why. At a later stage, it may be possible to request only one sentence per word or sense discrimination if the collaborator has demonstrated a fair for good illustrations. It is difcult to overemphasize the contribution of pertinent and locally focused sentences in a bilingual dictionary. 9.3.2. Suggestions for obtaining good sentences Following are some suggestions for developing the concept of good illustrative sentences in collaborators.2

1. Choose a culturally signifcant noun (e.g., a clay pot). Discuss it asking questions about its use, manufacture, etc. Encourage the collaborator to describe it fully and then to write a sentence using the word the way people in your town would use it. Give encouragement and praise, perhaps suggesting an addition so the sentence will talk about the word more. Example:

“The women like ollas.” Why do they like them? “The women like ollas because ollas keep their drinking water cold.”

Encourage the collaborator to write the way folks back home talk.

2. From published bilingual dictionaries, choose a number of sentences that illustrate the same common word. Organize several such sets and ask the collaborators to pick the word that should be the entry word in that group. Discuss the sentences as a group and encourage both positive and negative comments. It is much easier to be objective since neither the compiler nor the collaborator has any personal attachment to those particular sentences. Ask the collaborator to write a sentence for each of the same key words. Even if he uses features from other sentences, the organization will be his own.

2In a workshop, Juanita Watters shared these techniques which she developed in working on a Tepehua dictionary. 59 Selection of sentences

3. Ask for six sentences each for specifc words. Point out the most positive features of each and explain which sentence is the best of the set and why.

4. Infuence the style of the native-authored sentences as little as possible. Make suggestions for additions or improvements but let them fgure out the actual wording. If it is not possible for the collaborator to write the sentences, he may be asked to discuss the word and, after the compiler has constructed a sentence from his comments, to check and correct it.

9.3.3. Selection of sentences The ideal illustrative sentence is an independent, brief text focusing on the entry word of the individual dictionary article. In general, each entry or each sense discrimination of the entry should have its own illustrative sentence. One sentence per entry is usually necessary but only one may not be sufcient. More are required if the word has several areas of meaning, or if extended or fgurative meanings are involved. Sooner or later a question arises regarding the necessity of illustrative sentences for very common nouns. Probably there are some which are so self evident in meaning that nothing is gained by including a sentence. On the other hand, the cultural criteria are not to be ignored, and often a sentence is worth including because of insights it afords in this area. Statistically, at least ffty percent of the entries should have illustrative sentences. Certain categories of dictionary entries should never be exempt from having illustrative sentences. All words unique to the local culture should be provided with sentences. All sense discriminations should have illustrative sentences. All words that need to be qualifed for co-occurrence restrictions need to have sentences. All entries which need the translation equivalent qualifed because of possible ambiguity in the language of wider communication ought to have illustrative sentences. It is necessary to develop a sense of the diferences between a good illustrative sentence and a mediocre one. Often an unsatisfactory sentence may be reworked or expanded to remedy its defciencies. In other cases, replacement with a new sentence may be necessary. In general, a good sentence should be diagnostic in that very few or no other words can be substituted for the entry word. Compare the following examples:

(13) I saw a horse coming down the path.

(14) Horses are not as strong as mules for carrying cargo.

I could see many things coming down the path, but few things can be compared to mules as beasts of burden. Vague generalities are certainly to be avoided:

(15) Hay un muerto. [There is a dead person.]

The above sentence does not defne muerto nearly as well as would some reference to burial or a funeral. In many languages, a verb may be infected in such a manner that it may stand alone as a complete sentence. However, these should also be avoided as illustrative Illustrative sentences 60 sentences if there is little additional information beyond what already appears in the entry form. A bound object, adverb, or clause constituent may be incorporated into the verb and still serve as a reinforcing element thus producing an acceptable sentence. Verbs which are only infected for person or tense do not thereby become satisfactory illustrative sentences. A structurally adequate Spanish translation does not necessarily imply an informative illustrative sentence preceding it. The following examples need more context if they are to serve as adequate illustrative sentences.

(16) Me pongo bravo. I become brave.

(17) Lo voy a limpiar. I am going to clean it.

Unsatisfactory sentences often have too general a context or describe a situation where the antonym of the word being illustrated would also ft the context perfectly. Other illustrations do not refer to the main or central use of the word. The entry word itself may be peripheral or out of focus to the thrust of the sentence. Consider the following examples:

An extended meaning rather than the central meaning is illustrated (18) a. Hoy nos dieron sopa de letra. Today they gave us alphabet (letter) soup. b. El indígena es factor importante en el desarrollo de Mexico. The indigenous person is an important factor in the development of Mexico. c. La gallina da abrigo a sus pollitos baja las alas. The hen gives shelter (warm coat) to her chicks under her wings.

The word to be illustrated is not in focus in the sentence (19) a. El burro sirve para ayudar a llevar la carga. The burro helps to carry the cargo. b. En la clase de gimnasia nos enseñan a levantar los pies sin doblar las rodillas. In the gym class, they teach us to lift our feet without bending our knees. c. EI pollito acaba de romper el cascarón del huevo. The chick has broken out of the shell of the egg. (This sentence could also illustrate cascarón [shell.])

The context of the sentence is too general to provide supporting semantic clues (20) a. En el pueblo vive un anciano. In the town lives an old man. b. Desde mi ventana veo un lucero. From my window I see a bright star. c. La laguna es bonita. The lake is pretty. 61 Selection of sentences

An antonym or other meaning is as appropriate to the context as the desired insertable word (21) a. Mordí una fruta de sabor amargo. I bit into a bitterly favored fruit. b. Desde afuera veo a mi mamá preparar la comida. From outside I see my mother preparing the meal. c. El más pequeño de la clase es Manuel. The smallest one in the class is Manuel.

Mechanical and stylistic considerations also afect the choice of illustrative sentences. Short sentences tend to be cryptic; the reader needs to add information of his own. A sense of incompleteness accompanies the use of illustrations which are no more than descriptive phrases; illustrative material should be expressed in grammatically complete sentences. The best sentences consist of at least two clauses related logically to each other. A longer sentence also ofers a greater possibility for the inclusion of additional supporting context; those mutually reinforcing semantic elements help explain the word being illustrated. However, the size of the dictionary is directly afected by the length of the illustrative sentences and superfuous phrases should be avoided. Neither are we responsible for providing encyclopedic articles to illustrate the words. However, in the case of historical, anthropological, or cultural information of interest to the outside world, there is justifcation for including more detail since it is unlikely that material of this type will be disseminated in any other publication. Compare the following examples including unsatisfactory phrase, unnecessarily encyclopedic article, and genuinely relevant cultural description, respectively.

(22) La cara del maestro, la cara de la luna, las dos caras de una moneda. The face of the teacher, the face of the moon, the two faces of a coin. (Not only an incomplete sentence but several sense discriminations are included.)

(23) a. The birds build their nests in the trees when it is time for them to lay eggs; they then lay their eggs in these nests. b. The coatis also make nests of brush in the tops of the trees and they sleep in them by day or by night.

(24) The staf [bastón] was used by the ancients as a symbol of authority or badge of ofce. It was always made of the wood of a black palm tree and polished to a high luster. At the end of the term of ofce, the staves [bastones] were destroyed and the new ofcials received freshly made ones.

The question sometimes arises as to the legitimacy of a sentence with a general or skimpy context. The principle of the diagnostic sentence conficts with the principle of simplicity. Consider This man is very short. It would certainly be more diagnostic to add, He can’t reach to pick oranges from the tree. The local people, however, may be sensitive to the implied negative evaluation of short people. The compiler must consider the various factors involved and try to maintain a balance between sometimes opposing considerations. In the immediately preceding example, the addition of more material is also interesting for local color. Illustrative sentences 62 9.4. Evaluation of illustrative sentences The following characteristics of good illustrative sentences serve as a checklist for the evaluation of work in this area. A good illustrative sentence should demonstrate: self- containment, centrality, contextual clues, cultural relevance, clarity, and consistency.

9.4.1. Self-containment It should employ common grammatical constructions and be a semantically self- contained unit. The psychologically natural unit is a whole predication, and it is much easier for a new literate to relate to a whole sentence than to a fragment. Incomplete sentences, short phrases, or ellipses tend to confuse a reader since there is no larger context by which to interpret the deleted portion. 9.4.2. Centrality A good illustrative sentence relates to the central meaning or focus of the word or sense discrimination and is not just a random instance of usage. Metaphorical references tend to give peripheral senses and should not stand as the only illustrative sentence for a given word. Idiomatic expressions may be more appropriately placed in the sub-entry category. 9.4.3. Contextual clues A useful illustrative sentence contains at least one, preferably two, mutually reinforcing semantic elements.

(25) Surcamos la milpa con yunta y arado antes de sembrar. We plowed the feld with a yoke of oxen and plow before planting.

The entry plow is reinforced by feld, yoke of oxen, and planting. These elements all help to defne the entry in accordance with the proposition that if the entry word were omitted, the reader should be able to predicate the correct insertion. 9.4.4. Cultural relevance Good sentences need to represent a cultural setting familiar to the speaker of the vernacular. Such information is also of interest to the outsider wishing to increase his knowledge of the area. 9.4.5. Clarity Contradictory, irrelevant, or rambling references are to be avoided. A succinct, unambiguous, and informative statement should be the mark of a good illustrative sentence. 9.4.6. Consistency One must consider the possibility of a contradiction between the translation equivalent and the focus of meaning in the sentence. Unwittingly, the sentence may have been cast in the form of a diferent grammatical construction which leaves a discrepancy between the stated grammatical designation and the form used in the sentence. Perhaps a new sentence is the best remedy, but it is possible that further thought needs to be given the grammatical designation and the translation equivalent. 10 Sense discriminations

Many English word puzzles are built upon the proposition that numerous common words have more than one area of meaning or sense discrimination. The following puzzle appeared in a “Brain Games” section of Readers’ Digest.1 One for Three ...What word do the three words in each set have in common? As a clue, each answer rhymes with the word in the third column.

Clues Rhymes with Ex. Hurricane, Eye Buy Potato, Needle 1. Leopard, Sun, _____ Lots Playing card 2. Doorway, Foot, _____ Parch Bridge 3. Bride, _____ Fling Telephone, Bathtub 4. Machine shop, Dentist, Militia _____ Hill 5. Farm, Flag, Magnet _____ Shield 6. Shoe, Wagon, Gossiper _____ Lung 7. Fishing rods, Actor, Checkout counter _____ Dines

10.1. Variation in areas of meaning Variation in areas of meaning is expressed in a dictionary as sense discriminations. The rationale for including sense discriminations in a bilingual dictionary is the basic principle that very seldom can one translation equivalent in the target language cover exactly the same area of meaning as the source language word. The common area of meaning may be great or small but in only a relatively small proportion of the entries is it exactly the same. Occasionally, both the indigenous word and its translation equivalent cover a similar broad area of meaning including several sense discriminations. Such intrinsic senses

63 Sense discriminations 64 need to be diferentiated even though they happen to parallel the sense discriminations in the target language. We are all familiar with humorous examples of children’s speech. The humor is derived from the fact that the child knew only one sense of a given word and used it in an inappropriate context or substituted a synonym which shared only one area of meaning with the original word. During the construction of a building complex, a young boy told his father that if the workmen did not do better, the foreman was going to burn them! He mistakenly appropriated burn as an exact synonym of fre. An English language newscaster in Mexico City told the story of a bank robbery in which the thieves were arrested and the money was recovered. He reported, “Owing to the diligent eforts of the police, the thieves were apprehended in the mountains, and almost all of the money was recuperated.” No doubt the Spanish word in the original text was recobrar which can be translated either recover or recuperate. However, in colloquial English recuperate is usually applied to matters of health. The sense discriminations which the compiler assigns to an entry are justifed by displaying the semantic contexts in illustrative sentences that were the original basis for the separation of discrete sentences. A word may have many senses; for each sense, there is a translation equivalent possible in another language. Indications of the ways the indigenous language words function in diferent contexts and the precise meanings they carry in each is a worthy function of the bilingual dictionary. Sense discriminations in these dictionaries are necessary to help new literates become aware of difering Spanish translations for given areas of meaning. The Spanish speaker also requires meaning discriminations for using the indigenous language. We are thus including in one dictionary article two types of sense discriminations without distinguishing between the two. Some are germane to the structure and lexical diferentiation of the vernacular. Others refect lack of semantic correspondence between Spanish and the vernacular. We have been giving almost equal emphasis to each type. 10.2. Occurrences of sense discriminations

10.2.1. General percentage The most helpful dictionaries of commercial publishers include sense discriminations in a relatively high percentage of their entries. The Williams Spanish and English dictionary (Williams 1955) is a good example. Dictionaries that have been fairly well elaborated include sense discriminations in approximately one-third of their entries. Conversely, one-half or two-thirds of the lexical items were considered specifc enough not to require sense discriminations. 10.2.2. Common words We must not be misled into thinking that common words do not have various senses. Consider the Spanish word pozo, which in everyday usage can refer variously to a water hole, a hollowed-out hole, a well, or a deep place in a river. One should not assume that for such words there is only one simple meaning that may not even need an illustrative sentence. The reverse is almost always true in that the most common words have several meanings depending upon the type of discourse. The type of discourse severely limits the meaning of a word. If a speaker changes the meaning of a word 65 Restricted or specialized usage while speaking, he will explicitly make this known by signaling a change in the universe of discourse unless a deliberate pun is intended. It is the unity of discourse or context which forces us to consider sense discriminations. Entry X has one meaning in context A and another in context B. For example, the entry for the verb andar could include the following sentences illustrating diferent meanings of the word.

(1) Mi hermano de un año puede andar. My brother who is a year old can walk.

(2) Mi reloj anda bien. My watch works well. 10.2.3. Grammatical extension Grammatical extension refers to changes in the word class or grammatical category for a word but without the addition of any derivational morphemes. Many English nouns have taken on a verbal function as a second sense discrimination: e.g., paper the wall, book the criminal, table the motion, chair the meeting. Many indigenous languages have grammatically based sense discriminations, e.g., distinguishing between the number one and the indefnite article, between the demonstrative adjective and some of the pronouns, etc. 10.2.4. Figurative extension If a word is used in a fgurative sense, that fact should be apparent in the dictionary entry by means of a sense discrimination. Many languages use common terms such as body parts in similes or metaphors. Often these terms are employed in prepositional phrases such as the English at the back of, in front of, at the foot of, at the head of, etc. Consider also such metaphors as: the hands of a clock, the foot of the mountain, the leg of the table, the mouth of the river, or the arm of the chair. One sense would not be sufcient to illustrate the English word ear since it is possible to talk about an ear of corn. In Spanish, that item would be called mazorca, with no reference to an ear. In many Mexican languages, certain types of water jugs have ears, whereas Spanish would probably just refer to the handles. An example from Huehuetla Tepehua:

(3) akꞌaxkꞌolh s. 1. oreja [ear] ... 2. asa (de recipiente)[handle (of a container)] Ju xalu alin ixꞌakꞌaxkꞌolh ni anchach ju chꞌapanican acsni malakxtinuacan. El jarro tiene orejas porque de allí hay que sostenerlo para moverlo a un lado. [The jar has handles because with them one steadies it to move it to one side.]

Figurative usages difer from idiomatic expressions which depend upon a specialized context for their distinctive meaning. 10.2.5. Restricted or specialized usage The compiler may wish to include sense discriminations of lexical items which are applicable only in restricted social contexts. Honorifcs, colloquial speech, terms restricted to use by women or men, or other terminology of limited social usage may be included. Vulgar senses are an area which many compilers and indigenous groups prefer to omit altogether. Illustrative sentences may not be desired for words describing some bodily functions. If sentences are used for these words, they should be cast Sense discriminations 66 in an inofensive and non-embarrassing context as possible. “Change the baby's dia- per because he has urinated.” is probably more innocuous than some other sentences illustrating the same lexical item. 10.3. Shades of meaning and separate senses The task of the dictionary compiler in discerning sense discriminations is to make the minimum number of diferentiations which will clearly set forth the subareas of meaning encompassed within the lexeme. It is not necessary to make every shade of meaning an explicit sense, although it is crucial to face the question of the immense variety of meanings possible within any one entry. The opposing ideas of variation and unity are linked by a succession of stages—from almost infnite individual variation on the one hand to a common semantic core in the whole set on the other end of the continuum.

10.3.1. Nuances of variation displayed in individual usage Although it is probably true that no one word has exactly the same meaning in two diferent environments, the recognition of this type of variation is not relevant to the construction of the dictionary entry. Sense discriminations are not intended to display infnite shades of meaning, but discrete senses demonstrable by distinctive contexts. Our criteria for synonyms should not be so exacting that only those items qualify which have every minute factor in common. Confusion is generated if distinctions are based on intricate diferences of meaning that the general populace does not recognize. 10.3.2. Synonyms These words, in most instances, are freely substitutable for one another as an acceptable translation equivalent for the entry word. Abandon might be provided with synonyms such as leave, forsake, or desert. All refer to the general act of leaving, although there are contexts where one would be more appropriate than the others. Synonyms are separated by commas as juxtaposed translation equivalents. No more than two common synonyms should be included in a given sense; if more are possible, the compiler should look for possible sense discriminations among them. 10.3.3. Sense discriminations The areas of meaning which seem to be logically or semantically distinct should be indicated by numbered sense discriminations. Some discriminations are based on the structure of the indigenous language. Speakers should generally agree that there is a diference between the proposed sense discriminations, although there must be some thread of commonality to qualify them for this treatment rather than that accorded to homophones. Other sense discriminations are called for by the existence of various equivalents in the language of wider communication. In such instances, the diferences are not inherent in the mind of the native speaker but are required because Spanish refects a diferent way of encoding that particular segment of reality. Whatever the basis for the various sense discriminations, a reader should be able to choose from among them the translation which will ft the context he has in mind on a specifc occasion. The following example is taken from the Larousse English-Spanish dictionary (García-Pelayo y Gross & Durand 1977) but with numbers substituted for the separation 67 Sense discriminations of discrete senses as indicated by // in the original. The format has thus been adapted to the one recommended in this publication.

(4) inculto -ta adj. 1. adj. uncultured, uneducated (sin cultura) 2. adj. uncouth, coarse (tosco) 3. adj. unrefned (poco refnado) 4. adj. uncultivated, not tilled (terreno) 5. m., f. ignoramus

Even with the breakdown given, one is not sure whether unrefned refers to a person, sugar, or metal. Another example from Totonac (Aschmann & Aschmann 1973):

(5) tactujú v. i. 1. debilitarse, agotarse, decaerse [to get weak, to wear out] El enfermo no tiene fuerzas, ha decaído mucho. [The invalid is weak; he has wasted away.] 2. consumirse, acabarse, escasearse [to be consumed, to be fnished] Va es- caseando el agua. [Water is getting scarce.] 3. acabarse (el dinero), empobrecerse [to use up (money), to become poor] Préstame un poco de dinero, ya me quedé sin nada. [Loan me a bit of money as I am broke.] 4. disminuirse [to be diminished] Se va disminuyendo el viento. [The wind is dying down.]

Consideration of appropriate synonyms and antonyms often help to identify sense discriminations. A synonym or antonym appropriate in one context may not ft in another. In discussing a fnancial crisis during which dollars had been frozen, a young boy wanted to know if the government had defrosted the dollars yet. In this context, defrost is not an appropriate antonym for freeze. If an entry word can be used as more than one grammatical category, it is also necessary to show that distinction by sense discriminations, although some compilers have preferred to make these items separate entries altogether. Indicating multiple grammatical designations by means of sense discriminations has the advantage of keeping all the variations of one lexical entry in the same dictionary article. It is less likely that the reader will miss half of the information by not realizing that the following or preceding entry also deals with the same item. However, if the entries promise to be extremely complex with many other types of sense discriminations, subentries, and linguistic details, separate entries for diferent grammatical designations may be the only relatively uncluttered means of handling the material. It is possible to add subscript numbers to these entries to indicate multiple articles for material normally appearing in a single entry. If there are sense discriminations based on semantic diferences as well as variation in grammatical category, each numbered meaning diferentiation should have its grammatical category specifcally stated following the number of the sense discrimination. The reader should not be burdened with determining if number fve is the same grammatical class as number one or if number three introduced a new category, or if a change somewhere was inadvertently omitted. If all of the senses refer to only one grammatical category, it is fne to list that designation between the entry word and the numbered translation equivalents as is done with less complex entries. An example from Huave (Stairs & Stairs 1981): Sense discriminations 68

(6) acül 1. v. t. esperar [to wait for] Es mejor esperar el camión porque pasa luego. [It’s better to wait for the bus as it will be along soon.] 2. v. i. vivir, morar, habitar [to live] Mi madre vive aquí. [My mother lives here.]

(7) acas adj. unos, varios, algunos [some, several] 2. pron. otros [others]

(8) ajan v. t. 1. traer (animales, gente) [to bring(animals, people)] 2. casarse [he gets married]

Certain infected forms of some Spanish verbs carry a specialized meaning which is not inherent in the paradigm as a whole. In some cases where the diference in meaning is not extreme, those particular infected forms may be listed as special sense discriminations. Supo meaning found out can thus be treated under saber which caries the basic meaning to know. On the other hand, if there is an abrupt change in meaning, the diference may warrant treatment as a separate lexical item. Such items would also appear as subentries under the basic verbs from which they are derived. In Spanish, a number of participles (cerrado, parado, etc.) [closed, stopped] become adjectives in common usage. Parada is even used as a noun meaning bus stop, an example of grammatical extension as discussed in 10.2.3. For example, dicho [said] would appear as a separate lexical item with sense discriminations for its occurrences as a participle and as a noun meaning saying, proverb, or maxim. 10.3.4. Interlocking meanings Often a general term will be the most natural way to translate several senses of a word which share a common core of meaning but which are not interchangeable in a number of contexts. The difuse area of meaning may be the same but the focus is considerably diferent. In such cases, even though the Spanish translation equivalent refers to more than one sense of the indigenous word, it should not stand alone but should be reinforced with a synonym or a qualifying comment for each area of meaning. Such synonyms are not interchangeable with each other, but only with the general translation equivalent which applies to more than one area of meaning. In most cases, specifc areas of meaning should each be treated as a sense discrimination even though there is a general term that can serve as a translation equivalent for two or more of them. The Spanish words correr to run and huir to fee may be substitutable in a sentence referring to an escape, but not to running a race. A Russian-Spanish dictionary (Anpilgóva et al. 1969) used both synonyms and sense discriminations to describe the various areas of meaning of a Russian term meaning to run.

(9) 1. correr (una carrera) to run (a race) 2. escapar, huir, fugarse, evadirse to escape, to fee, evade 3. correr, moverse (con rapidez) to run, to move rapidly (e.g. typing and blinking the eyes rapidly)

Exceptions to a policy of separately listing interlocking meanings may be made in cases where the sense discriminations would be based entirely on areas of meaning in the national language, and where these diferences are fairly straightforward and easy to comprehend. Thus it might be correct to consider lago and laguna synonyms as the diference between them is a simple matter of size. It seems neater to list this item 69 Idioms, compounds, and derivatives simply as: lake lago, laguna; rather than lake 1. lago (grande) 2. laguna (pequeña), especially if one example can be used for both. Totonac (Aschmann & Aschmann 1973) frequently shows a general area of meaning broken down into several sense discriminations with some overlapping of specifc synonymous translation equivalents:

(10) scꞌuluncua adj. 1. limpio, aseado, nítido [clean, neat] Mañana dejarás muy limpia esta casa. [Tomorrow you will leave this house very clean.] 2. exacto, a precisión [exact, precise] Te voy a hacer la mesa pero hay que darme las medidas exactas. [I will make you the table but I must be given the exact measurements.] 3. puro, limpio, legítimo [pure, clean] Es maíz limpio. [It is clean corn.] 4. claro, bien explicado, entendido [clear, understood] Vamos a poner en claro lo que estamos hablando. [Let's make clear what we have been discussing.]

(11) makxtaka 1. v. t. soltar, dejar caer [to let loose, to let fall] Soltó la botella y se quebró. [He let the bottle fall and it broke.] 2. v. t. dejar, abandonar [to leave, to abandon] Ya no quiere su marido, lo va a abandonar. [She doesn't love her husband anymore; she is going to leave him.] 3. v. i. despegarse, soltarse, desprenderse [to come unstuck, to come loose, to come out of something] Estas manchas no se desprenden de mi ropa. [These spots won't come out of my clothes.] 10.3.5. Parallel sets of sense discriminations English and Spanish have several words that encompass parallel sets of sense discriminations. The English word eye in the puzzle at the beginning of this chapter was applied to a hurricane, a potato, and a needle as well as the basic sense of an organ of the human body. In spite of the fact that the fgurative extensions of ojo in Spanish are parallel to those of the English eye, such senses should be discriminated in the bilingual dictionary. The pair order (English) and orden (Spanish) also have parallel but multiple sense discriminations which should be made explicit in the dictionary article. Veracruz Huastec (Larson 1997) uses the word bajwal in almost as many diferent contexts as the Spanish word alcanzar is used. Separate senses should be delineated and juxtaposed translation equivalents added to distinguish between the areas of meaning which are all generally referred to with bajwal or alcanzar respectively.

(12) bajwal v. t. 1. alcanzar, ser sufciente [to be sufcient] 2. alcanzar, poder [to be able] 3. alcanzar, estirar, llegar a tocar [to reach] 4. alcanzar, llegar a [to catch up] 5. alcanzar, percibir [to perceive] 6. alcanzar, quedar (ropa)[to ft (clothes)] 10.3.6. Idioms, compounds, and derivatives It is good to keep in mind the diference between sense discriminations and subentries. If the words are part of the same paradigm but have various meanings, they are sense discriminations. If diferent stems, derived words, or compounds are involved, they should be included as subentries. Diferent stems, if regularly formed with Sense discriminations 70 no semantic shift, do not need to be in the dictionary article at all: e.g., Spanish adverbs formed by adding -mente [-ly] or past participles without specialized meanings. An idiom is a phrase whose meaning as a whole cannot be derived from the conjoined meanings of its parts. The meaning of a word in the fxed context of the idiom does not extend to other contexts in the way that a sense discrimination does. For instance, to lend somebody a hand means to help him but the meaning of help depends on the combination of lend and hand. To lend a book may have nothing to do with helping. The use of a word in an idiom is to be distinguished from a fgurative usage of the word, as one hand or the other hand in an argument. Idioms are normally included only as subentries and will be further discussed in §20. As subentries, however, they do not have illustrative sentences. Occasionally an idiom may be treated as a separate entry in order to permit the inclusion of an illustrative sentence. Sometimes idioms occur as purported sense discriminations and must be reworked to ft the subentry area. For example, among the various words for carry in one of the Chinantec languages, there appeared one that meant to conceive a child. Since the word child was an indispensable part of the context, the phrase was treated in the subentry area under the entry word "child" as an idiom. 10.3.7. Homonyms Sense discriminations involve some common element or progression which is lacking in homonyms: e.g., the homonyms lima referring to a particular fruit and lima meaning a fle (tool). Some pairs are relatively easy to categorize as either senses or homonyms; others can be determined in the light of cultural contexts and beliefs. In Choapan Zapotec, folk etymology decrees that chita has two sense discriminations, egg and bone. The color of both is the same and therefore, they are more than homonyms. The compiler must take such factors into consideration when making a decision. The line between homophones and sense discriminations is not always clearcut. More knowledge of the culture or historical background may change a decision. Words may have frst been classifed as homonyms since the compiler discerned no common semantic thread among them. Such was the case for the Francisco León Zoque word toto which was listed in the dictionary as two homonyms meaning paper and fg tree. A case could also be made for treating the two as sense discriminations since the bark paper of the ancients was primarily made from the amate or fg tree. A concordance handles all homophonous forms together and one must realize that everything listed together in a concordance printout may not refer to the same word. Each homonym should be listed in a separate dictionary article, as in the following monolingual English examples.

(13) ball1 n. any round body; a sphere; a globe; the earth; bullet or shot; a delivery outside the strike zone by a pitcher; the heavy piece of a pendulum. ball2 n. a social gathering for the purpose of dancing; an assembly. 10.4. Discerning senses of an entry On a practical level, the task becomes one of fnding the minimum number of senses that people will agree are relevant and distinct. The compiler may be intuitively aware 71 Collection of examples of the various senses, or may have to engage in research and investigation to determine them. Diferent senses of a word may be noticed because of cultural situations that present themselves. Even beginning students soon realize that the Spanish verb tomar means variously to take hold of, to drink something (in general), and to drink liquor (specif- ically). Probably it will be necessary to go through a process of classifcatory sorting which requires both subjective and objective judgment. When a collector comes into possession of an assortment of stamps, they are sorted on various levels. All those bearing the name of a given country go in one pile, whether or not they belong to any defnable series. The one-of-a-kind commemoratives (corresponding to linguistic idioms) are then culled from the regular sets in which the fner variations will be found. Those items in a regular set will be distinguished perhaps by color or design, but certainly by denomination. In any case there is a similarity, a recognizable design common to all members of that set. Up to this point, even a novice is usually able to spot the pertinent diferences. A more serious philatelist will know that two stamps overlapping in many of their features such as color, denomination, or design, may in fact have more specifc areas of diferences such as perforation or watermark. Any reputable catalogue will discriminate down to this level. Similarly, lexical areas of meaning must be discriminated in sufcient detail to care for central overlap and specifc diferences. Beyond this point, it is a matter of individual preference if a collector chooses to pay attention to weights of paper, types of gum, or very slight color variations inherent in some of the stamps. A dictionary compiler needs to be aware of that invisible boundary dividing synonyms and individual variation from more overt diferences which must be refected in the dictionary article by sense discriminations. The following procedural steps may prove helpful in deciding how many senses of a word to specify.

10.4.1. Collection of examples A dozen or more examples should be collected of a word with multiple meanings in a variety of contexts. These can be chosen from various types of text material, conversations, and a special corpus created by a native speaker deliberately writing as many sentences as possible using the given word in various contexts. Remember that a concordance will include all sense discriminations grouped together as examples of the same word. It is also helpful to ask questions about usage, or suggest contexts where a given word might occur. If several individuals were asked to write sentences using pass, the results might include the following:

(14) Pass as a verb: a. I pass many interesting places on my way to work. b. He passed the butter to the visitor. c. He passed through the mountains and arrived at the plain. d. John passed in arithmetic but failed in history. e. The quarterback passed the ball down the feld for a touchdown. f. The sun was extremely hot and Joe passed out. Sense discriminations 72

(15) Pass as a noun: a. The railroad worker has a pass to ride on the train. b. The pass in the mountains is clouded over today. c. The football star made a wonderful pass during the game. d. John got a pass in arithmetic, but a funk in history. e. Jim made a pass at the girl he met at a party.

As a training exercise, one compiler asked a Huastec speaker to write several sentences for the Spanish word cola. A beautiful set of sentences was written that included several sense discriminations: the tail of an animal, a certain kind of glue, and the queue of people wanting to buy tortillas. 10.4.2. Translation of the sentences When each sentence is translated, it should be ascertained that the equivalent for the particular word under analysis is the most natural for that context. Está a la puerta translates naturally in English as He is at the door; whereas, Lo amontonaron en la puerta would be better translated They piled it up in the doorway. Presumably, there would be several examples of both door and doorway as natural translations for puerta. The degree of bilingualism of the assistant may also be a factor in obtaining natural translations. If only rigid literal translations are ofered, it is difcult to expand the possibilities for later choices. It is possible to guide the process with such questions as Could you just as well have said...? 10.4.3. Grouping of diferent translation equivalents The diferent translation equivalents must now be sorted into groups refecting well- defned areas of meaning. Probably there will be a residue for which arbitrary decisions must be made. Notice that at the point of decision, it is the context which determines inclusion in one group or another. The criterion of mutual substitution is the determining factor in designating an item as either a sense discrimination or as a synonym. 10.4.4. Decision making Several possibilities exist at the point of decision for each related word: sense discrimination, subentry, or synonym. The most important tasks are to make some distinction in meanings, label them clearly, and follow the principles consistently. When the compiler meets a dubious case, he must strive to be logical and aim for consistency. The format needs to clearly indicate whether synonyms or sense discriminations are intended. In the Silva y Aceves series, numbers are used to designate sense discriminations, and commas used between synonymous translation equivalents. The dictionary entry should refect the distinctions made by the local speakers, whether these are set forth as sense discriminations, synonyms, or separate entries. 11 Qualifying comments

11.1. The contribution of qualifying comments Qualifying comments narrow the area of meaning of the translation equivalent to a closer approximation of the sense of the entry word. It would be ideal if each translation equivalent portrayed a perfect picture, but often it is only a partial equivalent of the vernacular word for which it is designated a translation equivalent. The enumeration of sense discriminations is one technique available to compensate for such defciencies. Qualifying comments are used when it is necessary to restrict the area of meaning of either the vernacular or Spanish word. These specifcations may be thought of as stage directions and may only need to appear on the more restricted translation equivalent. For example, to have might be translated into Spanish as: 1. tener; 2. haber (aux. verb). Rather than a strict defnition, the translation equivalent with its qualifers attempts no more than a brief hint of the relevant restrictions. In addition to defning the context of a word, qualifying comments are often used for the type of information which would be footnoted in a more formal treatise. Latin terminology for fora and fauna is an example of this type of information. 11.2. The mechanics of qualifying comments The qualifying comment is printed in italics and enclosed in parentheses.1 It occurs immediately following the translation equivalent even though it may refer to the entry word. This practice difers from the precedent set by some of the standard bilingual dictionaries in which all such notes immediately follow the word that they restrict. Qualifying comments are always in the language of wider communication, even though the restriction applies to the vernacular word. The comments are often of a technical nature. A type of metalanguage is employed to discuss the usage of the word, a metalanguage which may not yet have been developed in the vernacular. Qualifying comments must be cast in the proper metalanguage. This is not a place for unedited folk defnitions nor indiscriminate literal translations. Specifc wording and terminology should be decided as soon as possible for each type of qualifying comment and such decisions consistently followed. In general, the qualifying comment applies to the immediately preceding translation equivalent or sense discrimination. If the dic-

1The location and format of the qualifying comment is handled automatically in FLEx if the information is set up following the guidelines given in appendix F.

73 Qualifying comments 74 tionary article becomes cluttered with qualifying comments, the sense discriminations and translation equivalents may need to be reworked to handle more of the load. 11.3. Specifc situations necessitating qualifying comments

11.3.1. Meaning restriction on the Spanish translation equivalent It may be necessary to indicate which sense of the translation equivalent is the acceptable translation, to restrict its area of meaning, or both. When a translation equivalent is too general in nature, a hint must be given of one of its most essential or distinctive features in the qualifying comment. It is not necessary to be defnitive, only to rule out other areas of meaning or improper contexts. A specialized term may exist in Spanish that would perfectly describe that sense of the word; if found later, it could be added as a second translation equivalent. Such a term should not be substituted for the more common general word if the terminology is too technical. Typical objects, subjects, adjectives, adverbs, or mini defnitions are all useful in particularizing the translation equivalent. In Tabasco Chontal there are two words translated by the Spanish term panadero: ajcherajwaj needs to be qualifed as the baker (él que hace pan), whereas ajchonwaj means the bread seller (él que vende pan). In Chontal, there are several words basically translated as subir all of which need further restriction.

(1) a. tꞌäbo subir (intr.) [to go up] b. tꞌäbsen subir (tr.) [to raise] c. uchoꞌan subir (de precio; intr.) [to go up (in price)] d. choꞌesan subir (de precio; tr.) [to raise (the price)] e. pꞌiteꞌ subir (pabellón) [to raise (a mosquito net)] 11.3.2. Co-occurrence of restrictions on the vernacular word If the entry word applies to only one sense of the translation equivalent, that fact must be made explicit: el arco bow (for arrows); llena full (moon). One must be careful to distinguish between this type of explanation and the typical verb construction which includes the object as part of the verb. In the latter construction, the object is part of the formal translation equivalent. Ajchonjun means a book-seller in Tabasco Chontal. The - jun sufx refers to books and would not occur as part of a term referring to another type of vendor. Books is an integral part of the translation equivalent and not a qualifying comment. Sometimes it is possible by judicious use of qualifying comments to help a native speaker determine which synonym is applicable to the particular context he has in mind. For one Amuzgo word there are the following sense discriminations:

(2) a. componer, reparar [to fx, to repair] b. remendar, parchar (ropa, zapatos) [to mend, to patch (clothes, shoes)] c. arreglar, preparar (terreno) [to arrange, to prepare (land)]

Since arreglar and preparar are very general in nature, one must make explicit the restricted reference to land. However, the words meaning mend and patch are sufciently narrow in meaning to stand alone. The information that these apply to clothes and shoes respectively could be included as a hint to the native speaker that if he wished 75 Identification of semantic domain to discuss in Spanish this area of meaning of the Amuzgo word, he should choose one of these translation equivalents rather than those in the other sense discriminations. 11.3.3. Delineation of specifc areas of meaning in the index for the language of wider communication In this section of the dictionary, if the idiom translation equivalents for a given word are interchangeable, they may be separated simply by commas. Note the following examples from Totontepec Mixe (Schoenhals & Schoenhals 1965):

(3) a. festa f. xa̠a̠, ma̠ja̠tun [party] b. medida f. quijpxu̠n, tucquijpxu̠n [measurement] c. metate m. paan, paan taac [grinding stone]

If the idiom translation equivalents are not interchangeable, qualifying comments need to be added. From Papantla Totonac (Aschmann & Aschmann 1973):

(4) angosto adj. 1. ti̠tzú (el camino) [a narrow road] [narrow] 2. pajtzú (el espacio entre cosas) [a narrow space between things] 3. pꞌuntt̠zú (encima de algo plano) [a narrow space on top of something fat] 4. pu̠lactzú (por dentro) [narrow inside] 5. paktzú (como una hoja, tabla, trapo) [narrow like a leaf, board, rag] 6. lacati̠tzú (la entrada) [narrow entrance] 7. quilhtzú (algo con boca) [something with a narrow mouth]

From Totontepec Mixe (Schoenhals & Schoenhals 1965):

(5) comer v. t. 1. piv (como pájaros comen) [like birds eat (peck)] [to eat] 2. tsu̠ꞌu̠ts (comer carne) [eat meat] 3. ta̠jcx (comer sopa) [eat soup] 4. mujcx (comer algo tostado) [eat something toasted] 5. ju̠̠ꞌcx (comer ciertas frutas) [eat certain fruits] 6. na̠a̠ꞌts (comer plátano [eat a banana] 7. cay (comer tortilla) [eat a tortilla]

The use of qualifying comments in the Spanish Index is further discussed in §15. 11.3.4. Identifcation of semantic domain Semantic domain is used to refer to the general area of the lexicon to which a given word belongs. Standardized classifcatory terms need to be included as aids to understanding entries referring to birds, plants, kinship, or specialized technology. Often the only Spanish translation equivalent available is a very local term or a word with a diferent meaning in another geographical area. Unless the item is quite common and included in basic Spanish vocabulary everywhere, an indication of its semantic domain should be given as a qualifying comment. Examples from Chꞌol (Aulie & Aulie 1978): Qualifying comments 76

(6) a. tsꞌiwiꞌ s. chuy (hierba) [(herb)] b. xpapasteꞌ s. cuaulote (árbol)[(tree)]

Example from Tabasco Chontal:

(7) ajyerba s. yerba (araña) [herb (spider)]

Note that the frst two items are translated with relatively unfamiliar Spanish terminology needing qualifcation; the last translation equivalent is a familiar term but normally means herb rather than tarantula. Suggested labels include árbol [tree], arbusto [bush], planta [plant], pez [fsh], ave [bird], mamífero [mammal], insecto [insect], reptil [reptile]. 11.3.5. Scientifc nomenclature If the scientifc term for a given species is included, it comes after the translation equivalent. The genus always begins with a capital letter and the species always begins with lower case. A possible treatment of some Chꞌol terms (Aulie & Aulie 1978):

(8) a. sacol s. viejo de monte (mamífero) [Tayra barbara] b. xbucꞌutsuꞌ s. nauyaca saltadora (reptil) [Spilotes pullatus] c. xquequex s. quesque [Cyanocorax yncas]

Note that in the frst two examples, a classifcatory term (mamífero or reptil) was included as a qualifying comment, followed by the scientifc name. Some compilers prefer to include the scientifc nomenclature in an appendix, grouping all representatives of one semantic domain together. When the scientifc name is included, but there is no Spanish translation equivalent, the scientifc name can appear after the descriptive defnition. This is the case for many botanical terms in Seri (M. Moser & Marlett 2010), for example:

(9) hanaj itaamt s. Se refere a una planta anual de la familia de las leguminosas. [Dalea mollis] [Refers to an annual plant of the legume family.]

(10) hanaj iit ixac s. Se refere a una planta anual con fores azules de la familia de las leguminosas. [Marina parryi] [Refers to an annual plant with blue fowers of the legume family.] 11.3.6. Brief description of unidentifable item In the area of ethnobiology, there will inevitably be some items for which no translation equivalent is obtainable. This situation should be handled in a reverse manner from the preceding one: the general semantic domain should be given as the translation equivalent and the particulars as a qualifying comment. Such translation equivalents should be consistent in style and clearly demarcated from generic terms. Always use especie de... or clase de... (not free variation between the two): do not use simply árbol [tree] or pájaro [bird] lest the item be confused with the generic word for all trees or birds. In this spot, it would be permissible to add a few extra terms to those mentioned above as labels for semantic domains. Pájaro and ave might be used on diferent oc- casions to distinguish between a small bird that fies around freely and a larger fowl whose movements are more limited. Culebra and víbora might be used respectively for non-poisonous and venomous snakes. The qualifying comment should be succinct but 77 Regional Spanish include the most distinguishing features it is possible to ascertain. An example from Chꞌol (Aulie & Aulie 1978):

(11) tsuts chiquin s. Se refere a una especie de hongo, de color café arriba y blanco abajo que se cría en los árboles; se come cuando está brotando. [Refers to a species of mushroom that is brown on top and white underneath, it grows in trees, and is edible when it frst sprouts.]

Some or all of this information could be handled in the illustrative sentence if the compiler prefers this option to a description. If illustrative sentences are used to give descriptive information of this type, care must be taken that material appearing in such sentences is always factual unless otherwise labeled. If some of it is folklore without being so identifed, the reader will not know to which category a particular item belongs. The following monolingual example implies that any bird with a long beak is described by the translation equivalent. The qualifying comment is also too extensive for this type of entry. This example should not be confused with the type of qualifying comment which is really an ethnographic expansion. Such material is discussed later.

(12) ... species of bird with a long beak (It has a white and yellow head, a black body with some yellow above and white beneath. The wings are black and yellow, the tail green and black, and the feet white. It is found in cold country.)

With that much information, it should have been possible to identify the species. Per- haps it should have been labeled as a mythological creature! 11.3.7. Sociolinguistic information Where necessary or desirable, designations such as colloquial, vulgar, or honorifc may be placed in a qualifying comment. In most cases it would not be necessary to include this type of information but if the compiler feels it to be important, it may be handled in this manner. 11.3.8. Regional Spanish2 It is necessary to identify local Spanish usage if the translation equivalent carries a meaning which difers from that assigned to the word by standard Spanish or if the word itself is of local distribution. A number of words may be common to rural Mexican Spanish and not be accessible to those who have only standard Spanish dictionaries available. Such clarifcation may be in any one of several forms. An indication of the geographical area of use is often helpful. The outsider encoun- tering the translation equivalent barrer el chaparro would conjure up a mental image of someone dusting down a short fellow with a broom. If (Tabasco) is included to indicate regional usage, he still will not know that the meaning is to clear brush from the cornfeld but at least he will have been alerted to expect some specialized meaning. An additional translation equivalent in standard Spanish may clarify some translation equivalents that are ambiguous due to geographical restriction: ... chicharra

2For a discussion of vernacular variation, see §13: Variant pronunciations and geographical variants. Qualifying comments 78

(libélula). Chicharra normally means locust; in Tabasco it is applied to the dragonfy, which is widely known elsewhere as libélula. A brief explanatory phrase may also be used as a qualifying comment to further clarify a regionalism.

(13) lákstau s. ayate, huacal (tejido de tarro o palma) [crate (woven from bamboo or palm)]

Note that neither translation equivalent word used to translate the Totonac word is standard Spanish; both are probably derived from Aztec. Even a very common word may need to be qualifed because its use is restricted to a specifc context:

(14) ... tortuga (cierta especie)

Locally, in Tabasco, the generic word for turtle is applied to only one specifc species. The handling of regional Spanish is further discussed in §14, specifcally about techniques for refning the Spanish translation equivalent and the Spanish index. 11.3.9. Cultural information In some cases, it is valuable to include a description of historical or cultural signif- cance. This may be incorporated into the illustrative sentence with its accompanying translation. In other cases, it may seem preferable to include this information as a qualifying comment but with the addition of punctuation and the extra words to fll out complete sentences. Such material is italicized and kept within the parentheses. Ethno- graphic expansions of this type presumably would not be accompanied by illustrative sentences in the idiom. From Ch’ol (Aulie & Aulie 1978):

(15) bulu oc s. evil spirit (It is believed that this spirit lives in the hills and causes people to lose their way when in the area. One can defend by putting his clothing on backwards).

From Huave (Stairs & Stairs 1981):

(16) delejes s. esp. diligencias [diligence, caution] (A custom of the people of San Mateo del Mar in which the sorcerer ofers prayers, candles, incense, fowers, and liquor to the dead person who supposedly caused a person’s sickness. This ceremony is performed in the chapels where there are crosses.) 12 Identifcation procedures within semantic domains

As the lexical fle builds, it becomes apparent that a number of the entries refer to animals, birds, plants, or specialized aspects of the culture. These topical classifcations are referred to as semantic domains. The various semantic domain classifcations are used to organize certain groups of entries in much the same way that a librarian orga- nizes the fle cards of the library’s holdings under various subjects. For some of these specialized terms, a Spanish translation equivalent will be easy to obtain and there will be agreement among a number of speakers regarding the defnition. For others a measure of doubt may remain. Does the seven yellows refer to the venomous coral snake or is it the harmless king snake? Just what sort of animal is the white-headed one? Does the eating cat refer to all wild members of the cat family or only to the jaguar? Most importantly: Are all the terms collected that refer to this particular aspect of the culture or the environment?

12.1. Procuring lists A helpful procedure for obtaining all the pertinent vocabulary in a given semantic domain is to compile lists on the various topics. Such lists can be culled from fles or text material, or be composed by speakers of the language. Native speakers can write or dictate all possible names of birds, snakes, or insects with or without an attempted Spanish translation. They should also note some salient characteristic such as size, color, dietary habits, or habitat. Lists can be helpful not only in the feld of natural history, but for technical weaving terms, house parts, or any aspect of the culture which is suspected of having a wide, specialized vocabulary without easily obtainable equivalents in the national language. Some native speakers are more conversant with certain aspects of the culture than others, and an efort should be made to obtain the list from the best qualifed person for that particular subject.1 12.2. Process of identifcation

12.2.1. Spanish translation equivalent The most obvious frst step toward identifcation is an attempt to obtain a Spanish popular name for the item in question. The local person who provides this terminol-

1See the reference to the Rapid Word Collection method in 3.2.

79 Identification procedures within semantic domains 80 ogy should be a competent bilingual, if possible. The translation equivalents that are provided should be checked in a standard dictionary to ascertain that the traditional meaning is retained in the local area. In some parts of southeastern Mexico, yerba means tarántula, being derived from an ancient word meaning a large spider. In most of Mexico, yerba is considered an alternate spelling of hierba herb. Santamaría’s Dic- cionario de Mejicanismos (Santamaría 1983) can be most useful in pinpointing local usage. 12.2.2. Reference books Well-illustrated natural science books can contribute a great deal. A few that have been found useful are included in the annotated bibliography in this manual. For someone untrained in biological classifcation, books without an abundance of illustrations are not very helpful. It is not necessary that every species be illustrated if the verbal description is in reasonably nontechnical language, but books of strictly scientifc terminology in the feld of taxonomy are difcult to use. Some local community members are very adept at identifying illustrations in books, whereas others have a more difcult time identifying items from pictures. 12.2.3. Field trips Zoos, such as the one in Chapultepec Park in Mexico City, are very interesting and informative for dictionary compilers and those working with them. Do not neglect the bird cages even though they are in the less accessible areas. A trip to the greenhouse at UNAM (the national university) in Mexico City can be very productive for the identifcation of tropical plants. There is also a cactus garden connected with the university which would be helpful to those from arid areas. The Jardín Botánico Francisco Clav- ijero in Jalapa, Veracruz, may well merit a feld trip; particularly if the location of the language group is in the humid forests of eastern Mexico. The Museum of Natural History in Chapultepec Park is an excellent place to visit. It displays collections from almost every feld of natural science. Probably the most helpful from the standpoint of dictionary compilation are the three-dimensional dioramas. These contain stufed specimens of many Mexican mammals, birds, reptiles, insects, and mockups of some of the typical vegetation. Not everything is identifed, especially lacking are labels for the smaller items. At least it is possible to obtain ideas and pursue them further in books. 12.2.4. Local description and observation Some local people will be encyclopedias of information in a specialized area. They will be a wonderful source of descriptions and narratives regarding items difcult to identify. For instance, the local herbal medicine practitioners can be a valuable resource for local terminology and uses of plants. Do not, however, underestimate or overestimate the powers of observation of non-specialized native speakers. They may be aware of the most minute details or ignore what seems the most diagnostic characteristic. One collaborator insisted the gato montés bobcat had a long tail. In all other aspects such as size or ear tufts, the standard description was accepted. This individual was later treated to a trip to the zoo. When he arrived at the bobcat’s cage, he agreed that this indeed was a bobcat. When the compiler pointed out the very obvious short- ness of the animal's tail, he was answered with the equivalent of What do you know about that? In another instance, the collaborator was asked to choose from a selection of oriole pictures the one he knew as oriole. He studied the page for ten minutes and declared that none of them ft. He was then asked which of the pictures was most 81 The shortcomings of reference books similar to the local oriole. This time the response was immediate and accompanied by the comment that a certain picture only needed the addition of two orange feathers down each side of the bird’s long black tail. Such a species was described in the book but not illustrated. Obviously the collaborator's knowledge was very precise. 12.2.5. Treatment of residue It is possible to employ the process of elimination to arrive at the identifcation of some troublesome items. If one has six names for wild animals of the cat family, and four or fve are reasonably well identifed, it should not be too difcult to pin down the remaining ones given the fact that there are not more than six in any one area of Mexico. For some problem species, it is helpful to get as full a description as possible and then read all pertinent sections of the reference books. Some of the information obtained from the local people may be animals from folklore, but much will pertain to existing animals. Once in a while the most apparently fanciful statement will prove to be the key. There really is a snake that digs holes in the ground (presumably for its young), and that bit of apparent folklore proved to be the key to the identifcation of one species. 12.3. Possible pitfalls

12.3.1. The shortcomings of reference books Even the best reference book is not infallible. Due to lack of documentation on the part of the scientifc community, geographical ranges are often unnecessarily limited. Many species mentioned in reference books as occurring in Chiapas will also be found in Oaxaca. Likewise, highland species assigned to the central plateau may extend to the mountainous areas of Oaxaca. However, if something listed only for the Sonoran desert is identifed as living in the Tabasco rain forest, there probably is a misidentifcation involved and it would be well to look for another solution. Owing to a multiplicity of Spanish names for the same species in diferent parts of the country, the reference books also exhibit variation. A few (e.g., Leopold 1959) list a number of common Spanish names for each animal or bird. An individual Spanish word may also apply to diferent species in diferent areas. In working with fora and fauna terminology, it is helpful to note the scientifc nomenclature in order to keep track of the varying meanings attached to a given Spanish word. If the local people have two names for similar species and the books list only one, there may be two species or subspecies. There may also be more than the usual variation between young and old of the same species, leading people to believe that they are diferent. If there really are two species or subspecies, it may be difcult to fnd a book which will include both, however. Often the use of disparate scientifc names in diferent books can be a clue to the existence of two very similar types. It is also possible that one name merely represents an older, discarded scientifc terminology. In some cases, there is honest disagreement in the scientifc community. For instance, some biologists have believed that there are two species of coati and others felt that the solitary ones encountered in atypical circumstances are merely old males who have been rejected by the herd. The latter opinion is generally accepted at present. Many indigenous languages, however, identify the two types of coati. Identification procedures within semantic domains 82 12.3.2. Lack of popular scientifc nomenclature Most of the mammals, birds, and reptiles have at least one popular Spanish name, but many insects and plants do not. It is thus difcult to know how to translate the indigenous term in a meaningful manner. This problem is discussed in greater detail in the §11 on qualifying comments . If the scientifc name is known, this may be used as a qualifying comment or placed in an appendix where all species of a given classifcation or semantic domain are listed together. At least one bilingual dictionary (Velásquez Gallardo 1978) included the scientifc nomenclature as entry words in the Spanish- vernacular section, presumably, because no Spanish popular names were obtainable. The observance of certain procedural guidelines will expedite receiving help from biology departments in selected universities. The following suggestions directed towards plant identifcation were contributed by Dr. Gerald Robinson of the University of South Florida.

1. The frst step is to identify the plant by its indigenous name and local Spanish name (if possible). Collect all available information about it: e.g., when it will fower, what kind of fruit it has, the size of the mature plant, its habitat, its medicinal, food, or other uses in the local culture. If the folk classifcation is revealed in the vernacular name, explain this as well. 2. Try to obtain very detailed colored photos of the fower and/or fruit. If possible, use a macro lens with a single-lens refex camera. Good photos revealing the maximum amount of detail will enable a botanist to identify the plant without seeing the specimen. The shape of the whole is also important in the identifcation of trees. The number of ridges on the various branches or arms is vital information for cacti as is the color of the fower and the plant's geographical range. 3. Collect specimens and preserve them through the use of plant presses. It would be well to arrange with a specifc herbarium the details of the procedure and the correlation of photograph, specimen, and availability of botanical expertise in identifcation.

Plant presses should be used to dry and preserve the specimens. The sample should include both fower and foliage, even the root if that is possible. The plant should be spread out on a newspaper in such a manner as to best reveal its characteristics. A newsprint sheet should cover the plant and the whole be placed between blotters, put in a wooden frame, and strapped tightly. The blotters need to be changed daily for a couple days and later be replaced by corrugated cardboard. The specimens should remain in the press until dry, then be stacked with plenty of cushioning newspaper, identifed with local terminology, and shipped to the cooperating herbarium. Precau- tions must be taken against insect damage — the chief risk for pressed plants and insect collections. 12.3.3. Local confusion in terminology Language is dynamic, and sometimes infrequency of use of scientifc terminology creates uncertainty of a given term. In one case it was almost a draw as to whether the seven yellows referred to the coral snake or its non-venomous double, a type of king snake. Once in awhile it may be necessary to accept the word of the person who has demonstrated the most knowledge in the specifc semantic domain. It may be necessary to make an arbitrary decision that a given term will refer to a specifc species. Perhaps 83 Ethnobiological classification such a decision will have the efect of codifying and stabilizing the nomenclature for the people of the area. 12.3.4. Uncritical transfer of standard nomenclature A word of caution is in order regarding the transfer of English cognates or simple translation equivalents from an English-Spanish dictionary. For example, in Mexico a faisán is not a ring-neck pheasant even if pheasant is the translation equivalent given in the Spanish-English dictionary. A faisán is a large bird the size of a wild turkey, whose proper English name is currasow. Many English-Spanish dictionaries will defne a tejón as a badger. Badgers in the North American sense do not occur in most of Mexico. Here a tejón refers to the long-tailed, nocturnal predator of chickens known as a coati. There is a water animal often confused with a beaver and known as perro de agua. Actually, it is a type of otter, not related to the beaver, and should never be translated as castor nor illustrated by pictures of beavers. 12.4. Ethnobiological classifcation One interesting and proftable result of working in the area of natural science is the uncovering of the indigenous system of classifcation of fora and fauna.2 As the categories of the local system begin to be apparent, they may be used in identifying some of the residue. This may prove to be an area which can be highlighted in the dictionary either by setting up a special appendix or by grouping species in picture plates according to the local system of classifcation. In Totontepec Mixe, caa appears as part of the name of all of the wild members of the cat family and to a certain extent means cat. It also appears as part of the name of other animals. In the picture plate where all the cats appear, others are included which are not of the cat family but are designated by some modifcation of the word caa. Also in Totontepec Mixe, hawks and eagles have a common designation as part of their name, perhaps it implies a bird of prey but is not applied to other carnivorous birds such as owls. There is undoubtedly coherence and order to the local systems of classifcation in ethnobiology. Highlighting this aspect of the language can be a rewarding and interesting study as well as making the bilingual dictionary more marketable than it otherwise might be.

2Fuller treatments of systems of ethnobiological classifcation appear in Berlin, Breedlove, and Raven (1974); Grimes (1980); and Hunn (1977).

13 Variant pronunciations and geographical variants

13.1. Advantage of including lexical variants Since it is impractical to compile a separate dictionary for each variety of a given language, some compilers have chosen a basic or central dialect to represent the larger language area and then have included lexical variation from some of the surrounding areas. Naturally, the same principles could be applied to the handling of other types of variation within the basic dialect. The inclusion of geographical variants in the dictionary can contribute to the difusion of knowledge of the language and its larger linguistic family. If done consistently and with the aim of providing a truly representative sample, such data can provide valuable raw material for analysis by other linguists. Those interested in dialect geography and sociolinguistics are able to use such information in their study of patterns in the spread of a given dialect. It is helpful to have a basis upon which to form opinions regarding centers of innovation or culturally conservative areas in the region. It sometimes happens that the publication of a major work in a basic variety of the language has the efect of unifying the area and establishing a literary language which the people of a number of subdialects are willing to claim as their own and accept as the language of written communication, if not colloquial speech. There are also obvious economic advantages in reaching as wide an audience as possible with one dictionary: the larger the edition, the less expensive the individual copy of any book. After an investment of years of time, the compiler naturally would like to see the dictionary used as widely as possible. On the other hand, speakers of one of the outlying dialects of the language may buy books more assiduously than speakers of the basic dialect. Eventually they may want, and be willing to work on, a complete dictionary for their variety of the language. Their appetite for books might be whetted by representation in the frst dictionary for that language area. Perhaps it would be wise in some areas to publish a preliminary dictionary representing several dialects and observe the reaction of the people to that publication before fnalizing the choice of a dialect to be considered central or basic in the larger dictionary. Some outlying groups may be satisfed with a certain amount of representation in a multi-dialect book while others may be stimulated to contribute on a larger scale to a publication focusing on their specifc variety of the language.

85 Variant pronunciations and geographical variants 86 13.2. Procedural suggestions for obtaining variants

13.2.1. The choice of a basic dialect Thought must be given to the local situation when a basic dialect is chosen for the dictionary. Once this decision is made, it must be adhered to conscientiously and all variations from that dialect treated in a consistent manner as subsidiary information. Social as well as linguistic factors must be considered and, ideally, the social and political center of the region will be the one with the most widespread and central dialect. The prestige of the dialect of the dictionary in the minds of the local people will play a major role in whether or not they accept the dictionary as their own. The compiler might wish to give equal status to all dialects being included in the dictionary. This is not possible, however; one dialect will have to be chosen as the basic one for the dictionary. The choice of dialect A as basic, for example, may be based on the fact that the compiler knows it best, that his collaborators know dialect A best, or that his collaborators are more prepared for this work and know the language of wider communication better than those from dialects B and C. 13.2.2. The choice of which additional dialects to include It is also necessary to decide which variants from the basic dialect are reasonable to include in the dictionary. If the variation in a given dialect is so great and so widespread as to afect a very large proportion of the entries, it would probably be simpler and more economical to compile a separate dictionary for that dialect. If speakers from the other areas are involved as collaborators, they must be carefully chosen for their ability to give the parallel forms upon elicitation either through Spanish or the basic dialect. Preferably, they should have a command of Spanish sufcient to enable them to provide local terminology in response to a Spanish word list. All those involved must beware of the temptation to accept the form of the basic dialect in given instances when, in reality, such a form may be understood but not used in actual speech in that area. If a collaborator from the main dialect can communicate with speakers of the other dialects, he can carry the burden of elicitation in some of the other areas. As implied above, only closely related dialects should be combined in one dictionary. Therefore, it is probable that a native speaker of the basic dialect can communicate at least to some degree in some of the others. 13.2.3. Entry forms, illustrative sentences, and cross-referencing Forms from the other dialects should be cited only when they are semantically or phonologically diferent from the basic dialect. When no other form is indicated in an entry, the assumption is to be made that the basic form also is used in other geographical areas. Such a principle should be clearly stated in the introduction, and, of course, the adoption of this principle makes it incumbent upon the compiler to be as thorough as possible in obtaining the variants corresponding to the corpus of the dictionary. Each variant form included must also be labeled for specifc dialect. The Tzotzil dictionary (Delgaty & Ruiz Sánchez 1978) included four sets of variants (Chamula, Ixtapa, Zinacantan, Chenalo) and each item appearing in the dictionary from these areas was appropriately identifed using the labels Cham, Ixt, Zin and Chꞌen, respectively. For example: 87 A Spanish base

(1) yolob-cꞌocꞌ s. cohete Scꞌan cꞌocꞌ sventa ta jchicꞌcutic o li yolob-cꞌoqꞌue. Necesitamos lumbre para encender este cohete. [We need fre to light this frecracker.] Cham, Chen yolon cꞌocꞌ Ixt sibac Zin niꞌ sibac

In this way the Tzotzil dictionary included full information for the forms from the basic dialect, and cited diferences in the forms of the headword the other four dialects. Thus the compiler did not have to provide full entries for all the forms, just those from the main dialect. One might imagine a situation in which none of the groups wants to be subordinate to the others, where all want the main dictionary article to be in their variety. Unless individual dictionaries are developed, which may be counterproductive in the short run and the long run, one might want to attempt a composite dictionary. Parameters such as the following might be helpful.

1. Dialect A would be the one exhibiting illustrative sentences for those entries that are common to all. 2. Dialect A would have fuller entries, including essential linguistic information, synonyms, antonyms, subentries, etc. 3. Words would not be formally marked as representatives of Dialect A, since often these entries will be common to Dialects B and C also. 4. In an entry for Dialect A, no mention is made of Dialects B or C as such a system would become too complicated to handle. 5. Dialects B and C would have full entries, but they ought to be kept as simple and uncluttered as possible. Otherwise, the dictionary will become complicated and unintelligible for the unsophisticated user. 6. Dialects B and C would be cross-referenced to the equivalent entry in Dialect A. An entry under B or C may have a more basic entry to which the derived form could be cross-referenced. In such a case, the basic form would be referred to the equivalent entry in Dialect A. For example:

(2) derived word {Dial. B) v. i. translation equivalent Illustrative sentence in Dialect B. Sentence translation into fuent Spanish. Dial. var. basic word

(3) basic word (Dial. A) v. i. translation equivalent Illustrative sentence in Di- alect A. Sentence translation into fuent Spanish. Dial. var. derived word

13.2.4. A Spanish base It is probably well to postpone major and systematic work on dialect variants until the basic dictionary is quite complete and the reversal index of Spanish words has been generated. It would be too confusing to attempt to use the vernacular listing for elicitation. Too many explanations would be required and too much misunderstanding would result. Extra copies of the Spanish index can be used to obtain the dialect variants from other areas by elicitation procedures. Every local equivalent should be noted that difers from the basic dialect in phonemic content (ta s jom / ta svom, ta xpꞌaj / ta xbaj), in morphemic content (tsꞌutsꞌunel / tsꞌustsꞌeI), or in lexemic content (vatea Variant pronunciations and geographical variants 88

/ jayil teꞌ). Color coding may be used when the variants are entered into the master list, red for town B, blue for town C, etc. The use of diferent colors is recommended only for worksheets, not for inclusion in the fnished book. 13.3. Techniques for displaying and cross-referencing variants There are several techniques available for displaying variants in a dictionary, depending upon the complexity of the material and the degree of accessibility desired. The compiler may well employ a diferent system in each of the two sections of the dictionary.

13.3.1. Dual cross reference One main entry with an associated minor entry is the simplest way to handle free (pronunciation) variation within a single language, especially when the variant starts with the same letters. In Papantla Totonac, the variant that comes frst alphabetically is used as the headword of the main entry, and the other variant is used as the headword of the minor entry (Aschmann & Aschmann 1973):

(4) a. lacquꞌi v. e. estar abierto (como casa, puerta, ventana, apartador) [it is open (a house, a door or window)] Var. laquꞌi b. laquꞌi {var. de lacquꞌi} estar abierto (como casa, puerta, ventana, apartador)

Alternatively, in Xicotepec Totonac, two main entries may be used, which gives equal value to each variant and so there are nearly duplicate main entries (Reid & Bishop 1974):

(5) a, lacasāntu s. púpila [pupil (eye)] b. lacsāntu s. púpila 13.3.2. Simple cross-reference Many standard dictionaries include less-favored alternates with only a cross-reference to the more favored form, omitting all other parts of the dictionary entry.1 From Pequeño Larousse ilustrado (García-Pelayo y Gross 1978):

(6) a. zanate m sanate. b. sanate m Amer. el quiscal, ave.

From Websters New World Dictionary of American English (Neufeldt 1989):

(7) a. thoro adj. short for thorough b. thorough adj. 1. orig., passing through: now chiefy in combination, as in thoroughfare. 2. done or proceeding through to the end ...

1See appendix F for information on how to deal with dialect and free variants and cross- references in FLEx. 89 Inclusion of text 13.3.3. The Spanish section of the bilingual dictionary In the Spanish section of the Tzotzil dictionary (Delgaty & Ruiz Sánchez 1978), geographical variants are simply listed at the end of the entry or subentry along with their italicized identifcation.

(8) yo pron. pers. joꞌon Cham, Zin voꞌon Chꞌen vuꞌn 13.3.4. The vernacular section of the bilingual dictionary Several factors infuenced the treatment of the individual variant in the Tzotzil- Spanish section of Delgaty & Ruiz Sánchez (1978). A sample condensed listing is given in section 13.3.6 so that the complete system is briefy illustrated. Geographical variants appeared following the translation equivalent or illustrative sentences of the San Andrés entry when the diference did not involve the initial letters of the word, thus placing it out of normal alphabetical location. The assumption was made that the reader could easily fnd it at the end of the basic entry if he was within an entry or two of the expected alphabetical placement. For example:

(9) bacꞌo s. puente [bridge] ... Cham bacꞌ

Exceptions were made for those entries which would have appeared at the end of a complex San Andrés entry that already displayed various sense discriminations where the addition of more material would result in a cluttered appearance. If the variant does not occur close to the basic form in alphabetical order, it appears on the Tzotzil side of the dictionary as a main entry in its own alphabetical order but without a grammatical designation, an illustrative sentence, or subentries. It is provided with a simple dialect identifcation, translation equivalent, and a cross-reference to the basic San Andrés entry. Note that the identifcation of the variant by dialect name replaces the designation of the grammatical category which appears in main entries.

(10) ta schiꞌin v. t. acompañar [to accompany] Ixt. ta schiꞌin

(11) ta slaqꞌuin {Ixt. de ta schiꞌin} acompañar

Occasionally the same word appears twice as a main entry, once for the San Andrés word, and the second time for one or more of the other dialects. For example:

(12) jꞌal-cꞌop1 s. predicador, profeta [preacher, prophet] jꞌal-cꞌop2 {Ixt. de jꞌal-cꞌop} mentiroso [untruthful, liar]

There is no change in form of the entry word, but the meaning in Ixtapa difers drastically from that in San Andrés. In order to refer the reader to the San Andrés word for mentiroso, the Ixtapa variant has been set apart as a main entry. 13.3.5. Inclusion of text The inclusion of an appendix with a transcribed and translated text for each of the locations would be a welcome addition to a dictionary that includes several geographical Variant pronunciations and geographical variants 90 variants. The inclusion of text would compensate to some degree for the elimination of illustrative sentences from the entries for the peripheral varieties of the language. Such a section should help to personalize the book for each of the groups whose variety of the language is represented, as well as being a useful and additional resource for linguists. 13.3.6. Sample from Tzotzil dictionary In the abbreviated samples from the multidialectal Tzotzil dictionary (Delgaty & Ruiz Sánchez 1978) that are presented here, the following abbreviations are used to refer to the regional dialects: Cham Chamula, Chꞌen Ch’enalho, Ixt Ixtapa, Zin Zinacantán. The unmarked entries refer to the San Andrés dialect. (Illustrative sentences and other information have been omitted.)

TZOTZIL-SPANISH ama {Cham, Chꞌen, Zin amay} fauta [fute] amay s. fauta Cham, Chꞌen, Zin ama bacꞌo s. puente [bridge] Cham bacꞌoj Ixt cꞌoj bacꞌoj {Cham de bacꞌo} puente cꞌoj {Ixt de bacꞌo} puente jnop-cꞌop {Chꞌen, Zin de jut-cꞌop} mentiroso [liar] jut-cꞌop s. mentiroso ... Chꞌen, Zin jnop-cꞌop ta xean v. t. acarrear [carry] Chꞌen ta xejan Ixt ta xian ta xejan {Chꞌen de ta xean} acarrear ta xian {Ixt de ta xean} acarrear

SPANISH-TZOTZIL acarrear v. t. 1. ta xean 2. ta xejan (Chꞌen) 3. ta xian (Ixt) fauta f. amay 2. ama (Cham, Chꞌen, Zin) mentiroso m. jut-cꞌop 2. jnop-cꞌop (Chꞌen) puente m. bacꞌo 2. bacꞌoj (Cham) 3. cꞌoj (Ixt) Part IV Aspects of the dictionary involving the language of wider communication

14 Spanish equivalents and refnement techniques

Human experience is conceptualized along very diverse lines depending on the culture. The two languages linked by a bilingual dictionary share some cultural characteristics and each has some cultural characteristics not shared by the other language. There are grammatical categories shared by both languages and grammatical categories which are unique to one or the other language. Speakers of the two languages have been in contact with each other to some degree, at least, or there would be no need for a bilingual dictionary. It is assumed that some bilingualism has resulted from the cultural contacts, but the skill developed by bilingual speakers difers according to their native ability and their opportunities for learning the second language. Seldom do the majority of the speakers of an indigenous language have the profciency of the best bilinguals among them. One of the purposes of a bilingual dictionary of an indigenous language is to provide a record of Spanish equivalents which have been developed over the years of contact, as represented by the speech of some of the better bilinguals. Another purpose of the bilingual dictionary is to provide Spanish equivalents or explanations in Spanish for indigenous words which do not constitute part of the bicultural experience of the bilingual speakers. To do this requires the collaboration of native speakers of Spanish and the use of reference books. Some equivalents volunteered by the bilingual are local Spanish vocabulary items which do not coincide with the Spanish documented in the standard monolingual dictionaries of Spanish. The non-coincidence may be that the regional term has no meaning in standard Spanish. In such a case, the local Spanish equivalent can be supplemented by a juxtaposed translation equivalent, a qualifying comment, or both. Crucial semantic diferences between two languages do not lend themselves to easy one-word equivalents. Nevertheless, correct, accurate, and intelligible Spanish should appear in the translation equivalents, in the translation of the illustrative sentences, and as the main entries and qualifying comments in the Spanish Index.

14.1. Sources of Spanish equivalents There are three main sources of Spanish equivalents for vernacular material. Infor- mation obtained from each one may be used to refne and complement that obtained from other sources. Some Spanish equivalents are volunteered by the bilingual collab- 93 Spanish equivalents and refinement techniques 94 orators, others are supplied by the compiler from his knowledge of both Spanish and the indigenous language; still others are obtained through a qualifed native speaker of Spanish in a capacity as a Spanish editor. A discussion of the role of each follows.

14.1.1. Bilingual speaker of the vernacular If possible, a bilingual collaborator should supply the Spanish translation for the entry word in isolation. Back translations into Spanish of the illustrative sentences should also be supplied. A rough general translation equivalent may have been supplied by context or another collaborator. Further refnement in the nature of a context-specifc equivalent should be available from local bilinguals. In the early stages of language investigation, no attempt should be made to obtain uniform translation equivalents for all occurrences of the vernacular word. In fact, it would be wise to secure the back translations of illustrative sentences independently from the translation equivalent for the isolated words. It is also advantageous to have more than one collaborator work through a given section of material at diferent times. A specifc individual may possess knowledge of a given word that varies from a vague awareness of the general meaning to a clear picture of the central meaning, extended meanings, and idiomatic usage. Sometimes a local bilingual ofers what proves to be an inexact equivalent of the vernacular word. The speaker may be only a partial bilingual, or on the other hand, he may control Spanish words that only a few of his fellow villagers recognize. If the prof- fered translation equivalents are inexact or unknown by most of the local bilinguals, further research is necessary. Translation equivalents provided in this way may require further refnement to arrive at the best translation equivalent (§8). Other local bilinguals should be consulted for their suggested Spanish equivalents. Spanish translations of the entry word as it appears in a variety of contexts also serve as candidates for the best translation equivalent(s) for each sense discrimination. The occurrence of the word in sentences illustrating other entry words often provides other possible translation equivalents. The compiler should guard against any tendency towards deciding too early on a particular Spanish equivalent in a one-to-one correspondence. One should be on the look out for other translation equivalents which are commonly used to translate the entry word. And, of course, one should be sensitive to diferent sense discriminations. The compiler should try to determine the essential semantic features of a given entry word. A collaborator can be asked for an explanation in the vernacular of the meaning of the word. Several illustrative sentences could be constructed and provided with rough translations in English or Spanish. An attempt should be made to fnd an insertable translation equivalent of the word, that is, the logical Spanish replacement for the word in the same or similar contexts. Such an equivalent may appear to be too general in nature and can later be qualifed as necessary by comments specifying the relevant constraints. It is possible to refne the proposed translation equivalent and its qualifers by consulting the more profcient local bilinguals and even monolingual Spanish speakers. The Spanish editor may be able to supply a more precise word if ambiguity remains at the time of the Spanish editing process. If research fails to locate a good Spanish equivalent, and if the qualifying comment added to a more general Spanish term is unsatisfactory, the vernacular word could be explained with a phrase approximating 95 The compiler and reference books a defnition. Such an explanatory phrase should include contrasts with other words in the same general area of meaning. An example from Huave (Stairs & Stairs 1981):

(1) asüüb v. t. poner (en los dedos para poder agarrarlo mejor) [put (on one's fngers in order to grasp better)] 14.1.2. The compiler and reference books The dictionary compiler may need to call on additional resources when no ready equivalent in Spanish is found for a vernacular word. When a Spanish translation equivalent is difcult to fnd, the compiler should try to keep the central meaning of the word distinct in mind from its various peripheral or idiomatic uses. Next, translation equivalents and qualifying comments may be composed to delineate as accurately as possible its salient characteristics. Other resources may then be consulted in a search for an appropriate Spanish equivalent. Possible translation equivalents gleaned in this manner may be checked and supplemented through the use of a monolingual Spanish dictionary. For compilers or collaborators who utilize English, there are a number of excellent English-Spanish dictionaries on the market: Williams, Collins, and Larousse, to name a few. In recent years, these commercial publications have included far more specifcally Mexican vocabulary than was previously the case in such works. A good monolingual Spanish dictionary such as Larousse (García-Pelayo y Gross 1978) is also indispensable. Both Spanish and English dictionaries of synonyms can be used to pinpoint the exact shade of meaning that the vernacular word seems to carry. The Porrúa Spanish dictionary (Raluy Poudevida 2017), Santamaría’s Diccionario de Mexicanismos (Santamaría 1983), and Cabrera’s Diccionario de Aztequismos (Cabrera 1992) can identify an amaz- ingly large proportion of regional and rural vocabulary items. If regional expressions cannot be found in these books, their meaning must be obtained by local defnition and explanation, which information must be added to the translation equivalent as a qualifer. It will be remembered that to obtain nomenclature for fora and fauna, books on the subject can be consulted, especially those with life-like illustrations. Visits to the zoo, botanical gardens, aquarium, or museum of natural history can help to supply the scientifc and popular Spanish designations for specimens that can be identifed by a native speaker. Having identifed a potentially suitable Spanish translation equivalent, it should be measured against a checklist of criteria. Is the projected translation equivalent the best general equivalent of the vernacular word or does it apply to only one sense discrimination? Is the chosen Spanish translation equivalent itself ambiguous, i.e., with its own sense discriminations? For example, pegar is a synonym of golpear to hit, and adherir to glue. It is unlikely, therefore, that pegar, unqualifed, can serve as a translation equivalent for any indigenous word. Would a qualifying comment or synonyms help to make a translation equivalent less ambiguous? Is the grammatical form of the translation equivalent in confict with that of the entry word? Is the minimum sphere of reference of the vernacular word covered by a translation equivalent that will ft smoothly into the appropriate spot in the illustrative sentence? Are extended translation equivalents (phrases) and those with qualifying comments handled consistently? Spanish equivalents and refinement techniques 96 14.1.3. Representatives of the national culture A monolingual Spanish speaker from the local area may be able to supply appropriate equivalents for some of the vernacular words that have eluded the eforts of the compiler. Someone from the local area may be able to provide regional names for fora and fauna or for those cultural items that are also part of the mestizo culture of the area. The local monolingual Spanish speaker may be able to provide an equivalent for a vernacular word after listening to a description of the meaning of the word in question. Specialists in the cultural area under consideration might be able to provide just the right Spanish words for a number of concepts. As a representative of standard national Spanish, a Spanish editor makes a valuable contribution to the completed dictionary. Careful scrutiny of both translation equivalents and translated sentences is necessary to ensure that the dictionary will be useful and intelligible to the academic community both nationally and internationally. A Spanish editor is able to review the translation equivalents and identify instances of unknown or unexpected translation equivalents which are due to the inclusion of regional vocabulary. This editor is in a position to help formulate the qualifying comments and/or the juxtaposed translation equivalents that can clarify ambiguous meanings for a speaker of standard Spanish. The Spanish editor is also responsible for checking that the illustrative sentences have been rendered with good, natural Spanish. In the process of modifying the translation supplied by a collaborator, a Spanish word may be discovered that should appropriately be added as a juxtaposed translation equivalent. A substitution for the translation equivalent already cited may be suggested; the new translation equivalent may even be a more accurate equivalent for the vernacular word. If the word suggested is known to the compiler and the team, and if they recognize it as a better equivalent, the earlier translation equivalent may be deleted. But if the more accurate word is not comfortable to the team, it should be added as a qualifying comment or as a juxtaposed translation equivalent. 14.1.4. Santamaría’s Diccionario de Mejicanismos The excellent reference work on local Spanish vocabulary in Mexico, Diccionario de mejicanismos by Francisco J. Santamaría (Santamaría 1983) deserves more than passing notice. In most cases the local Spanish words which do not appear in the Larousse Spanish dictionary (García-Pelayo y Gross 1978) are documented in Santamaría (1983). He includes the origin of the word if it comes from an indigenous language. Also included are a description of the item and its uses and a synonym, if such exists. Variant spellings or pronunciations of the word are listed. Documentation of the use of the word in literature fnishes up the article. The information in Santamaría (1983) can be applied to the further identifcation of local Spanish equivalents in the bilingual dictionary of an indigenous language. It may provide a synonym for the local Spanish word, which can be added as a juxtaposed translation equivalent. For example, leque is a variety of guaje [gourd]. (Examples in this section are built on data from Francisco León Zoque (Engel & Engel 1987).)

(2) ava s. leque, guaje

Santamaría also states that the gourds produced by this tree (Latin name: Lagenaria sp.) are large and spherical in shape, as opposed to oblong or curved gourds. Such 97 Techniques for obtaining Spanish equivalent information can be transferred to the bilingual dictionary in the form of a qualifying comment for guaje, (spherical):

(3) ava s. leque, guaje (de forma esférica) [gourd (spherical form)]

Some bilingual dictionaries have a special emphasis on the identifcation of fora and fauna. In this case, it is in order to qualify the local Spanish with the Latin technical name.

(4) ava s. 1. leque (árbol y fruta) [Lagenaria sp.] [gourd (tree and fruit)] 2. guaje (vasija del epicarpio de leque) [gourd (container from the skin of the leque)]

(5) coyon̠, coyoꞌn s. chinín (árbol) [Persea shiedeana]

Examples in a more popular style:

(6) a. coyon̠, coyoꞌn s. chinín (especie de aguacate) [(species of avocado)] b. can̠bu s. pataste (especie de cacao) [(species of cocoa)]

Santamaría sometimes provides a defnition of the local Spanish word which can be incorporated into the qualifying comment for the bilingual dictionary. The citation Sant. in the qualifying comment documents the local Spanish term as a Mexicanism and credits Santamaría with the defnition. It is not necessary to cite Santamaría unless his defnition is used. Santamaría frequently cites variants of a Mexican Spanish word, sometimes identifed by geographical area. Usually, the main dictionary article appears under only one of the forms. Occasionally, the local Spanish volunteered by a collaborator will be one of the secondary forms or perhaps will be a variant that Santamaría did not happen to list. In that case, the frst equivalent should be the one volunteered by the collaborator, followed by the form under which it is treated in Santamaría.

(7) cucheꞌs s. tabanco, tapanco (piso de maderas sobre vigas que sirve de bodega) [(foor of boards over beams that serves as a storage area)] 14.2. Techniques for obtaining Spanish equivalent A bilingual collaborator may take on the task of working through a number of types of language material, providing word and/or morpheme glosses and translations back into Spanish for the vernacular texts. Such procedures yield a corpus of Spanish material at least roughly equivalent in meaning to the indigenous material from which it was translated. Granted the relatively rough nature of the results, a comparison of various occurrences of the same lexical item should yield by consensus some usable translation equivalent, or at least identify the word for further in-depth study. A collaborator should provide a Spanish translation of each entry word in the lexical fle and translations of the illustrative sentences back into Spanish. Back-translations of phrases or sentences in which the word was frst heard are also useful. Text material may be recorded for later translation into local Spanish. Native-authored stories also lend themselves to this procedure. It is wise to separate the process of obtaining Spanish back-translations from that of the construction of illustrative sentences for dictionary entries. If the two procedures are not kept distinct, unnatural illustrative Spanish equivalents and refinement techniques 98 sentences may result rather than smooth grammatical ones. It is preferable that the back-translations be provided by a diferent individual than the original author of the illustrative sentences or other material. Ambiguities are more likely to surface using this method than if the same person were the author of both versions. In addition to the author of the vernacular materials and a diferent, perhaps more competent bilingual, a Spanish speaker who has learned some of the local language may be able to provide such back-translations. In summary, fnding a Spanish equivalent is related to fnding the meaning of the vernacular word. Through asking questions, sense discriminations surface, semantic domains are clarifed, and accurate translation equivalents emerge. 14.3. The translation of illustrative sentences The process of moving from rough back-translation of the vernacular to idiomatic and clear Spanish translation requires several types of editing. The compiler may do a preliminary editing of the back-translations supplied by a collaborator. Instances of unintelligibility should be noted, as well as constructions which may be ungrammatical in Spanish. These may have been introduced due to their similarity to the syntax of the vernacular. A collaborator may also edit the material, keeping in mind certain grammatical and stylistic principles, e.g., How would one express this same concept to a Spanish speaker? Finally, the material must be edited by a Spanish editor for a free and natural style, as well as conformance to standards of usage and punctuation. The resultant Spanish translation of the illustrative sentence should be natural and smooth in style, while maintaining a faithful representation of the meaning of the original sentence. Coincidence of syntactic class is not necessary but is desirable in the translation of the entry word in the illustrative sentence. If there is lack of correspondence, it should be explainable by literal translation, although such would not normally be explicitly included in the Spanish translation that appears in print. A literal translation should appear in print as a last resort if the actual entry word being illustrated is obscured either in grammatical class or translation equivalent.1 If other parts of the sentence are obscure in relation to their translation, they will have to remain that way. A natural translation is of greatest importance; however, it may be preferable upon further refection to construct another sentence that illustrates the entry word equally as well as the frst one, but which does not have the disadvantage of such ambiguity. The translation of the translation equivalent in the sentence should not confict with the stated translation equivalent of the entry word. It need not be identical, but it should be a close synonym wherever possible. The context may call for a word that is too specifc to be considered an alternative translation equivalent but is still the best translation in the sentence, and still refers to the same sense of the word as is indicated in the translation equivalent. If the translation in the sentence is completely diferent, the entry word and its translation equivalent need further study. The translation of the entry word in the sentence should be examined to see whether it is really a synonym of the translation equivalent or whether another sense discrimination is involved. In the former case, the sentence translation equivalent may appropriately be added as a synonym to the original translation equivalent, a process called translation equivalent promotion. If the translation equivalent could not acceptably be interchanged in the same contexts, perhaps two sense discriminations are involved

1See Appendix F for how to format literal translations. 99 Accurate equivalents and the entry should be divided along those lines. One must beware of unwarranted translation equivalent promotion, if the context-sensitive translation equivalent of the translated illustrative sentence does not adequately represent the central meaning of that sense, it should not be promoted to a spot synonymous with, or as a replacement for the original general translation equivalent. (See §8.5 for a further discussion of this topic.) Illustrative sentences should be informative and stylistically acceptable in both languages. Given that prerequisite, there should be as much stylistic and lexical conformance between the two languages as possible. 14.4. Improving and refning the translated material

14.4.1. Accurate equivalents The accuracy of the Spanish translation equivalent for a word or for one of its sense discriminations is primarily the responsibility of those compiling the dictionary and those native speakers who are collaborating on the project. The indigenous bilingual is the expert on what the vernacular word means, and knows the equivalent Spanish word (or words) in the variety of Spanish locally spoken. These equivalents should be respected and carefully considered. But the feelings of other team members for the appropriate Spanish equivalent are also important. The Spanish they speak might be of a more standard variety, the vocabulary of which is more generally known throughout Mexico. The Spanish spoken by a community member may be heavily infuenced by regional or geographical variants. It is desirable to retain the local Spanish equivalent but at the same time to indicate relevant diferences from a standard Spanish equivalent. It is possible to clarify some ambiguous Spanish translation equivalents by an exercise in which the bilingual native speaker supplies the appropriate vernacular equivalents for the entries in the Spanish index. Wherever a diferent word is supplied from that which frst stimulated the Spanish translation equivalent, it is desirable to fnd out if the original stimulus is still correct (i.e., if the given translation equivalent still appropriately translates the vernacular word). If so, the diference between the two vernacular words should be refected in qualifying comments for the Spanish word. It may be assumed that the local word stimulated by the Spanish word in isolation (word list context) is closer to the central meaning of the Spanish word. If so, that translation equivalent might appropriately be left unqualifed and a restrictive comment added to the original vernacular word that was not automatically associated with the Spanish word in the reversal exercise. For example, if one were to ask a bilingual Spanish- English speaker, How do you say loud?, the response might well be fuerte. If another such speaker, or even the same one at a later date, were asked, “In English, what does fuerte mean?”, the logical answer is strong. In fact, strong is the primary or central meaning of fuerte and therefore should be listed as the frst sense discrimination, preceding loud, which in its turn is accompanied by a qualifying comment.

(8) fuerte adj. 1. strong 2. loud (sound, color) Spanish equivalents and refinement techniques 100 14.4.2. Semantic domains Lexical items in the same semantic domain should be considered as a group. It is easier to obtain precise Spanish equivalents and to focus on meaning distinctions if semantically related words are treated as interdependent units. Color terms, verbs involving a specifc direction or movement, or terms of taste such as sweet, bitter, sour, rotten, salty, etc., should be considered as parts of a given semantic domain. They will thus be easier to translate with less resultant confusion upon reversal to the Spanish index. Some of the same techniques used in identifying species of fora and fauna may be applied to these areas as well. 14.4.3. Culture-specifc items In rural areas, the indigenous and mestizo cultures are often very similar. If the indigenous people have a term for a specifc item, it is possible that the local Span- ish speakers do also. A speaker of the vernacular and a mestizo may thus be able to correlate terms for which no ready equivalents have been found by other means. The Spanish may be regional in nature but perhaps standard equivalents can be found later. There will probably still be specifc lexical items for which explanatory phrases or brief defnitions have to be used. A specifc Spanish term may appear later; if technical in nature, it should be added to the description rather than replacing it. 14.4.4. Standard usage and syntax Regional lexical items are acceptable in these bilingual dictionaries; incorrect or awkward grammatical constructions are not. The translation of the illustrative sentences should refect standard usage and a clear style, but should not project a severe literary style that would be inappropriate for use in rural areas. 14.4.5. Appropriate social level of vocabulary It is important to know whether a given term is acceptable in the mestizo community or merely among marginally bilingual speakers of the indigenous language. Some local terminology does not qualify as regional Spanish since it is only used by those who are in the beginning stages of learning Spanish. It may be that neither the local monolingual Spanish speakers nor the local bilinguals would want a specifc term to appear in the dictionary. Naturally, there is social stratifcation in the mestizo community and we must not ignore the farmer whose culture is heavily represented in the dictionary in favor of the merchant whose terminology is further removed. A balance is needed that can only be obtained by consulting a variety of individuals. During a check on the Amuzgo dictionary, chaponar was given by Juan as a translation equivalent for the vernacular term meaning to clean a milpa (cornfeld). Carmelo, an Amuzgo medical student, located the word in the Diccionario de Mejicanismos. In bewilderment he asked “Juan, how come you knew that word and I didn't?” Rather smugly, Juan replied, “Because I'm a farmer and not just a doctor.” 14.4.6. Regional Spanish Regional Spanish vocabulary is acceptable and is often cited in Spanish dictionaries such as Larousse, Porrúa, and even that of the Real Academia Española RAE (2001). Regional Spanish vocabulary is treated at length in specialized dictionaries such as 101 Regional Spanish

Santamaría (1983). Those regionalisms that are defned in one of the standard Spanish dictionaries do not need any further qualifcation in the bilingual dictionary. If the regional word is not handled in a regular dictionary, it is important to clarify its meaning for the reader. A Spanish translation equivalent that does not appear in a standard monolingual Spanish dictionary should be identifed as a regionalism using qualifying comment (reg.); it should also be followed by a juxtaposed translation equivalent in standard Spanish. Examples:

(9) ajbellacum s. ubellaco (reg.), plátano macho [cooking banana]

(10) quinía s. guineo (reg.), plátano [banana]

Qualifying comments also may be used to help the reader understand words mentioned in standard dictionaries but rarely used in standard Spanish. Sometimes the local Spanish equivalent is a regional use of a Spanish word that is known in a diferent sense in standard Spanish. Such regional senses are also frequently noted in standard dictionaries. A qualifying comment after the local Spanish word will specify the sense in which the word should be understood. It is necessary that a speaker of standard Spanish decide whether a given regionalism represents an example of a dif- ferent sense or no meaning relative to standard Spanish. Such identifcations may also be anticipated by a compiler who has formally studied Spanish. The illustrative sentences for a diferent sense of the Spanish translation equivalent may serve as evidence for that interpretation. Even if such usage is registered in standard dictionaries, the compiler and his local collaborator should be careful to add a qualifying comment that would help to defne that particular area of meaning. In summary, we may list three ways of handling regional Spanish depending on how widely the term is known. First, if it occurs in a dictionary of standard Spanish, no qualifcation is needed. Second, if the term appears in a dictionary of regional Spanish, such as Santamaría or Porrúa, it should be qualifed as regional but need not obligatorily be defned. Third, if it appears in no dictionary of standard or regional Spanish but is confrmed by local Spanish speakers as the term used for a particular concept, it should be identifed as regional, and followed by a standard Spanish translation equivalent in the form of a qualifying comment enclosed in parentheses. An example from Tabasco Chontal follows:

(11) ajcꞌäncan s. mandado (reg.), mandadero, mensajero (persona) [errand (reg.), courier, messenger (person)]

15 The Reversal index

15.1. Semantic clarifcation in the Reversal index The reversal index of the vernacular section of the dictionary brings together as con- secutive entries all items translated with the same Spanish word. A number of the vernacular words appearing together will probably not be synonyms or equivalents and work will need to be done. The Spanish index for a sample of 561 Tabasco Chon- tal words produced 771 reversal items; there were 61 instances of the same Spanish word translating two or more Chontal words. A certain percentage of these would be true synonyms and thus should appear as juxtaposed translation equivalents: e.g., manchar [to soil, to spot] päcꞌchin, xacꞌän. However, when the vernacular words are not completely interchangeable, some way must be found to distinguish between them. Juxtaposed translation equivalents or qualifying comments may be used to clarify the situation, as is explained below.

15.1.1. Juxtaposed translation equivalent The mere fact that more than one vernacular word is cited as a translation equivalent qualifes each of the synonyms to a certain degree and the entry word as well. For those vernacular words appearing as equivalents for the same Spanish word, the implication remains that they are similar enough to be freely interchanged in a variety of contexts. For more information, the user may look up those items on the other side of the dictionary. If the separate translation equivalents are not in fact interchangeable, techniques other than the juxtaposed translation equivalent must be employed to diferentiate their respective areas of meaning. The major technique is the use of qualifying comments, as explained below. 15.1.2. Qualifying comment In the vernacular section, sense discriminations and illustrative sentences were extensively used to defne areas of meaning; sense discriminations and qualifying comments are freely used for the same purpose in the Spanish index. Some qualifying comments are necessary because of the variance between local and standard Spanish, and others because of sense discriminations in one or both languages. (For technical matters related to qualifying comments, consult §11.)1

1In FLEx, qualifying comments in the reversal index come from the Restrictions feld on the vernacular side of the dictionary. Whatever is in the Restrictions feld is used for two purposes:

103 The Reversal index 104

In the Spanish index, a pertinent qualifying comment may be of any one of several types. The following slightly modifed examples are from San Andrés Tzotzil (Delgaty & Ruiz Sánchez 1978).

Classifer or indicator of relevant category (1) riñón m. 1. sjuxton (de personas y animales) 2. sqꞌuin (de aves) [kidney is qualifed as belonging to people, animals, or birds.]

(2) tarde f... ♦ se hace tarde ta stoy xa cꞌacꞌal (en la mañana); ta xmalub cꞌacꞌal (en la tarde); ta xꞌicꞌub osil, ta xꞌoch acꞌubal (por la noche) [it’s getting late is qualifed as applying to morning, afternoon, or evening]

(3) comer v. t. 1. ta slajes, ta stiꞌ (carne) 2. ta sveꞌ (pan, tortilla, etc.) 3. ta sloꞌ (fruta, dulce, etc.) 4. ta scꞌux (frijol, elote, etc.) [to eat is translated diferently depending on the food eaten, e.g., fruit, beans, bread, meat, etc.]

(4) cortar v. t. 1.. ta stuchꞌ (leña, fruta, zacate, etc.) 2. ta stsꞌet teꞌ (árbol) 3. ta sjis (tasajo) 4. ta sboj (carne) 5. ta stuchꞌilan (hacer pedazos) [to cut is translated diferently depending on the item cut; e.g., fruit, tree, meat, etc.]

(5) romper v. t. 1. ta scꞌas (huesos, palos, etc.) 2. ta sjat (ropa, papel, etc.) 3. ta svocꞌ (cántaro, plato, etc.) [to break, to tear is translated diferently depending on the item broken or torn; e.g., sticks, cloth, dishes, etc.] Synonym or standard Spanish terminology (6) a. chinchere m. cꞌorochoch (pájaro carpintero) [woodpecker] b. cuxcumu m. stsu (paloma brechera) [gray-chested dove]

(7) codo m. 1. xucꞌubil, xucꞌubal (parte del brazo) [elbow] 2. tꞌustꞌ (tacaño) [stingy] Brief defnition (8) copa f. pꞌis (medida de una bebida) [cup measure]

(1) to qualify the Spanish equivalent on the vernacular side, and (2) to qualify the vernacular equivalent in the reversal index. See Appendix F for examples. 105 Basic goals of editing the index

(9) pozo m. snabil ucꞌum [water hole] 2. jocꞌ (lugar escarbado para juntar el agua de lluvia) [hole dug out to catch rain] Subtype distinction (10) zopilote m. 1. xulem, batsꞌi xulem, icꞌal xulem (de cabeza negra) [black-headed vulture] 2. tararan (de cabeza roja)[red-headed vulture]

(11) roble ... ♦ roble blanco sacyoc (con hojas redondas); chiquinꞌib (con hojas largas) [white oaks are distinguished by round or long leaves] Grammatically based distinction (12) suyo, suya pron. 1. avuꞌun (de usted) 2. yuꞌun (de él, de ella) [The distinction is made between second and third person possessive pronoun.] Lexical restriction on co-occurences (13) norte m. 1. qꞌuinabal (tormenta) [storm, norther] 2. xocon vinajel (dirección) [direction]

(14) carpintero m. 1. jmeltsanej-mexa, jmeltsanej-xila (persona) 2. cꞌorochoch, tuc, tuntserec (pájaro) [carpenter is either a person or a bird.] 15.2. Editing the Reversal index

15.2.1. Basic goals of editing the index In editing the reversal index, the compiler must keep frmly in mind that the purpose of this section of the dictionary is to serve as a fnder list for the Spanish speaker interested in learning something about the indigenous language. The primary aim, therefore, is to organize the material to facilitate its use as a locater of entries in the main section of the dictionary. This approach represents a radical shift from the goal of displaying the vernacular which has been pursued throughout the project up to the point of generating the reversal index of the indigenous vocabulary items.2 A secondary goal in editing the Spanish index is to formulate aesthetically and stylistically pleasing entries. It should be easy for the user to fnd the information sought and to grasp the content of the entries as quickly as possible. It is to these ends that all of the editing on the Spanish index is directed. Once generated, the reversal index should be compared with a basic Spanish word list for possible omissions of common Spanish vocabulary (see Appendix C). Some such items probably have no simple equivalents in the local vernacular and may be omitted

2In FLEx, this is done by adding the appropriate Spanish headword(s) in the Reversal entries feld for each word or phrase in the Defnition feld of each vernacular sense. If a Defnition is a phrase, the compiler must enter the desired Spanish headword frst, followed by a colon and a space, followed by the phrase. For example, "comer: dar de comer" will make "dar de comer" as a subentry under the headword "comer." See Appendix F for more examples. The Reversal index 106 on this basis. Those that do have equivalent words in the vernacular must frst be added to the vernacular side so they can be included in the Spanish reversal. Many Spanish words have multiple sense discriminations, of course, but if the basic one happens to correspond to the vernacular word which appears as its translation equivalent, it is probably unnecessary to qualify such a translation equivalent unless a comment is desired. For example, the Spanish verb absorber is translated with the Tabasco Chontal word uchꞌen which means to soak up (liquids). It was deemed unnecessary to add the qualifer (líquidos) making this explicit since that is the basic sense. The fact that absorber can also mean to absorb the sun’s rays or catch someone’s attention was deemed unnecessary to mention. The guiding principle of usefulness as a fnder list should underlie decisions regarding whether a given item should be a subentry or a sense discrimination with a possible qualifying comment. For example, if the reversal index produced two successive entries which were sabor acre o astringente acrid or astringent tasting and sabor dulce sweet tasting but no unqualifed entry for sabor taste, favor, the two contrasting types of favors could be handled as two sense discriminations for sabor, which is probably where a Spanish speaker would look to discover the words relating to favors. From the Tabasco Chontal reversal:

(15) sabor adj. 1. tzup (acre o astringente) [astringent favor] 2. tzaj (dulce) [sweet favor]

Some lexically more complex item relating to sabor might also appear as a subentry under that same word. 15.2.2. Synthesis of multiple entries In the reversal index, multiple entries of the same Spanish word should not remain as separate entries, but be combined as sense discriminations of one main entry. Qual- ifying comments should be added to identify the distinguishing characteristics of all but the most general term. If such identifcation is difcult or impossible, the various translation equivalents could be strung out as synonyms or juxtaposed translation equivalents. A few examples of these principles, taken from the Oluta Popoluca dictionary (Clark 1981) are given below:

(16) cocer v. t. 1. t-uns̈o̠s̈pe (plátano) 2. t-unvac-upe (ollas, comida) [To cook (a banana) is distinguished from cooking (pots or a full meal)]

(17) contar v. t. 1. t-un-ampi̠pe (cuentos) 2. t-unmaype (números) [to relate (stories) is distinguished from to count (numbers)]

(18) crecer v. i. 1. ye̠cpa 2. a̠spa (bejuco) 3. compa (el río) [to grow (any plant or a vine) is distinguished from to swell (river)]

(19) picar v. i. 1. t-upa 2. ampa (chile) [to sting is distinguished from to burn (chile)] 107 Synthesis of multiple entries

(20) sarape m. s̈ayaꞌt, nuꞌäꞌn [type of blanket]

In the frst reversal index, all of the above sense discriminations appeared as separate main entries and were later combined in the editing process. If the grammatical designation is the only diference between two vernacular translation equivalents for one Spanish word, sense discriminations may also be made for the one entry word, using a summary grammatical designation.3 An example from Tabasco Chontal:

(21) ablandar [to soften] v. t., v. r. 1. laꞌman 2. laꞌmesan

However, if each grammatical category has several sense discriminations, it may be preferable to make two separate entries in the Spanish index for these main grammatical divisions. Furthermore, when pronominal forms (ending in -se) are included, they should appear as subentries under the main verb unless there is no more basic or commonly occurring form of the verb in Spanish; in this case, refexive forms become the main entry words.4 As multiple entries for one Spanish word are created by the computer, they occur in alphabetical order rather than by a progression from general to specifc or wider to narrower use. Admittedly, it would be nice if the general or unqualifed translation equivalent occurred frst in the list of sense discriminations but such an arrangement is not essential. If the compiler prefers to leave the sense discriminations in alphabetical order, changing only multiple entries to multiple sense discriminations, the resulting format is acceptable. Numbered sense discriminations provide an attractive method of highlighting the local way of looking at things as opposed to a more generalized viewpoint. For example, the Tabasco Chontal system of numerical classifers can be nicely presented as sense discriminations under one, two, etc.

(22) uno adj., art. 1. unqꞌue (cosa plana) [fat thing] 2. untec (árbol, planta) [tree, plant] 3. untu (persona, animal) [person, animal] 4. untzꞌit (cosa larga y prolongada) [long and stretched out thing] 5. unxim (cosa pequeña como grano) [small thing like grain]

There may be a problem distinguishing between homophones and sense discriminations in the reversal index. It is best to check a good Spanish dictionary and follow the decisions of its compilers as to which pairs are homophones and which are classifed as sense discriminations. For example, rather than two sense discriminations, Larousse lists pegar as two separate entries, one meaning to hit and one meaning to stick or to glue. On the other hand, the same source treats espina meaning thorn and espina meaning backbone as sense discriminations of one entry. Evidently the compilers considered espinazo to be the basic term for backbone and that area of meaning applied to espina to be somewhat peripheral, as opposed to a central meaning of espina [thorn, spine].

3Currently, FLEx does not allow diferent grammatical categories for senses in a reversal index. See §15.3.1. 4There number of verbs in Spanish that only occur as pronominals is quite small. The Reversal index 108 15.2.3. Omissions and additions Exact duplication of entries may be remedied by the computer as it creates reversal index entries, but other deletions must be done through the editing process. Exact duplication appears because a unit composed of a vernacular word and a Spanish translation equivalent occurred in two diferent senses of the same entry on the vernacular side. Simple clerical errors may also be responsible for some duplication of entries. Juxtaposed translation equivalents on the vernacular side of the dictionary account for some multiple entries in the reversal index. The principle that synonyms qualify each other may lead to the use of the same word as one of the elements (synonyms) of a juxtaposed translation equivalent for more than one sense discrimination. This will result in two identical entries in the reversal index. Items that do not reverse sensibly should be omitted. For example, some vernacular entries may occur both as free and bound forms, and be designated by diferent sense discriminations in the vernacular section. Only the free forms should occur as translation equivalents for the Spanish entries in the reversal index. The possibility of dual forms should be pointed out in the grammar or at least noted in the vernacular entry, which is more complete. When the reversal index is compared with a basic Spanish word list, there may be a number of items on the standard list for which there really are no good vernacular equivalents. Often it may be preferable to omit these from the Spanish vocabulary list rather than to include them with some lengthy defnition or circumlocution in the vernacular. If the compiler desires to include such items at the cost of introducing such circumlocutions, these entries should be carefully scrutinized for unfortunate political or religious implications. This responsibility rests almost completely on the compiler since a consultant cannot check the meaning of such lengthy phrases without looking up every element in the dictionary. Other items which have been inadvertently omitted can now be included and entered into the vernacular section of the dictionary frst. 15.2.4. Management of subentries Subentries need to be located under the most basic headword and not necessarily under the frst word in the Spanish phrase used to translate the vernacular entry in the reversal index. For example, a mano [by hand] and a pie [on foot] should appear under mano and pie and not under a. Also, hacer pedazos [to break to pieces] should appear under pedazos [pieces] since hacer [make, do] is very general and the list of subentries would be so lengthy as to make it virtually meaningless. If a headword is difcult to identify, the compiler should try to decide on a lexically central item which likely would be the place a Spanish speaker would look for the item in question. Whether the vernacular speakers consider a given item a unit or not is irrelevant since they are not the primary users of this section of the dictionary. That is, if they consider a crédito [on credit] to be a single unit or even a single word, it should still be listed as a subentry under crédito out of deference to the central semantic element of the phrase in Spanish and the Spanish lexicographic tradition of not including locuciones (phrases) as headwords. Sometimes there will be entries which should be subentries under a certain headword but the headword does not appear in the vocabulary listing as a main Spanish entry. These items may be provided with an appropriate headword and the corresponding grammatical designation under which the subentry can appear. The phrase a todos y 109 Special treatment of regionalisms a cada uno [to each and every one] appeared as an entry in the initial Spanish-Chontal reversal. This was edited to read:

(23) cada adj. ♦ a todos y a cada uno toꞌc toꞌc

There was no previous entry for cada and, since that was judged to be the central meaning of the phrase which expressed a distributive idea, cada was added along with a grammatical designation to provide an entry for the phrase to appear under as a subentry. There is also the occasional problem of no general vernacular term without qualifcation to serve as a translation equivalent for the headword. That is, all the vernacular words which relate to a given Spanish word are so specifc that they must be qualifed and there is no word to correspond to the general Spanish term. In such cases, the headword may be listed with no translation equivalent as an empty main entry and all of the others listed as subentries under that word. An example from Tabasco Chontal:

(24) palma [palm] f. ♦ palma de la mano [palm of the hand] pech cꞌäib ♦ palma real [royal palm] cꞌumop

An example from Totontepec Mixe:

(25) hermano [brother] m., f. ♦ hermana mayor [older sister] tsa̠ꞌa ♦ hermano mayor [older brother] ajch ♦ hermano o hermana menor [younger sibling] uts

If the headword does not come frst in the phrase in normal speech order, the phrase should still occur as a subentry, leaving the translation equivalent blank. Three examples from Tabasco Chontal:

(26) arrojar v. t. ♦ estar arrojando [to throw: he is throwing] u chen u xej

(27) bien [well] adv. ♦ está bien [that’s fne] cheꞌ chich

(28) dolor [pain] m. ♦ dolor de barriga [stomach ache] cꞌuxnacꞌa ♦ dolor de brazo [sore arm] cꞌuxcꞌäba ♦ dolor de diente [toothache] cꞌuxꞌeja ♦ dolor de estómago [stomach ache] cꞌuxnäcꞌa ♦ dolor de oído [earache] cꞌux chꞌiquina ♦ dolor de pie [sore foot] cꞌuxꞌoca ♦ dolor de manos [sore hands] cꞌux cꞌäba 15.2.5. Special treatment of regionalisms Special problems are posed by locally restricted meanings of standard generic Span- ish terms. In Spanish, tortuga is commonly understood to apply to all turtles irre- spective of species. In Tabasco, however, tortuga only refers to one specifc species. The Reversal index 110

Therefore, instead of tortuga appearing as the qualifying comment on such Spanish translation equivalents as chiquiguao, guao, or pochitoque, a circumlocution was used, una clase de animal de concha [a type of animal with a shell]. Such specifc terminology as that referring to species of turtles should also be qualifed in the Spanish index if the terms do not appear in the standard Spanish dictionaries. This position is taken in spite of the fact that, for these species, no other terminology exists that could be considered more standard. Probably no other terms ever will exist for them. That fact does not alleviate the confusion of the non-local reader who has no idea of the meaning of such words. Further complicating the picture is the fact that the Spanish speaker will no doubt look for terminology for all kinds of turtles under tortuga. The other terms for specifc species may be listed as subentries in that location as well. A qualifying comment should also appear to the efect that tortuga only refers to one specifc species of turtle in that geographical area. The specifc terminology for diferent species should be qualifed as regional, if necessary, and designated una clase de animal de concha where these terms appear in the main vocabulary listing. Regional terminology also introduces an exception to the principle that nothing may come between the entry word and its translation equivalent except the grammatical designation. If the qualifying comment regional (reg.) appears after the translation equivalent in the Spanish index, it implies that the vernacular word is the one being restricted in geographical distribution. Therefore, the designation regional may appear immediately after the local Spanish entry word in such cases. Qualifying comments referring to dialect or geographical restrictions should all be treated in this fashion.

(29) guiso (reg.) m. u tza̠ca [a regional dish]

If the local and restricted regional term is the only translation equivalent reversed to become a main entry in the Spanish index, the information contained in that original entry is completely lost to a non-local user of the dictionary. For example, the following entry appears in the Chontal-Spanish dictionary.

(30) yuꞌ m. chuyul, chiquiyul (reg., fruto del jahuacate) [fruit of the jahuacate tree]

Upon reversal, chuyul becomes the main entry, and it is so geographically restricted that not even the Diccionario de mejicanismos recognizes it in that form, although it does include the more common regionalism chiquiyul. To make the information in such entries accessible to the outsider, the entry can maintain its normal reversal position but with a qualifying comment and (reg.) after the Spanish headword. Also, chiquiyul should be included as an entry, similarly translated and qualifed.

(31) chiquiyul (reg.) m. yuꞌ (fruto del jahuacate) chuyul (reg.) m. yuꞌ (fruto del jahuacate) 15.3. Meshing two grammatical systems

15.3.1. The use of Spanish grammatical designations Once again the fact should be emphasized that, in both sections of the dictionary, the grammatical designation corresponds to the language of the entry word, not to the translation equivalents. That is, in the vernacular section, the grammatical designations correspond to the vernacular headwords, not the Spanish translation equiva- 111 Handling unexpected lexical meanings lent(s), whereas in the reversal index, the grammatical designations correspond to the Spanish headwords, not the vernacular translation equivalent(s). Grammatical designations of vernacular headwords should be consistent with the grammatical analysis of that language, and reversal index grammatical designations should be consistent with the grammatical analysis of Spanish as refected in a standard Spanish dictionary.5 One distinction that must be maintained in the Spanish index is that which denotes nouns as masculine or feminine. No standard Spanish dictionary classifes them as simply sustantivo [noun]. The only way to designate the correct Spanish categories for nouns—in fact, for all parts of speech—is to manually enter them after a reversal index has been created. To do this, the compiler should frst obtain a list of categories appropriate for Spanish, after which he/she can choose the correct category for each reversal headword from the list. For other Spanish headwords, the grammatical designations should include all common uses in Spanish, even though there is no corresponding term in the vernacular. For example, in Southeastern Tepehuan (E. Willett & T. Willett (2015)), there is no word that corresponds to the Spanish word época, but there are names for seasons in the yearly planting cycle. In the reversal index, these are listed as subentries under the Spanish word epoca.

(32) epoca f. ♦ epoca de desyerbe booñbhak (julio y agosto)[weeding season (July and August)] ♦ epoca de elotes toomok (octubre)[fresh corn season (October)] ♦ epoca de pizca oꞋrabhak (noviembre)[harvest season (November)] ♦ epoca de siembra ɨꞋxiabhak (junio)[planting season (June)]

As can be seen in this example, only Spanish headwords have grammatical designations; subentries in a reversal index are never given grammatical designations. 15.3.2. Handling unexpected lexical meanings Some possessed forms of words have entirely diferent lexical meanings than their corresponding non-possessed forms. These should be handled as any other lexically distinct items, as separate entries in the appropriate location. For example, in Tabasco Chontal, paper is jun and his paper is ujun, which is the normal way possessives are formed. However, a specialized possessive form, ujuni, refers to the deed to a house and can be entered under the Spanish escritura and qualifed to indicate its legal implications.

(33) Chontal-Spanish side: Spanish-Chontal side:

jun s. papel [paper] escritura f. ujuni (legal) ♦ ujuni s. escritura (legal) papel m. jun ujuni s. escritura (legal)

5In FLEx, the Reversal Categories are in the Lists section. Currently FLEx only allows the compiler to give a summary category for each headword, e.g. v. t., v. i., prnl. It does not allow a diferent category for each sense that corresponds to a diferent vernacular equivalent. Appendix C gives a list of suggested summary categories for 3200 common Spanish words. The Reversal index 112 15.3.3. Handling diferences in grammatical categories Often a good Spanish-English dictionary is helpful in determining how to handle pronouns and other entries which have more, less, or diferent categories in one language than the other. The following examples illustrate a few of the options available in handling some of this material. The examples are from Tabasco Chontal.

Generic vs. masculine/feminine distinctions (34) pava [hen turkey] f. nacꞌach pavo [turkey] m. 1. muluꞌ (genérico) 2. ajtzoꞌ (macho)

The generic term was eliminated as redundant and unnecessary under pava. Difering categories of pronouns (35) suyo, suya pron. 1. taꞌa (de usted) [yours] 2. tuba (de él, de ella) [his, hers] 3. taꞌala (de ustedes) [yours (pl.)] 4. tubajob (de ellos, de ellas) [theirs] Non-pertinent masculine/feminine distinction (36) esposo, esposa [husband, wife] m., f. itꞌoc Pertinent gender diferences (37) suegra [mother-in-law] f. nojinaꞌ suegro [father-in-law] m. ichan

(38) Margarita f. 1. ix Macaꞌ Margarito m. 1. aj Macaꞌ 2. Macaꞌ (vocativo masc. o fem.)

The added distinction between third person referent and vocative was made by means of sense discriminations on the masculine entry only rather than redundantly on both entries. Pluralization diferences (39) con [with] prep. 1. tꞌoc (sing.) 2. tꞌoc tꞌoc (pl.)

However, when Spanish also uses a diferent form for the plural, the plural should be a subentry.

(40) hombre [man] m. winic ♦ hombres [men] wincäre Double grammatical designations When both the Spanish entry and its vernacular translation equivalent cover the same two parts of speech, the grammatical designations may be listed together, separated by a comma, and the other parts of the entry only listed once. 113 A concluding checklist for the index

(41) alto [high, tall] adj., adv. isqui 15.4. A concluding checklist for the index Before a reversal index can be considered appropriately completed, the following editorial changes must be made:

Checklist: 1. Sense discriminations and qualifying comments edited?̈ 2. Grammatical designations deleted, changed, or added? 3. Synonyms collapsed into one entry? 4. Consistency in spelling and subsequent deletion of erroneous forms? 5. Subentries formed from main entries and given a headword?

16 Loan words in the bilingual dictionary

In today’s world, virtually no group of people is isolated from contact with speakers of other languages. Contact implies linguistic borrowing, either as an accompaniment to a new item of technology or as the introduction of a new term for a previously known culture trait. The answers to two basic questions determine the treatment of loan words in a specifc bilingual dictionary. Those questions are: Which borrowed words should be included? and How should they be spelled?

16.1. Determining specifc loan words for inclusion Several sets of criteria which intersect and overlap at various points may be used to determine inclusion of loan words. Some specifc decisions are left indeterminate or arbitrary. The frst set of criteria deals with the extent of usage of the loan words in question. The degree of acceptance and usage of borrowed words may vary considerably from one item to another. The second set of criteria is concerned with the degree of variation from the Spanish of the borrowed words in a specifc situation. Social and cultural factors also infuence the choice of loan words to appear in the dictionary.

16.1.1. Extent of usage

Widespread usage of a borrowed term for which there is no common vernacular equivalent For many such words, there is no vernacular equivalent, since the term was borrowed along with the cultural item to which it refers. Terms such as lápiz pencil, avión airplane, or doctor may be the only local term in use for their respective concepts. Either the term was borrowed at the same time as the culturally transplanted item, or the original vernacular word has been lost. It is often helpful to consider to what degree the item or concept denoted by the term is an integral part of the local culture. If the borrowed word is the only term used for a given familiar item or concept, it should be included in the dictionary. Terms for common technology assimilated into the culture should also be included in all bilingual dictionaries. Common usage of a borrowed word paralleling that of a vernacular term In some cases, the vernacular word is archaic and seldom used although it does exist. If desired, it may be designated as archaic by a qualifying comment. Other borrowed words are freely interchangeable with the vernacular term and are used or understood

115 Loan words in the bilingual dictionary 116 by all. In this case, both borrowed and indigenous terms should be listed in parallel fashion. Note the following examples of both types:

(1) a. Isthmus Zapotec zapato [shoe] s. guidi boꞌcoꞌ (arcaico), zapatu b. Yaqui porque [because] conj. bwéꞌituk, porque

Limited usage of the loan word Borrowed words in this category are often used by the more bilingual segment of the population, while the rest of the group retain the vernacular term. Decisions regarding inclusion of these imports would presumably be made according to the extent of usage of both vernacular and borrowed terms. 16.1.2. Degree of variation The second set of criteria determining the inclusion or exclusion of specifc loan words deals with their degree of variation from standard Spanish pronunciation or meaning.

Semantic shift Borrowed words do not always retain their original meaning; some have even come to refer to the opposite concept from that designated by the term in the original language. Such words defnitely merit inclusion in the bilingual dictionary. In Isthmus Zapotec, for example, seguru means maybe or perhaps rather than expressing afrmation or confdence. In some indigenous languages, payo or a similar word has been borrowed from Spanish and currently means rebozo. However, payo comes from paño, a shortened form of pañuelo handkerchief. Many languages have the word meen, meñ or similar words to designate money. These words are adaptations of the word medio [half] as in medio real, a unit of Spanish currency in colonial times. Some languages use the Nahuatl term tomin (or a variant thereof) in addition to an adaptation of medio. The two usually refer to diferent types or denominations of money. Non-predictable pronunciation variation Spanish loan words displaying a change in pronunciation should be included in the vernacular section of the dictionary. This is especially true if such changes are not regular throughout all loans. Predictable or minimal variation in pronunciation The inclusion of words displaying minimal divergence from standard Spanish is more problematic. The decision on whether or not to include such items should be made in conjunction with the application of the usage criteria. 16.1.3. Social and cultural infuences There are also social and cultural factors that afect the decisions regarding the inclusion of loan words in the bilingual dictionary. As principles are formulated in this area, the compiler must attempt to maintain a balance between the conficting pressures. The following considerations must all be part of the decision process. 117 Social and cultural influences

Extent of linguistic borrowing Some languages borrow many more lexical items than others. In compiling the dictionary for those languages that have borrowed extensively, the linguist may need to decide which words to include on the pragmatic bases of time and money available. However, if a large group of borrowed words is omitted on the basis of minimal or regular changes in pronunciation, such a decision should be explained in the introductory material. The efect of omissions from the lexical display If borrowed words in common usage are not included in the dictionary, the vocabulary listing of the language is not complete. The outsider has no way of knowing whether the item in question is covered by a loanword or whether the compiler merely neglected to include that particular word in the dictionary. It is less acceptable to omit a common word such as lápiz pencil than to fail to include a relatively rare term which only appears in the speech of the most competent bilinguals. Years after their adoption, some of these borrowed terms are an integral part of the local vernacular and should be included as such. Moreover, some borrowed words retain only one of their senses when adopted into another language. This fact alone is sufcient reason for including them in the dictionary. In some Mexican languages for example, the loan word campo refers only to campo de aviación or airstrip rather than to felds in general or open country. The inclusion of loan words in the dictionary also exposes the local populace to the correct spelling and pronunciation of the word they had assumed was equivalent in standard Spanish to the local variety. Example from Tlachichilco Tepehua:

(2) a. pilatu s. plato [plate] b. sabru s. sábado [Saturday]

Purity of the indigenous language If there is a desire in the local area to keep the language and culture pure and relatively free from outside infuence, it is possible to include some loan words in the Spanish index of the dictionary but omit them from the vernacular section.1 However, in areas where the people are quite monolingual, such loans should also appear in the vernacular section. The indigenous speaker who does not realize that such an item is a borrowed term, could feel considerable frustration in not being able to locate it in the dictionary. The feelings of the local populace should be taken into consideration when making decisions based on language purity. In the introductory material, it may be helpful to point out that all languages borrow words from other languages and that no perfectly pure language exists. Examples may be cited from the plethora of Nahuatl words that are now accepted as part of standard Mexican Spanish: e.g., chocolate, zopilote, tomate. Spanish loans may be identifed as such by including the designation Del esp.(es- pañol) on the line for essential linguistic information, or alternately as part of the grammatical designation or qualifying comment. If the derivation is apparent at a glance, this designation may be omitted. If the origin of the word is not obvious from the translation equivalent, such an addition is helpful. Many languages have retained some 1It is not clear that this can be done if FLEx is used for producing the dictionary. Loan words in the bilingual dictionary 118 form of an archaic Spanish word that was introduced shortly after the conquest. Mi- istu, or some variation thereof, is a common word for cat throughout Mexico. Domestic cats and their Spanish designation were post-conquest introductions and the medieval Spanish term micho remains, even though modern Spanish refers to cats as gatos. If desired, an abbreviation such as esp arc may identify a word as derived from Spanish that is now archaic. Some so-called Spanish loans are originally derived from Nahuatl, e.g., chocolate. For purposes of inclusion in our dictionaries, we should not attempt to identify the immediate source of the item as it currently appears in the vernacular. Specialists believe that loanwords were adopted by many indigenous groups during several historical periods; some were pre-Conquest borrowings directly from Nahuatl, and others came into the indigenous languages from Spanish, although the mestizo culture had originally borrowed them from an indigenous language. There are also cases where Spanish words were borrowed, not directly from Spanish, but from the form in which they had been borrowed into Nahuatl. No attempt should be made to pass judgment on whether a given vernacular loan word was borrowed from Nahuatl or Spanish. Anything in current usage in Mexican Spanish should be labeled as a Spanish loan. 16.2. The spelling of loan words A number of factors afect the decisions involved in spelling loanwords. Spanish loans should be entered in the dictionary as they are spelled in the vernacular literature. If the pronunciation is completely changed, such items should naturally be spelled as they are pronounced in the indigenous language; e.g., Isthmus Zapotec dxuladi chocolate. The situation becomes more complicated when the loans retain the same or nearly the same pronunciation as in Spanish, but the orthography of the language of wider communication includes extra symbols or assigns diferent values to the letters. A balanced decision must be reached after consideration of several social and linguistic pressures.

16.2.1. Tradition Some feel that if one does not spell recognizable Spanish borrowings as in standard Spanish, the work will be criticized by Spanish speakers. In a very real sense, in some cases the bilingual dictionary is setting a spelling standard for the previously unwritten vernacular. By extension, the dictionary may also infuence written Spanish among the indigenous community. According to this point of view, the spelling of Spanish words should conform to the national standard for the beneft of incipient bilinguals. 16.2.2. Native speaker reaction Serious consideration should be given to the preference of the local people regarding the spelling of loanwords. Some groups will want them spelled in conformance with the language of wider communication and others by the phonemic standards of their own language. Often in situations where people prefer that borrowed items be spelled phonemically, there is not an excessive number of loans in common use in the language. If the number of loans is so great that the language approaches a pidgin or creole variant of the national language, standard spelling will probably be desired. If standard spelling is employed for items which in fact difer in pronunciation from accepted Spanish, it is possible to indicate the indigenous pronunciation on the line for essential 119 Degree of divergence from Spanish linguistic information. It is also theoretically possible to include both spellings in the dictionary listing. The less acceptable one from the point of view of the local populace can occur with a cross-reference to the other one where the main dictionary article would be located. It is often difcult to know how to handle Spanish proper names. People in some areas want their names spelled according to standard Spanish even though they may be pronounced diferently. Other groups prefer to have their names spelled as they are pronounced, especially when such shifts involve regular changes such as fnal o to u. In Isthmus Zapotec, this vowel shift is a regular feature that infuenced the decision to omit proper names from the dictionary altogether. However in literature for that area, such spellings are handled according to local preference. In one Mixtec dictionary the compilers included a list of names as spelled and pronounced in Spanish along with their indigenous pronunciation. 16.2.3. Degree of divergence from Spanish If there is a high degree of divergence from Spanish pronunciation, the words are usually spelled as pronounced. Many people probably do not recognize such items as borrowed words and would be confused by foreign spellings. Words with minimal variation are often spelled as congruently as possible with standard Spanish. Consistent variations from standard pronunciation may be spelled as pronounced, if desired: i.e., vestidu vestido,[dress], zapatu zapato [shoe], lapez lápiz [pencil]. It is often possible to modify the orthography to accommodate loan words in a manner satisfactory to the representatives of the national culture as well as the indigenous community. The alphabet can be expanded to include the necessary letters required by standard spelling of loan words. We do not question the necessity of adding f to accommodate frasco jar since there is usually no other possible representation for that sound. How- ever, there is a temptation to eliminate Spanish letters that signify the same sounds as other Spanish letters already in use in the indigenous orthography. Further modifcation of the indigenous orthography may permit one letter to represent more than one sound. Some orthographies have adopted letters from the Spanish alphabet to represent vernacular phonemes that do not occur in Spanish. This practice permits the local language in its written form to appear less foreign and to be more easily keyboarded. If the standard spelling of loan words is desired and there is a confict in the use of certain symbols, such symbols may represent both values. For example, if z is used to represent a voiced fricative in the vernacular, a word such as zapato does not need to be written with an initial s because the fricative is voiceless. Because h may be used to indicate a glottal stop, it is not necessarily eliminated in Spanish loans such as hora. Special alphabet sections may be necessary additions to the vernacular section of the dictionary to accommodate loans beginning with letters not otherwise in the indigenous alphabet. The introductory section of the dictionary should include an explanation of the treatment of loan words. The principles governing inclusion or exclusion should be defned, spelling adjustments noted, and attention given to letters with more than one pronunciation. Such explanations are an integral part of the explanatory material accompanying a bilingual dictionary. Loan words in the bilingual dictionary 120 16.3. The marking of Spanish origin in the entry Loan words should be marked as of Spanish origin in cases where the pronunciation has diverged from the original to a degree that the word is no longer recognizable as a borrowing from Spanish. That is, if the compiler is aware of Spanish antecedents for a specifc vernacular word not resembling current Spanish in its pronunciation, he should share this knowledge with his readers. He is not, however, expected to become a specialist in historical linguistics and the history of language contacts. Words displaying phonological patterns very rare for the indigenous language should be suspected of originating in the language of wider communication, perhaps at a very early point in the history of contact between the two groups. However, there are examples of irregular phonological patterns or phonemes that are due to onomatopoeia rather than borrowing. For example, the Totontepec Mixe word for woodpecker reꞌtic contains a drawn out, trilled r — presumably reminiscent of the noise the bird makes drilling its holes in a tree. Recognizable Spanish borrowings may also be marked as such, but it is not essential. It is even possible to mark those that are identical to current Spanish if they are in common use. The dictionary should not be cluttered, however, with long lists of loan words, each marked as a Spanish loan, if they occur only in the speech of highly bilingual speakers. A group of examples illustrating the three categories follows: A loan that everyone knows and uses, but which is unchanged from the Spanish, either phonologically or semantically, should be in the dictionary but does not need to be marked as a borrowed word:

(3) pala s. pala [shovel]

A loan that is in common usage, but has been adapted to local patterns through a regular phonological process, also does not need to be overtly marked as a loan.

(4) pal s. pala [shovel]

A loan unrecognizable as such by the non-specialist should be marked as having been derived from Spanish. This designation should be on the line for essential linguistic information as that is the location of etymological information. It is, however, possible to include it with the grammatical designation.

(5) xapu s. jabón [soap] ... Del español jabón

Alternatively: xapu s. esp. jabón

Probably some loans are unrecognizable as such even by outsiders with a background in the pertinent aspects of linguistics. Needless to say, they should be identifed as being of Spanish origin if the compiler happens to be aware of this fact. A Northern Tepehuan example:

(6) ašñityu s. burro Del español asno. 121 Phonological processes 16.4. Historical processes afecting loan words

16.4.1. Semantic shift D. Lincoln Canfeld (1934) has advanced some possible reasons for the dearth of indigenous words naming common cultural items, especially animals that were part of the fauna native to the region before the Conquest. For instance, he feels that the indigenous word for rabbit was widely extended to refer to the asno manso [tame ass, burro] which arrived with the Spanish conquerors in the sixteenth century. Can- feld cites evidence from both Nahuatl and Córdoba’s Zapotec dictionary to support his observation. The Cordemex Maya dictionary (Barrerea Vásquez et al. 1980) has the following entry:

(7) tꞌul s. 1. conejo, liebre [rabbit, hare] 2. mula [mule] Se le llama así a la mula o al macho por sus largas orejas se- mejantes a las del conejo. [The mule, or the male, is called this because of its long ears, similar to those of the rabbit.]

Incidentally, there are other words listed for rabbit in this dictionary, but the only other one for mule is a compound or derivative using this same root. Perhaps the widespread practice of naming the mule with the local term for the rabbit lies behind the present day phenomenon that a large number of the indigenous languages use the Spanish word conejo to refer to a rabbit. Some compilers have reported a similar shift in meaning for the indigenous word for deer which now refers to a cow or a bull. Only with the addition of another morpheme can it refer to the original and indigenous deer. 16.4.2. Phonological processes Due to the tendency to think of Spanish as it is presently spoken, it is easy for a compiler to miss the vital clue linking an apparently native indigenous word to the national language. Most compilers have little understanding of how Spanish was pronounced in the Middle Ages. Spanish, too, has undergone phonological shifts and the letters with which we are familiar may once have been symbols for quite diferent sounds. Canfeld (1934) quotes Neve y Molina (Reglas de ortografía, diccionario, y arte del idioma otomi, 1767) and others linking the present s̆ sound in Spanish loans with the medieval pronunciation of words now spelled with a j:“There are many borrowed Spanish terms reported by these writers, in which the s̆ of Otomí, represented by x or s, depicts a former Spanish s̆ or s.” He also cites some examples from Neve y Molina:

(8) gato [cat] na mixi jarro [jar] na xarò José na Xuxè Juan na Xuá jabón [soap] xabo

Spanish loans undoubtedly entered the indigenous languages in several diferent waves or historical periods. Even in the same language, some may seem more assimilated to the local phonological patterns than others. Northern Tepehuan has many loan words from Spanish. Some of these are relatively easy to recognize as loans, but many Loan words in the bilingual dictionary 122 are not that obvious since they have been altered in their phonological form. When possible, the latter group should be identifed as Spanish loans in order to indicate this information to a non-specialist. The knowledge that they probably did in fact enter Tepehuan several centuries ago is a very interesting historical footnote. The relatively recognizable loans include the following:

(9) piisu peso [unit of money] quiisu queso [cheese] iiro hilo [thread] mooꞌno mono [monkey] paali padre [father] plaaso plazo [term, installment]

Probably, it would be better if even these were identifed as Spanish loan words. How much more important it will be to identify the items in the following list as borrowings as they have become completely assimilated to the Tepehuan phonological patterns.

(10) laapísi lápiz [pencil] vaacási vaca [cow] tuúru toro [bull] muúra mula [mule] tɨlíígi trigo [wheat] curúúsi cruz [cross] síísaro chícharo [pea] cusñiiruga cocinera [cook] troóca troca [truck, fromEnglish via regional Spanish]

Apparently there is an intermediate group of partially assimilated Tepehuan loan words. Burt Bascom classifes them thus because they reduplicate the penultimate syllable to form the plural rather than reduplicating the frst syllable, which is more common. Otherwise, they are assimilated to the Tepehuan phonological system. Prob- ably they were adopted during a diferent historical period than the other two groups of loan words. Examples include:

(11) Singular Plural papéli papepéli papel [paper] asñitu asñiñitu asno [ass] pastuúru pastutuúru pasto [pasture] cañiiru cañiñííru carnero [sheep] pantalóóñi pantalolóóñi pantalón [trousers]

The dictionary compiler need not historically classify loan words in the language. The responsibility is to provide the necessary data to enable historians and language contact specialists to continue research in this area. Part V Linguistic aspects of the dictionary

17 Grammatical designations and standard word classes

In the bilingual dictionary, the grammatical designation and the prose description of the grammar display the logical structure and formal categories of the language under consideration. The formal aspects of the language is most evident in, and characteristic of, the grammatical description. The grammatical designation identifes the grammatical category of the lexical entry. It appears as an abbreviation in italic print between the entry word and the Spanish translation equivalent. The parts of speech designated there correlate with the grammatical description (see §21), which enumerates all the pertinent parts of speech and gives the infectional possibilities and syntactic properties of each. The grammatical category assigned to the entry word in the indigenous language should refect a linguistic analysis of the morphological and syntactic properties of that word. But since the grammatical sketch is written to be compatible with the general model of traditional school grammars, the grammatical designation should conform to the traditional categories and criteria for distinguishing word classes and subclasses where applicable. The analysis and subsequent designation should also specifcally recognize any special classifcatory categories that are called for by the structure of the indigenous language—even though such categories may be unique to that language. All things being equal, the same name should be assigned to a word class in the indigenous language as to the corresponding word class in the national language. When the linguistic facts are diferent, an innovation in terminology is in order. The dictionary compiler, therefore, needs a broad background in grammatical matters. Of paramount importance are: 1) the traditional principles of word classifcation, 2) the specifc traditions of word classifcation in Spanish or another national language, and 3) the structural facts of the indigenous language including morphology and afxation, concord and government, and syntactic behavior. The job of the bilingual dictionary compiler is to analyze the structural facts of the vernacular and present them according to the traditions of the classifcation system revealed in traditional parts of speech used for the national language. The grammatical designation is normally the only item separating the entry and its translation equivalent. It should be a very brief indication of the grammatical nature of the word. By making it just a short abbreviation, a relatively inexperienced reader should not be hindered in immediately connecting the word with its translation equivalent. The emphasis is on a very brief indication of the grammatical nature of the word. Normally, any further refnements such as verb class designation, paradigm 125 Grammatical designations and standard word classes 126 indication, or tone pattern classifcation, should be included in the area for essential linguistic information (§19). The professional linguist interested in this material will easily be able to locate it following the main body of the entry. In that location, such information will not impede the inexperienced dictionary user in progressing through the main part of the entry. Abbreviations must be carefully thought out and refect standard usage as much as possible. The reader should not be burdened with remembering which one of a potentially ambiguous pair of designations is referred to by the abbreviation in question. That is, since pr could equally well indicate preposition or pronoun, it should be used for neither. It is much better to use prep for preposition and pron for pronoun.

17.1. The historical development of word classes The long tradition of classifying words into parts of speech goes back to the ancient Greeks and comes down through the Latin grammars. In ancient times, the order and categories of language were claimed to be an expression of the order and logical categories of the universe. For example, a noun was an expression of a substance, an adjective an expression of a quality, etc. This type of logical-grammatical parallelism lasted for centuries and the Greek and Latin models were seen as the ideal formal structure for all languages. There are typically eight parts of speech: noun, pronoun, adjective, verb, adverb, preposition, conjunction, and interjection. Modern Spanish grammarians add the article as an additional grammatical category. Words may be infected or uninfected. In American descriptive linguistics, great attention was paid to the morphology of the infected noun-like and verb-like words; the uninfected words were called particles. In traditional grammar, syntactic behavior largely determines the grammatical classifcation of uninfected words. Familiar characterizations include: adverbs modify verbs, adjectives or other adverbs; prepositions introduce phrases, and conjunctions introduce clauses; interjections are generally detached from the basic elements of sentence structure. Up until the Middle Ages, no distinction was made between noun and adjective for Indo-European languages. It is evident even today that many nouns and adjectives had a common origin and form. The derivative process historically has worked both ways. For example:

(1) a. The noun rose meaning a fower has a derived adjective rose meaning a color. b. The Spanish adjective negro meaning black has a derived noun negros meaning the blacks.

The semantic relationship between substance and quality was perceived as that between the concrete (noun) and the abstract (adjective). Participles are generally considered part of the verb paradigm, but in some respects are separated from it and considered as adjectives except when they occur within a conjugated verbal construction, e.g., I have arrived. The preposition was originally only a relational marker and often not distinguished from a conjunction. The pronoun, by one criterion, cannot be a grammatical category since it does not have a distinctive function in the sentence. The ancient concept of the adverb was very vague and only partially congruent with the modern idea of that word class. 127 Bases underlying grammatical category classifications

Renaissance Spanish distinguished only noun, verb, and particle following the grammarians of Arabic. The Latin tradition resulted in the typical eight parts of speech mentioned earlier. Much later, the grammarian Bello (1951) posited seven parts of speech by including pronouns with nouns. Historically, relationships have been seen between the fve categories of human perception and the parts of speech. That is, the categories of substance, process, quality, manner, and relationships have been linked respectively with nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, and prepositions/conjunctions. In 1962 Eugene Nida (1975) suggested that lexical units could be universally classifed into four semantic categories: objects, events, abstracts, and relationals. He stated: “These four basic semantic classes not only exist in all languages but appear to be fundamental to the analysis of the meaningful relationships between all types of lexical forms.” All languages certainly express these ideas of substance, relationships, quality, etc., but not all languages have separate grammatical categories for each of these concepts. Each language has its own system of parts of speech, and the word classes are intimately related with the classes of sentences recognized in that language. The intrinsic structure underlying universal reality is subject to structural analysis by specifc people according to specifc traditions. Language systems presuppose a set interpretation of reality. This is not necessarily based on psychological reality or any special characteristics of the speakers, but is rooted in the formative processes of the language which, whether mother language or proto-language, is susceptible to analysis as well. For example, the fundamental structure of Spanish and its unique representation of reality was not created wholly by speakers of that language but inherited from other languages such as Greek or Latin. In living languages, some categories or forms will supersede their original function and express ideas that technically belong to other logical categories. Some verbs are used to express qualities even though the adjective is the normal vehicle for the expression of those concepts. Another shift in category is represented by the old Spanish or Latin demonstrative pronouns which moved into the third person category, necessitating the adoption of other words to fulfll the demonstrative function. 17.2. The logical and linguistic bases underlying grammatical category classifcations Spanish dictionaries identify the grammatical category for each word, and it is ftting that the bilingual dictionaries of Mexican indigenous languages employ a parallel classifcation of the vernacular words. Since the indigenous people will conceptualize reality in diferent terms than speakers of the national language, language-specifc facts may call for the subdivision of some of the traditional parts of speech. Spanish nouns are subclassifed for gender—masculine or feminine. Verbs are subclassifed as transitive, intransitive, or pronominal. For a given Mexican indigenous language, a noun may be subclassifed for possession—obligatorily possessed or non- obligatorily possessed—or it may be categorized as animate or inanimate. Verbs may be classifed as bitransitive as well as transitive and intransitive, or as causative versus basic, stative versus transitive or intransitive, etc. The addition of infectional afxes does not change the basic word class as a rule, but the addition of derivational afxes frequently requires the word to be identifed as a diferent grammatical category. José Roca Pons (1976), discusses the principles for classifying words into parts of speech. Some of these ideas are summarized in the following sections. Grammatical designations and standard word classes 128 17.2.1. Descriptive versus historical viewpoints Traditional grammarians viewed the structure of a given language from the point of view of a Latin model. Often the historical antecedents became normative and de- partures from the historically correct forms were viewed with suspicion at best. The modern descriptive point of view views the structure of the language from its internal characteristics and functional categories. It is neither exclusively logical, psychological, nor normative; but structural and functional. 17.2.2. The relationship of semantic and formal criteria Parts of speech are set up for a given language employing both semantic and formal criteria. If a word class has a distinctive semantic content and a specialized function in the sentence, e.g., subject, predicate, etc., its classifcation as a separate category has a syntactic basis in the strictest sense of the word. Applying this criterion alone, Spanish can be said to have six parts of speech: noun, adjective, verb, adverb, preposition, and conjunction. The last two are not characterized by semantic content but by a syntactic function which has features that separate them from the others. Some other candidates for unique parts of speech are eliminated because they have no specialized function in the sentence. Pronouns, for example, often function as a noun; but at other times, fll the role of an adjective. A participle is primarily a verbal construction but may function as an adjective. The article is neither a noun nor an adjective but is linked to both word classes. An interjection is not strictly a grammatical category but may substitute for a complete sentence. It is necessary to take a broader view of word class formation than one bounded completely by sentence syntax. All the syntactic possibilities should be considered, including the combinations and relationships of a given word type with other linguistic elements. From such a perspective, a pronoun is considered a distinct entity because it has a specifc relationship to the other categories, one of substitution. The article also has its own syntactic properties defned by its relationship to the noun, as opposed to that of other adjectives. These are quite distinct from its status as a morpheme or from its morphemic content. 17.2.3. Form versus dependency relationships Grammatical functions may be said to be the relationships among linguistic elements. Such functions may be the dependency relationships among the elements themselves or within larger paradigmatic or syntactic units. Reciprocity is one such relationship. Spanish gender exemplifes the reciprocity relationship. Existence of a masculine gender presupposes the existence of a feminine gender in both nouns and adjectives. The reciprocity relationship on the syntactic plane demands that the person and number of verbs be congruent with their subject/object nouns. A relationship of dominant influence, one upon another, exists when one category presupposes the existence of another but the relationship is not reciprocal. For example, the existence of a dual category presupposes the existence of the singular and plural categories, but the reverse is not necessarily true as many languages have singular and plural categories but omit the dual. Other linguistic elements are independent of each other and have no direct logical connection. The existence of gender does not presuppose a case system applicable to nouns. A case system of noun function identifcation does not presuppose the existence of the preposition in, although it may certainly be present in a given language. Standard relationships among linguistic elements of a sentence include coordination, 129 Inflectable versus noninflectable forms subordination, independence, and the new relationship established between elements by the introduction of a relating word such as a preposition: e.g., the addition of the preposition in to the house places the house in a diferent relationship to the rest of the sentence than if it were the subject of a verb. 17.2.4. Paradigmatic versus syntactic relationships A strict separation between morphology and syntax is very difcult to maintain. Infectional morphology must surely be described in the grammar sketch as it is an important factor in the assigning of words to classes. Derivational morphology afects word class structure and is particularly important to consider when dealing with agglutinative languages. It must be remembered that grammatical structure is basically syntactic and, as such, it afects both morphology and syntax. Neither can be ignored in the postulation of appropriate word classes. 17.2.5. The principle of opposition The concept of opposition is related to that of the reciprocal and dependent relationships discussed in 17.2.3. Simply stated, the concept of opposition means that if one category is present, there must be one or more opposite categories with which that category contrasts. A masculine class of nouns implies that there must also be a class of feminine nouns; if plural is established as a grammatical feature, there must also be a singular; if past tense is separately marked, a future, present, or both is implied. If there is no contrast, there is no category. 17.2.6. Infectable versus noninfectable forms Both morphological and syntactic criteria are applicable to Spanish word classes. Certain word classes are noninfectable and certain others are susceptible to various nominal or verbal types of infection. This feature of Spanish coincides in part with the traditional variable/invariable criterion of determining word classes. Words capable of being infected are mainly nouns and verbs. In the case of Spanish, nominal infectional afxes also occur with adjectives, articles, and pronouns. Each main infectable word class exhibits distinctive characteristics, both morphological and syntactic. The Spanish verb is also capable of functioning as more than one word class in some of its forms. The personal, infected forms normally fll the predicate function. Very seldom are they used in any other way. This feature contrasts sharply with the overlap between Spanish adjectives and nouns which often behave syntactically as members of the other class. However, the nonpersonal verb forms, namely, the infnitive, gerund, and participle, may fll nominal or adjectival functions in the sentence even though they are considered basically verbal in form and function. Noninfectable forms in Spanish divide partially along the distinctive lines of adverb, preposition, conjunction, and interjection. Adverbs are a heterogeneous group at best, some occurring with the sufx -mente and some without. Interjections function as complete exclamatory sentences. Prepositions and conjunctions share a linking function. Of these, the coordinate conjunctions are a subgroup linking elements of equal level or category. Grammatical designations and standard word classes 130 17.2.7. Word and phrasal constructions For most languages, the word formation processes are similar to phrase construction principles. Sometimes it is difcult to determine the status of clitics or other dependent words. There are also occasional infected forms that function in an analogous manner to phrases or expressions such as auxiliary verb constructions. Compare the English I will speak to the Spanish hablaré. In Spanish, estaba comiendo is virtually interchangeable with comía he was eating. However, the components of a phrase are normally more independent and subject to modifcation than are the various morphemes making up a single word. Words tend to have a more rigid ordering of their parts, and to be less susceptible to interruption by other morphemes, than the order of phrasal components. 17.2.8. Words with multiple grammatical designations Many particles don't ft neatly into any one class and thus are difcult to categorize as a specifc grammatical category. These are primarily uninfectable forms and have their own characteristics based on their function in sentences; the same word may have more than one syntactic function depending on the context. In some languages, the same word may at times function as a demonstrative adjective, at other times as a demonstrative pronoun, and additionally as a demonstrative adverb, e.g., here, there, over yonder. Such a word may even additionally signify a third person pronoun or the article. An example from Francisco León Zoque:

(2) jutipø 1. pron. lo que [that which] Ja chiꞌ øjtzi jutipø nø sunu. No me dio lo que yo quería. [He didn't give me what I wanted.] 2. adj. el que [the one which] Ja chiꞌ øjtzi jutipø libro nø sunu. No me dio el libro que yo quería. [He didn't give me the book which I wanted.] 3. pron. interr. cuál [which one] ¿Jutipø mi sunba? ¿Cuál quieres tú? [Which one do you want?] 4. adj. interr. cuál [which] ¿Jutipø vacas maꞌn̠bø ndziꞌocuꞌyaje?¿Cuál vaca le voy a entregar? [Which cow am I going to give him?]

An attempt to apply the principles of classifcation may yield alternative parts of speech: e.g., my book could be considered as an adjective plus a noun since my modifes book. If prominence is given to the fact that my has a referent, the grammatical category assigned to it could be pronoun. Likewise, for prepositions and conjunctions, their function in the sentence afects the meaning of the construction as a whole, in addition to whatever inherent semantic content is in the words themselves. Relational words are harder to classify as they are also an intermediate category between afxes and regular morphemes with normal semantic content. This is in keeping with their function as links between the regular classes of words. On the one hand, they are relatively independent (normally uninfected); and on the other hand, they do not express concepts with any regular semantic content, but only carry a functional or relational meaning. 17.3. Inclusion of the grammatical designation in a dictionary entry The inclusion of a grammatical designation serves various purposes and audiences. 131 Designation by traditional labels 17.3.1. Correlation with the grammatical sketch The grammatical designation provides a handy reference key to the grammatical sketch in the appendix which is arranged according to the parts of speech. If the location of appropriate descriptive material is not immediately apparent, the detailed index to the grammatical section may be consulted. If an entry is designated as noun or a certain type of verb, appropriate descriptive material will be found under those headings. The reader can directly consult these sections without relying on the grammatical category indicated by the translation equivalent. In some cases, the vernacular word may belong to a diferent word class than the equivalent in the language of wider communication. 17.3.2. Check for consistency The necessity of providing each single-word entry with a grammatical designation also provides a handy check on consistent treatment of similar items. The compilers need to be able to look at a group of items that presumably function in the same manner and assure themselves that the treatment given them in the dictionary is systematic and congruent. 17.3.3. Aid to the speaker of the language of wider communication The grammatical designations can provide a framework for the speaker of the language of wider communication who is attempting to relate to the vernacular and its speakers in some way. Such a student, bilingual teacher, or merchant will have been taught the standard presentation of Spanish grammar in terms of the eight parts of speech. If the grammatical structure of the vernacular can be described in terms of the standard national system, such a statement provides familiar terminology as a point of reference. At the same time, it must be realized that the grammatical categories of any two languages are not going to match exactly and that some items will be designated by classifcatory labels unknown to speakers of the national language. Where the categories do not match, or where the vernacular is either more detailed or less detailed than the national language, the dissimilarities immediately highlight points of interest and areas needing explanation in the grammatical description. 17.3.4. Value to the speaker of the indigenous language Finally, there is a psychological beneft accruing to the indigenous people who can see the structure of their language discussed in terms of the language of wider communication with the use of standard terminology. Such evidence refutes the charge that the indigenous language is too exotic or substandard to merit a place in a modern world, and documents the completeness, complexity, and richness of the language. A classifcation and discussion of the categories of both languages should facilitate the translation of didactic materials from one language to the other as well. 17.4. General considerations relative to grammatical designations

17.4.1. Designation by traditional labels The standard system of eight parts of speech does not match the division into form classes of American structural linguistics which recognizes chiefy nouns, verbs, and Grammatical designations and standard word classes 132 particles. These classes are defned in terms of afxation: nouns have person, number, and possessive afxation; verbs are infected for person and for tense-aspect; and particles have neither type of infection. The eight parts of speech from the historical perspective of Indo-European languages are a mixture of designation by function (an adverb modifes...) and form (a noun is a name of an object and can be infected...). It is not very difcult to match the broad general classes designated as nouns and verbs. Usually, particles encompass all the remaining categories historically called parts of speech. Therefore, what may be structurally a particle will need to be reclassifed according to function. 17.4.2. Comparative functions of the grammatical designation and the grammar sketch The function of the grammatical designation is to identify and label the dictionary entries for grammatical category, thus providing category labels or section designations within the total grammatical structure. The grammatical sketch, on the other hand, is charged with the responsibility of explaining the grammatical system of the language as a whole. This description should include a discussion of regular features of the language as well as irregularities, of both major and minor word classes, thus providing the reader with an overview of the way in which the various units of the grammatical structure ft together into a coherent system. The major word classes are those with infectional morphology; generally verbs, nouns, and, in some cases, adjectives. The meanings expressed by the infectional systems must be identifed and explained in the grammar sketch. In most languages, the minor word classes are those that do not have infectional afxes. These include articles, pronouns, adjectives of certain types, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections. The minor word classes also have certain syntactic properties which need to be described in the grammar. 17.4.3. Relationship of the grammatical designation to the entry word The grammatical designation applies to the entry word and not to the translation equivalent. This fact should be clearly stated in the introductory section of the dictionary. This principle applies to the Spanish index as well as to the vernacular dictionary. If there is a discrepancy between the designation for an entry word and that of its translation equivalent due to a diference in structure of the two languages, it must remain just that—a discrepancy. In such cases, the grammatical category appropriate to the translation equivalent will difer from the stated grammatical designation for the entry word. 17.5. The standard word classes of Spanish grammar1 The following discussion is not designed to be a course in Spanish grammar, but to provide tips useful in identifying the various word classes. Acceptable terminology that may be employed in labeling the signifcant categories of both languages is included as well. Since many national languages are structurally similar, the word classes discussed here should have broad applicability. Much of the illustrative material in this section is drawn from relevant categories of Mexican languages. Identifcation and labeling are in focus at this point; an organized description of the grammatical system of the

1The material in this section is based on Roca Pons (1976) and the grammatical sketch in Anonymous (1978). 133 Nouns language will be treated in §21. The reader is urged to consult the Spanish grammars listed in the reference bibliography for more extensive and detailed information on Spanish word classes.

17.5.1. Nouns Traditionally, nouns are used to designate persons, places, or things. The naming function of nouns is applied not only to objects, but also to those concepts whose semantic content is thought of as an object or entity. Such concepts are normally abstract qualities or processes (e.g., beauty, love, development) but they are thought of as objects. Within the sentence, nouns function primarily as subjects or the nucleus of the subject construction. They may also have a predicate function in the sense of flling a predicate nominative role. If the statement is reversible, the construction is known as a predicate nominative: e.g., John is the captain, The captain is John. Nouns have a defnite semantic content of substance and are a primary way of thinking about reality. They are primarily objects—things or people and, only secondarily, qualities or actions. In some languages, derivational afxes change the function of verbs to that of nouns. As a result of this type of afxation, the action of the verb may be nominalized, e.g., the action of washing clothes. In other cases, the action may be viewed as a state resulting from an accomplished action, e.g., the having-been-spoken-thing the word. Other common nominalized forms include agent (he-who-speaks) and instrument (that- which-wipes-the-face handkerchief). All such noun types, and any other classes of words that may be considered a type of object or person rather than a type of event, are designated as substantives in the vernacular side of the dictionary. At the discretion of the compiler, the classifcation of vernacular nouns may be subdivided to more nearly correspond to the structure of the language as described in the grammatical sketch. Possible sub-categories include animate nouns, inanimate nouns, mass nouns, count nouns, nouns of location, time, or manner. An appropriate designation must be consistently used with each type. The Spanish classifcation of nouns as masculine or feminine is based on their syntactic behavior. Nouns are classifed by gender because they control the selection of afxes on the words that modify them (adjectives and articles). Nouns and their modifers may also have derived forms for augmentative (aumentativo) and diminutive (diminutivo). Some nouns may have a masculine and a feminine form corresponding to natural gender, perro, perra male dog, female dog. Most nouns may be infected for plural. Most Mesoamerican languages do not divide nouns according to masculine and feminine gender, but a number of these languages have other noun distinctives which afect the afxation of other parts of speech or which infuence the syntax. In addition to the animate/inanimate distinction, there is a classifcation based on human vs. animal vs. deity in some of the Mixtec languages. In Mixtec, the formal distinction is in the pronoun rather than the noun itself. Some languages may have an infected form of a noun with independent status that serves as the predicate of an equational clause but with no copulative verb such as the be of English; e.g., John man rather than John is a man. Grammatical designations and standard word classes 134 17.5.2. Adjectives Adjectives modify nouns and specify qualities such as essence, color, size, or quantity. The function of adjectives must be distinguished from their afxation. In Spanish, the afxation of forms called adjectives indicates primarily a noun modifying or attributive function. The construction composed of noun plus adjective in a modifying relationship is common, the noun plus noun compound is much less common. Unless it is nominalized, an adjective needs the noun but the reverse is not true for logical syntax. The greater nominal category also includes the pronoun which may take some, but not all, of the infectional possibilities of the noun. Nouns and adjectives usually have the same derivational possibilities, such as diminutive.

(3) a. arbolito little tree b. blanquito little white

Thus, the adjective is characterized by its dependence on the noun and its fundamental attributive function. In some Mesoamerican languages, the afxation of forms which might be called adjectives shows them to have the primary function of predication; that is, they are a sub-class of verbs. The grammatical designation of such forms depends upon whether they are viewed primarily as modifers or as predicates. If they only function as modifers, they are designated as adjective. If they function primarily as verbs, they may be labeled as stative verbs. If labeled as verbs, the grammar description should include a discussion of the dual function. If they are labeled adjectives, precedence is given to their role as designators of qualities. The description is thus accommodated to the classifcation of words similar in lexical content to the Spanish adjective. Both lexical content and local opinion should be considered in making the decision regarding labeling forms which have an ambiguous or dual function. In Spanish or English, the use of an adjective as predication — e.g., The book is red. — requires the insertion of a copulative verb. For Mayan languages, no verb is used in predicate adjective constructions. The predicate adjective is infected, however, in a manner which parallels the verbal infection system. An example from Tzotzil (Delgaty & Ruiz Sánchez 1978):

(4) a. Nat li teꞌe. El árbol es alto. [The tree is tall.] b. Natun. Soy alto. [I am tall.]

Generally in Spanish, the predicate function is the domain of the verb and the adjective. The verb functions exclusively as predicate; the adjective functions primarily as a noun modifer, and only secondarily as a predicate. Ignoring the verb participles for the moment, true verbs are not attributes and their presence normally signals a complete utterance. Even though adjectives and verbs coincide in a secondary function of predicate adjective, the infection of the two classes is so distinct that they clearly constitute two separate parts of speech. Verbs are infected for tense, person, aspect, etc., and adjectives are infected for gender and number. Ignoring the demonstrative or quantifying adjective, the basic semantic content of this word class is that of quality. Spanish adjectives are subclassifed into qualifers (califcativos) and determiners (determinativos). The qualifers have been the topic of discussion up to this point. Those adjectives generally express comparison by a phrase: más bonito prettier, más grande 135 Adjectives bigger, etc. A few adjectives have special forms for the comparative and superlative degrees: bueno, mejor, óptimo good, better, best. The determiners further subdivide into possessive adjectives, demonstrative adjectives, numerals, and indefnite adjectives. The determiners also agree with the noun they modify in gender and number. In Spanish, numbers are a subclass of adjectives; but in other languages, the morphology may indicate they are a separate word class designated simply as number. Even in Spanish, the numbers have special properties and distribution, they are not infected for gender and they occur preceding the noun they modify rather than normally following the headword. It may also become necessary to distinguish between cardinal and ordinal numbers. Other classifcations of numerals are partitive, e.g., medio half, tercio third, etc.; distributive, or multiple, e.g., doble double, triple triple, cuádru- ple quadruple, etc. Spanish cardinal numerals are uno, dos, tres, cuatro, cinco, etc., while the ordinals are primero, segundo, tercero, cuarto, quinto, etc. Some indigenous languages have classifcatory morphemes in the numeral complex which indicate some physical characteristic of the noun being counted (long, soft, round, etc.). If independent words, these must also appear in the dictionary listing, probably designated as numerical classifers. A detailed treatment of such items is probably best handled in the appendix section where it is possible to list them all together and give examples of each. Often an impressive and interesting appendix is the result. Spanish has a separate set of articles which are diferent in form from the demonstrative adjectives. The choice of any given one is determined by the noun and expresses its number and gender. The articles are either defnite (el, la, los, las) or indefnite (un, una, unos, unas). There is also a small group of indefnite adjectives (alguno some, cada each, cualquier whatever, ninguno none, todo all, varios various, etc.). In many vernacular languages, the articles are derivatives of, or equivalent to, the demonstrative adjectives. Spanish grammatical designations must be kept in mind and used in the Spanish index. However, it is unnecessary to set up artifcial categories for the vernacular if a simpler system can handle the material. It is recommended to start with the basic classes and only subdivide them if the morpho-syntax of the language warrants it. In Spanish, there is a small sub-set of demonstrative adjectives, which has been distinguished, at least until recently, from the set of demonstrative pronouns by the accent. Accented forms are pronouns; unaccented forms are adjectives.2 The demonstrative adjectives, therefore, are the same forms as will be displayed in the chart in 17.5.3.4 but without the accents. There are also neuter demonstrative pronouns which are not paralleled by similar adjectives. The three sets of demonstrative adjectives are:

(5) este, esta, estos, estas this, these ese, esa, esos, esas that, those aquel, aquella, aquellos, aquellas that, those (farther removed)

The Spanish possessive adjectives are identical in form to the possessive pronouns but only the adjectives can occur in the short form:

2The Real Academia Española now discourages the use of accents on demonstrative pronouns except where they would be ambiguous in a given context. Grammatical designations and standard word classes 136

(6) mío, mi/mis my tuyo, tu/tus your suyo, su/sus his, hers, theirs

Some demonstrative pronouns are clearly diferentiated from adjectives; for others, the demarcation is not as clear since pronouns themselves can be either substantive or adjectival. It is necessary to focus on the usages of possessive pronouns and demonstrative adjectives, as well as the classic defnition that an adjective modifes or determines a noun. When the possessives and demonstratives are subordinate members of the noun phrase, they function as adjectives; they function as pronouns when occurring as head of the noun phrase, the head noun not being expressed. 17.5.3. Pronouns A pronoun substitutes for a noun and may be used to avoid using the same word twice to designate the subject or object of a verb. For this word class, the formal criterion of the defnition is of a diferent type than those defnitions based on the function of the word class in the sentence. The pronoun has grammatical character and function even though, as a referent, its semantic content is dependent on the context. There are several classes of pronouns in Spanish, and probably in most languages, but the number of members in each class is limited to a relatively small number, making subdivision unnecessary. The six classes of pronouns in Spanish grammar are the personal, interrogative, indefnite, demonstrative, possessive, and relative. Remember that in Spanish, an orthographic accent often serves to distinguish pronouns from adjectives (at least traditionally, in the case of demonstratives); demonstrative, interrogative, and some of the personal pronouns occur with an accent while their corresponding adjectives do not. Each of the six types of Spanish pronouns will be discussed further and examples given of their counterparts in some indigenous languages.

Personal pronoun (pronombre personal) Spanish has diferent forms of the personal pronouns according to the syntactic role involved: e.g., yo (subject), me (object), mí (object of a preposition); all are frst person personal pronouns. Many languages do not make these distinctions; they use the same form for two or all of these functions. An example from Copainalá Zoque (Harrison et al. 1981):

(7) ʌs 1. pron. pers. yo (sujeto de verbo transitivo) [I (subject of transitive verb)] ʌs manbaꞌ ʌs ndzʌjcu ndʌc jomepʌ. Yo voy a hacer mi casa nueva. [I'm going to build my new house.] 2. pron. pos. mi, mis [my] Jaꞌndeꞌ jene mʌja ʌs nagajwetʌc. Mi cafetal no es muy grande. [My cofee feld is not very big.]

A given indigenous language may, however, have variants of the pronouns determined by other factors. In Isthmus Zapotec, there are two sets of personal pronouns, a free set whose members serve to indicate object, and a clitic set used to indicate subject and possession.

(8) a. naa pron. me, a mí [me, to me] b. lii pron. te, a tí [you, to you] 137 Pronouns

c. laake pron. la, le, lo [her, him, it] Var. laa

(9) a. -eꞌ pron. Indica posesión de primera persona del singular. [Indicates frst person singular possession.] Var. -aꞌ b. luꞌ pron. Indica posesión de segunda persona del singular. [Indicates second person singular possession.] Var. -uꞌ, -oꞌ c. be pron. Indica posesión de tercera persona del singular. [Indicates third person singular possession.]

(10) a. bere s. gallina [hen] ♦ xpereꞌ mi gallina [my hen] b. ruchuuguꞌ v. t. cortar [he cuts] ♦ ruchuuguaꞌ corto [I cut] c. lidxi s. hogar [home] ♦ lidxi luꞌ, liꞌdxuꞌ tu hogar [your home] ♦ lidxi be su hogar [his home]

As with the other word classes, there frequently are categories in the vernacular which are not used in Spanish or which have diferent usages. Spanish distinguishes between respectful and familiar forms in second person singular, whereas the vernacular may distinguish respect forms for other persons. For specifc examples of this phenomenon, see section 18.1. If a given form of the pronoun has multiple uses, it is not necessary to list all the equivalent Spanish terminology in the grammatical designation. The fact that it functions as subject, object, or possessive can be explained in the grammar. The grammatical designation need refer to it only as a personal pronoun. Spanish personal pronouns include the following:

1st person: yo, me, mí, conmigo [I, me, my, with me] 2nd person: tú, te, tí, contigo, usted [you, your, with you, you formal] 3rd person: él, ella, le, se, lo, la, se, consigo [he, she, him, her, in, with him, with her, with it] 1st plural: nosotros, nosotras, nos [we, our] 2nd plural: ustedes, les, los, las (vosotros, vosotras, vos, os) [you (pl.), your, you (formal)] 3rd plural: ellos, ellas, les, los, las [they, them] Refexive: me, te, nos, vos, se [myself, yourself, himself, herself, ourselves, yourselves]

Interrogative pronoun (pronombre interrogativo) Interrogative pronouns are equivalent to the English question words who, which, and what. In Spanish, the interrogative pronouns have an orthographic accent to distinguish them from relative pronouns. The accented forms introduce independent Grammatical designations and standard word classes 138 clauses, whereas the unaccented ones begin dependent clauses. Spanish interrogative pronouns include qué what, cuál which, quién who, cúyo whose, and cuánto how much. An example from Sierra de Juárez Zapotec (Nellis & Nellis 1983):

(11) núní pron. ¿quién? [who?] ¿Núní calatsꞌ tháꞌ lani inteꞌ gòꞌò? ¿Quién quiere ir conmigo a comprar? [Who wants to go shopping with me?]

An example from Northern Tepehuán:

(12) máácidɨ pron. interr. ¿cuál? [which?] ¿Máácidɨ ídyi víɨ́ góóca ááli gigɨ́íli vaamíóma gaááta vúééyi? ¿Cuál de estos dos muchachos trabaja más? [Which of these two boys works harder?] Possessive pronoun (pronombre posesivo) If the possessive pronouns difer from the other pronominal forms, separate entries must be made for these words with an appropriate designation. Spanish distinguishes between possessive adjectives and possessive pronouns. The possessive pronoun is used instead of the possessive adjective when the noun it modifes is not expressed. One may refer to mi casa my house or say simply Es mía. It’s mine. Even if the sentence is phrased as La casa es mía., the pronominal form is used. Such pronouns follow the usual rules of infection for gender and plural. They are mío with its variants for gender and plural objects for frst person singular; tuyo with its variants for gender and plural objects for second person familiar, suyo and its variants for third person, as well as second person plural and singular formal; and nuestro with its variants for frst person plural. Examples of indigenous possessive pronouns from Tepehua:

(13) quiꞌanuꞌ pron. pos. mío [mine] Ju lapiz icchꞌapata quiꞌanuꞌ. Pus ni va qꞌuinx- tꞌaknimpꞌalh. Este lápiz que tengo es mío porque me lo regalaste. [This pencil is mine because you gave it to me.]

(14) miꞌanuꞌ pron. pos. tuyo [yours] Ca miꞌanuꞌ ju nima tantsꞌi. Pus vilhnilh ju mintapakaꞌut. Esta silla ha de ser tuya porque tiene tu nombre. [This chair must be yours because it has your name on it.]

(15) ixꞌanuꞌ pron. pos. suyo [his, hers] Ju nima pucapen ca ixꞌanuꞌ ju mimpai. Pus va tach anich iclhitajui. Esta huerta ha de ser de tu papá porque siempre lo encuentro aquí. [This garden must be your father’s because l always fnd you here.] Demonstrative pronoun (pronombre demostrativo) Demonstrative pronouns are deictic in function, i.e., they serve to point out directly the person or object referred to, and they function instead of the noun as subject or object of the clause. Demonstrative pronouns in Spanish are infected for three genders and two numbers. The demonstrative pronouns and the pronominal adverbs are closely related and have the same categories based on distance—near, middle distance, and far away. The pronouns are este, esta and their respective plurals indicating the nearest location, ese, esa and their plurals indicating the next nearest location, and aquel, aquella and their plurals to indicate the furthest location. The corresponding adverbs are aquí, ahí, and allí. In contrast to this triple division of distance, English employs only a dual distinction: this vs. that and here vs. there. The following chart illustrates the demonstrative pronouns in Spanish: 139 Verbs

Masculine Feminine Neuter Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plual this one este estos esta estas esto estos that one ese esos esa esas eso esos (nearby) that one aquel aquellos aquella aquellas aquello aquellos (distant)

An example from Sierra de Juárez Zapotec:

(16) nùi pron. dem. éste [this one] Nùì ná béccuꞌ quiꞌ bi. Este es su perro. [This is your dog.] Indefnite pronoun (pronombre indefnido) The indefnite pronouns are those referring to the subject or object as something or someone, nothing or no one, whoever or whatever. The indefnite pronouns in Spanish are: nadie, ninguno, alguien, alguno, uno, cualquiera, quienquiera, algo, and nada. The following examples of indefnite pronouns are from Sierra de Juárez Zapotec:

(17) nuỹa pron. indef. alguien [someone] Hua ná nuỹa gulána reloj quiꞌáa. Al- guien robó su reloj. [Someone stole his watch.]

(18) biỹa pron. indef. algo [something] ¿Tsi biỹa ruttiꞌ Juan? ¿Está Juan vendi- endo algo? [Is John selling something?] Relative pronoun (pronombre relativo) A relative pronoun relates two successive clauses to each other and also functions as the subject or object of the dependent clause. In Spanish, these pronouns include que, cual, quien, cuyo, and cuanto. Remember that the accented forms of relative pronouns are used interrogatively. An example of the treatment of a relative pronoun in Tepehua follows:

(19) ju pron. rel. que, cual, quien, cuyo [who, which] Ju ani tavilanalh atsiꞌin yuꞌun ju talaktsꞌin chux ju icnaviyau. Estas señoritas que están aquí son las que revisan lo que hacemos. [These young ladies are the ones that check our work.] 17.5.4. Verbs The verb may express action, state, or feeling. Along with the noun, it is one of the two indispensable categories of all languages. Its fundamental function is predication. There are, however, some forms which function as auxiliaries, and nominal or non- personal forms. The nominal or nonpersonal forms include the infnitive, gerund, and participle. Besides having nominal or adjectival value, the gerund may also have an adverbial function. The infnitive, or it's functional equivalent, is the form of the verb in the abstract and serves to name the verbal concept. The participle also functions as a verbal adjective. The copulative verb unites the subject with a predicate nominative or adjective. The auxiliaries appear in compound tenses, e.g., he has gone, she will come. Grammatical designations and standard word classes 140

Many of the sub-classifcation categories of verbs in Mesoamerican languages are not found in Indo-European languages. Therefore, the compiler may have dif- fculty matching the structural form classes of vernacular verbs with the verb types of Spanish and may need to introduce other category labels to refect the form-classes of words in the vernacular. These classes may include verbal nouns, descriptive verbs, stative verbs, bitransitive verbs, etc. For a discussion of some of these categories, see §18.2. The distinction between transitive and intransitive is historically very old. How- ever, it should be remembered that a verb root in isolation is neither transitive nor intransitive. Its function in the clause gives it one of those characteristics. Some verbs may be intransitive, never permitting an object; some are transitive and take an object, whether implicit or explicit; and some are bitransitive and permit more than one object at a time. Spanish verbs, following Latin tradition, have been divided into two classes: active verbs and neutral verbs. In some dictionaries they are still so designated, v. a. standing for verbo activo and v. n. designating verbo neutral. Other dictionaries follow what may be a more familiar pattern and designate them respectively as v. t. for verbo transitivo or transitive verb and v. i. for verbo intransitivo or intransitive verb. Active verbs correspond to transitive verbs and neutral verbs to intransitives. Originally, the term transitive meant that the verb was able to pass from the active to a passive construction. The intransitive was the class of verbs which could not transfer to passive constructions. A later explanation interpreted the term transitive as meaning that the action could pass, or be transferred, to an object from the subject; the intransitive verb did not have this capability. The transitive group comprises all those verbs with which some type of object occurs, e.g., He raises the fag every day at 6:00 a.m. Intransitive verbs are those not tolerating an object: e.g., He arises every day at 6:00 a.m. Some verbs in Spanish dictionaries are listed with two grammatical designations because they optionally occur with objects, e.g., comer to eat. Sometimes a verb stem may change class according to the derivational afxes which have been added to the root. The compiler must be alert to the possibility of these changes and not automatically label a verb with the designation that was appropriate for the basic form. In many vernacular languages, it is possible to incorporate the direct object into the verb, thus changing its class from transitive to intransitive. When considering whether simple transitive/intransitive designations will sufce as labels for the vernacular verbs, it is well to be aware of some of the categories which may be included under these broad designations. The overt marking of some of these categories by the infectional system may necessi- tate the use of additional grammatical designation labels for the verbs. Transitive verbs may include: 1) causative of a change of state, 2) causative of a change of position, 3) causative of an activity, 4) benefactive, 5) refexive and reciprocal, among others. Broadly stated, intransitive verbs may include: 1) change of state verbs, 2) change of position verbs, 3) de-focused personal object forms, 4) de-focused non-personal object verbs, 5) de-focused object with an implied instrument, among other categories. In some languages, refexive and reciprocal verbs work like intransitive verbs. The Spanish pronominal verb has taken on the characteristics of a number of other possible verbal categories. The compiler should not expect to fnd the indigenous language representing all of the same categories with a pronominal verb, or with any one 141 Verbs form of whatever type. pronominal verbs (verbos pronominales) are usually not intransitive but inherently transitive; albeit their transitivity is of a special type wherein the subject and object are the same person. The pronominal structure may be signalled by either a special morpheme afxed to the verb or by a separate pronoun. Following is a summary of the usages of the pronominal verb in Spanish as listed by Alonso y Henríquez Ureña (1969): Quasi-refexive: These are refexive only in form; they carry the refexive pronoun but not the meaning in that the action doesn't refect back on the subject. Some examples are: me voy I’m going, se murió he died, te sorprendes you are surprised. This group divides into two subcategories, those signifying mental or emotional states and those indicating movement.

“Inner life” encompasses several mental or emotional states. Some of the above are obligatorily refexive in form and others are not. Some may occur transitively but all have to carry as object a person or animal if they are used transitively.

1. Afection or emotion: avergonzarse to be embarrassed, espantarse to be frightened, enojarse to get angry, etc. 2. Volitional verbs usually in an emotional setting: resolverse a to resolve to, arrepentirse del to repent of, esforzarse to make a great efort, etc. 3. Memory or forgetting: acordarse to remember, olvidarse to forget. 4. Supposing, imagining, etc: imaginarse to imagine, suponerse to suppose, etc.

Dative of interest: There are others that do not signify an “inner life” but their usage adds a special intensity of interest, beneft, or efort to the action. Often the implication is that the subject puts his whole heart and soul into the action. For example: se bebió una botella de leche he drank the whole bottle of milk, se comió toda la tortilla he ate up all the tortilla.

Change of state: This includes verbs of afection and emotion as well as physical changes of state: enfriarse to cool of, calentarse to warm up, dormirse to fall asleep, despertarse to wake up.

Verbs of movement: irse to leave, venirse to come, volverse to return, entrarse to enter, etc. Some of these also are used as transitives but even then can carry a refexive of interest. They often suggest a certain spontaneity of movement. Others are basically intransitive and use a refexive pronoun, e.g. fugarse to fee. One would not say the prisoner fugó [fed] from the jail but se fugó.

Reciprocal pronoun: This category implies reciprocity such as would be used in speaking of the love between parents and children, the afection between friends, etc.

Passive refexive: A general use of the refexive to indicate passive constructions: no se hace así it isn’t done this way.

This section continues with an explanation of the basic organization of the Spanish verb and a few of the terms used in the discussion of the various features by Spanish authors and teachers. Grammatical designations and standard word classes 142

Spanish verbs are infected for person and number by means of a sufx. These grammatical categories are infected for person and number by means of sufxes (desin- encias). A verb is said to occur in a particular tense and mode; the three basic modes are indicative, subjunctive, and imperative (indicativo, subjuntivo, imperativo). The nominalized forms (formas nominales) are the infnitive, gerund, and participle (infnitivo, gerundio, participio). Regularly conjugated verbs have an invariable root throughout all the infection; they are of three basic types: those ending in -ar, in -er, and in -ir. Various infectional afxes are appropriate to the formation of a given verbal form communicating the correct person, number, tense, etc. These are thoroughly discussed in Spanish grammars. The following is a list of the basic tenses of the indicative mode:

presente present antepresente present perfect pretérito preterite antepretérito past perfect (past punctiliar) futuro future antefuturo future perfect copretérito imperfect antecopretérito past perfect (past habitual, (continuative) continuative) pospretérito conditional antepospretérito conditional (would, could) perfect

The indicative mode is considered to be conceptually “real” time and consists of the above fve simple and fve compound tenses. The subjunctive is considered to be a mental process, it may or may not happen, but at the moment it is a thought and nothing more. It may occur in all of the above tenses also. The imperative mode implies a command, or, at best, a request, and only occurs in the second person singular/plural present forms of the conjugation. Following are three separate sets of designations for the basic fve tenses. The set proposed by Bello is probably the simplest.3

Bello Samuel G. Gaya Real Academia presente presente presente present pretérito pretérito perfecto pretérito simple absoluto preterite futuro futuro absoluto futuro future copretérito pretérito imperfecto pretérito imperfecto habitual pospretérito futuro hipotético futuro condicional conditional

The nominalized or non-personal forms of the conjugation are illustrated with hablar and comer:

3Although Bello’s terminology is the best known in Mexico, and is the one used in this book, that of other authors is included for purposes of comparison. 143 Adverbs

Infnitivo — hablar comer Infnitive to speak to eat Gerundio — hablando comiendo Gerund speaking eating Participio — hablado comido Participle spoken eaten

The non-personal or nominal label attached to these forms is based on the fact that they are not conjugated like normal verbal forms. The infnitive functions as a noun and can be modifed or used with an article. It can also be pluralized on occasion. The gerund functions as a verb but also as an adverb, e.g., contestó llorando he answered crying. The participle is a verbal adjective, e.g., los aviones alineados the lined up airplanes. There are many types of irregularities involving changes in the form of the root. Most Spanish dictionaries and grammars have a system of categorizing these and sum- marizing their distinctive irregularities by categories. Some show an irregularity of the vowel, others a consonant change that may or may not be morpho-phonemically conditioned. Still others add, or otherwise change, both a vowel and a consonant. 17.5.5. Adverbs Traditionally, an adverb is defned as modifying a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. Sometimes the line of demarcation between this word class and that of the prepositions and conjunctions is very fne. Adverbs are distinguished from nouns and adjectives because they do not combine directly with a noun. Adverbs, prepositions, and conjunctions are sentence level relational words. The same word may be found to fll various functions. Some English examples:

(20) a. He went before. He went before dinner. He went before you fnished eating. b. He went home after the dance. He went home after you came from town.

Some adverbs have an identical form as semantically similar adjectives as in the following Francisco León Zoque example:

(21) suñi 1. adj. bonito [pretty] Cyaꞌeꞌis nø myes suñipø tucu rosatzøquiꞌøyupø søn̠gøtoya. La niña lleva puesto para la festa un vestido bonito con dibujos de rosas. [The girl is wearing a pretty dress with a pattern of roses for the festa.] 2. adv. bien Carpinteroꞌis suñi cyøvoꞌs cuy para mesacøtoya. El carpintero cepilló bien la tabla para hacer una mesa. [The carpenter planed the board well in order to make a table.]

Depending on the specifc language, adverbs may indicate the functions of time, manner, mode, or location. Many of the particles of Mesoamerican languages may be classifed as adverbs. Spanish grammars list nine types of adverbs, but the compiler may fnd it unnecessary or cumbersome to label the types of adverbs occurring in either language of his dictionary. He may label them all adverbio indicating an undiferentiated adverb, or he might label only a few of the more common and distinct types, leaving Grammatical designations and standard word classes 144 the others without a sub-classifcation. However, if he chooses to label a given type, all members of that set must be so labeled. A list of the nine types of Spanish adverbs is included here along with an example from a vernacular language for each. This listing is not to be interpreted as pressure towards the inclusion of all of the sub-designations in any given dictionary. Adverbio de afrmación [afrmation adverb]: sí yes, cierto certain, seguro sure, verdaderamente truly, indudablemente undoubtedly. An example from Francisco León Zoque:

(22) jøꞌø adv. sí Cuando ꞌyan̠gøvaꞌcyaj ø janda oca man̠ba jyuy sis, ñøjayuː —Jøꞌø, maꞌn̠bø njuyi. Cuando preguntaron a mi papá si iba a comprar carne, él con- testó: —Sí, voy a comprar. [When my father was asked if he was going to buy meat, he answered, “Yes, I'm going to buy.”]

Adverbio de cantidad [quantity adverb]: mucho much, poco little, cuanto how much, tanto so much, nada nothing, todo all. An example from Huave:

(23) nicuajind adv. nada Tiül xecorrül ngo majlüy nicuajind, leaw tapiüras tümb majoy a lam. No quedó nada de siembra en mi terreno; el río se la llevó toda. [Nothing remains of my crop as the river washed my land away.]

Adverbio de comparación [comparison adverb]: más more, muy very, a lot, menos less, tan so, mejor better, peor worse. An example from Huave:

(24) xowüy adv. muchisimo, muy, demasiado, en extremo [a lot, very, too much, extremely] Xowüy laraar tiül ajcüw cambaj monlüy mbeay ndec. Hace demasiado calor en los pueblos que quedan en la costa. [It's extremely hot in the towns along the coast.]

Adverbio de duda [adverb of doubt]: quizá perhaps, acaso in case, tal vez maybe. An example from Francisco León Zoque:

(25) jocsyo adv. tal vez It jama nø njoꞌctamumø ø janda, maṉba jocsyo min yøti. Hace días que estamos esperando a mi papá, tal vez va a venir hoy. [We've been waiting for my father for several days; maybe he will come today.]

Adverbio de lugar [locative adverb]: aquí here, delante front, adonde wherever, acá over there, cerca near, lejos far, arriba above, encima on top. An example from Northern Tepehuán:

(26) báítyɨqui adv. loc. delante, adelante [ahead] Báityɨqui ií ɨ́gai ɨɨpíga aajáí ɨlídyitai. Aquél fue adelante porque quería llegar primero. [He went on ahead because he wanted to get there frst.]

Adverbio de manera [manner adverb]: bien well, mal badly, como how, cual which, así thus, modestamente modestly, moralmente morally. An example from Francisco León Zoque: 145 Prepositions

(27) jøꞌnø adv. rápido [fast] Jøꞌnø jøꞌnø yosu vaꞌcø tuc yoscuy vaꞌcø jana chaꞌiꞌajø. Trabajó rápido para terminar el trabajo a buena hora, para no terminar tarde. [He worked rapidly in order to fnish in good time and not fnish late.]

Adverbio de negación [negative adverb]: no, nunca never, jamás ever, tampoco neither. An example from Francisco León Zoque:

(28) jiꞌnda adv. no —¿Namø man̠u mi myave? —Jiꞌnda, jiꞌn ma mave. —¿Ya te estás yendo? —No, todavía no me voy. ["Are you going?" "No, I'm not going yet."]

Adverbio de orden [order adverb]: primeramente frst, después after, antes before, luego right away, últimamente last. An example from Huave:

(29) najen adv. apurado, de prisa, pronto, urgentemente [hurriedly, in a hurry, promptly, urgently] Aaga nine nench wüx tanguiay ajpaj minüt nej, najen witiüt mapiüng: "Salningüy." Este niño, cuando oyó su nombre, luego se levantó y dijo: "Presente." [When this boy heard his name, he stood up promptly and said, “Present.”]

Adverbio de tiempo: [time adverb]: ayer yesterday, después after, antes before, siempre always, todavía still, mañana tomorrow. An example from Francisco León Zoque:

(30) yøti adv. ahora, hoy [now, today] Yøti tzaꞌiꞌicam man̠ba it junta. Hoy en la tarde va a haber junta. [This afternoon there will be a meeting.] 17.5.6. Prepositions Prepositions are one of the most difcult areas to treat in a bilingual dictionary since there is often such a wide discrepancy in the handling of relational concepts in any two languages. On the other hand, it is impossible to use a language adequately without an understanding of the functions of the prepositions. It is, therefore, worth the efort to devise a method of recording this material that will make the transition between the two languages as easy as possible. A preposition relates the phrase of which it is a part to the clause or sentence. Prepo- sitions are not considered independent elements of the sentence, but presuppose two related terms needing to be linked together. They frequently express ideas analogous to the cases in the noun declensions of other systems. Prepositions frequently occur in prepositional phrases which may have either adjectival or adverbial functions in relation to the clause. They may provide the setting for the action, or they may characterize the subject or verb. The Spanish sentence “Voy al pueblo después de la cena.” I’m going to town after supper, specifes both time and location by means of prepositional phrases. Spanish grammars include the following one-word prepositions: a, ante, bajo, con, contra, de, desde, en, entre, hacia, para, por, sin, según, sobre, tras. If the Span- Grammatical designations and standard word classes 146 ish phrase contains two prepositions, it is termed a compound prepositional phrase (preposición compuesta, e.g., por entre through, hasta con even with). If the phrase is composed of a preposition and an adverb, it is called a prepositional expression (locu- ción adverbial, modo conjuntivo, e.g., para que in order to, después que after, por grande que sea however big, etc.) Some languages express the relational concepts with postpositions rather than prepositions; that is, the linking or adverbial sense is carried by a form that appears afxed to the end of another word. In some vernacular languages, the meaning of a prepositional phrase may be expressed by a noun phrase consisting of two nouns, one of which is infected for possession. The prepositional phrase in the clause “El aguacate está al pie del árbol.” [The avocado is at the foot of the tree.], is matched in one of the Nahuatl languages by itzintzin in cuahuit Its-foot the tree. Note that the vernacular phrase consists of two nouns instead of a prepositional phrase. If no prepositions occur in the vernacular, appropriate illustrative sentences must show how a similar meaning is expressed. Some prepositions (or phrases that function as prepositions) have a very specifc meaning that can be identifed reasonably well by translation equivalents. The normal structure of a simple dictionary entry adequately handles this type. Other prepositions are more abstract in meaning and may cover a broad area of meanings and uses. The entries for prepositions of this type should not depend exclusively on translation equivalents for the meaning, but should attempt to state the criteria for each subdivision of the broader area of meaning. Qualifying comments may be used for this purpose. For instance, the Yatzachi Zapotec preposition che is translated by the Spanish de of/from, con with, en in/on, a to, para for. Separate areas of meaning are:

• To whom something belongs (The son of that man is sick.) • The person to whom or for whom something is done (He has patience with everybody.) • The result of something (He is a promoter of evil.) • How something is named (We live in the district of Villa Alta.) • The theme of something or kind of something (Thanks for sending me the catalog of typewriters.) • After the verb believe, it indicates what is believed (They still follow the beliefs about the bones of dead people.)

In one of the Otomí languages, the general locative preposition ja covers both location and direction and corresponds to the Spanish prepositions en in/to, a to, de of/from, hacia toward. There are situations in which the Spanish preposition covers a broad area of meaning and corresponds to various prepositions in the vernacular. Even though the local preposition may always correspond to the same Spanish preposition, it is necessary to clarify the situations in which the vernacular preposition is appropriate. For example, the Yatzachi Zapotec preposition le̠yoꞌo can be variously translated as inside of, from inside, or to, but can only refer to a house. That fact should be made explicit by means of a qualifying comment. One of the most difcult Spanish prepositions to match with lexical items in another language is de. It is used in phrases which show: origin “Es ciudadano de Puebla.” [He is a resident of Puebla.]; substance “La tela es de algodón.” [The cloth is cotton.]; possession “Esta casa es de mi hermano.” [This house belongs to my brother.]. It may 147 Conjunctions also join two nouns in various ways, e.g., “la voluntad de Dios” [the will of God], “su odio del tigre” [his hatred of the tiger]. There are nearly twenty listings under de in the Spanish dictionaries. Obviously, a preposition with such varied meanings requires a lot of thought and probably a number of sense discriminations in the Spanish index. It will, of course, appear as a translation equivalent for numerous vernacular words if a satisfactory treatment of its equivalents is to be displayed in the bilingual dictionary. 17.5.7. Conjunctions Conjunctions resemble prepositions in that both classes are linking words, the introducers of subordinate or descriptive material. A conjunction introduces a clause and explicitly links that clause to another clause. A clause introduced by a subordinating conjunction cannot stand alone as an independent clause. This helps to separate conjunctions from adverbs. Conjunctions, of course, may also link coordinate clauses instead of being restricted to marginal material. Since conjunctions can relate elements larger than individual words, they are said to be the “prepositions of propositions” in a grammatical sense. Occasionally, grammarians treat as true conjunctions only the coordinate ones and classify the subordinate ones with the relative adverbs. Although conjunctions may join elements within a phrase, e.g., John and Jane, their more usual function is that of providing coherence on a higher level by joining clauses and sentences in either an independent or dependent manner. Spanish conjunctions are grouped according to the relationship the various conjunctions indicate: Coordinating conjunctions

1. Copulative conjunctions (Conjunción copulativa): Union is signifed by this group: y and, ni neither, nor, que that. 2. Disjunctive conjunctions (Conjunción disyuntiva): A choice is involved if one of this group is used: o or, ya already, bien although, u or. 3. Adversative conjunctions (Conjunción adversativa): This class is used to join opposing thoughts: aunque even though, mas, pero, sino but, siquiera even if, a pesar de in spite of, no obstante however, sin embargo nevertheless.

Subordinating conjunctions

1. Causal conjunctions (Conjunción causal): Members of this class imply motive: porque because, supuesto que, puesto que, pues que since. 2. Comparative conjunctions (Conjunción comparativa): These imply doubt or compare one thing with another: como like, así como as well as, lo mismo the same as, del mismo modo the same way. 3. Conditional conjunctions (Conjunción condicional): These conjunctions imply doubt or lay down conditions: si if, siempre que whenever, ya que seeing that, con tal que provided that. 4. Continuative conjunctions (Conjunción continuativa): These confrm what has been said before proceeding further: pues since, además moreover, así que so, así es que therefore. 5. Final conjunctions (Conjunción fnal): These signify intention or result: a fn de que to the end that, para que in order to. 6. Ilative conjunctions (Conjunción ilativa): These signify consequence: por tanto therefore, luego and then, pues since, por consiguiente as a result of. Grammatical designations and standard word classes 148 17.5.8. Interjections Interjections belong to the word group of particles or uninfected words. They do not fll any function in the sentence, nor do they function as relationals. On the contrary, they are words that have a value in themselves that is equivalent to a sentence. The words are used exclusively in a predetermined type of utterance such as an exclamation. Even though there are words or expressions that can have the character of exclamations, the specifc character of the interjections is their exclusive use as exclamatory utterances. Besides true interjections, other words from other classes can fulfll that function, although it is not their basic one. Grammars seldom distinguish between words whose sole purpose is interjection and those that take on the function as a peripheral one. True interjections include Oh!, ¡Ay!, etc. Words that are found within the limits of language but outside of instinctive cries of pain are interjections. Some words capable of other uses but flling the function of interjections include ¡Bravo! Well done! and ¡Espléndido! Splendid!. Sometimes even phrases can fulfll the function: e.g., Good luck! Interjections must not be confused with instinctive cries which are no more than conventionalized natural sounds even if they do match the particular phonetic structure of a given language. For the purpose of designating dictionary entries, it is sufcient to label as inter- jección only those indeclinable particles which occur as ejaculatory utterances. This will probably be the smallest class of items to be labeled as a grammatical category. Ejaculatory material in Spanish or the vernacular should be enclosed in Spanish exclamation points in the illustrative sentences as well as in the translation equivalents for the entry words. 18 Special grammatical designations for indigenous languages

18.1. A sampling of subclasses in indigenous languages Most compilers of dictionaries for indigenous languages fnd the traditional grammatical designations defcient in some respect relative to the language presented in the dictionary. Some of the grammatical categories may be subdivided into modifed or additional word classes. This chapter deals with possible features needing specialized grammatical treatment. These subcategories should be discussed in the grammatical description and noted in the dictionary entry. No claim is made to surveying all such features but it is hoped that the sampling may be helpful in stimulating ideas for presenting the distinctive features of a given language.

18.1.1. Animate and inanimate nouns In some languages, nouns are divided into two basic classes according to their animateness or inanimateness. Each class may have its own set of articles or adjective endings. In some of the Chinantec languages, this division does not necessarily correspond to a western defnition of animateness. Some objects have been endowed with animate attributes, presumably because the culture at some point in time treated the rocks, trees, etc. as dwelling places of spirits. Such noun classes can be indicated in the dictionary by the abbreviation s. an. as in the following examples from Usila Chinantec:

(1) a³cu²³ s. an. remolino (del agua)[whirlpool] Tan² hlangh² a²cu²³, tan² lang⁴i³ chie³ je¹ o¹jain⁵ jm³. El remolino es muy malvado, da vueltas a la gente en los remansos. [The whirlpool is very vicious, it turns people over in its backwater.]

(2) a³caun² s. piedra [stone] Ti²jaih² chie³ a²caun², tionh² i⁴júan³⁴i³ ta³jmh¹ a²hnei⁴³. La gente está recogiendo piedras para construir el cimiento de la casa. [The people are gathering stones to build the foundation of the house.] 18.1.2. Alienable and inalienable possession of nouns Often nouns that are the names of body parts are considered to be possessed by a person in an inalienable or intrinsic sense that is not applicable to material objects. In certain cultures, blood relatives or vital material possessions are viewed in this same way. The following examples of intrinsic possession are from Isthmus Zapotec: 149 Special grammatical designations for indigenous languages 150

(3) a. bibixhoze be his/her father b. ique be his head c. lidxi be his home d. ꞌxhaba be his clothes

In contrast, the prefx x- must be added to other nouns in addition to the possessive clitic be.

(4) a. xpiꞌcu be his dog (bíꞌkuꞌ dog) b. xguela guidi be his sandal (guela guidi sandal)

Sierra de Juárez Zapotec also distinguishes between intrinsic and non-intrinsic possession. (The essential linguistic information line cites the possessed form of intrinsically possessed nouns.)

(5) a. da̠nà luꞌ your brothers b. machete quiiꞌ luꞌ your machete

Note that the possessive pronoun is directly added to the intrinsically possessed noun but must be introduced by the preposition quiiꞌ of in the case of the non-intrinsically possessed noun. 18.1.3. Unique pronominal categories Spanish distinguishes between respectful and familiar forms for the second person singular pronoun; an indigenous language may distinguish respect forms for other persons as well. Yatzachi Zapotec distinguishes honorifc and familiar only in the third person; Isthmus Zapotec omits such a distinction altogether. The general set of Mixtec pronouns includes both respectful and familiar forms for frst and second persons; in addition, there is a special set of pronouns for third person, one of which distinguishes respect. In Jamiltepec Mixtec, the general set of third person pronouns distinguishes animate, human, divine, and inanimate categories. The neutral set of pronouns distinguishes only distance from the speaker and may occur alone, in combination with the general set, or in conjunction with one of several special sets of pronouns. First person plural exclusive and inclusive distinctions are made in many Mesoamerican languages and these designations must be indicated for the appropriate forms. The following dictionary entries are for pronominal sufxes from Sierra de Juárez Zapotec:

(6) -é pron. él (respeto) [he (respect)] Riguꞌubiꞌé scuela quiꞌni née director. El manda en la escuela porque es el director. [He runs the school because he is the director.]

(7) -bí pron. él (familiar, de sentimiento, de afecto y aprecio)[he (familiar, with feeling, afection, and appreciation)] Yalaní idíꞌ uccua quiꞌ bi lotiꞌ binnia bi lo yagaꞌ. Se lastimó mucho cuando se cayó del árbol. [He hurt himself badly when he fell out of the tree.]

(8) -a pron. él (impersonal, común; también para fora, fauna, y cosas inanimadas) [he (impersonal, common; also for fora, fauna, and inanimate things)] Hua réꞌ 151 Prepositions derived from body part terminology

ca ỹuitsi nna yala catsiꞌí ca̜ ca culá quiꞌ qui. Existen yernos que estiman mucho a sus suegros. [There are sons-in-law who really respect their in-laws.]

Note that the semantic distinctions with a word class are handled as a qualifying comment rather than as a part of the grammatical designation. 18.1.4. Numerals and numerical classifers Some languages require that classifcatory morphemes accompany numerals indicating the shape, size, etc. of the object being counted. Mayan languages have a rich tradition of this type of classifcation. The following examples of numeral classifcation, indicated by num, are from Chontal of Tabasco:

(9) a. unqꞌue num. uno (hoja o pliego, cosa plana) [one (leaf or sheet, fat things)] b. untec num. uno (árbol o planta) [one (tree or plant)] c. untu num. uno (persona o animal) [one (person or animal)] d. untzꞌit num. uno (cosa largas y prolongada) [one (long, stretched out thing)] e. unxim num. uno (cosa pequeña como un grano) [one (little thing like a grain)] 18.1.5. Prepositions derived from body part terminology In several Mesoamerican languages, names for body parts have developed a prepositional function—especially in expressing location, but also for the expression of time. In some of the Zapotec languages, face is used to mean on top of, on, during, to, before, in front of; abdomen may mean in, on top of, during; seat is used to mean under, below, in back of; rib is used to mean along side of; back means in back of, on the other side of; mouth means to, in front of, at the edge of; head means at the head of, in the upper part of, above; foot means at the foot of, in the lower part of; mouth-face means around, surrounding. In the following examples of Choapan Zapotec prepositions, note that each one covers a wide range of locative situations. Only the sense discriminations detailing prepositional functions are included here, although the words are also nouns referring to various body parts.

(10) zan prep. 1. en [in, at] Zuubiꞌ zan yuꞌu quienëꞌ. Está en su casa. [He's at home.] 2. debajo de [below, underneath] Neluban zan yaaga. Está limpio debajo del árbol. [It's clean below the tree.]

(11) luꞌu prep. 1. en [in, at] De saꞌa luꞌu yeela quienëꞌ. Hay mazorca en su milpa. [There is ripe corn in his cornfeld.] 2. adentro [in, inside] De medicina luꞌu caja. Hay medicina adentro de la caja. [There is medicine in the box.]

(12) lao prep. 1. encima de [on, over] Bi de yelaꞌ huao lao mesa. No hay comida en la mesa. [There isn't any food on the table.] 2. enfrente de [in front of] Yaca policia nitaꞌyaqueꞌ lao municipio. Los policias están enfrente del municipio. [The police are in front of the town hall.]

The following is an example from Sierra de Juárez Zapotec, illustrating both nominal and prepositional functions: Special grammatical designations for indigenous languages 152

(13) rúꞌa 1. s. boca [mouth] Yala dáa tábi ráꞌa yéthuꞌá. La boca de la olla está manchada de frijol. [The mouth of the jar is stained with beans.] 2. prep. a la orilla de, al borde de [on the edge of] Tsáꞌ tuꞌ rúꞌa yòo. Vamos a la orilla del río. [Let's go to the edge of the river.] 18.2. Verbal categories

18.2.1. Transitivity distinctions Transitivity refers to the kind and number of noun phrases that are directly linked to the verb in the syntax of the sentence. A transitive verb has both a subject and an object; an intransitive verb has only a subject. In some languages, the infection difers for transitive and intransitive verbs (as in Mayan and Mixe-Zoque, so-called ergative languages). In many languages, a transitive verb stem may be converted into an intransitive verb and an intransitive verb stem may be converted into a transitive verb by the addition of a derivational morpheme. Transitive verbs may be made bitransitive, so as to have both a direct and an indirect object. The derivational processes for decreasing or increasing transitivity may be viewed as a scale and any given verb stem as belonging to some point along the scale. There are several diferent semantic processes for decreasing transitivity:

1. Refexive action. If the action of the verb afects the subject of the verb rather than a distinct object, the verb is said to be refexive: John cut himself. 2. Reciprocal action. If the participants of the verb are performing the action on each other, the verb is said to be reciprocal: The children hit each other. 3. Incorporated object. If the object is so closely associated with the verb that it is compounded with the verb, the verb is an incorporated object verb. In English, verbs of this sort are often fgurative: Bill is wool-gathering. Betty is nit-picking. 4. Unspecifed object. If the object of the verb is understood but not specifed, or if a specifc object is not in focus, the verb is an unspecifed object verb. Some languages do this by a particular morpheme, as in classical Nahuatl, where the prefx te- refers to an unspecifed human object and the prefx tla- refers to an unspecifed non-human object: qui-machtia he teaches it, te-machtia he teaches people; qui-namaca he sells it, tla-namaca he sells things. Other languages, such as English, simply delete the object: We ate late yesterday. Bill hasn’t drunk for six weeks. 5. Unspecifed subject. If it is not desirable to specify the subject (agent) of the verb, some languages indicate that by a morpheme on the verb and the absence of a specifc noun phrase subject. In English we use the third person plural pronoun: They really raised the prices on us this time. 6. Passive. The subject is deleted and the object is promoted to be the new subject in a passive verb. If it is desirable to reintroduce the agent, this is done in an oblique way—in English by a prepositional phrase: The house was built by Jack. 7. Change of state. In this case, the intransitive verb is related to an adjective or 153 Transitivity distinctions

stative verb and indicates a process that is a change of state: The sky is darkening. His face is reddening.

There are also several semantic processes for increasing the transitivity of the verb.

1. Causative. The subject of the causative verb is responsible for the action that takes place. Sometimes the subject causes a change of state in the object: Mary darkened the room. Other times the subject causes the object to do something: John ran the machine. Betty boiled the water. In some languages the causative may be added to transitive verbs to achieve a further degree of transitivity: John had the gardener cut the grass. 2. Benefactive. The person or persons afected by an action performed on some object may be specifed by a morpheme on the verb. Sometimes this translates as an indirect object and sometimes with a prepositional phrase in English: John played a joke on Bill. Betty bought a doll for Susy. 3. Specifed adjunct. It may be important to specify one of the adjuncts of a verb as central to the action. Some languages specify the instrument of the action. In English this is done by using the instrument noun as a verb: She spooned out some stew onto her plate. He knifed his victim in the back. Some languages specify the location of the action or the result of the action. In English, again, such an emphasis is indicated by using the location noun as a verb: The mother bedded down the children for the night. The hostess seated her guests around the table.

In Chol the fact that the location is considered a kind of object directly related to the verb is indicated by a diferent sufx: buch-byʌl sentarse [sit down], buch-tyan sentarse sobre algo [sit on something]. If the semantic process results in a change from transitive to intransitive, or vice versa, and the process is marked morphologically in the verb, separate lexical entries are indicated for the dictionary. This is also the case when the change is from an adjective or a stative verb to a process verb. The following example is from Tzotzil (Delgaty & Ruiz Sánchez 1978):

Stative Verb Intransitive Verb Transitive Verb

cajal ta xcaji ta scajan on top it gets on top he puts in on top

cotol ta xcoti ta scotan on four feet it stands up he stands it up on four feet on four feet

chꞌetel ta xchꞌeti ta schꞌetan tangled it gets tangled he tangles it

Adjective Intransitive Verb Transitive Verb

mucꞌ ta xmuqꞌuib ta smuqꞌuibtas big it gets big he enlarges it Special grammatical designations for indigenous languages 154

lec ta xlecub ta sclecubtas good it gets better he makes it better

pꞌij ta xpꞌijub ta spꞌijubtas wise he learns he teaches him

Note that the transitive verb in this set involves the causative semantic process; the intransitive verb is a change of state. Not all causative verbs merit inclusion as separate lexical items. If the morphological derivation is regular and the meaning diference is transparent, the grammatical description of causatives should cover such words. This would be true of causatives which are built on transitive verb stems. Causatives built on intransitive verb stems more frequently have special meanings, or at least have special Spanish translation equivalents. Example from Oluta Popoluca (Clark 1981): iyac-o̠cpe lo mata [he kills him] from o̠cpa muere [he dies] and the causative prefx yac-. In some languages such as English, the causative semantic process is not marked morphologically in the verb. English has a few pairs of verbs which are diferentiated by ablaut, as in fall (something falls) and fell (someone fells something). But in most cases the same verb form serves for both transitive and intransitive, as boil (the water boils) and boil (someone boils the water). The dictionary entry for boil includes both intransitive and transitive meanings. The sense discriminations also identify the transitivity value of the verb: boil 1. vi the water boils 2. vt someone boils the water. The benefactive morpheme more commonly is added to a transitive verb stem than to an intransitive stem. It can be handled by the grammar sketch unless there is irregular morphology or specialized meaning. Some compilers like to include those benefactive verbs which are used very frequently in the dictionary listing. This is a good idea because there is a tendency for the most frequent words to develop extended meanings. The specifed adjunct verbs are often listed as separate lexical items because the process is restricted to certain verb stems and because the Spanish translation equivalent may be unpredictable. Examples from Oluta Popoluca (Clark 1981): tʉntojchi ̠pe chima me baño con jícara [I bathe with a gourd] from tʉchi ̠pa [I bathe] and the instru- mental prefx toj-: tʉnmʉ̠̠mimpe lo traigo, vengo con él [I bring it, I come with him] from tumimpa [I come] and the associative prefx m-. The semantic processes that result in a decrease of transitivity are often considered to be grammatical voice (passive, refexive) and, as such, are not treated as separate lexical items. This is especially the case when the decrease in transitivity is expressed periphrastically rather than morphologically. Passive participles are listed in Spanish or English dictionaries if they are morphologically irregular or if specialized meanings have developed. Refexive verbs are listed as main entries in the Larousse Spanish dictionary (1972) if they only occur with the refexive pronouns. If the stem is also used without the refexive pronouns, the nonrefexive stem is the main entry; the refexive form is listed towards the end of the entry if some specialized meaning is involved, or if the verb can be either plain or refexive without a diference in meaning. Otherwise, refexive verbs are covered by the grammar. If object incorporation is a productive process, the dictionary compiler does not attempt to list all the combinations of incorporated noun plus verb. Some of the com- 155 The classification of affixes and dependent words pound stems are listed if they are of frequent usage. An example from Oluta Popoluca (Clark 1981): jocotu̠tpa echa humo [it gives of smoke] from joco [smoke] and itu̠tpe [he puts it]. Others of the compound stems are included in the dictionary because the Spanish translation equivalent is unpredictable: cos̈oteni̠pa se hinca [he kneels] from cos̈o [knee] and teni̠pa [he stands]; itsoꞌcacaype lo embruja [he bewitches him] from tsoꞌca [witch] and icaype [he eats it]. 18.2.2. Stative verbs Stative verbs are usually diferentiated from other intransitive verbs. They may be distinguished by special afxes or perhaps by other elements in the clause. Usually this category of verbs is not designated as such in English or Spanish since these languages require the use of the copulative verb to be to specify that something is big, round, red, etc. For the beneft of the vernacular speakers, it should be pointed out that some form of the verb ser or estar must stand between the noun and its adjective in a Spanish construction. If there is no distinction between stative verbs and adjectives, it is probably simplest to label them as one or the other and describe the appropriate constructions in the grammar. Sometimes a stative verb in the vernacular is matched by a noun form in Spanish: e.g., es negro it is black; los negros the black ones, the blacks. If the vernacular word functions as both a noun and a stative verb, it may be described using the format for multiple sense discriminations, labeling each one for grammatical category (see §18.4.5). 18.2.3. Impersonal and meteorological verbs In many languages, almost the only verbs that are cast in an impersonal context are those referring to the weather: e.g., “It's raining,” “The sun is shining.” Such verbs may not be infected as other verbs, and this fact needs to be made evident in the grammatical designation. Impersonal verbs are designated verbo impersonal in Spanish. Of course, it is possible that for a specifc language, that particular designation may be appropriate for more than meteorological phenomena. An example from Sierra de Juárez Zapotec :

(14) riỹuꞌ v. impers. tiembla la tierra [the earth is shaking] Canchu chi riỹuꞌ nna iria tàá riꞌu quetha leꞌe yúꞌù. Cuando esté temblando salgamos rápido de la casa. [When it is shaking, we leave the house rapidly.]

A non-meteorological example from San Luis Potosí Huastec Larson (1997):

(15) owil v. impers. poder, tener permiso [be able, have permission] ¿Owilxeꞌ ku kꞌapu an ɨꞌuꞌlek olom o yabaꞌ ku kꞌapu, abal in kꞌakꞌe̠l?¿Puedo comer carne de puerco o no porque tengo calentura? [Can I eat pork or not, since I have a fever?] Note: This verb is not infected for tense, nor does it take the person number marker, although it can be modifed by certain adverbs. 18.3. The classifcation of afxes and dependent words Many dictionaries do not include affixes or dependent words as entries. Dic- tionaries are lists of words and the words are classifed into parts of speech. Some dictionaries, however, do list derivational afxes that enter into stem formation. This Special grammatical designations for indigenous languages 156 is especially true if the afx is very productive and if the resultant meaning is predictable. Websters New world dictionary of the American language (1970) lists the prefx re- and gives its meanings as 1) back and 2) again, anew, over again. Included is the rule for writing the word with a hyphen as opposed to writing it without. (Hyphens are used to distinguish a word with a repetitive re- prefx from a homograph with a diferent meaning and to avoid the juxtaposition of certain vowels.) Words with re- having a non-transparent meaning are listed as dictionary entries in alphabetical order. Those words with re- having the transparent meaning again are not listed as entries except when they need to be distinguished from a homograph. This particular dictionary, however, has a running list along the bottom of the pages in the re- section of the most common words with transparent meaning.

18.3.1. Treatment of afxes Some languages have a very productive derivational morphology. The resultant forms are so numerous and their meaning so transparent that it is impractical to list as entries all possible combinations of the derivational afxes and roots. A listing of such derivational afxes in the grammar sketch provides the user of the dictionary with their meaning. Dictionary entries, then, are included only for those combinations with specialized meaning. This is the solution suggested by Robinson (1969), and is the one that meets the needs of the native speakers of the language. Such a treatment is also satisfactory for the professional linguist who is able to to use the grammar sketch in combination with the lexical items listed in the dictionary. A diferent solution is required to meet the needs of non-speakers of the language who are not trained in linguistics. One of the goals of the dictionary and its accompanying grammatical sketch is to provide the tools to enable a serious student to translate text material in the indigenous language (see §21). The realization of this goal often necessitates the inclusion of more information in the dictionary proper. In addition to those words with specialized meanings, the compiler could choose to list the most common combinations using a given afx (see §7). The afx in question could also be listed in its alphabetical order, marked with a hyphen, identifed as a prefx or sufx, and provided with a description of its function. An illustrative sentence may be given, if desired, but it is not essential. The subentries accompanying the dictionary entry for an afx lists examples of its use. The following example is from Totonac of Papantla (Aschmann & Aschmann 1973):

(16) ac- pref. Se refere a la cabeza o parte superior de algo. [Refers to the head or upper part of something.] Acsipꞌń̠. Le duele la cabeza. [His head hurts.] Var. ak- ♦ actzásat s. canas [gray hairs] ♦ acchi̠najua adj. de cabello chino [curly haired] ♦ acnica v. t. pegar en la cabeza [hit in the head]

The Totonac dictionary of Papantla was the frst in the Mexico ILV series to list prefxes as entries. One of the reasons the compiler included them is the existence of a set of words which may be used either as independent words or may optionally be prefxed to the verb stem. The meaning is the same in either case. The free form of the word contains a sufx -n or -ni. For example: 157 Treatment of dependent words

(17) kalhni s. 1. boca [mouth] Cachꞌi̠t ixkalhni mincuxta̠lh. Amarre la boca del costal. [Tie up the mouth of the sack.] 2. borde, orilla, canto (de algo que tiene fondo) [border, shore, or edge (of something that has depth)] Tapꞌaklhnit ixhalhni pocillo. El borde del pocillo está picado. [The edge of the well is chipped.] 3. encima (de algo que tiene orilla, como el agua o maíz guardado en un recipiente) [on top (of something that has an edge such as a container for water or corn)] Véase kalh-

Sometimes a separate entry is given for the prefx because it has its own variants:

(18) kalh- pref. Identifca al objeto o acción en que se enfoca la palabra como algo que tiene que ver con el canto, borde, orilla de algo, o con una abertura o boca. [Identifes the object or action upon which the word focuses as something that has to do with the edge of something or with an opening or mouth.] Kalhchꞌima cúxtalh. Está atando al costal por la boca. [They are tying the mouth of the sack.] Var. kat-, quilh-, quit- Véase kalhni

The Xicotepec Totonac dictionary (Reid & Bishop 1974) lists prefxes relating to parts of the body in a section of the grammar along with the verbal afxes. Thus, all these afxes are brought together in one place, highlighting any structural system that is involved. The derivational sufxes forming nouns from verbs are listed in a separate section of the grammar. Listing the afxes only in the grammatical sketch puts an additional burden on the user of the dictionary, who has to look through the grammar to fnd a particular afx. The inclusion of afxes in the body of the dictionary would enable the user to easily locate a particular afx in its alphabetical position. On occasion, a morpheme may be discontinuous—that is, composed of both a prefx and a sufx which operate as a unit to convey the desired meaning. Consider the Tepehua form ictamahuayāuj. The tamahua morpheme is the verb root and the ic- ...-yāuj morpheme could be designated prefjo más sufjo [prefx plus sufx], translated as nosotros (excl; tiempo presente)[we (exclusive, present tense)], and cross-referenced to the grammar section describing the construction in more detail. Since the word pronoun is normally a label for a word class which refers to independent words, it should not be used as a designation for a bound form. The translation equivalent, in this instance, can be permitted to carry the semantic component of “pronoun-ness.” 18.3.2. Treatment of dependent words Clitics and discourse particles are dependent words. Some Mixtec pronouns are expressed as clitics and may be attached to various word classes, depending on the particular construction. They tend to function on the phrase level rather than as afxes attached to one particular word class. Discourse particles also function on a higher level than that of an afx on the word they may be bound to in one particular construction. Discourse particles include disclaimers of responsibility for the truth of the statement, quotation markers, intensifers, etc. They are labeled as particles, not being clearly adverbs. Sometimes they may be thought of as oral punctuation marks, lexical intonation, or speaker attitude markers. Note the following section from a Tepehua narrative in which the disclaimer ma is frequently used to indicate that the speaker is not taking responsibility for the truth of the statements. Special grammatical designations for indigenous languages 158

(19) Pero ma acsni ma chaꞌalh ma lakacau hora atatsꞌis ma tachaꞌalh ju manta ixya akꞌatam kꞌai qꞌuiu, chai ma najunch ju palai kꞌox ju ixꞌatalacpastꞌacꞌat,... [But at 10:00 p.m., they arrived where a large tree was standing, and the same one said,...]

As an orthographic convenience, clitics and discourse particles are sometimes written with word space, or with hyphens; but technically they are not independent words. The translation equivalent for a dependent word may describe the usage, thus paralleling the treatment of some afxes. Sometimes clitics are written attached to the word of which they are a phonological part; relative to the grammatical designation, they can then be treated as afxes. Those clitics and discourse particles which are written as separate words can be given the grammatical designation particle. The translation equivalent will specify their semantic contribution and also include basic facts about their syntactic relationships. It is often difcult for collaborators to make illustrative sentences for clitics and bound particles, even if they happen to be written with word space. Apparently, such particles do not have the same psychological reality as content words. The collaborator had a difcult time trying to compose sentences for the dependent pronoun in Tabasco Chontal illustrated below. Even though the particles merit a place in the alphabetical listing of dictionary entries, an abbreviated treatment will sufce. If sentences and some other parts of the entry are omitted, a cross-reference can be included to the grammar where the whole paradigm will be given. The grammar designation as clitic or as dependent pronoun is an automatic reference to the grammar. Translation equivalents for pronominal clitics are the same as, or similar to, those for independent pronouns. Their clitic status is indicated by the grammatical designation, if at all. Note the following examples of clitics and particles and that the Zapotec entry is no diferent in form then that for an independent word. A clitic from Tabasco Chontal:

(20) =u pron. dep. 1. él, ella [he, she] 2. lo, la [3rd person direct object pron.] 3. le [3rd person indirect object] 4. su (de él, ella) [his, hers]

A Sierra de Juárez Zapotec dependent pronoun:

(21) bí= 1. pron. él, ella (familiar, de afecto y aprecio)[3rd person familiar] 2. le, lo, la [3rd person object] 3. su (de él)[his]

A possible set of translation equivalents for some Totontepec Mixe discourse particles:

(22) ax part. Indicates a contrast.

-ts part. 1. Indicates an assertion. 2. Indicates time progression in the narrative.

veꞌe part. Highlights a certain portion of the narrative. Becomes eꞌe after a vowel.

159 Compounds

xa part. Indicates a stronger assertion than -ts.] 18.4. Grammatical designations for atypical entries

18.4.1. Irregularly infected forms An irregular infected form of a word may be included as an entry in the dictionary. Such an entry identifes the form, gives a cross-reference to the major entry and a brief translation equivalent. An example from the Xicotepec Totonac dictionary (Reid & Bishop 1974):

(23) aꞌkapinaꞌ {2a. pers. de aꞌkāꞌn} te caes you fall

Abbreviated entries for principal parts or irregular stems have been referred to as minor (Variant) entries. The inclusion of such entries is an attempt to smooth the way for the non-native speaker of the vernacular in attempts to identify specifc infected forms that have been encountered elsewhere. The following sample entries are for some of the irregular forms of the Spanish verbs ser and ir which happen to have identical forms in the past tense.

(24) fue1 {3rd sg. pret. indic. of ir} he went fue2 {3rd sg. pret. indic. of ser} he was

18.4.2. Infected forms with specialized meaning Sometimes infected forms develop specialized meanings and, for that reason, are included as separate entries. In such cases, the grammar designation identifes the infected form and gives the normal meaning of the form, followed by the specialized meaning. A reference should be included to the main entry for that particular lexical item. An example from San Luis Potosí Huastec Larson (1997):

(25) bitsow s. pueblo [town] Pl. bitsowtsik

(26) bitsowtsik s. pl. 1. pueblos [towns] 2. habitantes, ciudadanos [inhabitants, citizens] Sing. bitsow

18.4.3. Compounds When the lexical entry includes two or more stems which nevertheless function as a single word, the unit can be given a grammatical category. English is not consistent regarding the writing of word space between two parts of a compound. Sometimes they are written as a single word, sometimes with a hyphen, and sometimes with word space. For instance, nevertheless is written as one word and defned as none the less, which is written as three separate words and does not have a dictionary entry. Compare fre alarm, frecracker, fre-eater. English dictionaries alphabetize all compounds, ignoring the word space or hyphen. The New world dictionary of the American language does not give a grammatical category for compounds written with word space, but does identify words written with a hyphen. The Williams English-Spanish dictionary Special grammatical designations for indigenous languages 160

(1955) designates a grammatical category for compounds even though written with word space. For example:

(27) fre alarm s. alarma de incendios frecracker s. triquitraque fre-eater s. titiritero que fnge tragarse brasas.

Long words in indigenous languages are sometimes broken up with word space to facilitate comprehension of the written form by new literates. The dictionary employs the same orthographic conventions; however, the unity of such two word sequences is apparent by their treatment as lexical units in dictionary entries and in the assignment to such entries of a grammatical category. An example from Huave (Stairs & Stairs 1981):

(28) angoch owix v. i. casarse [to get married] nengoch owix s. novio, novia [bridegroom, bride] 18.4.4. Idioms and other phrasal expressions When the lexical entry or subentry consists of more than one word, the grammatical designation may be omitted. The rationale for not providing a phrase with a grammatical designation is that the words in the phrase may belong to diferent parts of speech and the whole may not function as a unit. The following examples are from the Collins Spanish dictionary (1978):

(29) red 1. adj. rojo 2. n. rojo... ♦ as red as a lobster ponerse como un tomate ♦ to be in the red deber dinero ♦ to be red in the face tener la cara encendida ♦ to get out of the red pagar las deudas ♦ to see red sulfurarse, salirse de sus casillas ♦ red-blooded adj viril, vigoroso, enérgico ♦ redcap n. mozo de estación ♦ redcoat n. soldado inglés (del siglo XVIII...) ♦ red-eyed adj con los ojos en sangre

However, if the phrase or idiom demonstrably functions as a unit flling the function of a single grammatical category, it is permissible to provide the entry with a grammatical designation. 18.4.5. Multiple grammatical designations Some words, in exactly the same form, may belong to more than one grammatical category. Often verbs can be either transitive or intransitive, pronouns may have more than one function, or a word may serve both as an adjective and an adverb. The relationship between the diferent parts of speech may be quite obvious or it may be rather obscure. If the relationship is obvious, the diferent grammatical distinctions should be treated as sense discriminations of the word. This is the format technique suggested for distinguishing between the double function of a form that functions as a stative verb and a noun in §17.5. 161 Multiple grammatical designations

Multiple grammatical designations often occur for function words that do not function consistently as a class, e.g., some members of the class may function as relative as well as demonstrative pronouns, while other members may fll only a single function. The same statement may be made about adjectives and adverbs on occasion. The following examples are from Francisco León Zoque:

(30) suñi 1. adj. bonito [pretty] Cyaꞌeꞌis nø myes suñipø tucu rosatzø-quiꞌøyupø søn̠gøtoya. La niña lleva puesto para la festa, un vestido bonito con dibujos de rosas. [The girl is dressed for the party in a pretty dress with roses on it.] 2. adv. bien [well] Carpinteroꞌis suñi cyøvoꞌs cuy para mesacøtoya. El carpintero cepilló bien la tabla para hacer una mesa. [The carpenter planed the board well in order to make a table.]

(31) aunque 1. adv. aunque [although] Aunque mitz jiꞌn sun mi myavø, pero øtz maꞌn̠bøjtzi. Aunque usted no quiere ir, yo sí voy. [Even though you don't want to go, I'm going anyway.] 2. adj. cualquier [whatever] Muspa mi mbøc aunque jutipø pan. Puedes agarrar cualquier pan.[You can take whatever piece of bread (you want).]

(32) jicø 1. adj. aquél, ése [that] Jic pøn øjtze ndøvø. Aquel hombre es uno de mi familia. [That man is one of my family.] 2. pron. dem. aquel, ese [that one] Øtz nø sun jicø. Yo quiero aquél. [I want that one.] 3. interj. ¡mira! [look!] ¡Jicø nø min vacas! ¡Mira, allí viene una vaca! [Look! There comes a cow.] Véase jic

If the semantic relationship between the senses is not clear, the difering grammatical designations should be cause for entering the words as homophonous, separate entries. The following example is from Francisco León Zoque and illustrates a treatment as homophones:

(33) sucsu s. colibrí [hummingbird] Sucsu como teꞌnuse tzøꞌpya y syuꞌcpa jøyø pøjipø quinøjiꞌn̠. El chupamirto se queda como si estuviera parado, y chupa la for con su pico largo. [The hummingbird remains apparently motionless and sucks from the fower with its long beak.]

(34) sucsu v. i. ahogarse [to choke, to drown] N̠gaꞌe sucs nøꞌcøꞌmø, ni iꞌis ja isø vaꞌcø ñøputø. El niño se ahogó en el río, nadie lo vio para sacarlo. [The boy drowned in the river; nobody saw him to pull him out.]

Note that when the diferent grammatical designations are treated as sense discriminations, the grammatical category is placed after the number of the sense discrimination. If there are additional semantic sense discriminations within one grammatical category, the grammatical designation must follow the number of each sense discrimination. It should not be assumed that it need only be listed at the frst of several sense discriminations of the same grammatical class and again when the grammatical class changes. To do so only invites confusion since the reader is never quite sure whether the grammatical class is the same as the preceding one, is unknown, or was inadvertently omitted. An example from Huave (Stairs & Stairs 1981): Special grammatical designations for indigenous languages 162

(35) atsamb 1. v. t. morder [to bite] Necoy xileaj, atsamb xic pet. Me duele el pie, porque me mordió un perro. [My foot hurts because a dog bit me.] 2. v. t. comer (carne, queso, huevo, etc.)[to eat (meat, cheese, eggs, etc.)] Miüs andiüm matsamb cüet. El gato quiere comer pescado. [The cat wants to eat fsh.] 3. v. i. dar comezón [to itch] Xowüy atsamb ximbas. Me da comezón en el cuerpo.[My body itches.]

Juxtaposed grammatical designations may be called for when a certain subclass of words functions as either of two parts of speech. An example from Copainalá Zoque (Harrison et al. 1981):

(36) a. mʌngaꞌnbapʌ adj., s. cojo [lame] b. mʌjtzʌpyapʌ adj., s. jugador [player]

This format should be restricted to a large class whose members regularly exhibit a dual function. Often such entries exemplify a regular process. In the Zoque example, the -pʌ nominalizes a verb; once the verb is nominalized, it can function as either an adjective or a noun. There are several possible treatments of multiple grammatical designations for one lexical item:

1. Syntactic function may be ignored in the grammatical classifcation. A word may be given a single label, e.g., demonstrative pronoun, and in the grammar be defned as covering certain grammatical areas with no attempt at sub-classifcation or division into more specifc domains. This approach recognizes the unity of the word; its disadvantage is that it does not specify how the word classes mesh with those of the national language.

2. The designation may be centered on the word, but consider also the syntactic function. This approach results in sense discriminations being set up with dif- ferent grammar designations for those items with an obvious semantic thread throughout their various usages but flling diferent syntactic roles.

3. Juxtaposed grammatical designations may be listed for some words which are members of a fairly large class of words having dual function. An example is the overlap often found between the adjective and the nominal functions. Alternately, such classes may be given a designation refecting their primary usage, and in the grammar be described as generally able to fll another function as well. For Zoque, it might be stated that all nouns ending in -pʌ also function as adjectives. Juxtaposed parts of speech should not be used as an excuse for less than thorough analysis.

4. Separate entries are advised for a pair of words with no common semantic thread, the phonological similarity being interpreted as nothing more than the coincidence of homophones. Whether the distinction is grammatical or semantic, homophones and sense discriminations are distinguished on the same basis. 163 Designation of the origin of loan words 18.5. Other types of information

18.5.1. Morphological class designation A code letter or number indicating the morphophonemic or morphological class of a lexical item may be added in a grammatical note following the senses. This brief code is an alternative to the listing of diagnostic principal parts of a word on the linguistic information line at the end of the senses. The Huave dictionary (Stairs & Stairs 1981) indicates the sufx class of verbs and nouns with the capital letters A, E, I, O and the prefx class of possessed nouns with small letters followed by a hyphen: a-, i-, o-, mi-. Possessed nouns therefore carry both a prefx class and a sufx class designation:

(37) sap s. oveja [sheep] Clase mi-A

The Totontepec Mixe dictionary (Schoenhals & Schoenhals 1965) has a classifcation code for verbs which includes Roman numerals, capital letters, Arabic numerals, and small letters: e.g., IIA4a. The Chayuco Mixtec dictionary (Pensinger 1974) has subscript numbers for six classes of verbs according to the way the diferent aspects are formed. 18.5.2. Indication of semantic domain Dow Robinson (1969) recommended a designation for the semantic domain which was to appear after the grammatical category of fora and fauna nomenclature. The Xicotepec Totonac dictionary (Reid & Bishop 1974) follows this recommendation:

(38) a. tantzāꞌpaꞌtaꞌkāt s. cuerpo muslo (parte de la pierna de la cadera hasta la rodilla)[noun, body part; thigh (part of the leg between the hip and the knee)]. b. tantzasnān s. ave paloma [noun, bird; dove]

Our current recommendation is to give the semantic domain of nomenclature nouns as part of the qualifying comment on the translation equivalent. This allows the grammatical designation to remain uncluttered by non-grammatical information. The Huave dictionary Stairs & Stairs (1981) follows this approach:

(39) a. cüüch coy s. hierba del conejo (planta) [rabbit herb (plant)] b. chechach s. autillo, lechuza (ave)[owl (bird)]

If the animal or plant is well known, it is not necessary to qualify it for semantic domain; the qualifying comment is advisable for the lesser known names. 18.5.3. Designation of the origin of loan words Loan words from Spanish have been identifed by the abbreviation esp. as part of the grammatical category, especially if the translation equivalent supplies the model for the borrowed word:

(40) mis s. esp. misa (ecliásistica) [mass (ecclesiastical)] Special grammatical designations for indigenous languages 164

If the model for the borrowed word is not present in the translation equivalent, it is better to give the information concerning derivation in square brackets at the end of the entry:1

(41) limet s. botella [bottle] Del español limeta [From Spanish limeta] 18.5.4. Dialectal designations Dialect variants in the dictionary have been identifed by an abbreviation for the area in which the word is used. The Tzotzil dictionary (Delgaty & Ruiz Sánchez 1978) identifes words from Zinacantán (Zin), Chamula (Cham), Ixtapa (Ixt), and Chꞌenalho (Chꞌen). Such entries do not have a grammar designation in the Tzotzil dictionary. They do have a cross-reference to the corresponding word in San Andrés which is the major entry for that word and is identifed for grammatical category. (See §13: Variant pronunciations and geographical variants.) As has been evident throughout chapters 17 and 18, the compiler of a bilingual dictionary for an indigenous language must be conversant with the grammatical categories of the language of wider communication and the terminology commonly used in discussing them. Grammatical structure of the specifc indigenous language must also be understood. A "word and paradigm" model should be used to present the grammatical structure of that language. If such an approach becomes unworkable, attempts should be made to ft the unique categories of the vernacular into the system with as little disruption to the basic structure as possible.

1See §16: Loan words in the bilingual dictionary. 19 Essential linguistic information and cross-referencing

The frst line following the sense discriminations and their attendant illustrative sentences is reserved for grammatical notations directed to the linguistic scholar. Some of these comments are enclosed within square brackets to set them apart from other items. A number of features having irregular manifestations lend themselves to treatment on this line. In the interest of simplicity for the unsophisticated reader, nothing more than the simple word-class abbreviation should be included in the grammatical designation feld between the entry word and its translation equivalent. If alternate stem forms are necessary, they should be listed on this line. A system of cross-referencing also may be necessary to relate stem variants to the main entry if complicated morphophonemic considerations or other types of alteration obscure the relationship.

19.1. Essential linguistic information The essential linguistic information area is reserved for diferent forms of the same lexical item that appears as the main entry word in the dictionary article. Subentries refer to diferent lexical items that are derived from the main entry. Causatives, for example, are probably always diferent lexical items and thus belong in the subentry category. Principal parts of a verb, or unpredictable stem alternates, should be listed as essential linguistic information. Several types of information that may proftably be included in this category follow.

19.1.1. Alternate verb stems The listing of stem allomorphs for irregular verbs can be handled nicely in the essential linguistic information area. As many principal parts may be included as are necessary to conjugate the verb according to the rules in the grammatical sketch. For some languages, it may be necessary to list a form representing one or more tenses of regular verbs. Such forms, although basic to the system, could not be deduced from reference to the citation form alone. 19.1.2. Plural or possessive form of nouns If a basic plural or possessive form of nouns needs to be listed, it can be included here in no more space than would be occupied by a cross-reference. Such a system also en- ables the user to avoid repetitious consultation of the other form in the main dictionary listing. Example from Southeastern Tepehuan ((E. Willett & T. Willett 2015)): 165 Essential linguistic information and cross-referencing 166

(1) a. naan s. madre, mamá ... [3a. pos. dɨ'ɨɨ'n; pl. nanaan] b. nob s. brazo, mano ... [3a. pos. nobi'ñ; pl. noonob]

A similar simple statement of the parsing of a grammatical form may be applied to categories other than nouns. 19.1.3. Verb class designation Some compilers have utilized a coding system to identify verb classes which are then defned and described in the grammar sketch. Some codes have followed outline style: 1A, 11B1, 11B2(a), etc. 19.1.4. Animate-inanimate or other dichotomy If the animate designation is chosen for the citation form, the irregular inanimate counterpart can be included within the square brackets. Any word-specifc information of the type that needs to appear on a large number of entries belongs in this linguistic information area. 19.1.5. Syntactic restrictions Although lexical co-occurrence restrictions are dealt with in qualifying comments, syntactic restrictions are indicated in other ways. If a verb requires an indirect or direct object, or both, this fact is partially indicated in the grammatical designation of transitive or bitransitive verbs. Other syntactic requirements can be indicated in the linguistic information area. For example, some Zapotec verbs can be used only with an object that is the name of a body part. This fact would be indicated as essential linguistic information: i.e., [object of verb must be a body part.] Another example from Southeastern Tepehuan:

(2) bɨɨm adv. junto, con (otra persona) ... Se presenta con un afjo de posesión. [Occurs with a possessive afx.] 19.2. Cross-referencing in the dictionary entry

19.2.1. Synonyms and antonyms Some compilers indicate synonyms and antonyms by means of a cross reference at the end of the dictionary article just before the subentries. To be considered synonymous, each semantic element implied by one of a pair of words should be characteristic of the other in at least one of its sense discriminations. Pairs that imply most but not all of the same semantic elements are referred to as analogous terms rather than synonyms and are not cross-referenced to each other. The Spanish abbreviations Sinón. and Antón. occur before the synonyms and antonyms in the cross-reference position. It should be borne in mind that vernacular words translated with the same Spanish word will occur together in the Spanish index. If desired, this fact may compensate for the omission of specifc references to synonyms on the vernacular side of the dictionary. Synonyms may be cross-referenced in the following manner: 167 An alternate stem or principal parts

a. A word with a specifc area of meaning may have designated as a synonym a word with the same meaning but which is a more general and more widely applicable term. b. A general word may conceivably be cross-referenced to the whole series of specifc words for which it may be substituted. c. Words with distinct specifc areas of meaning are never designated synonyms of one another even though another language may lump them together under one term. The inversion process, however, will group such words together with the result that they will appear consecutively in the Spanish Index. Many Mexican languages have a plethora of words meaning carry and Totontepec Mixe is no exception:

(3) vits, pavits carry (water) ca̠n, paca̠n carry (money) maaꞌcxy, pamaaꞌcxy carry (in the hand) tseeꞌn, patseeꞌn carry (a child) capy, pacapyt carry (a pole) cu̠ꞌu̠, pacu̠ꞌu̠ carry (a board)

Following the above principles, vits and pavits could be listed as synonyms for each other as the diference in meaning is minimal. However, the words listed on diferent lines in the example could not be given as synonyms for each other as their areas of meaning are specifcally diferent. If there were a general word which could apply to all instances given in the examples, that word would be an appropriate synonym (more exactly, hypernym) for each of them. The whole list could be cited as hyponyms for that general word in those cases where it is desirable to have an exhaustive list of the things that are classifed by the same cover term in the ethnoclassifcation system. For a discussion of analogous sets, see section 20.2.4. 19.2.2. An alternate stem or principal parts Certain basic forms, such as stem alternates, are sometimes included as abbreviated main entries to enable the reader of text material to fnd specifc forms in the dictionary. Such subsidiary entries, although appearing in the main alphabetical listing, should be handled briefy with an evident distinction made between them and regular main entries. When a principal part appears in its own alphabetical order, it should be identifed by a brief translation equivalent and a cross-reference back to the main entry. A short translation equivalent is included since many users at that moment only need a general idea of the meaning of the word rather than a complete description. No grammatical designation need be given since the cross-reference refers back to the main entry. The Spanish Véase (equivalent to cf. in English) is a handy tool that may be used in a few specifc contexts. For example, when it is necessary to include a stem alternant as a separate entry, the reader is referred by Véase to the main entry for that word where he will fnd fuller treatment of the item. This device is especially helpful for languages that have two or more disparate stem alternates for the majority of the verbs. If Véase is used to direct the reader from a short main entry to a more complete dictionary article, the rationale must be that unpredictable stem allomorphs have made it difcult or impossible for the user to make the connection on his own — even by following the rules spelled out in the explanatory material. Note that even if the allomorphs are quite dissimilar, in some cases, they may have enough letters in common at the beginning of Essential linguistic information and cross-referencing 168 the word to enable the reader to locate the other stem in its alphabetical order without resorting to a cross-referencing entry. When principal parts are quite disparate, they must be listed in the main entry as essential linguistic information. Optionally, they may also appear in their respective alphabetical order with a cross-reference to the main entry. Presumably all semantic information that the reader needs is already included in the original entry and no new information would be acquired by consulting an alternate form. Therefore, there is no cross-reference from the essential linguistic information area to entries of subsidiary forms. 19.2.3. Compounds and derivatives Admittedly, it would be nice to cross-reference all compounds to all of their included components. However, such a procedure would add considerable bulk to the dictionary and might be neither practical nor necessary for dictionaries of more limited scope than unabridged publications. Since the entry for the frst component of a compound should occur in reasonable proximity to the compound itself, a note can be included in the introduction to the book informing the reader that he can locate the frst elements near to the combining forms themselves. The second and succeeding components of compounds should be cross-referenced to their basic entries. The compound will usually appear as a subentry under those components. If the set becomes unusually large and unwieldy, perhaps only the more important, less regular, or most common of the compounds might be included as subentries in that location. Similarly, components may be used with derivatives. It should be limited to functioning as a pointer to the simplest form of a stem from which a given word is derived. It should not be used to lead the reader to a parallel construction, or to one more derivationally complicated than the main entry. 19.2.4. A reference to the grammatical sketch On occasion, it may be benefcial to include a reference note to a specifc section of the grammar for further information on a given entry. This type of referral occurs last in the main part of the entry: e.g., Véase Gramática 2.3.4. 19.2.5. A summary of the uses of Véase 1. When a subentry appears as a main entry in its own location, there should be a Véase referring to the original main entry for the basic stem. 2. To indicate the relevant parts of a compound or derivative by pointing out the roots where the lexical meaning of the parts is discussed. There is usually no cross-reference to the frst element of a compound since the basic form should appear in close alphabetical proximity to the compound. 3. To refer to a section of the grammar where an explanation relevant to that lexical entry can be found. 4. To cross-reference an irregular form that appears as a minor entry back to the original main entry for that lexical item. 169 A sample network of cross-references from the Huave dictionary 19.2.6. A sample network of cross-references from the Huave dictionary The following items are a sampling of cross-references from Huave (Stairs & Stairs 1981).

(4) achey v. t. E sorber [to sip] Nop niün andeow lango majiür fuerza manga- neow yow; achey pero noic pite amb tiül najchow. Un enfermo no tiene fuerza para tomar agua; la sorbe un poco por medio de un carrizo. [The invalid does not have strength to drink water; he sips it through a stalk.] Aug. atsoy [Augmentative] ♦ nechey adj. seco, arrugado, cicatrizado [dried out, wrinkled, scarred]

(5) atsoiich v. t. A bajar (de hinchazón)[to decrease (in swelling)] Taxipiich xileaj; wẍ tayacas súúig quiaj tatoiich. Se me hinchó el pie, pero cuando me puse la medicina, se me bajo.[My foot swelled but when I put medicine on it, it went down.] Deriv. de atsoy [Derived]

(6) atsoy v. t. E chupar, absorber [to suck, to absorb] Trumpa palüyan astoy ajpoet mbaj. El colibrí chupa las fores. [The hummingbird sucks the fowers.] Dim. achey [Diminutive] ♦ atsoiich v.t. bajar [lower] ♦ atsoiich tiüt v.t. hundir [sink]

(7) cheyem v. r. bajarse (algo infado o hinchado) [to defate (something infated or swollen)] Aug. tsoyom

(8) nechey adj. seco, arrugado, cicatrizado Nechey oniiüg nej. Tiene seco el ojo. [He has a dry eye.] Deriv. de achey

(9) tsoyom v. r. bajarse, encojerse [to shrink] Dim. cheyem ♦ tsoyom tiüt se hunde [it sinks, is sunk]

In these examples, note that:

1. The augmentative/diminutive dichotomy is a basic characteristic of the language. It parallels in importance the basic dichotomies inherent in other languages, e.g., perfective/imperfective in Russian, causative/regular in Zapotec, animate- inanimate in Chinantec.

2. The diminutive form of the verb atsoy has its own set of subentries that seemed more appropriately located with it rather than with the augmentative form.

3. The translation equivalent for atsoiich, when it appeared as a subentry, would Essential linguistic information and cross-referencing 170

have been more explicit if it had been identical with that of atsoiich as a main verb. There is a valid principle that translation equivalents on subentries may be abbreviated versions of those on the main entries, but in this case, the meaning seems to be obscured as the connection between bajar and chupar is not apparent.

4. No cross reference to the parts of the compound atsoiich tiüt is necessary, since they both occur as separate entries in exactly the same form in other parts of the dictionary.

5. The augmentative/diminutive distinction between cheyem and tsoyom has been indicated by citing each under its corresponding term.

When a complex cross-referencing situation exists, some of the cross-references should point to the more generic or basic stems and others to more specifc or derived ones. For example, the Huave refexive augmentative and the refexive diminutive are more closely linked to each other than either is to the basic stem of the verb. 20 Subentries

Subentries provide an opportunity to display the grammatical and lexical structure of the vernacular in a slightly expanded fashion. A consistent and orderly listing of grammatically derived forms, compounds, idioms, and analogous words is possible in this section of the dictionary article. Such information is valuable to the linguist who can fnd word level grammatical structure and derivation displayed. The speaker of the vernacular may also receive a picture of compounding and derivational principles. He or she may previously have been unaware that there was order and pattern of this type operative in the language. Perhaps for the frst time he or she will recognize a common root in a series of words or realize that a certain set of forms is derived from the same stem.

20.1. Types of subentries

20.1.1. Derivatives The rules of infectional afxation (person, number, time, etc.) can be demonstrated by a judicious choice of illustrative sentences throughout the dictionary and in the grammatical sketch. Derivational forms, however, are best displayed as subentries. The listing of derived words and compounds as subentries under the simplest form of the word, provides a type of cross-reference which also serves to display something of the processes involved in the formation of lexical units. Such processes include transitivity and focus derivation in the verb stem, nominalizations, verbalizations, ad- jectivalizations, and object incorporations. Changes such as benefactive, causative, and refexive may also be presented in this area. An example from Francisco León Zoque:

(1) caꞌu v.i. 1. morirse [to die] ... 2. secarse [to dry up] ... 3. salir bien molido [to turn out fnely ground] ... 4. descolorarse [to become discolored]... ♦ cyocaꞌu v.t. morir defendiéndose [to die defending one another] ♦ myan̠gaꞌu v.t. matar aplastando [to kill by squashing] ♦ oscaꞌu v.i. morirse de hambre [to die of starvation] ♦ sucscaꞌu v.i. morirse ahogado [to die by drowning] ♦ yajcaꞌu v.t. matar [to kill]

An example from Northern Tepehuan:

171 Subentries 172

(2) cocóósni v.i. 1. dormir [to sleep] ♦ coos̆ícaroi s. tarima, colchón [mattress] ♦ coos̆iga s. sueño [sleepiness] ♦ coos̆ítudai s. hace que duerma [to cause to sleep]

At the time the derived forms are specifed, a cross-reference from the entry for the derivative back to the basic stem is created.1 20.1.2. Compounds Some languages form new words by compounding rather than by coining completely new words or employing derivatives to any great extent. Often it is considered important to show that a given word is compounded from two or more roots. A language has the power to grow with a changing culture by producing new words through various combinations of modifers and head constituents. An explicit presentation of compounds can often provide insights into patterns of culture change that have been operative over the centuries. For example, the Mazatec word for train is literally a ground airplane; airplane in turn is literally a fre house presumably from the way it shines in the sunlight. Airplanes were known in this area before it was open enough to outside communication for the people to recognize a train. Totontepec Mixe has combined a number of items with the root which means sky, and another root which means Spanish, to denote cultural items that arrived following the conquest.

(3) tsapjo̠o̠tm [sky-inside] heaven, sky tsapta̠jc [sky-house] church tsapcaacy [sky-tortilla] bread tsapcaa [sky-large animal] cow tsapca̠ts [sky-talk] pray

tsamaaxu̠m [Spanish-rock] idol amaaxu̠n [Spanish-speech] Spanish language maaxu̠n ónu̠c [Spanish-child] godchild maaxu̠n teeꞌ [Spanish-father] godfather

Northern Tepehuan is also a “compound loving language.” The combination bʌ́í + caroi nominalizer + to grab forms many a compound referring to everyday items of Western culture (information from Burt Bascom):

(4) [cloth-grabber] pot holder [iron-grabber] pliers [paper-grabber] paperclip [clothes-grabber] clothespin [shoe-“putter-on”] shoe horn

Compounds in Northern Tepehuan are not restricted to technological innovation: the sun's rays as seen difused through a cloud are referred to as the sun's hair. All compounds in general usage should be included in the dictionary. They do not all need to be listed, however, as subentries under the basic root. As a rule of thumb,

1See Appendix F.2.8 for how this is done. 173 Compounds no more than a half dozen need to occur in any one article unless the compiler wishes to emphasize the range of a specifc and complete set of derivatives or compounds. Obviously, some compounds occur very close to one of the root words in normal alphabetical order, and it would be redundant to list them as subentries under that root. In most English dictionaries, items such as freman, fre-engine, fre break, and frefy are listed as main entries in alphabetical order and do not appear as subentries. However, if one wished to show that gunfre were related to fre as well as to gun, it would be necessary to list it as a subentry under fre as well as in its normal order following gun. If etymological information is desired for compounds and derivatives when they appear as main entries, it can be displayed after the senses before the linguistic information. A Chꞌol example (Aulie & Aulie 1978):

(5) xꞌacꞌjun s. mensajero ... Comp. de acꞌ dar+ jun papel [Composed of acꞌ give + jun paper.]

In the above example, it is helpful to include a translation equivalent for each element, because diferent sense discriminations or homophones are involved. The morpheme acꞌ also means tongue (homophone), and jun can also mean book, or fg tree (sense discriminations). Alternately, the elements of the compound may be cross-referenced to the main entries for the individual components of the compound without translation equivalents. This is useful in languages where the components are likely to be unambiguous.2 In Mazatec, some new words are actually composed of a main word and a clitic. For various linguistic and didactic reasons, the clitics are written as free forms. Therefore, what could have been written as one word, is written as two or more separate words. Thus instead of bell as a single word, the dictionary entry is composed of the equivalent of the metal that rings. Many semantic distinctions are handled with collocational restrictions which in a dictionary will appear as two-word entries. Therefore, for Maza- tec, two-word entries will not be confned to the subentry role (see the next section on idioms and expressions) but the dictionary will have numerous two-word entries in the main alphabetical listing. By considering these items as compounds that happen to be written with internal word space, the apparent collision of two general principles is avoided. Those principles are: (1) No sentences should occur for subentries, and (2) A few multi-word entries should appear in the main listing since these are not usually lexical units. If these compounds are listed as dictionary entries in their own right (although written as two words), they may then have accompanying illustrative sentences, grammatical designations, and sense discriminations. The necessity of distinguishing a compound from an idiom then becomes an important consideration. A given item should be considered a compound, and therefore a main entry in the dictionary, if it functions as an identifable and single grammatical category. If it includes more than one grammatical category, it should be treated as

2In FLEx, translation equivalents may be shown for the components of a compound form by adding a Summary Defnition to those entries. Any compound form that will show as a subentry under any of its components will must also have a Summary Defnition. See Appendix F.2.8 for details. Subentries 174 an idiom. If a grammatical category can be given to the totality, it is a lexical item and correctly belongs in a list of words. In instances where the main element of the compound comes second and would not be located reasonably close to the same word in isolation, a subentry could be placed under the main word with a cross-reference type of notation. 20.1.3. Generic/specifc compounds Mazatec has an interesting set of compounds which are sometimes referred to as generic/specifc nouns. As is so often the case, the standard treatments and pat answers did not quite ft the problem. A description of the treatment of this situation emphasizes the necessity of tailoring specifc solutions in order to highlight some of the specialized aspects and distinctive features of a given language. The nouns which are being referred to as generic/specifc are compounds, although written with word space between the two elements. Therefore, they will appear on their own as main dictionary entries. However, it is also possible to drop of the specifc part of the compound in discourse and add a sufx -re̠ to show that the abbreviated form refers back to the compound originally introduced. It is conceivable that someone might look for the generic half of the compound in the dictionary and fnd only the basic meaning of metal, money, cord, or whatever. The actual meaning that it carries in that location would not be apparent at all. One possibility, of course, is to list all the meanings of all the compounds as sense discriminations for the generic word. This seems redundant as they will all shortly appear in their full compound form. Probably the most feasible solution is to discuss the abbreviation of the compounds in the grammatical sketch, giving examples, and describing the sufxes that must be added in these instances (possessive or otherwise). In the dictionary proper, the full forms will be listed and all the possible sense discriminations on the generic half of the compound will be ignored. It would also be feasible to add a note to the entry for the generic word as a cross reference to the section of the grammar that mentions the possibility of this being an abbreviated form of a longer word. Some examples of these generic/specifc sets follow:

(6) tuju s. dinero [money] ♦ tuju re̠ti escama de pez [fsh scales (lit. fsh’s money)

Therefore, tuju re (its money) means the fsh scales.

(7) nahñu mecate, cuerda [rope, cord] nahñu guicha alambre [wire] nahñu nguijña bejuco [vine] nahñu reu sesos [brains]

In its possessed form, nahñu could refer to any of the above compounds, depending on the context. 175 Idioms and other phrasal expressions

(8) quicha 1. metal; 2. ferro; 3. campana [metal; iron; bell] quichañuju arete [earring (metal/ear)] quicha tiava plata [silver (metal/lead)] quicha nduju machete [long knife (metal/long)] quicha xihi tijeras [scissors (metal/man)] chu quicha xihi tijerillas (insecto) [earwig] quicha reu hacha [ax head (metal/head)] quicha rë chu aguijón (de un insecto) [stinger (of an insect)] icha nehñu sierra (hermaniento) [saw (metal/teeth tool)] quicha lehua haz [pick (metal/pick tool)] quicha sta garlopa [plane (metal/smooth tool)]

Again, metal in discourse may refer to any one of the compounds which has been introduced as long as only one of the set is under discussion. It should be noted that any meanings of the generic root that are not amenable to this type of compounding should be listed as sense discriminations on the main entry; e.g., iron and bell in the preceding example. 20.1.4. Idioms and other phrasal expressions According to Webster’s Third International Dictionary (1961), an idiom is:

an expression established in the use of a language that is peculiar to itself either in grammatical construction or in having a meaning that cannot be derived as a whole from the conjoined meanings of its elements. Thus, an idiom is a series of words, or a phrase, whose meaning cannot be deduced from knowing the isolated meaning of each of its parts. It also has an almost completely frozen lexical context such that the substitution of another lexical item for any of its parts destroys the specialized meaning. Stop pulling my leg cannot retain its meaning of kidding or joking if arm, head, or some other item is substituted for leg. A semantically corresponding Spanish idiom is Me estás tomando el pelo [You are pulling my hair.]. Other examples of English idioms are: Keeping the wolf from the door, Bringing home the bacon, and A fsh out of water. An idiom may be thought of as a sense discrimination restricted to only one specifc context. In sum, an idiom is like another sense discrimination except that it is limited to a fxed environment, and has its specialized meaning only in that environment. The idiom is like a compound because a compound fxes the environment of a morpheme or root, but the compound constitutes a single linguistic word, whereas the idiom is syntactically complex. Expressions other than idioms which may be included as subentries are usually phrases needed to express a concept described by a single linguistic word in the national language. Proverbs and other types of fgurative usage may also be included in this area if desired. As a rule, expressions and idiomatic phrases do not appear as main entries partly because of the difculty in assigning them a part of speech. However, idioms may be listed as subentries if an illustrative sentence is not required to clarify the meaning. An example from Ch'ol (Aulie & Aulie 1978): Subentries 176

(9) chꞌʌm v.t. agarrar [pick up] Chꞌʌmʌ a julonib chaꞌan maꞌ jul jini uch. Agarra tu escopeta para que le tires al tlacuache. [Pick up your rife so you can shoot the opossum.] ♦ chꞌʌm ti majan recibir prestado [borrow]

If an illustrative sentence is desired and the idiom can be assigned a part of speech, it can be made a main entry and listed as a subentry under the key word(s) of the phrase. An example from Southeastern Tepehuan (E. Willett & T. Willett (2015)).

(10) gɇꞋp jum duukam s. gran cosa [big thing] Jum kuupaꞋ am dho noꞋ pich gɇꞋp jum duukam bhaan jum uaꞋtulh. Te van a encarcelar si hiciste una cosa muy mala (lit. si te pecaste por medio de una gran cosa). [They're going to put you in jail if you did something really bad (lit. if you sinned by doing a big thing.)] Comp. de gɇꞋ grande, duñia' hacer, kam de.

On occasion a subentry may appear to have more than one sense discrimination. Conceivably, this may be true of multi-word subentries as well as single word ones. Any subentry that is complex enough to have its own sense discriminations should have its own main entry even if it is a phrase and not simply a compound or a derivative. 20.1.5. Specialized meaning of a variant of the entry On occasion, an infected form develops a specialized meaning that other infected forms of the same type do not carry, e.g., the Mixtec repetitive of know means to recognize. These too may appear as subentries under the main entry (in this case know), and then again as minor entries in the appropriate spot. This type of entry is analogous to an idiom in its restricted meaning, but difers from an idiom in that it is composed of only one word. This treatment should be reserved for forms that are perceived as being close to the core of the word (animate/inanimate, person, or tense variation). Specialized meanings of a participle form are interpreted as being close to derivational modifcations. 20.2. Guidelines for the inclusion/exclusion of specifc items There is less rigidity in the principles covering this section of the dictionary article than in those areas previously discussed. The compiler has leeway for the exercise of personal choice. Most of the material is optional, but whatever areas the compiler chooses to highlight should be treated with consistency. However, in the interests of economy and clarity, certain guidelines have been developed.

20.2.1. Idiosyncrasy Subentries should primarily include those derived or compound forms whose meaning or derivation cannot easily be predicted from the base form. If it is possible to derive the form in question by following an explicit, generally applicable rule, that rule should be included in the grammatical sketch and the user left to formulate his own derivations. Only idiosyncrasies of form or meaning belong in this section, and thought should be given to the inclusion of each item. If it is desirable to include causative, transitive, refexive, or similar forms as subentries, they should appear as 177 Synonyms vs. analogous words part of the dictionary article for the most basic stem of the paradigm. They should not be included as subentries with each member of the set. The sampling principle discussed in §7 is operative as well and dictates the inclusion of a certain number of derived forms even though their formation is predictable. 20.2.2. Close relationship to the main entry Subentries (derivatives, compounds, idioms) should be related to the main entry in the frst degree; that is, they should not be primarily related to another subentry. Neither should they be homophonous forms, minimal pairs, or other interesting bits of information not closely related structurally to the main entry. 20.2.3. Primacy of the main entries Subentries should exist as main entries in their own alphabetical order. Our frst responsibility is to each independent entry in its own location. Subentries are a luxury which may be added when the item in question is removed in alphabetical placement from others of its family. The display of derivationally related forms in one entry is useful in showing the grammatical system of his language to the vernacular speaker, who must be able to fnd the derived forms as main entries as well. The derivational system is hidden if subentries appear only as main entries; normal usage and accessibility are lost if certain forms appear only as subentries. There is an exception to this rule. In most standard dictionaries, idiomatic phrases appear only as subentries under one or more of their headwords. These items are difcult to alphabetize, and, at best, are awkward entries in a listing of single words. It is permissible, therefore, that they appear only in the sub-entry area. 20.2.4. Synonyms vs. analogous words A distinction must be maintained between synonyms and merely analogous words. Many compilers confuse the two categories and insert words into the cross-referencing network of synonyms (see §19) that more properly are analogous terms. In his work on the synonyms of the Greek New Testament, Trench (1948) states: “A certain innate tact, a genius for the seizing of subtler and fner distinctions, will here be of more proft than all rules which can beforehand be laid down.” Care must be used in pairing synonyms; the relationship cannot be so remote that the diference is obvious. The more minimal the diference, the more substitutable the items, the better the synonym. It is useful to keep track of words habitually associated with both members of the pair. There should be no great variation in the context. It is sometimes possible to determine synonyms out of a sense of ftness or propriety. Some synonyms have a climactic aspect and may occur in series, each one slightly stronger than the preceding item. Synonyms must be closely related both semantically and structurally. If two words do not function as the same grammatical category, they should not be considered synonyms. Consider the following example in which the original vernacular words were all derived from the same stem but are not necessarily synonyms.

(11) exprimir vt to squeeze (in order to soften an orange to suck out the juice) Sinón. demasiado maduro overripe (fruit) ablandar to soften contundir to bruise (fruit) amasar, sobar to knead (bread dough) Subentries 178

The frst purported synonym is a noun or adjective; it therefore cannot be a synonym for the entry word which is a verb. The entry word is a specifc action for a specifc purpose. Only the second listed synonym is appropriate, since it denotes a general action and the term could be applied to the specifc area of meaning indicated by the entry word. The other two items are specifc actions whose focus is diferent from that of the entry word. They are not substitutable for the entry word and, therefore, are not to be considered as synonyms. They are analogous terms and may be listed appropriately as subentries illustrating a semantic set, but they should not be cross- referenced as synonyms of the entry word. 20.2.5. Avoidance of redundancy Not everything is on the same plane of importance, and it is impossible to include in a dictionary every fact about the lexical structure of the language. Since the scope of the published work must be limited, we should not obscure the main points of each entry by an inordinate listing of supplementary and subsidiary material. Certainly if the entry looks unbalanced with an excessive amount of material in this category, it should be pruned to more efectively display crucial facts of the dictionary article. It is unnecessary to include as a subentry any item that will occur in normal alphabetical order within fve entries of the main entry under consideration. It will be remembered that it is unnecessary to cross-reference derivational or compound words whose structure is apparent from an examination of the word in conjunction with the rules set forth in the grammatical sketch and introductory material. Even if there is an excessive number of possibly irregular compounds, it is probably better to limit the number of subentries to six or some other well defned maximum for this category. The rest may be included as main entries, possibly devoid of any cross-referencing notes. If too much of the obvious is included in this part of the dictionary article, the reader may simply ignore the whole section. 21 The grammatical sketch

21.1. Purposes of the grammar description The grammar description accompanying the bilingual dictionary may be viewed from several aspects. The goal is to bring together the several purposes it serves in a unifed and coherent statement that refects the structure of the language in a clear and concise manner.

21.1.1. A contribution towards presenting the language as a coherent whole Various authorities in the feld of lexicography have stated unequivocally that a description of the grammatical structure is an essential part of the bilingual dictionary. Ladislav Zgusta (1971) declares: “Without a grammatical analysis, there is no possibility of dealing with the lexicon.” At the conference on lexicography sponsored by Indiana University in 1962, H. A. Gleason, Jr. presented a paper entitled “The relation of lexicon and grammar” (Gleason 1962). He graphically stressed the interrelationship between the grammar and the dictionary as follows:

I feel it will only be by wrestling seriously with the problem of compiling a dictionary that we can overcome our habit of excluding from the grammatical statement certain inconvenient details on what is really no other ground than merely that they are inconvenient. Whether we like it or not, every grammatical statement implies some delimitation of scope as between itself and the dictionary. But we have examined and defned that limit from one side only. There ought to be positive reasons for assigning a feature to the dictionary rather than simply negative reasons for banishing it away from the grammatical statement. Or putting it another way, the best way to cure ourselves of sweeping things under the rug is to accept the responsibility of cleaning the whole foor. Gleason expands his ideas on the interrelationship of the grammar and the dictionary in terms of several general principles. Both can be designed as parts of a comprehensive descriptive program for a given language. The objective of such a program is the adequate description of all the phenomena of the language within its terms of reference. This objective is most efciently reached if the descriptive works are closely keyed to each other.

179 The grammatical sketch 180

The grammatical statement deals with the relationships between classes, whereas the dictionary assumes responsibility for those matters which pertain to individual members of those classes. This responsibility includes the identifcation of the specifc class to which a given entry belongs. It is inadequate, particularly in a bilingual dictionary, to label items simply as a noun or a verb if the compiler is aware that each group contains signifcant subclasses. In a very real sense, the dictionary should serve as an index to the grammatical description. The dictionary, in conjunction with the grammar, also makes available information about contrasts, substitutional relationships in the grammatical hierarchy, and collocational patterns. The latter characteristics are particularly evident in well constructed illustrative sentences. Some scraps of information are difcult to classify in any retrievable form unless the dictionary entries serve as a repository for idiosyncratic items. The dictionary article as the location of specifc information should give the necessary details and examples to which the grammar sketch will refer. It provides the phonological shape of the words, an arbitrary grammatical class symbol or code in the case of irregular forms belonging to major classes, and diagnostic principal parts or general class membership as necessary. Conversely, general information should be included in the grammatical sketch. The grammar should be written and organized to facilitate the use of the dictionary. It must also provide adequate defnitions of the word classes referred to in the individual dictionary entries. For nouns, this description should include the infectional patterns, subclasses, model declensions, etc. The same types of information should be included for all pertinent word classes. 21.1.2. The grammar as a vital section of a self-contained book With the exception of linguistic articles in technical journals, the bilingual dictionary and its accompanying grammar sketch may be the only major work ever published describing a given indigenous language. It is incumbent upon the compiler, therefore, to make the publication as thorough and accurate as possible. Through the use of the book alone, or in conjunction with native speakers, it should be possible for an interested outsider to get a start in language learning, to translate text material, to research some topic in historical linguistics, or to satisfy his curiosity regarding the structure of an undescribed indigenous language. These goals would be extremely difcult to reach if the lexicon were unaccompanied by a systematic description of the grammar. 21.1.3. The touchstone of text translation The bilingual dictionary and its companion grammar description should be coherent and complete enough to enable a user to identify all the morphemes of an indigenous word and all the infectional markers in a paradigm. The complete volume should supply the necessary tools for a serious student to be able to translate any text he may encounter written in the indigenous language. In fact, such expertise is the goal of the linguistic check mentioned in §26. The user of the dictionary and grammar should be able to decipher the illustrative sentences and compositions, progressing from the simple and repetitive text of folktales to more complicated discourse. Text analysis also makes an important contribution to dictionary compilation and the construction of the grammar sketch. Random text will contain examples of each word class if the sample is large enough. It will also show some of the complexities peculiar to the language, including discourse particles which may have been inadvertently 181 The audience to whom the description is directed omitted from the dictionary listing. It should reveal numerous sense discriminations and provide corroboration that the illustrative sentences follow the principles of natural sentence construction. Text will also highlight points which should be explained in the grammar sketch. 21.2. General considerations

21.2.1. Description vs. identifcation It will be remembered that §17, on grammatical designations, dealt with identifcation of the parts of speech or word classes of the vernacular language. To refect their individual class membership, the labeling of items in the dictionary was recommended. Spanish word class labels were discussed from the standpoint of providing the basic grammatical framework to follow (or deviate from) according to the situation. This chapter is concerned with the description of these classes in the context of the grammatical structure of the whole language. Such a presentation should refect the complete system, describing the infectional possibilities as well as the word classes. The basic structure of the system must be described as well as accounting for the irregular oddities. The inclusion of a partial description of Spanish grammar in §18 was for purposes of contrast and comparison with the vernacular structure since traditional Spanish grammar is also the source of much of the descriptive terminology used in a grammar sketch for the dictionary. In the prose description, emphasis should be placed on general principles that are applicable on a broad scale rather than the idiosyncratic linguistic information given in some of the individual dictionary entries. 21.2.2. The audience to whom the description is directed The basic idea of dictionaries prepared for use in indigenous villages by new literates was proposed by Dow F. Robinson (1969). More recently, the dictionaries of SIL in Mexico are also designed to be useful to the professional linguist. Priority, however, should be given to the use of terminology, graphic design, and other devices to increase reader appeal to the local people. It has been considered important to demonstrate to the indigenous people the fact that their language has structure, system, and a grammar equal in complexity to that of any of the world’s major languages. Because of targeting as the primary audience the indigenous people and outsiders who are not professional linguists, it has been deemed wise to present the material according to a traditional school grammar model. This requires quite a diferent mindset than the structural orientation of linguistic description based on morphology, contrast and distribution of allomorphs, etc. There are several stylistic models of grammar description ranging on a continuum from a practical grammar designed for laymen to a technical write-up aimed at the professional linguist. A practical grammar is one written for the layman rather than the technically trained specialist. It relates the description of an unknown language to the language of wider communication familiar to the reader. Nevertheless, it is a systematic and logical presentation of the structure and grammatical rules of the indigenous language. Even though such a nonspecialist may know little of the grammatical terminology involved in the description of his national language, he can understand parallels or contrasts with that language when these methods are used to introduce material from another language. The grammatical sketch 182

A technical linguistic article, on the other hand, is directed towards a specialist in the feld of linguistics or scholar in another feld. Such a person controls the specialized vocabulary used in discussing a language in technical terms. Linguists could grasp the material that needs to be presented in the grammatical sketch even if it were presented from a particular theoretical viewpoint and the description employed mathematical- looking formulas and other abstractions. However, since both nonspecialists and specialists are expected to beneft from the grammar statement in the bilingual dictionary, an efort should be made to present the material in such a way that either group can obtain the needed information. Al- though more abstraction can be included than in a strictly defned practical grammar, it should be borne in mind that a systematic presentation of the structural facts does not preclude a statement couched in terms more familiar to the layman. The burden of new terminology and organizational principles for the unsophisticated reader is lessened by a description compatible with the structure of the national language. The more universal grammatical concepts and grammatical functions in the sentence should be emphasized. Weight can be given to the semantic and grammatical categories expressed by the standard formal mechanisms without sacrifcing the usefulness of the book as a tool for the professional linguist. 21.2.3. Organization of the presentation Once it has been determined what needs to be described for a given language, the next task is to organize the presentation. There needs to be a logical progression in which basic things are described frst and concepts which in some sense are dependent on those structures, are dealt with later. Often it is helpful to frst discuss features which parallel the national language, postponing in a given section those that are peculiar to the indigenous language. It must be kept in mind that the purpose of the description is not to highlight some unique feature of the vernacular, as is the case for some types of linguistic articles, but to provide a cohesive view of the whole structure. The main divisions of the presentation should be equivalent to the labels for the word classes which were used as the grammatical designations in the dictionary entries. The description of the infectional, derivational, or syntactic features of the language may be included wherever deemed most appropriate as long as coordination with the dictionary entries is a constant goal. Two sample outlines of grammar descriptions organized by word classes are appended to this chapter. Unless crucial to the structure of the indigenous language, technical terminology should be omitted. The combined dictionary and grammar will challenge all of the analytical linguistic ability the compiler possesses. Once having completed the analysis according to whatever model seems best for the situation, thought should be given to presenting the material to the intended audience in comprehensible terms. Recasting the linguistic analysis in terms understandable to a layman can be an intellectual challenge. When new terminology must be introduced to handle the unique features of the vernacular, an attempt should be made to employ conservative terminology rather than adopting the newest theoretical terms that might be superseded in professional linguistics after a few years. In the introduction to an edition of Alonso Molina’s sixteenth century Nahuatl grammar (Molina 1977 [1577]), León Portilla discusses Molina’s handling of the special linguistic features of the vernacular. The early grammarians compared the indigenous languages with Spanish and Latin, contrasting the structures where necessary. Current 183 Word class designation compilers should continue the historical tradition of searching for ways to present the material to a less sophisticated audience. Adaptation to the model used in the schools for the study of the languages of wider communication is a useful compass and guide for maximum intelligibility. The remainder of this chapter will be concerned with: 1) specifc aspects of the dictionary entries that need explanation and amplifcation relative to the basic structure of the language; and, 2) features which must be present in any description which purports to provide a comprehensive view of the grammar of a given language. 21.3. A description coordinated with the dictionary entries In previous chapters, the suggestion has been repeatedly made that a possible way of handling a certain problem is acceptable but must be explained in the grammar sketch. It now becomes necessary for the compilers to assure themselves and their consultants that they have indeed included all of those explanations necessary to the reader’s understanding of various aspects of the dictionary articles. There follows a list of several areas of the dictionary article which may contain grammatical information. The compilers should review all of these to ensure that anything needing explanation is clarifed in the grammar section.

21.3.1. Word class designation In the grammar, each word class identifed in the dictionary must be defned, including an explanation of the criteria applied to determine the classifcation of the lexical items. The grammar provides the theoretical criteria and describes the structural characteristics of each word class. The traditional parts of speech must be covered and a discussion of the infectional system integrated into the description. Clitics and particles should be discussed if such information is applicable to an understanding of the linguistic structure. It is particularly necessary to defne any categories that are applicable to the indigenous language but not familiar to a reader whose education has been limited to the national language. Causative, benefactive, and other verb categories are examples of grammar designations which must be carefully explained. As should any other grammatical model, a word class grammar must defne sets and categories, contrasting them with each other. There is, for example, quite an extensive tradition in grammars of Mayan languages of including the pronoun sets. Artemisa Echegoyen, in a grammar for Highland Otomí (Voigtlander & Echegoyen 1985), worked out the subclasses of verbs based on conjugation types. An efort should be made to work out terminology for unfamiliar categories that will be acceptable to native speakers of the national language. Some academic traditions, for example, may have difculty understanding or adjusting to a term comparable to stative verb. If the function of this word class is primarily adjectival, people with a strong orientation in the grammar of the language of wider communication often prefer to think of it as comprising a group of predicate adjectives or infected adjectives. The idea of “stative action” seems a contradiction in terms, since verbs are perceived as expressing actions or processes. Attention should be called, however, to the omission of a copulative verb linking the noun and predicate adjective, if such is the case, as in the Mayan languages. The grammatical sketch 184 21.3.2. Obligatory afxation of the entry form A rationale should be provided for the selection of the specifc entry form over other possibilities for a class of words. This is especially true if the entry form carries some obligatory afxation. Most compilers handle these explanations in the introductory section to the dictionary. If not handled there, or if more information on the subject is desired, it should be included in the grammar under the appropriate word classes. 21.3.3. Essential linguistic information and collocational restrictions The parenthetical feld reserved for qualifying comments probably contains a high percentage of comments referring to semantic categories or lexical co-occurrence restrictions. However, it may also contain comments of a grammatical nature, e.g., the entry form limited to collocation with singular or plural nouns, animate or inanimate subjects, occurrence limited to a certain grammatical case, etc. Somewhere in the grammar, such distinctions will need to be defned and amplifed. One of the most common uses of the square brackets is to delineate the infection model of a given word, either by a coding system or by giving the principal parts of the entry word. It has been traditional in some dictionaries to cite all of the principal parts of an entry word. In general, this listing includes the diagnostic forms of a word or the stem variants necessary for generating all forms of the word. Sometimes the listing of principal parts includes a citation of afxial diagnostic forms to facilitate selection of the proper set of afx allomorphs. The grammar, in turn, describes the factors which determine a morphological classifcation of nouns or verbs; but in addition to setting up declensions, it explains the diagnostic forms (the principal parts) of the word and tells how the other forms may be predicted from that information. Although some information may be included in the introduction as abbreviated instructions to the user, the grammar must explain how to derive the full paradigm for any infected word whose principal parts have been listed in the essential linguistic information area. Even though forms which were predictable by the application of morphophonemic or grammatical rules were not included in brackets, those rules must be included and illustrated in the grammar. The individual entry may include a code symbol to indicate the declension or conjugation type by which that word is infected. The Oluta Popoluca dictionary (Clark 1981) gives the root of the word in square brackets at the end of the dictionary entry. The Chicahuaxtla Trique dictionary (Good 1978) cites the frst person plural, future tense, for the entry form and gives the third person singular, present tense, in square brackets as a principal part; these two forms are diagnostic for determining the full paradigm of the word. The Sierra de Juárez Zapotec dictionary (Nellis & Nellis 1983) cites the tense-aspect prefxes for each verb; it also cites forms with bound pronouns when the pronouns begin with a vowel. In Yatzachi Zapotec, the following factors produce seven subclasses of nouns: 1) expression of possessor by an infected particle or by means of bound pronouns, 2) expression of possession by the use of a prefx versus the lack of a prefx, 3) modifcation of the stem initial consonant (from lenis to fortis or otherwise) versus the lack of such modifcation, 4) other modifcations of the stem, including suppletion. In the dictionary, both the unpossessed form and one of the possessed forms of the noun should be 185 Phonology and morphophonemics cited. The possessed form reveals the combination of factors which produced it and also provides the basic form for generating the other possessed forms. Naturally, the result of the above procedures is that the material enclosed in square brackets towards the end of the dictionary article almost certainly has been listed in an abbreviated form and requires discussion and explanation in the grammar. In some cases, tone, stress, length, and other phonemic features have been noted in the linguistic information area and need to be discussed in a section of the grammar devoted to phonology and morphophonemics. In this section of the entry, some compilers also indicate syntactic valence, e.g., the specifc syntactic function of noun phrases which accompany the verb. If some verb forms, for example, are restricted to co-occurrence with certain prepositions or certain kinds of noun phrases, these facts are noted briefy; more information probably needs to be given relative to these restrictions in the grammar sketch. 21.3.4. Cross-referencing system Some dictionaries employ a system of cross-referencing to link alternate verb stems with the basic form. Such a system must be described when the structure of the word class in question is treated in the grammar. The author should carefully check his dictionary manuscript to ensure that any specifc topics referred to by cross-references are adequately handled in the grammar. 21.3.5. Subentries The subentries which normally include some derivatives and compounds, as well as idioms, may illustrate a system of derivation that is not particularly transparent when the reader is confronted with only isolated examples. An explanation of the underlying system is in order in the grammar. 21.3.6. Particles and miscellanea Often a relatively obscure grammatical feature of the language will surface in some of the illustrative sentences. Even though the author might not think it central enough to include in the grammar, it should probably be explained somewhere in the description since its existence has become evident through the illustrative material in the body of the dictionary. 21.4. A description of the grammatical system of the vernacular The grammar sketch should be a coherent document including coverage of all of the parts of speech and the subcategories thereof, e.g., obligatory and optional possession in nouns, stative, intransitive, transitive, and bitransitive verbs, etc. Even though the grammar description is arranged and outlined according to word classes, the author must ensure that the following features are described in the appropriate locations.

21.4.1. Phonology and morphophonemics The actual sound system and the symbolization thereof in a practical orthography should have been presented in the introduction to the dictionary. Unless such material is extremely simple and obvious, the sound system should receive a more detailed The grammatical sketch 186 treatment in a preliminary section of the grammar description. Even relatively simple orthographical changes introduced in the interests of conformity to the national language, can be problematical to someone deciphering text with the aid of the dictionary. In some Zoque illustrative sentences, y initial stems become ñ initial stems in frst person through metathesis with the frst person subject prefx. The student needs to know the morphophonemic rules and orthographical changes in order to recognize the infected forms of the entry words in the sentences. In this section, the discussion of the phonemes should be more extensive than a simple alphabet with key words illustrative of the letters. The quality of the sounds should be described, and they should be related to something already known by the speakers of the national language: e.g., for English speakers, uh-oh to illustrate a glottal stop. In addition to a popular description in prose, the linguistic defnitions of unusual sounds may be given and/or face diagrams can be included. If both popularly phrased and technically stated information are included, the explanations are reinforced for all segments of the intended audience. Unusual or unexpected orthographical and question conventions should also be explained. For instance, the Tepehua dictionary will include no question marks in interrogative Tepehua sentences; in this language, a question particle flls the interrogative function and punctuation marks are considered redundant. Spanish grammatical tradition includes a discussion of the phonology, prosody, and orthography; therefore, such material is certainly appropriate in the bilingual dictionary. The principal morphophonemic processes, especially general rules operative throughout the whole language, form an important part of this section of the description. Even though such regular phonological processes were mentioned in the introductory material, there should be an occasional cross-reference or repetition of the rules as examples of the changes appear in the illustrations employed in the grammatical statement. Zoque may be an example of a language in which this particular topic does not need lengthy explanation. The processes involved seem to be relatively few and generalized throughout the language. These include automatic voicing of stops after nasal prefxes, regular palatalization of consonants, metathesis of y, assimilation of nasals to the point of articulation, and the loss of the word fnal vowels when the word occurs phrase medially. If the morphological rules and processes operative in the language are very complex, they may be best described, not as rules but as conjugation types. Charts may be included to illustrate tone perturbations. For languages of the Otomanguean family, the ordered rules underlying the fnite forms are so complex that it is probably better to omit them for a relatively unsophisticated audience and concentrate on presenting the material in terms of conjugation and paradigm patterns as unambiguously as possible. It may be possible, however, to list some of the more basic morphophonemic changes, thus reducing the number of verb classes if the rules are applied. For example, Huave (Stairs & Stairs 1981) may be described as having fve classes of verbs; some of the classifcation categories can be explained by the application of ordered rules. However, it is easier to think of the classes as separate entities without the explanatory value of the rules. Even though phonological rules can explain some of the changes such as vowel harmony, the contrastive conjugations have the advantage of providing a visual image of the complete set. Conjugations also ft the traditional grammar models better and are thus following a long and well known academic tra- 187 Grammatical categories and the inflectional system dition. For the beneft of the reader with greater than usual linguistic preparation, the Huave grammar included a discussion of the ordered rules. They were, however, described in terms of their consequences relative to the paradigm listings. In summation, the grammar sketch needs to contain a discussion of stem variants and illustrative or typical conjugations, whether such conjugations follow phonological rules or are morphological alternates. Morphophonemic variants of afxes or stems may require subdivision of the stems of a given word class according to the afx allomorphs used with each, or possibly according to the way they are modifed by certain afxes. It is helpful to bring to the reader’s attention any existing parallels to conjugations or declensions in the national language. Even comparisons made to the treatment of irregular verbs in the language of wider communication can be helpful. 21.4.2. Major word classes The major word classes are those with infectional morphology: generally verbs, nouns, and adjectives. Infection models and conjugation types should be identifed for the classes of verbs, nouns, adjectives, or pronouns. Explicit information must be supplied on the production of all infected forms. Perhaps a verb classifcation system will need to be explained. In Yatzachi Zapotec, one set of verbs is based on how the person markers are fused, another set is based on how the tense/aspect afxes fuse. 21.4.3. Grammatical categories and the infectional system The grammatical categories expressed by the infectional morphemes must be described and the specifc morphemes belonging to this system identifed. Reference should also be made to the grammatical categories present in the infectional system of the national language, even though they are not expressed as afxes in the indigenous language. For example, Otomí person and tense are expressed by a proclitic written as a separate word before the verb stem. Such proclitics and their function must be described, as well as other verbal afxes that do not correspond to categories expressed in the Spanish verb. It is often a good idea to deal with the categories expressed in the verb of the language of wider communication before proceeding to categories that may be more difcult for the speaker of the language of wider communication to grasp. This principle may also be applied to the treatment of other major word classes. The inclusion of sample conjugations with emphasis on the system of afxation is probably one of the simplest ways to present a picture of verbal infection. Spanish distinguishes three conjugations of regular verbs based on the endings of the infnitives and the sets of subject, tense, and mode markers which are used in each conjugation. Each set of subject markers is considered a unit (the endings of the frst conjugation, etc.). A model verb represents each conjugation and the grammar gives the criteria for knowing which verbs behave like the model (i.e., those with the same infnitive ending). Similar treatment may be accorded verb conjugations for the indigenous language. An example from Eastern Otomi (Voigtlander & Echegoyen 1985) cites the frst, second, and third person singular forms for six tense-aspects of the verbs for guardar keep and caminar walk. The grammatical sketch 188

(1) Modelo de la primera conjugación — Modo indicativo

Verbos transitivos e intransitivos

Presente Imperfecto dí pɛ̆tsꞌi lo guardo mí pɛ̆tsꞌi lo guardaba guí pɛ̆tsꞌi lo guardas gmí pɛ̆tsꞌi lo guardabas i̊ pɛ̆tsꞌi lo guarda mí pɛ̆tsꞌi lo guardaba

Pretérito Futuro dá pɛ̆tsꞌi lo guardé ga pɛ̆tsꞌi lo guardaré gá pɛ̆tsꞌi lo guardaste gui pɛ̆tsꞌi lo guardarás bi mbɛ̆tsꞌi lo guardó da mbɛ̆tsꞌi lo guardará

Perfecto Pluscuamperfecto xtá pɛ̆tsꞌi lo he guardado xtá pɛ̆tsꞌi lo había guardado xcá pɛ̆tsꞌi lo has guardado xquí pɛ̆tsꞌi lo habías guardado xa mbɛ̆tsꞌi lo ha guardado xí mbɛ̆tsꞌi lo había guardado

Verbos intransitivos

Presente Imperfecto dí ꞌyò camino mí ꞌyò caminaba guí ꞌyò caminas gmí ꞌyò caminabas i ꞌyò camina mí ꞌyò caminaba

Pretérito Futuro dán ꞌyŏ caminé dan ꞌyŏ caminaré gán ꞌyŏ caminaste gan ꞌyŏ caminarás bin ꞌyŏ caminó din ꞌyŏ caminará

Perfecto Pluscuamperfecto xtán ꞌyŏ he caminado xtán ꞌyŏ había caminado xcán ꞌyŏ has caminado xquín ꞌyŏ habías caminado xan ꞌyŏ ha caminado xín ꞌyŏ había caminado

Also included must be an explanation of various distinctions inherent in the vernacular system which are not made in Spanish. Some Mesoamerican languages distinguish the near past tense of verbs from the historical past and the imminent future from the distant future tense. The infectional system often reveals distinctions based on aspect: completive/incompletive, potential, punctiliar/non-punctiliar. As in Spanish, mode may be important and the necessary descriptions of indicative vs. subjunctive or imperative should be included. A given vernacular language may employ a diferent set of afxes to distinguish passive or impersonal voice from active voice. There may be a complicated system for adding or subtracting participants from the discourse which needs explanation. Nouns may have numerous infectional categories as well. For some languages, nouns are infected for alienable vs. inalienable possession; adjectives and verbs are infected for animate vs. inanimate, etc. Pronouns may have the additional categories 189 Closed sets of word classes of respect/non-respect, inclusive/exclusive in frst person plural, or dual as well as singular and plural. It may even be proftable to list all of the afxes in alphabetical order as an aid to the reader. If such a list is compiled, it might be helpful to place it in the introductory sections rather than in the grammar description. It may be more advantageous or necessary to compile such a list for the derivational or stem formative afxes than for the infectional ones. 21.4.4. Derivation and compounding patterns Some word classes may include stems that are morphologically complex. Often there are derivational morphemes that convert lexical items from one word class to another, or from one subclass to another. Such relationships between stems having the same root are part of the linguistic structure and merit treatment somewhere in the grammar. A treatment of the derivational afxes is especially important when they afect the transitivity chain of the basic stem—although the importance of such a discussion is diminished if all of the compounds and derivatives are listed as dictionary entries in their own alphabetical locations. The Spanish grammatical tradition does not elaborate on derivational processes. Many school grammars have sections dealing with related words and grouping together those having the same root as “word families.” Because Spanish grammars do not discuss the derivational processes involved in word formation, an author may decide to avoid complex treatment of the derivational morphology in the grammar of the vernacular as well. Nevertheless, the descriptive framework for this aspect of the language must be included to some extent. Such framework as is normally employed for the language of wider communication must be modifed in order to accommodate the di- vergent linguistic organization of the indigenous language. Sometimes the derivational morphology for the composition of numbers is fairly transparent and may merit a separate treatment because of the value of the numeral system as a survivor of the pre-hispanic culture. Many numeral systems of Mesoamerica revolve around the number twenty and its multiples, with special numbers for 400 (20 x 20) and for 8,000 (20 x 400). For such languages, either the grammar or an appendix should give a full listing of numbers, including those still remembered in the community even though they have been replaced by the language of wider communication in everyday situations. 21.4.5. Closed sets of word classes The minor word classes are those that do not have infectional afxes. They include articles, pronouns, adjectives of certain kinds, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections. Some of these minor word classes have a closed membership, limited to certain words that may perform a particular grammatical function. Such lists should be cited in full in the grammar. The list frequently constitutes a system with certain distinctive categories or characteristics. Such a system may lend itself to presentation in chart form with intersecting categories. For example, the personal pronouns may be arranged in columns for singular and plural forms, and in rows for frst, second, and third persons. Similar charts are often useful for presenting location adverbs, demonstratives, etc. An Eastern Otomí example (Voigtlander & Echegoyen 1985): The grammatical sketch 190

(2) Pronombres relativos personales Persona Singular Dual Plural guequi yo,el que guecui nosotros, guejʉ nosotros, 1a. incl. guecä guecäui los que guecähʉ lo que guecꞌbe nosotros, gueje nosotros, excl. guecäꞌbe los que guecähe los que 2a. gueꞌi tú, el que gueꞌaui ustedes, gueꞌahʉ ustedes, gueꞌe gueꞌeui los que gueꞌehʉ los que 3a. gueꞌa él, el que gueꞌʉ ellos, los que

Syntactic function may also be an important factor in the description of pronouns and determining adjectives. Often there are parallel sets of words with the same semantic dimensions, but difering somewhat in form and having a diferent usage in the sentence. For example, the set of object pronouns may be diferent from the set of subject pronouns, the set of emphatic pronouns may difer in form from that of the non-emphatic pronouns. Although normally not infectable in certain languages, some minor parts of speech may be subject to infection in a small number of categories. Such infection should also be described. For example, Northern Tepehuan and other Uto-Aztecan languages can infect quantifying adverbs and conjunctions. 21.4.6. Open classes of uninfected words It may be impractical to list in their entirety the members of classes that are more extensive, such as adverbs. Enough descriptive material, however, should be included in the grammar to give an orientation to the type of words functioning in this capacity whether derivatives or independent function words. It is possible to classify them as comparative, interrogative, temporal, locative, etc., and to include at least a partial list of representatives of each type. Such a presentation, coupled with examples, will give the reader an idea of the areas of meaning covered by adverbs and some illustrations of their use in context. The adverbs may thus be compared with each other instead of being located only in relatively isolated or scattered dictionary entries. 21.4.7. Bound morphemes Especially for agglutinative languages, it is essential to include lists and charts of the morphemes which combine with the noun and verb roots. The resultant words may express all of the meaning carried by clauses in some other languages. In Nahuatl, Huichol, and the Mixe-Zoque family, the verbal afxes not only span the normal range of infectional possibilities, but combine with the roots to produce all manner of derived forms. Some may substitute for adverbs, prepositions, or change the class of the verb root. If an afx or a set of afxes seem to contain a common semantic element, the meaning should be given. If relative order is known, a chart indicating this feature could be included. Word classes other than nouns and verbs may also have morphemes attached to the basic root which need explanation and exemplifcation. Zapotec languages, for instance, often have certain modifers and limiters in the adjective word. Amuzgo infects adjectives to indicate a negative. Information about the relative ordering of morphemes in the construction may need to be given for indigenous languages with very complex words. 191 Paradigms

The treatment of the phonologically bound but grammatically free morphemes known as clitics will vary from language to language. Some annalists write clitics as afxes attached to their headword—perhaps separating them with hyphens. In such cases, the description and discussion would necessarily be diferent than for those treated as free words, written with word space, but difcult to translate or defne. In any case, clitics should be described in the grammar along with as many other discourse particles as practical. 21.4.8. Complex entries Complex entries comprise verbs with included objects, discontinuous entries, and, at times, two-word entries written with word space that may or may not be technically compounds. Along with clitics and discourse particles, these categories may be difcult to describe and infrequent in use. Nevertheless, some mention should be made of them for the beneft of the dictionary user who will need the information to read vernacular text. 21.4.9. Paradigms The best illustration of the use of a lexical item is an illustrative sentence. The best illustration and example of an infectional system is a paradigm. The inclusion of paradigms in the grammar section is essential as a means of providing the reader with a regular pattern to follow when he or she seeks to conjugate a verb. More importantly, paradigms make available the specifc forms of irregular verbs. They also make accessible information which cannot be obtained by following the rules laid down in the general description of the grammatical system. Paradigms present examples in controlled context; they should be listed for all the infectional morphemes, whether these occur in the verb word or in the verb phrase. Spanish verb paradigms, for example, include the compound tenses: he hablado, había hablado I have spoken, I had spoken, etc. English paradigms include the combination with the modal verbs: he will eat, he might eat, he should eat, etc. When constructing paradigms for inclusion in the grammar sketch, only one morpheme should be changed at a time if possible. These controlled examples should keep the stem constant and change very little at each step. Keeping the verb stem constant highlights the syntactic properties of the morphemes. Thus, with a minimum of efort, the reader can see which morphemes substitute for each other in the same position in the construction. Relative positioning of the morpheme or set of morphemes in the the string can be easily seen. If multiple sets of afxes covering the same semantic area exist, a subclassifcation of the verbs into conjugations is helpful. A model verb can be chosen to represent each subclass and the reader given rules for determining which verbs behave like the model. The language specifc criteria may be quite diverse: they could include the phonological characteristics of a diagnostic form of the verb or simply be an arbitrary grammatical classifcation which requires separate listing in the dictionary. Smaller arbitrary classes may be listed in full in the grammar. The verb paradigm of the model verb is a descriptive unit. It is a reference table that supplies information for the correct formation of tenses, modes, persons, etc. It is often cited in chart form which shows the intersecting grammatical categories. Notes appended to the paradigm may draw attention to the regular phonological processes involved. The grammatical sketch 192

Some Spanish verbs have stem allomorphs. These are designated “irregular verbs” but models are set up by most Spanish dictionaries wherever such verbs can serve as patterns for other “irregular verbs” The Sopena description of Spanish grammar lists 32 model verbs that serve as patterns for others and 39 models which serve only for themselves and their compounds. It is suggested that in addition to model paradigms displaying the infectional patterns for nouns and verbs, the bilingual dictionary for an indigenous language include complete paradigms for irregular forms. Since the grammar and the dictionary are considered in conjunction with each other, there should be no ambiguity left in a user’s mind about the whole paradigm of any entry form. It should be obvious or explicitly stated in each dictionary entry, to which paradigm an entry belongs. Sufcient information should be given in paradigms for irregular words so that all such forms are explained or listed, and the irregular absence of forms is also noted. Suppletive stems are listed in the main alphabetical listing of dictionary entries with cross-references to the basic entry forms. A partial paradigm for an irregular verb meaning give (dar) from Huave (Stairs & Stairs 1981) follows:

Mínimo Múltiple Atemporal 1 süüch doy süjchiün damos (yo y ellos) 2 iich das ijchan dan (tú y ellos) 1,2 üjchiür damos (tú y yo) üjchiiüts damos (tú, yo y ellos) 3 üüch da üjchiw dan (él y ellos)

Pretérito 1 tüjchiüs di tüüchasan dimos (yo y ellos) 2 teaach diste teajchiün dieron (tú y ellos) 1,2 tüjchiür dimos (tú y yo) tüjchiiüts dimos (tú, yo y ellos) 3 tüüch dio tüjchiw dieron (él y ellos)

Futuro 1 sanüüch daré sanüjchiün daremos (yo y ellos) 2 apmeaach darás apmeajchiün darán (tú y ellos) 1,2 apmüjchiür daremos (tú y yo) apmüjchiiüts daremos (tú, yo y ellos) 3 apmüüch dará apmüjchiw darán (él y ellos)

Presente progresivo (transitivo) 1 teanüüch estoy dando teanüjchiün estamos dando (yo y ellos) 2 teameaach estás dando teameajchiün están dando (tú y ellos) 1,2 teamüjchiür estamos dando teamüjchiiüts estamos dando (tú y yo) (tú, yo y ellos) 3 teamüüch está dando teamüjchiw están dando (él y ellos)

The exact number of paradigms which should be included in the supplementary material varies with the nature of the language, but every dictionary should include some paradigms for sample verbs—at least a representative of every conjugation type. The grammar description includes rules, charts, analysis, and explanation; the role of the 193 Syntax paradigms is to illustrate how to put the building blocks of the language back together again after they have been broken down and taken apart in descriptive analysis. 21.4.10. Syntax Of necessity, some syntactic facts will be included in the description of word classes since syntactic relationships are part of the defnition of word classes. The earlier dictionaries in the SIL Mexico series did not include a discussion of syntax, but only covered word morphology. Some Spanish grammars include information on phrase and sentence types and construction. It seems that some explanation should be included of the simpler syntactic possibilities of the vernacular. A reader should be able to determine in what order to place the words in the more common types of sentences. The normal position of the verb in relation to its subject and complements in the clause should be described. A user may wish to know the position of the adjectives and other modifers with reference to their headwords. The formation of questions and negative clauses is also important information for a student. Some discussion of clause structure, relative clauses, devices used for emphasis, and other language specifc constructions may also be included. The previously discussed verb categories of causative, benefactive, bitransitive, stative, etc., often infuence the order of the words in the sentence. The description of the verb entails, therefore, a description of the predicate of the sentence or the clause. The predicate may be a single word or it may consist of a phrase involving auxiliary verbs, infnitives, participles, gerunds, or adverbs closely linked to the verb phrase. Because of language specifc diferences, a feature may be a matter of syntax in one language and a part of the word morphology in another. Such variation should be accounted for in the description. Some indigenous languages distinguish between a set of adjectives that are more closely connected to the noun and a class of adjectives that function more freely. In Zoque, certain adjectives may be prefxed to a noun stem, forming a compound. Other adjectives (including some that may also function as prefxes) occur as separate words. The separate words always contain a derivational sufx. In Otomí of the State of Mexico, there is a relatively restricted list of adjectives that may precede the noun. The majority of the adjective-like words are predicate adjectives which follow the noun as relative clauses. The adjectives that may precede the noun are words that indicate size, color, evaluation, age. Those that follow are unrestricted and may include some of the concepts which precede the noun. The predicate adjectives frequently occur in a modifed stem form and, in some cases, with completely diferent stems. Spanish has a somewhat similar situation in which an adjective before the noun has a diferent meaning or connotation than the same adjective after the noun. Amuzgo has a special set of predicate adjectives that can never be used in an attributive function. These constitute a special subclass of adjectives. Sometimes the diference between cardinal and ordinal numbers is a matter of syntax, as is the case in Mixtec. In that language, the same numeral word precedes the noun if it is a cardinal number, but follows the noun in the fashion of the other adjectives if it is an ordinal number. Whatever semantically important features are carried by the syntax of a given language should certainly be mentioned in the grammar. A limited discussion of stylistic nuances is probably appropriate as well. The grammatical sketch 194 21.5. Style of the grammar description

21.5.1. A digestible outline Even though the basic structure of the description follows the word class designations, logic does not necessarily demand that the most complex grammatical category be squeezed into the outline structure appropriate for the simplest and smallest class of words. If over half of the description of the language is involved with the verb in some form or other, the outline organization of this amount of material necessarily becomes very complex and detailed. The reader cannot keep orientation to the logical structure and mental circuits become overloaded. For such languages, it is probably better to assign several main points of the outline to various types of verbs and deal with each one under its own main heading. This procedure will permit the organization of some of the necessary detail without making the outline incomprehensibly complex. Such a procedure also gives a more balanced appearance to the detailed outline used as an index to the grammar and facilitates fnding material on a given topic. 21.5.2. Clear explanatory material Well constructed, explanatory paragraphs should link all charts, diagrams, and sets of examples. Such paragraphs should defne the purpose of the illustrative material and reinforce, support, or otherwise clarify the examples. Clear explanation and defnition may involve saying the same thing in diferent words, drawing attention to parallels in the national language, and using cross-references to what has already been described or which will be more fully explained in a later section. There must be something in the prose description to explain each chart and how it ought to be read. Some authors prefer to leave all of their introductory paragraphs or sectional summation paragraphs until the end of the project and write them all at once. This procedure might provide more coherence, and ensure that the proper transitions are made with emphasis placed on the main points of each section. 21.5.3. Examples in context Examples are, perhaps, the most important part of the grammar. They should illustrate the topic being discussed and be sufciently numerous to establish the analysis. The amount of context included may vary according to the topic. A selection of individual words may be sufcient to illustrate morphophonemic principles or the placement of various morphemes within the word, whereas, in many cases, sentences are needed to illustrate uninfected word classes. A good principle to follow is that of providing context on the next level of the hierarchy above the level under discussion; that is, words should appear in phrases or clauses, clauses in sentences, etc. Two principal types of examples are needed depending upon the purpose of the illustrative material. Examples in a controlled context which are maximally comparable are needed to establish certain paradigmatic structures, e.g., the person markers on the verb. In such examples, the verb stem should be kept constant so that only the person markers change. On the other hand, natural context examples are needed to illustrate areas of meaning or usage diferences. 21.5.4. Charts, diagrams, and paradigms Charts and diagrams may illustrate a complex situation better than a number of paragraphs of difcult prose. However, it must be borne in mind that they are supplemen- 195 Sample outline of a grammatical sketch tary to a general prose statement of a given feature and not replacements for it. Given the difculties that charts present in the process of composing the book for printing, their use should be judicious in the sense that each one should make a vital contribution to the understanding of the material. It will be remembered that paradigms and sample conjugations are also essential to the understanding of irregular verbs and other material that does not lend itself to a relatively simple description or set of rules. 21.5.5. Sample outline of a grammatical sketch

INDICE DE LA GRAMATICA HUAVE (Stairs & Stairs 1981)

0 Morfofonémica ...... 285 0.1 Sufjos ...... 285 0.2 Cambios en la raíz verbal producidos por cambios de modo o de voz . . 285 0.3 Cambios vocálicos en sufjos ...... 286 0.4 Reducción consonántica y vocálica ...... 286 0.5 Diminutivos ...... 287 0.6 Clases de sufjos ...... 287

1 El sustantivo ...... 290 1.1 Género ...... 290 1.2 Número ...... 290 1.3 Posesión ...... 291 1.4 Derivación ...... 294 1.4.1 Derivación básica ...... 294 1.4.2 Algunos procesos que afectan a los sustantivos derivados . . . . . 294 1.4.3 Formas posesivas de sustantivos derivados ...... 295 1.4.4 Pluralización de sustantivos derivados ...... 295

2 El pronombre ...... 295 2.1 Pronombres personales ...... 295 2.1.1 Pronombres personales libres ...... 296 2.1.2 Pronombres personales amalgamados ...... 297 2.2 Pronombres posesivos ...... 305 2.3 Pronombres numerales ...... 306 2.4 Pronombres demostrativos ...... 308 2.5 Pronombres interrogativos ...... 309 2.6 Pronombres indefnidos ...... 309

3 El adjetivo ...... 310 3.1 Adjetivos determinativos ...... 310 3.1.1 Adjetivos demostrativos ...... 310 3.1.2 Adjetivos cuantitativos ...... 311 3.1.3 Adjetivos numerales ...... 311 3.2 Adjetivos califcativos ...... 313 3.3 Adjetivos interrogativos ...... 314 3.4 Adjetivos derivados ...... 314 3.5 Comparación de adjetivos ...... 314 3.6 Distinción entre adjetivos y otras clases de palabras similares ...... 315 The grammatical sketch 196

4 El verbo ...... 316 4.1 Clases verbales ...... 317 4.2 Tiempo ...... 317 4.2.1 Tiempo atemporal ...... 317 4.2.2 Tiempo pretérito ...... 318 4.2.3 Tiempo futuro ...... 318 4.2.4 Tiempo presente progresivo ...... 319 4.2.5 Tiempo continuo ...... 320 4.2.6 Tiempo pasado reciente ...... 320 4.2.7 Negación ...... 321 4.2.8 Resumen de los tiempos ...... 321 4.3 Modo ...... 322 4.3.1 Modo indicativo ...... 322 4.3.2 Modo subordinado ...... 322 4.3.3 Modo imperativo ...... 325 4.3.4 Modo participio ...... 326 4.4 Voz ...... 329 4.4.1 Voz activa (verbos transitivos e intransitivos) ...... 329 4.4.2 Voz refexiva ...... 331 4.4.3 Voz pasiva ...... 333 4.5 Énfasis y repetición ...... 334 4.6 La función del verbo en las oraciones ...... 334 4.6.1 Oraciones con predicado no verbal ...... 334 4.6.2 Oraciones con predicado verbal ...... 335

5 El adverbio ...... 336 5.1 Adverbios de lugar ...... 336 5.2 Adverbios de tiempo ...... 336 5.3 Adverbios de modo ...... 337 5.4 Adverbios de cantidad ...... 337 5.5 Adverbios de cálculo ...... 337 5.6 Adverbios de comparación ...... 337 5.7 Adverbios de interrogación ...... 338 5.8 Adverbios de afrmación ...... 338 5 9 Adverbios de duda ...... 338 5.10 Adverbios de negación ...... 339

6 La preposición ...... 340

7 La conjunción ...... 341 7.1 Conjunciones de comparación ...... 341 7.2 Conjunciones de condición ...... 341 7.3 Conjunciones de contraste ...... 341 7.4 Conjunciones de razón, causa o motivo ...... 342 7.5 Conjunciones de resultado ...... 342 7.6 Conjunciones de propósito ...... 342 7.7 Conjunciones de tiempo ...... 343

8 La interjección ...... 343 197 Sample outline of a grammatical sketch

9 Paradigmas ...... 344 9.1 Paradigmas del sustantivo (del 1 al 13) ...... 344 9.2 Paradigmas del verbo ...... 348 9.2.1 Voz activa del modo indicativo (del 14 al 17) ...... 348 9.2.2 Voz refexiva del modo indicativo (del 18 al 24) ...... 357 9.2.3 Voz pasiva del modo indicativo (del 25 al 30) ...... 368 9.2.4 Modo subordinado (del 31 al 32) ...... 371 9.2.5 Modo participio (del 33 al 38) ...... 372 9.2.6 Verbos irregulares (del 39 al 49) ...... 374

Part VI The structure of the dictionary book

22 Principles of alphabetization

In all dictionaries, the entries must be arranged according to some systematic pattern. For a dictionary designed for general use, the only practical system is an alphabetical arrangement. For the script of any major language, there is a very well defned sequen- tial progression of single letters or signs. Even Chinese can be “alphabetized” by the number and location of the various strokes in the written characters. There are several reasons for arranging our dictionaries in a strict alphabetical sequence according to full entries.

22.1. Reasons for a traditional sequence

22.1.1. Necessity of systematic arrangement Having postulated the necessity of some systematic listing of dictionary entries, the least ambiguous and most easily followed of all possible methods is a strict adherence to alphabetical order. Traditional logic decrees that our dictionaries follow the established pattern that is taught in schools everywhere: words occur in dictionaries in alphabetical order beginning with the frst letter of the word. Pupils in elementary school are drilled in the mechanics of alphabetization and given practice in locating words in a dictionary and in alphabetizing lists of words. 22.1.2. Pressure from the national culture A rigid adherence to the rules of alphabetization in the national language, with only the most necessary adjustments to accommodate the special features of the vernacular orthography, will probably result in a dictionary with fewer alphabetical inconsistencies than any other system yet devised. If for no other reason than Spanish tradition, the ordering of our orthographies should be as close to the Spanish alphabet as possible. Extra letters and diacritics should be absorbed in what appears to be a logical manner to the native speaker and the outsider alike. The alphabetical listing should look normal and natural to a speaker of the national language. 22.2. Ordering of diacritics and digraphs The major languages of the world follow diferent traditions in their handling of digraphs. In both English and Spanish, the digraph ch represents a single phoneme. However, in English, ch is treated as two separate letters for purposes of alphabetization; whereas in Spanish, ch has occupied, until recently, its own position in an

201 Principles of alphabetization 202 alphabetical listing following the c. In English, China would precede coastal in an alphabetical listing; in Spanish, traditionally, China would follow costal. Separation of the letters seems more logical in a practical way; on the other hand, the use of digraphs brings the alphabet into closer correspondence with the phonemes of the specifc language. For our purposes, letters with diacritics or digraphs which represent separate phonemes should be listed immediately after the Spanish letter on which they are based. Modifed vowels should appear contiguous to their unmodifed counterparts. Some examples follow:

e followed by e̠ i followed by ɨ o followed by ø o followed by ö ch followed by chꞌ h followed by hu t followed by tꞌ t followed by ts ts followed by tsꞌ

22.3. Ignoring of diacritics It is often advisable to ignore the glottal stop and the diacritics representing length, stress, and tone when alphabetizing dictionary entries. The Papantla Totonac dictionary (Aschmann & Aschmann 1973) is an example of the application of such a principle. Often the inclusion of diacritics and glottals as entities in the alphabetical order causes confusion for the dictionary user who is unused to taking them into consideration. Their semantic load is usually relatively light, and little is lost by ignoring these symbols in the alphabetization even though they are written wherever appropriate. 22.4. Inclusion of irregular forms Many monolingual dictionaries include irregular forms of verbs in the main alphabetical listing. These are usually cross-referenced to the main entry or the basic form of that particular word. It is even more necessary to include irregular forms as standard entries in a bilingual dictionary. An implication of the inclusion of irregular forms as main entries is that they be alphabetized as all other words are alphabetized and not relegated solely to mention in the linguistic information area of the main entry for the stem. At least one portion of the intended audience is not as familiar with such forms as a native speaker of that particular language, and therefore in even more need of such assistance than the user of a monolingual dictionary. 22.5. Explanation of the alphabet As is mentioned in the section on introductory material for the dictionary, a clear and concise listing must be given of the alphabet for each of the two languages in the dictionary. Key words should be included for each letter and the layout should be designed to facilitate understanding of the two orthographies as quickly and easily as possible. 203 Possibility of alphabetical subdivisions 22.6. Arrangement by word rather than by root It seems to be a temptation for some linguistic analysts to list dictionary entries alphabetically by roots rather than by the obligatory bound prefxes. It is true that Spanish and English tradition decrees that most forms are listed alphabetically by the frst letter of the root. This is possible because non-prefxed forms constitute the major portion of the entries due to the structure of the languages. Even in English, we often fnd rather long lists of words beginning with the prefxes des-, un-, etc. However, the word is the natural unit of language psychologically and, therefore, it is under the letter that begins the word that the vernacular speaker is going to attempt to fnd a given lexical item. Native speakers do not readily recognize roots as legitimate units since these roots do not occur in isolation. Often such roots are not even pronounce- able. It would take considerable sophistication for the local people to use a dictionary alphabetized according to roots. Psychological reality, as well as local school tradition and standard lexicographic procedure, are opposed to a dictionary constructed in this manner. 22.7. Possibility of alphabetical subdivisions In cases where the listing of verbs or other word classes under obligatory prefxes causes pages of entries to begin with the same prefx, it is possible to further subdivide the heavily loaded sections. Molina, in his sixteenth century Nahuatl-Spanish dictionary, made separate sections for words beginning with ts, tl, tz, etc. Subdivisions under one letter of the alphabet may be signaled by large type of the style used to indicate a new letter in the alphabetical listing. Thus, the section following the letter Q might include headings such as QUIC, QUIL, QUIM, QUIT, etc. These headings are merely subdivisions in the body of the dictionary and must not be included in the alphabet or list of orthographical symbols in the introductory material.

23 Introductory material

The introductory sections of a bilingual dictionary are designed to facilitate the use of the book by the reader. The new literate needs guidance in the mechanics of using such a volume. The sophisticated scholar needs orientation to the language area and the distinctive features of the vernacular. These sections, and to a much larger extent the appendices, also ofer an arena in which to display the creativity and special interests of the compiler. There are, of course, certain types of information which are obligatory in any useful bilingual dictionary. The purpose of this chapter is to discuss these as well as some optional features. Sometimes there is doubt as to whether a specifc type of information should be presented in the introductory sections or included as an appendix. If the topic under consideration is essential to the use of the dictionary by whatever segment of its intended audience, that item belongs in the introductory section. The appendix section is the place for a special interest listing, a detailed grammatical sketch, the grouping of semantic domain items into a coherent listing, maps, charts, or diagrams.

23.1. General introductory section

23.1.1. Title page La portada In the Silva y Aceves series, the frst page is devoted to identifying the book by title, compiler, language, and sometimes main collaborators from the community. The format of this page includes the various publishing blurbs and is quite rigid according to the dictates of publishing practice in general and this series in particular. The basic cover design and format is also prescribed in the interest of uniformity throughout the series. A set of half-title pages is used to separate the main sections of the dictionary such as Vernacular-Spanish, Spanish-Vernacular, Grammar Sketch, and Appendixes. 23.1.2. Dedicatory Dedicatoria A dedicatory page optionally follows the title page and the blurbs. Some dictionary compilers have included a photograph and a detailed dedicatory to a specifc individual. This individual should have contributed substantially to the advancement of the local people or be otherwise well known in the area, perhaps as a scholar. This type of dedicatory gives some biographical information as well as reasons for bestowing this particular honor. Other dedicatory pages have contained a simple sentence or two

205 Introductory material 206 dedicating the book to the people whose language is featured in it. Some have chosen to omit this item altogether. 23.1.3. Table of contents Contenido The table of contents should be fairly detailed and list as separate items the various sections of the instructional material in order to facilitate the fnding of specifc information. Main sections of the grammatical sketch, which are usually marked by subtitles in the text, can be included in the table of contents.1 The appendices should also be listed individually here. This listing usually omits items which occur prior to the page on which the table of contents itself appears. If there are full pages devoted to illustrations on a given topic (picture plates), these are usually listed in order of occurrence or alphabetically, following the table of contents under a separate heading called Illustrations Ilustraciones. 23.1.4. Prologue Prólogo The prologue is usually written by a well-known national and serves to introduce the authors and the dictionary to the scientifc world. In a few instances, this has not been written by a national but by a scholar who is well known for his work in that cultural or linguistic area. Some prologues have been lengthy and efusive, others brief and prosaic, depending upon the style and inclination of the person contributing them. The branch administration or public relations department can provide assistance in securing someone to contribute this type of introduction. 23.1.5. Preface Propósito Most of the dictionaries include a brief article setting forth the aims of the compilers. These may include encouraging bilingualism among the native speakers, disseminat- ing knowledge about the indigenous language in the scientifc world, or displaying in coherent form the structure and lexical richness of the vernacular. This section may also provide a statement of what the dictionary does not do: provide full treatment of grammatical class, include illustrative sentences in the Spanish-vernacular section, etc. It also presents an opportunity to focus the browser’s attention upon any highlight or distinctive feature of this particular work: for example, dialect variants. 23.1.6. Acknowledgments Reconocimientos A brief section is usually devoted to acknowledgments (variously called agradecimien- tos or reconocimientos) in which the compiler mentions individuals or organizations who were particularly helpful in a linguistic, fnancial, or other manner. The principal collaborators should be listed here if they are not listed on the title page in a more salient way. 23.1.7. Introduction Introducción An introduction to the language and its speakers is necessary. This section should include a basic orientation to the language, its linguistic afnities, and a few facts about the people who speak it. Names given to the specifc language should be discussed, including the name which the people themselves give to their language. List the principal towns and ranches where the local vernacular is spoken, including dialectical variants if these are part of the published work. The compiler should pinpoint the

1A detailed index of the grammatical sketch is usually appended to that section as well. 207 Pronunciation guide Aclaraciones area, district, and state for readers whose geographical orientation is limited. Include an estimate of the number of speakers, possibly combined with an estimate of those in the total language family. It is interesting to relate the dictionary to other historical documents in the language, if such exist. The Mixtec codices, Mayan stelae, colonial period dictionaries of vernacular languages, and other items of archaeological or cultural history provide an historical perspective and tradition for current dictionaries. More recent linguistic publications, including other vocabularies in this or related languages, should be mentioned. If such works are extensive, they might form part of the bibliography in an appendix. There should also be some identifcation of the two sections (Spanish-Vernacular, Vernacular-Spanish) and an estimate of the number of entries in each part. 23.2. Instructions in the use of the dictionary A major portion of the introductory material is devoted to instruction in the use of the book. Some publications have grouped all of this material together under one heading; but a better arrangement seems to be to display it in sections with individual headings, thus facilitating the location of material concerning a specifc question.

23.2.1. Alphabet Alfabeto One prominent feature should be a listing of the letters of the alphabet in the vernacular language with key words for each letter and their translations into the national language. This type of an alphabetical listing gives clues to the pronunciation of strange orthographic symbols by relating them to either a known word or an equivalent that a native speaker could pronounce for an outsider. It also clearly presents alphabetical order and thus is an aid to locating specifc items in the dictionary. For the newly literate vernacular speaker, a description of how to fnd things in alphabetical order is a nice addition to this section. This could be written in simple Spanish or in the vernacular. The Aristos diccionario ilustrado de la lengua española (1978) and the Vocabulario chatino de Tataltepec (Pride & Pride 1970) contain material of this type. 23.2.2. Pronunciation guide Aclaraciones If the orthography is complicated, it is necessary to include clarifcation concerning pronunciation. Such explanations should be addressed to the speaker of the language of wider communication who is interested in learning about the indigenous language. A clear description of the distinctive sounds should be presented and, if possible, related to something in common experience. The new phonemes may be compared to some sound used in communication but outside of the regular system of the national language. For example, to explain the sound of a trilled r, English speakers might be reminded of the way, as children, they imitated the motor of a car being revved up. A linguistic-specialist wanting to know the basic characteristics of the sound system can easily convert the nontechnical description to one with which he or she is familiar. Native speakers beneft psychologically from knowing the sounds can be scientifcally explained and from the practical hints on explaining them to outsiders. Stress and the tone system also need some explanatory comments whether or not such suprasegmental items are explicitly included in the orthography. Introductory material 208 23.2.3. Abbreviations Abreviaturas A concise and clear listing of abbreviations must be included for both languages. Most of these will be those used for the grammatical designations of the entries. A careful check must also be made to assure that abbreviations used as dialect designations or identifcations of specifc semantic domains are included. They often appear just before the body of the dictionary. 23.2.4. Structure of the dictionary article Estructura del artículo del diccionario A detailed explanation of the structure of the dictionary article and its component parts is necessary orientation, especially for those whose previous exposure to reference materials is limited. The reasons for the choice of the citation form or forms (Forma de entrada) should be specifed for all parts of speech which have infected or variant forms. The grammatical designation (categoría grammatical) for each grammatical category also needs to be defned, possibly with reference to more complete treatment in the grammatical write-up. The translation equivalent (signifcado) can be explained as an equivalent or a close approximation of the term in the national language, rather than a formal technical defnition. Qualifying comments (frases aclarato- rias), sense discriminations (acepciones), and illustrative sentences (oraciones ejemplifcativas), all need to be discussed relative to the specifc aid they can give in understanding the entry. Without a modicum of instruction in the use of these devices, the inexperienced reader will not know how to use them to further his understanding of another language. Subentries (subentradas) must be defned and the principles spelled out which underlie the choice of derivatives included as subentries. Depending upon the organization of the individual book, explanation may need to be given of regional variations (variantes regionales), the system used in cross-referencing (remisiones), treatment of borrowed words and idiomatic phrases, and any additional types of information included in the dictionary article. If principal parts of verbs are included, some brief statement should be made on this topic here, as well as a fuller treatment given in the grammatical section. Some compilers have chosen to put some of the explanatory material just before the second main section of the dictionary if it seemed to apply only to that section. In that case, the material that specifcally applies to the frst section is included after the dividing page for that section rather than in the part set of with roman numerals which introduces the whole book. It is also possible to give some explanations twice: once in simple Spanish or the vernacular, and once in more sophisticated, abbreviated form for Spanish speakers accustomed to dictionary usage. 24 Illustrations and appendices

This chapter is designed to stimulate ideas that will result in illustrations and appendices on distinctive facets of the language and culture. Illustrations and appendices ofer opportunities to: (1) highlight the local culture; (2) increase the attractiveness of the book; (3) draw attention to unique lexically based categories of the language; (4) provide material on a “human interest” level. These additions to the dictionary result in increased sales as well as greater exposure to and usage of the book. In contrast to the relative rigidity specifed in some of the other chapters of this manual, the inclusion of illustrations and appendices provides an outlet for the creative instincts of the compilers with plenty of room for the expression of individual preferences.

24.1. Reasons for including illustrations The inclusion of pictures serves several purposes besides that of breaking the monotony of seemingly endless pages of dictionary entries.

24.1.1. Stimulate interest and the recreational use of books Most of us enjoy reliving parts of our lives by means of photograph albums. Consider how exciting it must be for people who have not seen many pictures of their way of life or environment to fnd these familiar things illustrated in an attractive book. 24.1.2. Increase comprehension of specifc semantic domains Items from the local culture or natural environment may be topically grouped into picture plates or appear individually scattered throughout the text at appropriate spots. Thus, it is possible for the specialized knowledge of a few, in some area such as natural science, to become available to the populace as a whole. Accuracy of usage of some of the local terminology may also result from the inclusion of these illustrations. If illustrations of things outside the local culture are included, the indigenous people have their horizons widened and can better understand the world beyond their borders. Culturally foreign items presumably would not be represented in the local vernacular. Therefore, such illustrations must necessarily be in the form of picture plates as the appropriate terminology would not appear in the dictionary listing. That is, a number of musical instruments, fsh, dogs, or cattle could appear together on a single page with captions for each illustration in the national language. It is not recommended that local and culturally foreign items be combined in the same picture plate.

209 Illustrations and appendices 210

Figure 4. Sample page of illustrations 211 Lexical appendices 24.1.3. Enhance the outsider’s understanding of the local culture The foreign scholar becomes better acquainted with the culture and obtains a much clearer picture of customs, dress, crafts, and natural environment than would be possible were the book not illustrated. Diagrams and illustrations can contribute to the understanding of culture-specifc areas of the vocabulary. Specifc terms for parts of a loom, beams of a house, fshing nets, or pottery making may be difcult to translate. Often a good diagram is the only clear way to delineate such items. It should, however, be born in mind that diagrams and charts are relatively expensive due to labor costs in the composition process. 24.2. Practical considerations Pictures must be checked with the local populace for accuracy if they illustrate the local culture. Care must be taken to avoid taboo subjects, drawings capable of the wrong interpretation or double meanings, and severe distortion of the way the item is perceived locally. Thought must also be given to the location of the pictures in the fnished book. If possible, they should be spaced relatively evenly throughout the text. This applies to plates and individual illustrations alike. Sometimes large sections with no illustrations are unavoidable, especially if a large portion of the verb entries begins with the same prefx. If individual illustrations are used, care must be exercised that there is sufcient distance between them in the text. It has, on occasion, been necessary to omit pictures in the interests of attractive layout. 24.3. Appendices Appendices of the lexical or ethnographic type may be used to highlight various aspects of the language, culture, or environment. This chapter does not deal with the grammatical sketch or its accompanying charts and conjugations. That subject is discussed in detail elsewhere.

24.3.1. Lexical appendices Sets of entries which share some semantic area in common are not merely interesting culturally, they contribute to a knowledge of the structure of the language. Such sets grouped together in an appendix can be used to interest the new literate in knowing more of the formal structure of the language. The Tzotzil dictionary includes as an appendix a listing of cardinal and ordinal numerals, and a section on classifcatory numerals. These indicate not only the number of objects being counted but something of their form, quality, or texture, and whether they are persons, animals, or inanimate objects. Sometimes body parts or terms for emotional feelings all have a common lexical element, and it is of interest to group these in a coherent listing. The Tzotzil dictionary also includes a lengthy list of mental and emotional states based upon the word for heart or stomach. Illustrations and appendices 212 24.3.2. Ethnographic appendices Appendices displaying aspects of the culture or environment can be as varied as the interests of the compiler; they can also include materials deemed useful by local bilinguals. Items from various semantic domains may be grouped together in lists, charts, or diagrams with various parts identifed. Suggested topics follow, and the possibilities are virtually endless.

kinship terms insects colors reptiles numbers place names money weaving medical terms cofee processing body parts personal names fora directions fauna sizes, shapes, sounds mammals farming terminology birds fshing

Geographical and historical information may also be presented in an appendix. Maps of the local area, state, or nation are benefcial. Some groups are interested in their ancient historical records if such exist. Other groups still make use of the pre-Columbian ritual or agricultural calendar, and people appreciate having this in written form. Of- ten there is one individual who is respected as knowing the history of the people in detail. Perhaps he or she would be willing to summarize this material for inclusion in the dictionary. 24.3.3. Bibliography By the time the dictionary is brought to completion, it is inevitable that the compiler will feel a considerable debt to various published reference works. It is proper to list these along with other published works on the language or language family in a bibliography at the end of the book. Consistency in format is important. A decision must be made as to whether Spanish or English bibliographical style will be followed, or whether a combination of both will be employed, depending on whether the work was frst published in Spanish or English. Part VII Progress toward publication

25 Evaluation of the dictionary article

The dictionary team is in a position to do certain types of checking and revision that the outsider cannot do. The members of that team should employ their knowledge of the language to check for completeness of the dictionary entry, especially to ascertain that it deals with all pertinent sense discriminations. They can review a larger sample of text material to determine that easily overlooked prepositions and conjunctions, as well as all the common content words, are included. They are able to examine the Spanish index for appropriateness of Spanish translation equivalents and systematic treatment of qualifying comments. They can check all the entries to see when it is appropriate to promote the translation of the entry word in an illustrative sentence to the status of a translation equivalent. They should separate homonyms from sense discriminations, and distinguish Spanish synonyms for the same sense of a word from Spanish translation equivalents that distinguish two separate senses of a given word. The dictionary team can also anticipate some of the revision done by Spanish editors. They may independently consult appropriate reference works: standard Spanish dictionaries, dictionaries of Mexicanisms, and English-Spanish dictionaries. When such references show that local Spanish terminology has been identifed as such by the larger world, it would be helpful to note the source for future reference by the consultant. If such regionalisms are not easily verifed in a standard reference work, further thought should be given to the indication of their explanation or qualifcation. The compilers should anticipate a concentrated check by a consultant. The remainder of this chapter is devoted to a checklist of items that a consultant will be evaluating during a detailed examination of the dictionary . These points are included here to assist the compilers in assessing their own work as it progresses. The result should be a more efcient use of time and personnel during the evaluation. An exemplary dictionary should result if the compilers adhere to the underlying principles of Cor- rectness, Consistency, Completeness, Cultural aptness, Conciseness, and clarity in every aspect of the project.

25.1. Correctness: The individual entry

25.1.1. Adequacy of the translation material Compare the translation equivalent with the translation of the word in the illustrative sentence.

215 Evaluation of the dictionary article 216 a. Is the sentence translation compatible with the Spanish translation equivalent for that sense of the vernacular word? Does it require a diferent sense to be discriminated? b. Does the sentence translation merit promotion as a synonym of the translation equivalent? Or is the sentence translation merely the specifc Spanish equivalent of the vernacular word in that particular sentence, but not typical of the vernacular sense in other contexts? c. Is the translation equivalent for the vernacular word too closely dependent on the translation of the illustrative sentence? Is it too dependent on co-occurrence with a particular word, making it more appropriate to list the idiomatic phrase and its translation equivalent? d. Does the illustrative sentence indicate that the translation equivalent needs a qualifying comment that would restrict it to a particular sense of the equivalent Spanish word? If the translation equivalent has a qualifying comment, is it accurate and concise? 25.1.2. Grammatical uniformity within an entry Compare the grammatical form of the Spanish translation equivalent with the grammatical designation of the vernacular word, and the syntactic use of the word in the illustrative sentence. a. Are they compatible? b. Should the grammatical designation of the entry be changed? c. Should the grammatical form of the Spanish translation equivalent be changed? 25.1.3. Logical treatment of sense discriminations Compare the diferent senses of a word with each other. a. Do they show a common core of meaning or a thread of semantic development? b. Is the meaning change diferent enough to merit being handled as a separate entry (e.g., homonym)? c. Does the grammatical word class change? If so, there should be a separate sense discrimination or a separate entry. 25.1.4. Identifcation of misplaced idioms Compare the idioms that include the entry word with the sentences illustrating the distinct senses of that word. a. Are any of the illustrative sentences instances of an idiom employing the word, rather than a free sense of the word? (see 25.1.1c, above) Sort out and properly treat those that have been confused with sense discriminations. b. Do any of the listed idioms require an illustrative sentence for clarifcation? If so, make the idiom and its illustrative sentence a separate entry. 25.1.5. Evaluation of juxtaposed translation equivalents Compare the synonyms listed for the same sense. a. Are they interchangeable in most contexts? Are they on the same level of generality? b. Is the specifc word replaceable by the general word when they are listed as synonyms for the same sense? 217 Lucidity of the Spanish translation equivalents c. Do the two translation equivalents serve to qualify each other? If only one qualifes the other, should it be a qualifying comment rather than a separate although synonymous translation equivalent? Is this information as explicit as necessary for the Spanish index? 25.2. Consistency: The entry compared with similar entries

25.2.1. Harmony among related entries Compare the entry for a given word with a set of entries for comparable words in the same semantic domain. a. Check for parallelism of grammatical designation, grammatical form of the Spanish translation equivalent, form of the qualifying comments, types of synonymous translation equivalents, sense discriminations, idioms, illustrative sentences, or linguistic information. b. Check for completeness of the entries in the set, guided by hints from some of the individual entries. Improve the overall quality by choosing the best examples of a certain type and attempting to bring the rest of the set into line with that one. In other words, establish an ideal format for words of a given subclass (e.g., prepositions, conjunctions) and check all members of the class against it. 25.2.2. Justifcation of cross-references Compare a word with its compounds and derivatives. a. Look for further sense discriminations of a derived word that may be suggested by the senses of the basic word. b. Look for parallelism of translation equivalents for derivatives and basic entries. If translation equivalents are not parallel, determine whether or not they would be improved by consistent treatment. c. Evaluate the network of cross-references. Check the words cross-referenced to each other for inclusion of both members of the pair and for consistency of translation equivalents between subentries and their respective main entries. 25.2.3. Lucidity of the Spanish translation equivalents Compare the vernacular words which have been given identical Spanish translation equivalents. a. Check the qualifying comments to see that they are adequate, well stated, consistent, and following specifc principles. b. Introduce qualifying comments that will be needed in the Spanish index. Check to see whether they are required in the vernacular entry or whether the translation equivalent in that instance is made unambiguous by synonyms. Qualifying comments are usually more precise or more abstract than illustrative sentences. Because of the lack of illustrative sentences in the Spanish-vernacular section, qualifying comments will be abundant. Conversely, since illustrative sentences are plentiful in the vernacular section of the dictionary, qualifying comments are used there to designate fner shades of meaning than is possible with sentences alone, and are much less frequent. Evaluation of the dictionary article 218 25.3. Completeness: The entry in relation to the total dictionary

25.3.1. Comprehensive coverage of semantic domains Check specialized vocabulary by topic to ensure inclusion of all pertinent items. Basic vocabulary items should be similarly reviewed. 25.3.2. Practical applicability of the dictionary Take a reasonable sample of vernacular text material and check the adequacy of the dictionary entries to translate the text. Add new vocabulary items as needed. Expand entries for particular words to resolve problems which appear in the translating process. Refer to at least the skeleton of the grammatical sketch in order to be aware of the rules and principles which will be elaborated and be available to the user of the fnal product. 25.4. Cultural aptness: The choice of illustrative sentences Illustrative sentences should be idiomatic and culturally relevant, as well as display the central meaning of the word or one of the sense discriminations. Such sentences should be composed by a native speaker or taken from text material. Sentences translated from the language of wider communication should be avoided because of possible distortion of culture (as well as possible distortion of grammar or syntax). Sentences should not contain false statements since people often instinctively feel that anything in print is absolute truth. This principle eliminates unqualifed reference to the healing of wounds by patently unsanitary practices. There is, however, a place for the expression of folk beliefs, legends, and traditions through the illustrative sentences. A simple disclaimer such as, “People believe...,” or “They say...,” is sufcient to remove the statement from the category of unqualifed truth. Finally, all politically sensitive or religious subjects are taboo as sentence topics. Religious or political doctrine, corruption, or any uncomplimentary references to an institution of the country must be avoided. 25.5. Conciseness Dictionary translation equivalents should be checked to eliminate phrasal translations when there is a one-word equivalent in the language of wider communication that fts the situation. The compilers should also be alert for sentences which would better illustrate the entry word if they were pruned of extraneous material. Finally, care must be taken that the linguistic information area is not overburdened with literal translations, interesting but irrelevant notes on the phonology or grammar, or infected forms that are not principal parts of the paradigm. 25.6. Clarity: Instructions in the use of the dictionary Prepare a detailed list of rules for handling distinctive aspects of the language in the dictionary. Go through the body of the dictionary applying each rule, checking for consistency, and making exceptions conform to the rule. Where justifed, modify the rule to handle the exceptions in a principled way. Such a list of specifc instructions is a 219 Clarity: Instructions in the use of the dictionary checklist of principles and techniques for handling specifc problems. If not previously composed, this set of editorial instructions should be the product of the thousand word check done with a consultant.

26 Consultant service

26.1. The contribution of the consultant Evaluation of the dictionary is an important step toward arriving at an adequate treatment of both the semantic and grammatical aspects of it. Linguistic consultants can provide the objective viewpoint of an outsider. They are in a position to make preliminary evaluations and to suggest the kinds of things the compilers need to include in their evaluation and revision of their own work. If the input of a consultant can be distilled into general principles rather than remaining at the level of unfocused criticism, such principles can guide the compilers in their further work on the project. These principles also serve as background and precedent for decisions on future dictionaries in the series. Such distillation also elevates the evaluation process above mere nitpicking. Linguistic consultants are dependent on their short term memory and attention span to look for (1) contradictions, (2) omissions, (3) ambiguous translation equivalents, (4) unrecognized sense discriminations, and (5) inconsistencies in handling similar kinds of information. They call on their own experience in dictionary compilation and their background in using dictionaries of various kinds. They apply their growing store of knowledge about the languages of Mexico to the questions at hand. They have the advantage of objectivity and are less likely to get bogged down in details. Their techniques are based on comparisons. They compare the translation equivalent with the Spanish index, if available, to see whether there are any other words in the vernacular that have been translated with the same Spanish word. If so, they attempt to determine whether the translation equivalent needs a qualifying comment to distinguish it from other similar words. They watch for the use of that word in illustrative sentences pertaining to other entries, to see if it is ever used in a sense not listed in the dictionary article. If the translation equivalent is an extended translation equivalent, e.g., a phrase, the consultant may recommend placing in parentheses as a qualifying comment any part of the phrase attributable to collocational restrictions of the context. They check the grammatical form of the translation equivalent against the word class designation of the entry and against the syntactic use of the vernacular word in the illustrative sentence. Consultants may look up contextual items that occur in the illustrative sentences to see that they have been included in the dictionary. They may work their way through several pages of text material to see that grammatical function words are treated adequately.

221 Consultant service 222 26.2. The process of consultant evaluation For a project of the magnitude and complexity of a bilingual dictionary, it is unre- alistic to expect a consultant or an editor to give blanket approval at one time for the whole project. In one session, no one can think of all the myriad details involved—even if the consultation lasts two weeks, as in the case of the ideal thousand word check. Moreover, each dictionary compiler will exhibit diferent strengths and weaknesses. At the end of the thousand word check, for example, approval might be given for the manner in which sense discriminations, qualifying comments, and illustrative sentences are being handled, but the consultant may feel the need to examine the entries at a later date to review the treatment of grammatical aspects of the dictionary. Thus, it is not a matter of passing or failing a lengthy evaluation but a continuing process in which the compilers, consultants, and editors work together on all aspects of the project.

26.2.1. Introductory tutorial Ideally, during the very early stages of the project, compilers would have the beneft of a tutorial or workshop in which the basic principles of bilingual dictionary compilation would be discussed. Under guidance and supervision, they could work on their dictionary fles and begin to work out the stylistic principles of their particular books. Hopefully, the frustration of having to rework large numbers of dictionary articles could thus be avoided. 26.2.2. Thousand word check This phrase thousand word check should not be taken literally. Consultants do not necessarily examine in minute detail exactly one thousand dictionary entries. The term is derived from the requisite preparation necessary to carry out the procedure. If compilers do not have at least a thousand entries processed, their lexical fle may not be large enough to reveal in sufcient detail problems that may be peculiar to the language. The corpus must be large enough to reveal inconsistencies to the consultants and to enable them to judge whether specifc problems are isolated instances or widespread enough to require the elaboration of further principles and techniques. For this concentrated evaluation, consultants usually plan to work two weeks with the compilers and the native speakers who are part of the dictionary team. If at all possible, a competent bilingual should be a part of the group. To a large degree, consultants will be evaluating the dictionary material in the light of the checklist presented in the chapter on the evaluation of the dictionary article. The procedure of undergo- ing a thorough consultant check of several hundred dictionary articles is useful not only for identifcation of items needing revision, but also for increasing the compilers’ awareness of valuable principles and techniques as they work toward completion of their projects. A product of the thousand word check should be a list of items to be included in the grammar sketch to complement information given in the dictionary entries, an outline of the section on “Structure of the entry”, and any other explanations to facilitate the readers’ use of the dictionary. Part of the consultants' preparation for such an evaluation should be to familiarize themselves with publications on related languages and to become aware of how others have handled language-specifc problems similar to those they expect to meet in a given project. 223 Preliminary Spanish check

Throughout the thousand word check itself, consultants will need to concentrate on the adequacy of the individual entries, the completeness of the cross-referencing system and its applications, and the systematic implementation of optional features. The grammatical sketch and introductory material will be considered, although not as minutely as they will be scrutinized at the time of the linguistic check. As this stage, consultants and compilers must work towards assuring themselves that those sections will include all relevant topics necessary for the understanding of the dictionary entries. In summary, the objectives of the thousand word check are as follows:

1. Evaluate the state of the dictionary progress. 2. Correct any wrong tendencies. 3. Make explicit the set of decisions about how to handle information in the dictionary entries, especially language-specifc information. Note topics for “explanation of the structure of the entry”. 4. List all topics to be covered in the grammar sketch. 5. Raise questions which may call for further research. 6. Help ensure that the compilers address the various issues adequately.

Specifc checks include the following:

1. Entry-by-entry checking for internal consistency. 2. All entries of the same grammatical category for congruent treatment. 3. Adequate translation equivalents for all entry words. 4. Helpful qualifying comments as necessary. 5. Completeness of cross-references. 6. Accounting for all the words in illustrative sentences.

26.2.3. Review of semantic domains If consultant input is desired for specialized terminology, such as that dealing with fora and fauna, these entries should be grouped together topically rather than alphabetically for this check.1 The more restrictive the grouping, the easier it is to work with the material. For instance, it is helpful to have all the names of birds together; it is even more benefcial if there are subgroups such as edible fowls, hummingbirds, parrots, etc. A tremendous asset in handling this type of material is a collaborator who is competent in the specialized feld, one who can make use of illustrations in reference books to accurately identify their subjects.. 26.2.4. Format check Someone should review that the felds in the computer program are being used properly, and that the formatting is set up according to Mexico Branch publishing standards. 26.2.5. Preliminary Spanish check A Spanish editor should look at a sample of the material, perhaps soon after the thousand word check. The more obvious or recurrent problems in the handling of Spanish

1This grouping can be done easily in FLEx if corresponding records have been tagged with semantic felds. Consultant service 224 might be noted at this time. If corrected early, the resultant saving of time and money could be considerable. 26.2.6. Consultant content check After the dictionary articles are virtually complete, the consultant should again look at the material. This may be either a cursory spot-checking or a more thorough editing depending upon the circumstances. Upon satisfactory completion of this review, the content of the manuscript may be considered ready to move to the next step of publication. 26.2.7. Spanish editing At this point, the dictionary receives complete and careful scrutiny by native Spanish speakers. Spanish editors are responsible for the grammatical and stylistic correctness of the translation of the illustrative sentences. They are also in a good position to identify regional Spanish vocabulary and local specialized usage of standard Spanish lexical items. They can often supply standard Spanish equivalents to be added to the regional Spanish translation equivalents. 26.2.8. Editing of a print-out After the previous steps have been completed, a new print-out should be made. It will be subject to several types of editing and proofreading.

Spanish proofreading A Spanish editor should review this copy. Consultant editing A dictionary consultant must also review the whole manuscript for internal consistency, completeness, and clarity. This careful and time-consuming check is designed to eliminate as many inconsistencies and remedy as many omissions as possible. Editing by the compilers The compilers should avail themselves of this opportunity to examine the manuscript as a whole for consistency and clarity as well as any errors. They should probably go through it more than once because of the necessity of reviewing content as well as the formatting details. 26.2.9. Linguistic check An intensive linguistic check of the dictionary is a valuable procedure that fts in best when the clean print-out mentioned above has been made. The goal of a linguistic check is to determine that the dictionary and its accompanying grammar sketch are adequate, in and of themselves, to enable outside scholars to decipher virtually any text in the indigenous language that they may encounter. From asking the compiler for morpheme by morpheme translations of the illustrative sentences, the consultant or team of consultants proceeds to identifying the morphemes with recourse only to the free translations of the sentences and the dictionary corpus. Later, an attempt is made to translate the material in the sentences or unrelated text without recourse to 225 Approval of front and back material any printed translation, using only the dictionary and its accompanying grammatical and introductory material. For more information on this topic, see Schoenhals (1982). 26.2.10. Consultant check of the Spanish index The dictionary compilers must carefully examine the reverse index to ensure adequacy of qualifying comments and clarify ambiguities. A linguistic consultant or editor should also review this section of the dictionary. 26.2.11. Approval of illustrations Illustrations that are included need to be formatted properly and used with some guidance because of legal, visual, and aesthetic questions they present. 26.2.12. Approval of front and back material All introductory material, the grammatical sketch, and the appendices need to be checked carefully by linguistic consultants and Spanish editors. The linguistic consultant will ascertain that all necessary information appears in the grammatical sketch to ensure serviceability of the dictionary. Likewise, all necessary instructions for the use of the dictionary must appear in the introductory material.

Part VIII Use of the dictionary in the village area

27 Use of the dictionary in the village area

Potentially, there are a number of advantages for the local populace in having a dictionary of their language. The uses of the dictionary will vary from place to place depending upon the local situation. Benefts range from very practical educational uses to intangible but vital psychological advantages.

27.1. Prestige of the indigenous language In some areas, the indigenous groups look down upon their mother tongue. They have acquired this attitude from ofcials, traders, and other outsiders who have made uncomplimentary references to the “strange sounds” or “abominable word length”. Since such outsiders represent to the indigenous inhabitants a superior world of culture, progress, and fnancial advancement, native speakers too may deride their language and wish to drop its use altogether. Sometimes this occurs in spite of the fact that they scarcely know enough Spanish for the most simple commercial transactions. Often the local language gains in prestige if there is concrete evidence that it can be written, that its vocabulary is adequate and even extensive, and that books can be published in it. Probably the bilingual dictionary and accompanying grammar provide the best tangible evidence that the indigenous people speak a real language, a language that is not inferior to the major languages of the country. 27.2. Acquisition of Spanish In the course of their education, members of the indigenous community often become eager to acquire fuency in the national language. Obviously, a classroom situation will not provide them with all of the words that each individual situation demands. They require a place in which they can fnd the equivalents in the second language for the thoughts they wish to express. This is perhaps one of the most practical purposes of a bilingual dictionary: to help members of an indigenous group gain fuency and vocabulary in the national language. The local people will grow in Spanish as they make use of the Spanish equivalents for the words of their own language. They will proft from the translation into Spanish of the sentences that illustrate those words, learning some of the syntax of standard Spanish as edited by native Spanish speakers. Even simple bilingual publications such as alphabet and phrase books usually have a wide appeal in the indigenous areas. Admittedly, the dictionary is not as easy to use and understand as the simpler literacy materials, but given time and an advancing educational level, it too should be in demand as a necessary resource book for acquiring

229 Use of the dictionary in the village area 230 the language and culture of wider communication. Through the bilingual dictionary, standard Spanish equivalents may be learned for some of the more restricted regional vocabulary, thus enabling the vernacular speaker to travel to and communicate in the larger cities. For many people, it will be interesting and proftable to learn the Spanish nomenclature for the fora and fauna found in their local environment. Even casual browsers through the dictionary will absorb some feeling for sense discriminations of the various Spanish words for which they previously were aware of only one meaning, and that perhaps quite restricted. They may also become aware of synonyms and other related words corresponding to the limited Spanish they already know, and thus increase their functional Spanish vocabulary. 27.3. Intellectual growth of individuals Some of those involved in compiling the dictionary will grow intellectually as they grapple with the issues that arise in the dictionary project. Some individuals trained in the dictionary project will be able to proceed further to the preparation of curriculum materials for bilingual education programs. Some will grow in ability to more fully collaborate in various translation projects and may develop the skills necessary to author original literature for their people. 27.4. Contribution to bilingual/bicultural education The historical and traditional uses of the English dictionary included making several types of information available to the general population. These included an authoritative pronunciation guide, the meaning of obsolete words as found in literature, and defnitions of foreign or other difcult words that had been adopted into English. Over a century ago, the United States was characterized by a large immigrant population, an expanding public school system and popular education, and exploding commercial opportunities—especially for those with more than the bare rudiments of an education. Many countries today fnd themselves in a similar social situation to that of the United States back then. Popular education is valued as a path to economic betterment and the government system of schools is expanding. Although not faced with a large immigrant population, these countries are faced with a demand for education on the part of their minority groups who want to become part of an upwardly mobile society. The bilingual dictionary is not only a vocabulary builder nor an example of standard usage and syntax in the language of wider communication, but can be a bridge leading the student to competent use of a monolingual dictionary in that language. 27.5. An aid to local speakers of the language of wider communication Certainly, government teachers sent to the indigenous areas to carry on an educational program should have some knowledge of the local language. The dictionary can be a tool for them in this endeavor, as well as a resource book for the pupils in their classroom who are trying to learn a national language. Community development people and other interested outsiders can learn more about the indigenous culture from the dictionary, and perhaps even be motivated to learn to speak some of the local language. Economic interest often dictates that storekeepers and other merchants become conversant in the vernacular, especially in areas where there is a high percentage of the 231 A record of cultural roots population that is not comfortable in Spanish. The bilingual dictionary that is aimed at a non-academic audience is valuable to these people. 27.6. Language standardization A major publication in one of the variants of a given language area will result in an increasing knowledge of that particular variant on the part of individuals from the whole area. The net result may be that the dictionary exerts a unifying infuence on the wider region, facilitating the preparation of school materials and communicating across a formerly fragmented area. Especially if the dictionary has included the various local dialect diferences, speakers of all such dialects will broaden their vocabulary and conversational ability in the main variety of the local language as presented in the dictionary. 27.7. A record of cultural roots A dictionary plentifully supplied with illustrative sentences, adequate sense discriminations, and sufcient qualifying comments becomes a record of the folk wisdom and cultural heritage of a given group of people. Even though we may not be able to approach the ethnographic and encyclopedic style of a few of the dictionaries discussed in the supplement dealing with the history of bilingual dictionaries, we can preserve a substantial record of the local system of ethnobiology, mathematics, scientifc lore, and the folk taxonomy of shapes or textures through a well-constructed bilingual dictionary.

A Psychological awareness of some lexicographic concepts in indigenous languages of Mexico

Paper presented by Doris A. Bartholomew at the ffth ALFAL conference, Caracas, Venezuela, 1978.

A.1. Introduction Degrees of psychological perception exist in reference to the linguistic structures of one's native language. For example, we easily recognize words and distinct syllables; morphemes and phonemes are difcult to perceive because they are more abstract. Nevertheless, these latter items correspond to a certain degree of psychological reality that is refected in the behavior of the speaker relative to other people. Since 1947, Kenneth Pike has insisted that the instinctive reactions of native speakers are an indispensable component of an adequate theory of phonemics as well as the phonemic analysis of a particular language (Pike 1947; Fries & Pike 1949). The lexical system also includes a range of concepts that vary in their degree of abstraction, and, consequently, difer in the level of awareness at which they are perceived. The existence of a perceptive scale has important implications for the compilation of bilingual dictionaries designed for the speakers of indigenous languages. Dow Robin- son (1969) noted two factors infuencing the use of the dictionary by people who have not enjoyed a long educational tradition. (These people are, however, now receiving a basic education, which fact augurs well for the future.) The frst important principle is that a suitable entry form in the dictionary article ought to be an independent word. Such a word ought also to be a psychologically natural choice as representative of a given semantic unit. This is not a new principle—in 1571, Fray Alonso de Molina cited the Nahuatl verb form containing the frst person pronominal prefx as subject; and, in the case of transitive verbs, the third person as object. Molina declared, “The verbs of this language are never pronounced nor found as absolute forms similar to (the infnitives) of Romance languages such as amar to love, enseñar to teach, etc., but they are always accompanied by pronouns or particles indicating the object and the subject, e.g., nitetlacotla, nitemachtia, nitlacaqui, etc. (Molina 1977 [1577]: prólogo). Nevertheless, many structural linguists have employed as a dictionary entry form an abstract stem without afxes. Occasionally, a basic form that never occurs in natural speech is listed as the citation form in a specifc dictionary. A stem has the advantage

233 Psychological awareness of some lexicographic concepts 234 of brevity; at the same time, it displays the phonological features necessary for the application of grammatical rules and the generation of all of the paradigmatic forms. But for a native speaker of the language, the abstract stem has the disadvantage of being far from the psychological reality of the word if the natural words are always conjugated forms. For various indigenous languages, it has been observed that one of the conjugated forms can be employed to represent the lexical unit because the pronouns involved can be interpreted in a generalized manner. For example, as translation equivalents for Spanish infnitives, the speakers of an indigenous language may suggest verbs in the frst person plural inclusive form. Speakers of other languages may suggest as translation equivalents verbs combined with third person afxes. The second point emphasized by Robinson is that an abstract technical and exact defnition remains beyond the reach of the new literate; and many of the speakers of indigenous languages can be so characterized. Fortunately, in a bilingual dictionary, equivalent translation equivalents replace defnitions; but in many cases, the Span- ish equivalent has several sense discriminations making further delineation advisable. Robinson recommended the use of illustrative sentences to clarify the meaning of the entry word. Concrete illustrations are much easier to understand than abstract defnitions. The experience of the Summer Institute of Linguistics has demonstrated the value of these two recommendations in avoiding unnecessary difculties for the native speaker who wishes to use the bilingual dictionary. In 1977, the Institute conducted workshops in the production of bilingual dictionaries. From these workshops, there emerged three other examples of a perceptive scale in relation to lexicography. This paper describes these observations, considers them in the light of recent developments in general linguistic theory, and examines the implications for bilingual dictionaries designed to be used by indigenous people. A.2. There is a higher degree of awareness of homophones and minimal pairs than of sense discriminations of a single word. During the workshop held in Mitla, Oaxaca, in February, 1977, classes were held for the native speakers associated with lexicographic projects in eight diferent languages. One of their assignments was to list several sense discriminations of a single word in their language. Previously, class discussion had focused on Spanish words that had various sense discriminations. Surprisingly, examinations of the papers revealed only homophonous words with very distinct meanings or pairs of words that exhibited a minimal phonetic diference corresponding to a diference in meaning. Generally, minimal pairs were diferentiated by nasalization of the vowel, by tone, or by phonetic alterations not written in Spanish—and therefore presumed to be associated with homophones. Apparently, it is easier to identify diferent meanings if there is a corresponding phonetic diference; or, if there is no phonetic diference, when the senses are very disparate. It is more difcult to distinguish between the senses of a single word because these exhibit a common semantic component even though the correspondence may be minimal. Figurative usage is the frst factor that infuences the discrimination of separate senses. The concept expressed by a fgurative use of a word can also be expressed in non-fgurative language; thus is established equivalence between the fgure of speech 235 Awareness of homophones and its interpretation. Moreover, the fact that the fgurative semantic variant is separated from its immediate linguistic context, and is dependent upon social context for its specialized meaning, contributes to its discrimination as a separate sense of the word. For example, if a person is referred to as a burro or a hawk, the speakers are aware that there has been a change in the universe of discourse in order for the name of an animal to represent a personal characteristic of the person under discussion. The indigenous participants in the workshop confrmed without difculty the perceptive reality of fgurative speech after they were presented with examples of the same. The second factor in the development of separate sense discriminations for a word is the existence of synonyms. Synonyms can usually be interchanged with the entry word in one of its senses but are not applicable to the other areas of its meaning. For example, it is possible to make a shelter or build a shelter; and one can say make a meal or cook a meal. However, one does not say cook a shelter or build a meal. A third factor in the discrimination of diferent senses is the abbreviation of a syntactic construction to one single word by the omission of the nucleus of the phrase. In Spanish and in English, the use of an adjective as a noun is very common: the Reds for the red soldiers, etc. In English, it is quite common to use a noun as a verb without changing the stem. Thus, to fsh is an abbreviation of to try to catch fsh; to knife somebody is an abbreviation of to stab somebody with a knife. The formation of the equivalent Spanish verbs from their corresponding nouns requires the addition of a derivative afx: acuchillar from cuchillo; pescar from pez. Generally, the change of syntactic function is accompanied by a change in the form of the stem. This fact exerts structural pressure towards diferentiating as a sense discrimination a usage which functions as a diferent word class. A psychological reality is thus imparted to the distinction in the minds of the speakers. In spite of identical form and common semantic features, the parallel to sets of simple stems and their derived counterparts permits the native speaker to perceive sense discriminations which are based on diferences in syntactic class. The fact that diferent cultures divide the semantic area along diferent lines com- plicates the bilingual dictionary situation. Thus, the Spanish word llave corresponds to key if the topic of conversation is doors, but it corresponds to faucet if one is discussing water. The equivalents in the other language have a parallel function to that of synonyms in the monolingual dictionary since both serve to distinguish sense discriminations. The word table in its use as a piece of furniture may be distinguished from a table which is a chart since the word chart may be substituted for it in the latter instance; table and chart are synonyms in this sense. Likewise, table is translated by mesa if the referent is a piece of furniture and by cuadro if the reference is to a chart. Sense discriminations are thus based on difering synonyms in the monolingual dictionary and on difering translation equivalents in the bilingual publication. An explanation of the development of distinct senses is found in the semantic links between synonyms and in the parallels between derived words and words with a change of syntactic function. Nevertheless, the psychological reality of sense discriminations is less acute because the phonetic form and the common thread of meaning join them as variants of one single word in the mind of the speaker. Michael J. Reddy (1973) recognized the relative inaccessibility of the senses of a word. He was, however, successful in the development of a theory of semantic reference that permitted him to obtain uniform results in the determination of basic sense Psychological awareness of some lexicographic concepts 236 discriminations. Basic to his theory of reference, Reddy formulated principles as a guide for twenty-fve university students majoring in literature, who were then asked to delimit the diferent senses of a word. The possibility of identifying sense discriminations interested Reddy because he had noted that the treatment of the senses of a word in literature is similar to the handling of ambiguity between homophones. Reddy concluded that it is necessary to recognize the psychological validity of sense discriminations in view of the fact that an author utilizes ambiguity between senses to achieve depth of expression. The reading public in turn responds to the multiple images. The consistency of the analyses produced by the university students corroborated the psychological reality of difering senses and the general validity of Reddy’s theory of reference. A.3. There is greater awareness of variant forms of the same paradigm than of derivatives and compounds sharing the same root. When vernacular speakers associated with the dictionary projects in Mexico were asked to give examples of derivatives or compounds, they responded with examples of infection. Apparently, the productive morphophonemic processes functioning within a conjugation establish more recognizable patterns than those formed by the sporadic processes that characterize derivation or a change of syntactic class. The indigenous language speakers refected the reality of this scale of abstract awareness when they produced examples of infection instead of examples of derivation. The competence of the speaker has always been very important in generative linguistics because an adequate theory of language ought to account for what the speaker knows in order to be able to generate grammatically correct sentences and to be able to understand any such sentence. For example, a theory should explain the relationships between interrogative and declarative sentences, between passive and active verbs, and between independent and dependent sentences. The emphasis of generative theory for many years was on syntax, even though Chomsky collaborated with Halle in writing The sound pattern of English (1968). In generative phonology, the role of competency was half forgotten in the efort to elaborate ever more comprehensive processes and universally applicable phonetic rules. The resultant abstract phonology reconstructed basic forms of the morphemes that themselves never occurred in ordinary speech. A series of rules were formulated very similar to the phonetic rules of historical linguistics. In recent years, some of the theoretical linguists of the generative persuasion have become uneasy on this point and have declared it unreasonable to suppose that the abstract forms of the deep structure exist in the mind of the native speaker. Joan Hooper presented a modifed theory of generative phonology which she called Natural generative phonology (Hooper 1976). In her book, the author postulates three levels of phonetic rules with very strict theoretical controls: 1) phonological rules, 2) morphophonological rules, and 3) “via” rules. The three levels correspond to the degree of psychological reality accorded the phonetic relationships expressed in the rules. In the case of the “via” rules, she maintains that some speakers are not conscious of the relationship between certain pairs of derived words because the phonetic relationship is the residue of a historical process. Natu- ral generative phonology admits the possibility, although minimal, of a psychological awareness regarding the existent relationship among derived words. Advocates of this viewpoint, however, insist that a consciousness of such a relationship must be estab- 237 Awareness of independent words lished for each separate pair of words by a given individual and not for the general linguistic community as a whole. One possible explanation for a popular lack of recognition concerning the derivative relationship between a pair of words is that the derivative sufx has lost its morphological value and has been incorporated into the stem as a lexical element. New productive sufxes have isolated the older sufx in such a manner that eventually the original suf- fx occurs with only one root, or at least a set of roots greatly reduced in number. The reinterpretation of the obsolete sufx as an integral part of the stem also protects weak phonetic relationships which are vestiges of morphophonemic processes no longer applicable. For example, Spanish employs the word fortaleza fortitude but not fortalez, and retains vejez old age rather than changing to the comparable vejeza. Another factor obscuring the relationships among derived words is the formation of new words based upon a word which once was itself a derivative and upon which the older phonetic processes now have no infuence. For example, the Spanish words meaning town, población and pueblo, show a correspondence between the o in an unstressed position and ue in a stressed position; but pueblito a little town retains the ue even though the diphthong is in an unstressed position. The re-introduction into Spanish from Latin of words that have not been subject to the phonetic changes of popular speech, has given rise to other pairs of words sharing the same root but without the expected phonetic relationships. Compare, for example, leche milk, introduced on a popular level, and lactar to nurse introduced on a cultured level. A similar development characterizes humo smoke (noun) and fumar to smoke. For all of these reasons, the phonological connection between a pair of derived words can be less than clear. Moreover, the derived word constitutes a lexical element whose semantic development is independent of that of the other member of the pair. Conse- quently, the semantic association between them may be quite weak. It is not surprising, therefore, that in many instances, the native speaker lacks a psychological link between such pairs of derived words. The “via” rule illustrates the weak psychological awareness of derivative processes. This rule expresses a lexical rather than a grammatical relationship. When a speaker establishes a link between two words by means of a phonetic rule, the lexicon should include the information that a given word is related to another particular word via a certain phonological rule. For example, pueblo is related to población via the con- version to a diphthong of the unstressed o. A.4. There is more psychological awareness of classes of independent words than of dependent words. At the Mexico workshop, the speaker of Chontal of Tabasco (a Mayan language) composed sentences illustrating word usages for the Chontal dictionary. Upon encoun- tering adjectival words used as noun modifers, he did not recognize them as separate words. It had been easy for him to recognize the predicate adjective whose stem is the simple root and with which it is possible to construct an independent sentence. But in many cases, the stem of the adjectival noun modifer includes a sufx or has a redu- plicated root. Syntactically, such a word is always dependent upon the noun which it modifes. Therefore, as an independent lexical element, the adjectival modifer does not have the same psychological reality that the predicate adjective does. The Chon- Psychological awareness of some lexicographic concepts 238 tal speaker experienced similar difculties with the dependent clitic pronouns even though they are written as separate words. Although the clitics are very common, they did not have the same lexical value for him as the independent pronouns and seemed more like afxes. It was expected that the Chontal speaker would have difculty with the function words, but this problem did not materialize. Upon seeing the dictionary slip listing a preposition as an entry word, he paused a minute, remembered the Spanish equivalent, and proceeded to construct a sentence using the word in question. In this case, the lack of independence the word exhibited was apparently compensated for by the existence of an equivalent in the other language. A.5. The dictionary should represent the entire range of the psychological reality of a language. This article has presented three examples of the evidence for a perceptive scale applicable to linguistic structures. An attempt has also been made to identify the factors infuencing the existence of such a scale. In each instance, it has been noted that the structures manifesting a lesser degree of psychological reality are ultimately recognizable by the native speakers on a level of conscious awareness. The validity of these more abstract structures rests with the totality of the linguistic community and not with the individual; that is to say, in the language and not in the speaker. A dictionary has traditionally documented the heritage of the language and has encompassed many varieties of historical, geographic, and even social infuences. The inventory of words is taken from all sectors of the linguistic community. The senses given for a word include some that are not recognized by all the speakers of the language. During the course of his or her life, an individual increases thier knowledge of the resources of their language. Therefore, the dictionary should not be limited to the most accessible levels of linguistic structures. Nevertheless, the bilingual dictionary of an indigenous language should exhibit consideration for newly literate native speakers who are in the process of acquiring a broader education. It is recommended that the format of the lexical article refect the perceptive scale of psychological awareness. More prominence should be given to the concrete structures and the more abstract should be subordinated. Derivational relationships may be indicated by means of a system of subentries and cross-references. The various sense discriminations should be ordered beginning with the most general and progressing to those which owe their existence to semantic or syntactic extension. References Chomsky, Noam & Morris Halle. 1968. The sound pattern of English. New York: Harper & Row. Fries, Charles C. & Kenneth L. Pike. 1949. “Coexistent Phonemic Systems”. Language 52:29-50. Hooper, Joan. 1976. An introduction to natural generative phonology. New York: Aca- demic Press. Molina, Fray Alonso de. 1944 [1571]. Vocabulario en lengua castellana y mexicana. Madrid: Ediciones Cultura Hispanica. Pike, Kenneth L. 1947. Phonemics: A technique for reducing language to writing. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan. 239 Psychological reality of a language

Reddy, Michael J. 1973. “Formal referential models of poetic structure”. In Papers from the Ninth Regional Meeting of the Chicago Linguistic Society, 493-518. Chicago: Chicago Linguistic Society. Robinson, Dow. 1969. Manual for bilingual dictionaries, 3 vol: vol. 1, textbook; vol.2, 3, Spanish word list. Santa Ana, Calif: Summer Institute of Linguistics.

B Bilingual dictionaries in Spanish North America

Numerous bilingual dictionaries have been published in the territory once under the dominion of Spain. Some of these were compiled while the territory was still a Spanish colony, and a number have been done since the various countries gained their independence. Most bilingual dictionaries have Spanish as the second language, although a few contain English with the local language. The largest percentage of bilingual dictionaries is in languages spoken in Mexico. A few have been printed in languages of Central America, especially Guatemala, and a very few in languages of the southwestern part of the United States, notably Navajo.

B.1. Historical reasons for bilingual dictionaries Bilingual dictionaries have been published for various reasons. Some compilers felt the language under consideration would become a dead language within a relatively few years. These researchers wanted to preserve data of the languages in the interests of linguistic science. There have been a few specialized dictionaries compiled to show the infuence of an indigenous language such as Nahuatl (Aztec) upon the language of wider communication of the country. Some authors directed their works towards a potential audience of educators, missionaries, or government ofcials, that is, the dictionary was compiled for the beneft of non-native speakers of the language who wished to obtain a certain degree of profciency in its use. A few of the briefer vocabularies were directed towards a commercial end and only included words needed by itinerant traders for buying and selling. Perhaps the goal of the largest number of bilingual dictionaries, both past and present, is to facilitate the incorporation of minority groups into a national culture. Without a knowledge of the national language, these groups have been isolated from the stream of society unable to make a contribution to national life. They could not rise above their poverty and ignorance since the educational tools with which they might forge a better life have been denied them by virtue of their being monolingual. At times, the prevailing educational philosophy of both Mexico and the United States has been to suppress the use of vernacular languages. Any instruction given to indigenous groups was to be in the national language. The early and present philosophy in Mexico, however, has been the opposite. In such a program, a bilingual dictionary occupies a prominent position. Both the early experiences of the Spanish friars and modern educational and psychological experiments demonstrate the superior results

241 Bilingual dictionaries in Spanish North America 242 obtained when primary education is in a person’s mother tongue rather than a second language. Early educational eforts in the vernacular produced astonishing results in Mexico. The frst school was established by Fray Pedro de Gante in 1523 in Texcoco. It was characteristic of these educational pioneers that they learned before they attempted to teach. They learned the Nahuatl language and studied the customs of the people, thus establishing friendly relationships with nobles and masses. In an efort to relate their teaching to the life of their students, they taught in both Spanish and Nahuatl using hieroglyphics and the vernacular to overcome the barriers inherent in bringing an education to a people previously illiterate. By 1541, there were numbers of indigenous persons able to read and write in Spanish and Latin, as well as in Nahuatl. A catechism and other materials were prepared in the vernacular and were widely distributed and used. Some of these sound educational principles fell into disuse in later years. During the period of 1810 to 1857, the education of the indigenous groups was neglected almost entirely; subsequently, in our day, the strongest and most stubborn handicap to national literacy is still a large number of monolingual citizens. Dictionaries have been compiled for a number of varying purposes, as has been previously indicated, and the groups or individuals doing the work have been diverse as well. Some compilers have been linguists, and others were educators or representatives of governments, while the most numerous group has been the missionaries of the Roman Catholic Church. It is with the extensive, and in many cases thorough, work of the latter that this article deals frst. B.2. Roman Catholic religious orders The early friars who accompanied the Spanish conquerors and colonizers were responsible for an impressive amount of linguistic material, of which no doubt only a small portion is available today. With the coming of Mexican independence and the expulsion or suppression of the religious orders, such work was suspended for many years. In recent decades, works of linguistic scholarship, especially bilingual dictionaries, have again begun to appear under the auspices of various Roman Catholic missionary groups. It is evident that, until recently, the early friars provided the majority of the linguistic works on Mexican languages. The Franciscans, Jesuits, Dominicans, and Augustinians labored in various regions of Mexico from the beginning of the 16th century until the end of the 18th century. Early linguistic works prepared by other groups were few and of an inferior quality. Modern scholars still make use of the work of the early missionaries when it is available. The most important dictionaries and grammatical works are in Nahuatl, Otomí, Tarascan, Maya, Zapotec, Mixtec, Huastec (Tének), and Totonac. In California, work was also done in Cochimí, Pericú, and Loreto, with its related dialects of Guaycurú and Uchiti. The Jesuits, who began work in 1572, left behind a substantial amount of linguistic work when they were expelled from Mexico in 1767.

B.2.1. Nahuatl The language known as Mexicano or Náhuatl (usually written without an accent in English) was one of the most widespread at the time of the Conquest and was the language of the ruling group in Mexico at that time. One of the frst dictionaries in New 243 Nahuatl

Spain dealt with a dialect of that language and was entitled Aquí comiença un vocabulario en la lengua castellana y mexicana. Fray Alonso de Molina published this work in 1555 in Mexico City. It contains 6,000 to 7,500 entries in Spanish with their corresponding Nahuatl translations. In his dictionary, Molina displayed a great sensitivity to the structure and grammatical patterns of Aztec. In spite of the great disparity between an agglutinative language of Mexico and an Indo-European language, Molina resisted the temptation to cast the new in the structural mold of the old. This frst dictionary was beautifully bound with gilt edges and contained a prologue and illustrations, as well as separate sections in the back for the Nahuatl number system, among other things. Born around 1513, Alonso de Molina had come to New Spain as a boy. He and his brother were among the very few European children in Mexico those frst years after the conquest; consequently, they learned Nahuatl from their playmates. In a short time, their mother was widowed and left alone to raise the two boys. When the frst twelve Franciscan friars arrived and requested that one of her sons serve as interpreter and teacher of Nahuatl, she gladly acquiesced, and young Alonso became the constant companion of the Franciscan fathers. The historian Mendieta has made an analogy between Molina’s early life and that of the boy Samuel in the Old Testament who was sent to live with, learn from, and serve the community of priests (León Portilla about Molina 1977 [1577]). As soon as he was old enough, Molina professed the vows of the priesthood and took the habit of the Franciscan order. This same Franciscan friar was the author of a later work entitled Vocabulario en lengua castellana y mexicana published in 1571. Molina’s second work is an enlarged and revised edition of the frst, described above. This one has two sections, Spanish- Nahuatl and Nahuatl-Spanish, whereas the earlier contained only the former. The sections contain 118 and 162 double pages, respectively, which is quite a considerable vocabulary. The Nahuatl section includes over 12,000 words and some scholars maintain that Molina used only one native speaker, Herman de Ribas of Tetzcoco, and rarely incorporated words from other sources. Like some of the other early lexicographers, Molina was infuenced in his project by the frst major Spanish grammar and bilingual dictionary, published in 1492. In that year, Antonio de Nebrija completed the Arte de la lengua castellana and his Diccionario latino-español. (The Spanish-Latin section of the dictionary was published in 1495.) Molina’s eforts to portray the salient features of Nahuatl structure led him to work out his own system of entry forms for the dictionary, including some bound afxes attached to the basic roots. Molina encountered almost insurmountable difculties as he attempted to adequately handle the hitherto unstudied features of Aztec. In the prologue to the reader of his 1571 dictionary, Molina wrote: “me ha costado el trabajo que nuestro señor sabe, y los que entienden podrán imaginar.” [God only knows—but those with understanding can imagine—the cost of this labor to me.] He also included a plea for someone else to take up the work and combine it with further Nahuatl studies. Molina was a prolifc bilingual writer and produced a confessionary, statement of doctrine, various sermons, and some portions of Scripture translated into Nahuatl. His dictionaries are still used as reference works and scholars often fnd, that for some purposes, there is still no adequate substitute. No doubt, this fact is the best possible memorial to the Franciscan lexicographer. Bilingual dictionaries in Spanish North America 244

Fray Bernardino Sahagún was another early writer conversant with Nahuatl. He produced two dictionaries; both with the same title, Vocabulario trilingüe; Castellano, latino y mexicano. The trilingual dictionary was a thick volume of Genoese paper with semi-gothic writing. The frst word on the line is Spanish, followed by the Latin, and in red ink above the line, the Nahuatl equivalent. On the frst few leaves and the last page are corrective entries in what is presumed to be Sahagún’s handwriting. The writing in the vocabulary itself is said to be that of Martín Jacobita, one of Sahagún’s students, whose handwriting samples appear in the Codex of Santiago. The additions, corrections, and the fact that no other author wrote a trilingual vocabulary lend support to the belief that this particular manuscript was that of Sahagún himself. P. Horacio Carochi, an outstanding linguist, produced a Nahuatl grammar in 1645 and also quite a complete dictionary of Nahuatl which included roots, derivations, and etymology. The Jesuit father Lorenzo Hervás y Panduro is called by some the father of American descriptive linguistics. His work with various languages included studies in Nahuatl, Cochimí, Cora, Maya, Opata, Otomí, Pima, Piñalena, Tarahumara, Tarascan (Purepecha), Tequima, Timuacas, Totonac, Tubar, and Yaqui. B.2.2. Otomí Probably the honor of publishing the frst Spanish-Otomí dictionary belongs to P. Fernando Gómez, 1562-1610. This dictionary was referred to as the Copioso diccionario de la difcilísima lengua otomí. Gómez was an African who had entered upon missionary work in the New World under the auspices of the Jesuits. Unfortunately, nothing has been preserved of his work. Juan de Dios Castro and Sebastián Ribero are also said to have published Otomí dictionaries but no trace remains of either work. D. Luis de Neve y Molina published Reglas de orthografía, diccionario y arte del idioma otomí in 1767. This work included rules for an orthography and a grammar, as well as the dictionary itself. In 1863, another work was printed which had been done by this same author. In the national library of Santiago, Chile, there is a work published in 1763 by Anto- nio de Agreda, entitled Arte breve para aprender con alguna facilidad la difcultosa lengua otomí, which contains, among other topics, grammatical rules, doctrine, the administration of the sacraments, and a vocabulary. Probably the most outstanding work done on Otomí by the Jesuit scholars who worked in that area was done by Horacio Carochi. He published a vocabulary and a grammar, both of which are said to be in the Colegio de Tepotzotlán, but other scholars feel that these works have been lost. They included roots, etymology, derivation of words, and usages. B.2.3. Tarascan Maturino Gilberti, a French Franciscan friar, came to Mexico in 1542 and worked with the Tarascans in Michoacán. He published primers, a “Christian doctrine,” and in 1559, an extensive dictionary called Diccionario de la lengua tarasca ó de Michoacán. No doubt the author worked with Vasco de Quiroga, the great Spanish educator of indigenous people, as the dictionary was dedicated to him. It was published as a facsimile under the direction of Dr. Antonio Peñafel in 1901, since there was no complete extant copy of the original. The sixteenth century spelling and type styles were retained. The Tarascan-Spanish section contains some 6,000 to 6,500 words and the Spanish-Tarascan section perhaps 12,000 or more entries, some of which are phrases with considerable duplication of actual words. There is a grammatical section which 245 Northern groups discusses verb roots, compounds, etc. It is difcult to imagine the struggle it must have been for some of these early authors to produce such complete works without the beneft of the science of descriptive linguistics which in our day is able to provide an orientation to some of the distinctive features of non-European languages. Another author of a Tarascan dictionary and grammar was Juan Baptista de Lagunas, whose work was published in 1574. He is said to have followed the style of Ambrosio Calepino. No other works by this author are known and there remains no knowledge of his biography either. Later a Jesuit, P. Tomás Chacón, also authored a dictionary in the Tarascan language. B.2.4. Northern groups In the western and northwestern section of Mexico quite a substantial amount of linguistic work and dictionary compilation was done by the Jesuits. In 1732, P. José Ortega published his Vocabulario en lengua castellana y cora. He was recognized as an authority on Cora and his work was re-edited in 1862 and 1888. In 1743, P. Benito Rinaldini, also a Jesuit, published a work entitled Arte de la lengua tepehuana con vocabulario, confesionario y catecismo. This was an extensive work but it was not the only work in that language. The author of an article on the linguistic accomplishments of the Jesuits (Anon. 1927) states that P. Juan Fonte had worked with that language and written something of a dictionary, grammar, and catechism, but nothing was published before his death in 1616. His successor, Jerónimo Figueroa (1604-1672), spent forty years among the northern tribes and wrote a work entitled Vocabulario copioso de la lengua tepehuana y tarahumara. Farther north, a Vocabulario de las lenguas eudeve, pima y seris has been attributed to Adámo Gilg (1653-7); no copy has been found. Padre Eusebio Kino (1644-1711) worked with the Pima people for the last thirty-fve years of his life and produced a Vocabulario de la lengua pima for the beneft of his companions and successors. P. Jacobo Sedelmayr (1703-1779) is said to have compiled a Pima vocabulary, of which nothing remains. A Yaqui grammar and vocabulary have been attributed to Tomás Basilio, who worked among the Yaqui from 1617 to 1654. A book entitled Arte de la lengua cahita simply states that it was written by a Jesuit father, although later scholars have attributed it to Juan B. de Velasco. It was reprinted in 1890 and edited by Eustaquio Buelna. The author claims to have included grammatical rules and a vocabulary of Yaqui and Mayo in the state of Sonora, and also of the Tehueco variety in that same linguistic group used in the valley of the Rio del Fuerte in Sinaloa. The work also contains a catechism and statement of doctrine by another priest of the same order. In the Buelna edition, there is quite a lengthy history of the area and the largest part of the book is composed of a fairly complete grammar. There may be 2,500 words in the vocabulary but apparently no distinction is made between words from diferent areas or any indication given as to which items represent a given dialect. A Cahita-Spanish section was added by a later editor and compiled from the entries of the frst section. The early friars worked in the farthest corners of the empire of New Spain. Juan Rogel (1528-1618) is credited with a Vocabulario de la lengua de Carlos, Florida. It is thought that the language might have been Timuaca or Timuiquana. In the nineteenth century at least two works were published in languages of California by Franciscan friars. In 1862, Rev. F. Felipe Arroyo de la Cuesta published A vocabulary or phrase Bilingual dictionaries in Spanish North America 246 book of the Mutsun language of Alta California. Both Spanish and English editions were printed of the Vocabulary of the language of San Antonio Mission, California by Father Bonaventure Sitjar. B.2.5. Mixtec In the southern part of Mexico, a number of works were published which are worthy of consideration. There does, however, seem to have been less linguistic work done than in the northern areas. No doubt the sheer inaccessibility of some of the indigenous groups was a contributing factor. In 1593, there was published a Vocabulario en lengua misteca. Evidently several of the Dominican friars worked on the dictionary and one Fray Francisco de Alvarado was the ultimate compiler and organizer. He was the vicar of Tamaculapa, presumably in Oaxaca. Alvarado was a native of Mexico who had taken the habit of his order in 1574. The dictionary is Spanish-Mixtec and contains 204 pages in double column. Evidently, the authors had a difcult time with the tone, accent, stress, and nasalized vowels of Mixtec as the following illuminating glimpse indicates: “... llega a tanto esta lengua, que no se contenta con la que nos dió naturaleza para pronunciar ...” [We were not equipped by nature to pronounce the lengths to which this language goes] (Icazbalceta 1954:412.) A 1962 edition of this dictionary edited by Jiménez Moreno also includes a vocabulary of Mixtec words and Spanish translation equivalents taken from the Arte en lengua mixteca by Fray Antonio de los Reyes. B.2.6. Zapotec At the time of the Conquest, the Zapotecs occupied a large portion of Oaxaca even as they do today. The situation seems to be a little confused regarding Zapotec vocabularies, of which there are several. The authorship of some of them is uncertain. Fray Juan de Córdoba compiled the frst and most extensive Spanish-Zapotec dictionary. He evidently had the help and approval of Zapotec experts Fray Domingo Guigelmo and Fray Juan de Villalobos. At the time Padre Burgoa wrote his detailed description of Oaxaca and its native population, Córdoba’s vocabulary was recognized as an authoritative work. Burgoa refers to Córdoba’s dictionary as a thing of wonder because it was so large and copious. The work was frst published in 1578; in 1942, a facsimile edition was put out with introduction and notes by Wigberto Jiménez Moreno. Córdoba’s work is alphabetized according to Spanish, and he includes over 12,000 entries in the actual vocabulary list. Also in 1578, Córdoba’s Arte en lengua zapoteca was published. This was the result of his study of Zapotec grammar. Juan de Córdoba was a Dominican friar who was born in 1501 in Toledo, Spain. He was a well-educated, professional soldier who later joined the Dominican religious order. From what is known of his biography, it does not seem that he could have begun to learn Zapotec before 1550. He worked with the dialect spoken around Oaxaca City, that is, Valley Zapotec. He is said to have lived in Tetícpac or Tlacuechahuaya. As a disciple of Fray Bernardo de Albuquerque, Córdoba did not initiate the study of Zapotec but received a foundation on which to build. In the edition of his dictionary edited by Jiménez Moreno, there is a bibliography and some language classifcation material. Jiménez Moreno also expresses the opinion that the dialect and the author are the same as those of the manuscript known as the “Brown photostat”. The photostat is a reproduction of a manuscript in the John Carter Brown Library in Rhode Island which bears the date 1793. The two volume work is entitled Ydioma zapoteco del valle and contains 288 folios. Those who published it in this form felt that 247 Maya it was sufciently diferent from the Córdoba work to merit publication. It is smaller than the other volume and is said to contain spelling diferences. It is alphabetized by Spanish and contains a grammatical section which is mostly composed of a discussion of verbs and their classes. There are probably at least 15,000 entries in the actual vocabulary. At the end of the work there are lists of proper names, body parts, fora and fauna, and numbers. Also included are a marriage ceremony, confessionary, and other items useful to priests. There is another Zapotec dictionary in a diferent dialect than that of Córdoba which is thought to be from a later period. It is entitled Vocabulario castellano-zapoteco and was published in 1893 at the behest of President Porfrio Díaz in order to celebrate the cuarto centenario of the discovery of America. The work contains neither grammar nor explanations of pronunciation or orthography. The ten or twelve thousand words are arranged according to Spanish, with Zapotec translations. It is thought to have originally belonged to the Dominican library in Oaxaca. No author is stated in the work itself but it has been attributed to Fray Cristóbal Agüero. B.2.7. Maya The various dialects of Yucatan Maya have been represented in a number of early dictionaries. The Brothers Minor settled in Yucatan in 1534, and one of their number, Luis de Villalpando, prepared a grammar and dictionary of the local language. Andrés de Avendaño authored one work, and later the Jesuit P. Francisco Javier Gómez prepared a vocabulary and other works on Maya. The Diccionario de motul, maya-español contains the vocabulary that has been attributed to Fray Antonio de Ciudad Real and the grammar by Fray Juan Coronel. In 1929, these two works were published in one volume. They were edited by Juan Martínez Hernández in Mérida, Yucatan and the 1929 publication contained almost a thousand pages. The editor states his purpose as one of aiding philologists and archaeologists. The Motul dictionary was compiled in a convent of the city by that name. Fray Antonio de Ciudad Real had lived in Yucatan from 1573 to 1617. The Maya-Spanish dictionary has some 15,000 or 20,000 entries. Apparently, there are illustrations of tenses for the verbs as well as the translations of basic meaning. The included grammar is the oldest Mayan grammar in existence and originally was printed in 1620. Coronel compiled and edited the works of his predecessors: Landa, Solana, Ciudad Real, and the Villalpando who founded the frst Spanish school in Yucatan. (He taught in Maya and used European phonetic symbols instead of the Maya glyphs.) The grammar section of the work encompasses about one hundred pages and includes verb conjugations, tenses, pronouns, and other grammatical material. In the nineteenth century, D. Juan Pío Pérez worked on his Diccionario de la lengua maya which was published posthumously in 1866-1877. The author is referred to in the biographical introduction as “the wise Yucatecan.” Evidently a native Yucatecan, he was a lifelong Maya student. He began work on the dictionary in 1835. In the beginning, he had the vocabulary of Padre Pedro Beltrán, one of the early friars, and some manuscripts dealing with chronology. Beltrán’s vocabulary materials and doctrinal works were hidden in an archive in Ticul until they were found in 1836 by Fray Estanislao Carrillo. They had been compiled in 1690. In 1848, the most complete work yet found was discovered in the house of a priest, D. José María Meneses, but Pérez was not permitted to copy the material. In 1855, during an illness of the priest’s, he was able to obtain access and copy this work. Pérez also lived a considerable time in Bilingual dictionaries in Spanish North America 248 the interior villages and thus gained familiarity with the Maya language of his time. The introduction mentions that it is a source of pride to Yucatecans to have their own dictionary as well as the material being a source of information for linguists. The 12,000 entries are arranged according to Maya and the work contains no grammar, pronunciation, or orthographical explanations. B.2.8. Guatemalan languages The linguistic work of the early friars also extended to Guatemala. There is a photostat edition of a work entitled Quiché-Spanish Vocabulary with an introduction by Alfred W. Tozzer which states that the original was written by an anonymous Fran- ciscan priest. The manuscript was presented to the Peabody Museum in 1916. The volume is made up of folios that present facsimile images of the handwritten original. The frst 192 folios are the Quiché-Spanish vocabulary which are followed by some folios of additions. The next twenty or so are lists of plants, colors, clothing, number system, syllogisms, fruits, trees, illnesses, and verb conjugations. There are also a few verb diagrams in the very back of the work. Also from Guatemala is the Vocabulario de la lengua mame by Fray Diego de Reynoso of the Merced order. This work was printed in 1644, and reprinted in Mexico in 1916. The reprinted edition contains notes about the Mames and their language by Alberto María Carreño. The Sociedad Mexicana de Geografía y Estadística sponsored this second printing and hoped to begin a series of similar works of which this would be the frst. The 144-page work includes a number of brief sections on the area, language classifcation, alphabet, syllable patterns, pronunciation, orthography, idioms, ono- matopoetic forms, gender, number, pronouns, and verb tenses. All of the discussions are very brief except the section on verbs, which is a little more complete. The 2,800 word vocabulary is arranged according to Spanish and usually only a one-to-one correspondence is given. Occasionally, there are two or three Mam words for a single Spanish entry but the general impression is that the areas of meanings were neglected. B.2.9. The nineteenth and twentieth centuries As has been mentioned, a large portion of the early linguistic works has been lost, despoiled, or destroyed in the turbulent political upheavals of the area. Scholars lament the loss of this linguistic treasure and feel that if all the works compiled were still extant, most languages would have at least some written vocabulary or grammar, literacy materials, and Christian publications. The greater part of the nineteenth century saw almost no linguistic work done on the part of the priests. No doubt the political situation was in great measure responsible for this lack. In more recent times there have been a few scattered dictionaries put out by Roman Catholic missionaries. In 1895, a work was published entitled La lengua tzotzil en Chiapas by Sr. Prbo. José María Sánchez. This is a very brief handbook for the primary beneft of the priests in the Tzotzil speaking area. It includes doctrinal statements, a few explanatory sermons, grammatical notes, and a brief vocabulary mostly consisting of nouns and verbs listed alphabetically by Spanish. It also includes instructions on pronunciation. Two bilingual dictionaries which have been authored by priests have appeared in Guatemala in more recent years. In 1940, Carmelo Sáenz de Santa María published the Diccionario cakchiquel-español. The author is a member of the Geographical and 249 Mískito

Historical Society of Guatemala and a professor in the Seminary of Santiago. He compiled the dictionary for the primary beneft of his students as he felt that a knowledge of aboriginal languages was useful for the educator, and especially for the priest. A second aim was to provide data useful in philological work and illustrative of the morphological laws in various indigenous languages. He says his work should not be considered defnitive, although it contains some 10,000 entries. Some of the older source materials were unavailable to Father Sáenz and he also lacked contact with the Cakchiquel community. He requests his readers to send him words used in their localities but which were omitted from his dictionary. Sáenz lists some ffteen other vocabularies and dictionaries as his sources. Most of these were Cakchiquel-Spanish, but a few were trilingual such as Quiché-Cakchiquel-Tzutuhil. He includes a short grammatical resumé with a few tables for a clearer understanding of tense. The alphabet is explained and some one hundred and ffty pronouns are listed separately in alphabetical order. The vocabulary is composed of entries from several dialects as well as text material. Several meanings are given for one word where applicable, but there is no Spanish-Cakchiquel section. Celso Narciso Teletor authored a work called Diccionario castellano-quiché y voces castellano-pocomám. It was printed in 1959. The author is a Quiché linguist and eth- nologist, a member of the Guatemala Geographic and Historical Society and a corresponding member of the Franciscan American Historical Academy in Washington. Father Teletor has published various works on civic and religious themes for the indigenous people. In his dictionary, he attempted to include words of both ancient and modern usage so the student can converse with present-day Quiché speakers and also understand the ancient literature such as El popol-vuj and El rabinal achí. His vocabulary list includes approximately 3,000 entries with no explanations in the section arranged according to Spanish. The Quiché section contains close to 5,000 entries and includes a short discussion of the parts of speech. In a later section, there are samples of Spanish- Quiché conversation and useful common words and expressions listed alphabetically. No grammar is included. B.3. National governments Although the advantages accruing to a country unifed by literacy and a common language are great, very few bilingual dictionaries have been published at the behest of national governments. There are additional ones which seem to be published by private individuals but may in fact have been sponsored by a government.

B.3.1. Mískito General Anastasio Somoza sponsored a work for the use of the Nicaraguan national guard which was titled Diccionario español, uluaska, taguaska y mískito. The 2,000 or 2,500 entries were compiled by Capitán Benjamín Argüello in 1938. The author used the Spanish infnitive form but expressed doubts that the indigenous forms actually corresponded to the infnitive. No doubt his qualms were well justifed. His explanations are extremely brief, although he does list negatives separately, as well as a few particles, prepositions, and adverbs. All grammatical classifcations are based on semantic categories found in European languages. His work is for the convenience of the national soldier who for one reason or another has interaction with monolingual speakers of these languages. The polyglot publication makes no claim to being an educational tool for the beneft of the indigenous people. Bilingual dictionaries in Spanish North America 250 B.3.2. Navajo Contacts between the Navajos and the Spaniards or Mexicans extended over a period of two and a quarter centuries. Nevertheless, the Spanish-speaking immigrants never learned Navajo; perhaps the friars had no chance to tackle the project since the Spaniards were unable to formally subdue the tribe. The frst tentative vocabularies of Navajo were compiled at the instigation of the United States government through personnel of the army or Indian agencies. The Franciscans entered the reservation in 1898 and published an ethnological dictionary in 1910 and a two volume Vocabulary of the Navajo language (English-Navajo and the reverse) in 1912. In 1937, there began a collaboration between Robert Young and a Navajo speaker, William Morgan, at Fort Wingate, where both were involved in a bilingual education program. By the beginning of World War II, they had made a good beginning on a bilingual dictionary and grammar sketch with a guide to the verbal infectional system. As Navajos entered the armed forces and the labor market outside of the reservation during the war, a bilingual dictionary became an imperative. The impetus was provided by supervisors and ofcers who needed to learn enough Navajo to communicate with their new subordinates. Young and Morgan, therefore, brought together the data they had on hand and published The Navaho language in 1943. The book was printed by the Education Division of the United States Indian Service. In spite of their feeling that publication at that time was precipitous, the dictionary remained the best published one for Navajo until the same authors brought out their expanded work in 1980 (see B.6.6). Young’s description of the frst publication follows (Young & Morgan 1943:prologue, npn.):

The work presented herewith is composed of three parts, an outline of Navaho grammar, a Navaho-English vocabulary, and an English-Navaho vocabulary. The various parts of speech have been described along the lines dictated by the language itself, rather than along the conventional lines of English grammatical description, for the two languages have little in common. For the convenience of the White student the fundamental infectional forms have been given for all Navaho verbs contained in the dictionary, while the principal parts of the English verbs have been given for the use of the Navaho in learning English. The grammatical section included a description of every observed Navajo sound with an example and either a phonetic description or an English equivalent. The grammar, written in a blend of scientifc and popular language, described the Navajo structure under its major word classes: noun, pronoun, verb, particle including adverb, numeral, and conjunction. The authors aimed their publication toward the government school teacher as well as the Navajo learning English. Their emphasis was on helping the person without the technical background necessary to understand the linguistic journals. Copious illustrations of every point of theory from the language itself were included. Numerous infectional forms (including verb tenses) and the derivatives were included under the main entries for stem sets. Many of the 3,500 entries included sense discriminations and minor variations in meaning. For example, there are nineteen diferent descriptions and meanings listed under foat—to foat rapidly, begin to foat, get caught in the weeds, etc. Even though derived forms were listed as subentries under the stem sets, and paradigms were provided for the subentries, users had difculty isolating the stems and locating them in the alphabetical listing. Thus, what had theoretically been a format well 251 Nahuatl adapted to Navajo, was not as useful in practice as had been anticipated. There were no illustrative sentences in the dictionary although the subentries were defned. To remedy the lack of contextual and collocational cues that illustrative sentences would have provided, an expansion of the dictionary was proposed. In 1950, the authors published the Vocabulary of colloquial Navajo as a supplement to The Navaho language. Their intention was to combine and expand the two publications; a goal that was not to be realized for another quarter century (See B.6.6). B.3.3. Tzotzil In 1975, The great Tzotzil dictionary of San Lorenzo Zinacantán was published by the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, D.C. The second language is English and the author expresses the hope that someday an educated Zinacanteco will continue the project by putting the Tzotzil material into Spanish. Robert M. Laughlin invested fourteen years in the compilation of this dictionary and also enlisted the help of experts in the various biological specialties, other anthropologists, especially those connected with the Harvard Chiapas Project, and scientists who were able to supply the technology necessary to process the mass of data by computer. All hypothetically possible CVC roots using Tzotzil phonemes were tested for authenticity and productivity. There was a major emphasis on the ethnobiological classifcation system and over 3,000 specimens were collected, identifed, and recorded with scientifc nomenclature. In the back of the book there is a section which lists alphabetically by genus all of these specimens with their Tzotzil names. Grammatical identifcation is provided for all entries and there is a brief discussion of Tzotzil grammar and the organization of the dictionary. The author developed a system of including ethnographic information with many of the entries, and such information, although succinct, qualifes this dictionary as one of the very few truly ethnographic dictionaries examined in this study. B.4. Works by individual scholars Linguists, philologists, and other individuals have produced bilingual dictionaries as products of their personal research. Some of these are very complete, some mediocre, and others of varying merits.

B.4.1. Nahuatl One of the few nineteenth century dictionaries published on Mexican languages was that done by Rémi Siméon. Siméon was a French scholar who had come to Mexico as part of Maximilian’s entourage. He specialized in the pre-hispanic languages and cultures. Siméon compiled a unidirectional Nahuatl-Spanish dictionary using as a base the work of Alonso de Molina done three hundred years previously. He consulted both of Molina’s dictionaries, although his own work did not include the Spanish-Nahuatl listings. One especially nice feature of Siméon’s dictionary is the listing of the roots from which the entry words were derived. This feature occurs at the end of the appropriate dictionary articles. A grammatical sketch is included, which generally follows a Latin model, except when the structure of the Nahuatl demands deviation from it. For example, Siméon discusses postpositions since these function words follow, rather than precede, their respective objects. Causatives and benefactives are recognized as types of verbs and discussed with his own terminology and labels. Bilingual dictionaries in Spanish North America 252

Included is a fairly complete discussion of works published in or about Nahuatl from the earliest colonial period to the nineteenth century. The frst Spanish edition of Siméon’s work was published in 1977, Josefna Oliva de Coll having done the Spanish translation. The 1981 edition is a very attractive volume published in a typographically clear format and style. B.4.2. Tarahumara One of the most complete dictionaries is the Tarahumara-English, English-Tarahumara Dictionary with an introduction to Tarahumara grammar by I. Thord-Gray. This 1,170 page work, published in 1955, is ofered to students in an efort to preserve a language which otherwise might be lost to posterity. The author feels such rapid changes are taking place that in a few years it will be hard to distinguish the old from the new in Tarahumara country. Thord-Gray’s introduction includes a brief history and listing of culture traits of the people who call themselves Raramuri, Tarahumara being the Spanish term. The author's discussion of local beliefs and customs is brief but very pertinent. He includes pronunciation helps and an explanation of the orthography. There is quite a complete grammatical description in reasonably non-technical language. He also includes a discussion of the number system. The Tarahumara-English section also lists many Spanish equivalents. There is a rather complete defnition and description of a number of the words, including numerous cultural usages. For example, multiple uses of the word patio are given, beyond its main use as a dance place. A rosario is defned as a rosary, something used as an amulet, an ornament, and an item used during festas. There is an explanation of the Tarahumara running games. Spanish loan words are listed with the Tarahumara entries under the letter Z, since there are only Spanish and Nahuatl loans such as zopilote and zacate. There are at least 4,500 to 5,000 entries in the dictionary. Many culture traits and customs are also described under the English-Tarahumara section. For instance, under couvade, one can read not only of the father's rest during the time of the baby's birth, but also of the custom of not bathing the baby until it is a year old and the fact that it is not weaned until in its third year. Several pages of medicinal cures are listed by ailment and include what surely must be a complete list of herbs used as treatments for everything from burns to toothache. Over two hundred plants are listed alphabetically in Tarahumara and the scientifc classifcation is given, if known. The appendices include lists of particles, place names, kinship terms, anatomical terms, and a comparative English and Spanish spelling of some Tarahu- mara words. There is also a brief (less than a hundred words) comparative vocabulary including English, Tarahumara, Varohio, Yaqui, and Mayo. A short English, Sanskrit, Oceanic, and Tarahumara vocabulary is included for those interested in comparative linguistics. The work concludes with a bibliography. Due to its diverse treatment of the language, the dictionary serves as a compilation of anthropological and linguistic data, not simply as a list of vocabulary. B.4.3. Totonac Celestino Patiño arranged a Vocabulario totonaco. This brief work was printed in Veracruz in 1907. The vocabulary lists are Español-totonaco de Papantla with occasional references to the dialect of the Sierra. He includes a pronunciation guide and examples of verb conjugations. The vocabulary itself is divided into lists of eight or nine hundred nouns, pronouns, numbers, a couple hundred verbs, adverbs, and prepositions. Most of these are repeated alphabetically in Totonac in the second half of the dictionary. 253 Mískito

It appears that this author has imposed a system of European classifcation upon a non-Indo-European language. B.4.4. Chinantec Bernard Bevan makes reference to a work entitled Diccionario y diálogos, castellaño y chinanteco by A. Boucara which represents the Lalana dialect and was printed in 1860. Of the forty-three pages, fourteen are phrases and the rest contain vocabulary correspondences in Chinantec, Spanish, and French. Bevan states that photostats of this work are in the Peabody Museum, Johns Hopkins, and in Tulane, but that the location of the original is unknown. B.4.5. Ixcatec The Diccionario ixcateco by María Teresa Fernández de Miranda grew out of her work on the phonemic analysis of this language. Her purpose in publishing the dictionary was to preserve the vocabulary which she had collected during the course of her work on the other project. However, she does include paradigms of approximately 300 verbs and possession paradigms of the same number of nouns. Very few illustrative sentences are included, although some exemplary phrases and examples of usage are given, especially in an appendix of conversational expressions. There are also several texts with accompanying brief analyses. The Ixcatec area is heavily bilingual and, as a result, a number of loan words appear in normal Ixcatec speech. Only the most common and assimilated loan words are included in the main vocabulary listing; a list of others occurring in more specialized contexts or in text is appended to the main body of the dictionary. Since Ixcatec probably will not be a viable language in the future, such a publication contributes greatly to a knowledge of Mexico’s languages from a historical perspective. B.4.6. Mískito Diccionario mískito-español, español-mískito by C. R. Heath and W. G. Marx is a relatively recent publication of merit and was printed in Honduras. The cover of the book proclaims its educational aim by describing it as an “obra dedicada al proyecto civilizador de enseñar al castellaño a la raza de indígenas que vive más allá del Río Ne- gro, en la Mosquitia, Honduras” [a work dedicated to the project of civilizing through teaching Spanish to the indigenous group living beyond the Rio Negro in the Mosquitia, Honduras]. The aim is to incorporate the Mískitos into the national culture by teaching them the language of wider communication since they were previously monolingual. The authors use a practical alphabet to conform to other works in the language such as Scripture translations. It is the most complete Mískito work to date. For the Spanish- Mískito listings, they began with 1,500 of the most common Spanish words and other words common to Mískito culture, a jungle culture. The vocabulary list was sufcient to give the indigenous person a good start towards acquiring the national language. There is no formal grammar section but there is an appendix of verb afxes and their meanings. Internal verb changes are mentioned but not discussed. There are perhaps six or seven thousand entries in the Mískito-Spanish section and possibly three thousand in the Spanish-Mískito section. Bilingual dictionaries in Spanish North America 254 B.4.7. Puerto Rican Along a slightly diferent line, Augusto Malaret has published an analysis of the speech of Puerto Rico entitled Vocabulario de Puerto Rico. In this work the author identifes the Spanish words listed in the Espasa Calpé dictionary and distinguishes them from those strictly belonging to New World Spanish. His entries are defned in Spanish. The dictionary is bilingual only in the sense that it explains in Spanish those Spanish vocabulary items indigenous to another geographical area. Malaret discusses the phonetic and dialectical diferences, the development of Spanish in Puerto Rico, the archaic forms, and included text material of both the folklore and sentence types. His actual vocabulary list included 3,000 to 3,500 entries. These are provided with defnitions and often examples in context. B.4.8. Aztequismos A unique work is that of Dr. Cecilio A. Robelo, Diccionario de aztequismos. The author was director of the National Museum of Archaeology and also compiled a dictionary of Nahuatl mythology. It is evident that he was a very learned and scholarly worker in the felds of Nahuatl studies and philology. His more than 2,000 entries are divided into lessons according to word roots, derivation, infection, etc . Since many Nahuatl words have been incorporated into Mexican Spanish and are used without conscious thought that their source is not Castellano, the author highlights borrowed words. This valuable work is useful to the philologist, historian, teacher, and to the compiler of bilingual dictionaries. Robelo, who is famed for his grammatical studies on Nahuatl, wanted his dictionary to follow the example set in other countries of including local variations of the language of wider communication such as English or Spanish. Some of these works have been referred to as national dictionaries; this work can be considered a supplement to the Spanish dictionaries and a beginning on a diccionario nacional for Mexico. Robelo includes many plant names with their Latin terminology since there is no Spanish name for the items. He also discusses the names of many towns and their Nahuatl meanings. The lessons contain words built of of a single stem with their derivation and defnition, place names, notes, quotes, or explanations of legends. B.4.9. Mexican Spanish A considerable distance on the road to the national dictionary desired by Robelo was covered with the publication of Diccionario de mejicanismos by Francisco J. Santamaría in 1959. This is a 1,197 page work of Mexican Spanish and includes place names, loan words from local languages, fora and fauna, and many other items which cannot be found in the standard Spanish dictionary. The author also includes some of the standard entries found in any good Spanish dictionary but with particularly Mexican defnitions or shades of meaning. Regional terms are included and so identifed. For example, an entry might state that it is used locally in Tabasco. A dictionary of Mexican Spanish has been compiled under the direction of Dr. Luis Fernando Lara Ramos. The project has tapped the resources and technology of the Colegio de México in the felds of lexicography and computational linguistics. A special efort was made to include lexical entries from rural Mexico as well as the current vocabulary of the cities. A dictionary of basic Mexican Spanish suitable for use in elementary schools became available in 1982 and a larger edition appeared later, now also able to be consulted on-line at http://dem.colmex.mx. 255 Summer Institute of Linguistics B.4.10. Glyphs In recent years, tremendous strides have been made in the analysis of the Mayan hieroglyphic system. Much of what has been written relates the glyphs on the stelae to the historical and genealogical records of the Mayan people. There are, however, a couple of recent publications which provide basic information on the meanings of the various glyphic elements. In 1962, J. Eric S. Thompson published A catalogue of Maya hieroglyphs. Naturally, there are diferences of interpretation on the specifc meanings of some of the glyphs, but this particular book systematically sets forth the various elements of the Mayan system of writing in such a way that it is possible to have a key to possible identifcations. A number of the more recent developments in understanding the hieroglyphic system are in David Kelley’s 1976 book Deciphering the Maya script. Although this book includes most of the pertinent developments in the study of the hieroglyphics up to that time, there has been a veritable explosion of knowledge in this area in the last few years. B.4.11. The Swadesh analytical dictionaries Around 1965, Morris Swadesh and his collaborators and students began publication of a series, each volume of which is devoted to the basic lexical components of one Mexican indigenous language. These books are titled Elementos del tarasco antiguo, ... mixteco antiguo, ... mexicano clásico, or some similar title. A detailed listing will be found in the bibliography. Each includes a grammatical sketch of the language and a glossary alphabetized according to roots with words sharing the same root arranged in the same location. There is also a Spanish index listed paragraph style in the back of the books. The series, naturally, is of greatest use to linguistic scholars and historians. B.5. Summer Institute of Linguistics Members of the Summer Institute of Linguistics began linguistic research in Mexico in 1935, and in Guatemala in 1952. Between 1948 and 1951, a number of vocabulary lists were put on microflm at the request of Norman McQuown, and now form part of the archives of the University of Chicago. These were not printed for distribution in Mexico at that time, although in some cases, the material was included in later published works. Most of the early published vocabularies were without accompanying grammatical statements. Since 1959 there has been an attempt on the part of the Institute in Mexico to publish the bilingual dictionaries in a uniform size, standard format, and with a minimum (approximately 1,500) number of entries in each section. This series is known as the Serie de vocabularios indígenas Mariano Silva y Aceves. Each of these vocabularies contains two sections, vernacular-Spanish and Spanish-vernacular. They also contain a grammatical statement, pronunciation guide, and explanation of the orthography. In recent years, a number of the dictionaries have been patterned after the model described in this book, and a few have grown in size to something approximating 5,000 entries on each side. With one exception, these books are designed to beneft the speakers of a still viable language as well as linguistic scholars. The exception is the (1981) Diccionario popoluca de Oluta, which was compiled by Lawrence Clark as a contribution to the academic world and linguistic science, since there are only a very few speakers of the language still alive. A current bibliography and listing of the dictionaries in the series is available from http://www.mexico.sil.org/publications/i-vimsa. Bilingual dictionaries in Spanish North America 256

Several dictionaries have also been published for the languages of Guatemala, including Pocomchí. More recently, a dictionary for Copán Maya has appeared and an extensive one for Quiché. B.6. Other notes

B.6.1. Zapotec Eustaquio Jiménez Girón, who is a native speaker of Isthmus Zapotec, has published his hand-written Zapotec-Spanish dictionary as a work dedicated to preserving the Zapotec language of that region in its classical form (Jiménez Girón 1980). He includes as much of the derivation, ancient usage, and etymology of the words as possible. There are over 4,700 entries in Zapotec, some of which are various infected forms of one root. All entries are translated in Spanish and include additional informative material in many instances. Some of the derivational and historical notations are interesting reading even for the browser. The author wrote the whole work in a very careful and precise script, and it was commercially reproduced in such a way as to give the impression of a clear photocopy of the original manuscript. B.6.2. Tarascan Another recent dictionary authored by a native speaker of the language is that done for the Tarascan language (now known as Purepecha) of Michoacán. Pablo Velásquez Gallardo (1978) entitled his work Diccionario de la lengua phorhepecha-español: español- phorhepecha. His purpose was to record for his compatriots and for posterity the language which he had spoken as a child. The book is modestly priced and so should be afordable by people who are actually speakers of the language. His solution to the problem of lack of Spanish terminology for the fora and fauna was to put the scientifc nomenclature in as the basic entry word which may or may not be followed by a brief description of the item and its use by the people. For example: “Baccharis conferta H.B.K.” (planta que se usa para barrer en la región del lago de Pátzcuaro, como medicina y como antidoto del veneno de víbora) kharhátakua [a plant used in the Lake Pátzcuaro region as a broom, as medicine, and as an antidote for snake bite] (p. 23) B.6.3. Tojolobal In 1979, Carlos Lenkersdorf published volume 1 of the Diccionario tojolabal-español. It is composed of a Tojolobal-Spanish listing of the vocabulary of this Mayan language of Chiapas. His declared purpose is to provide a dictionary for the Tojolobals which will meet their needs and which was compiled at their request. For most main entries, he provides one or more Spanish translation equivalents and a number of phrases or sentences showing the word in context. These are not arranged according to sense discriminations, although, of course, it is possible for the reader to compile his own list of sense discriminations on the basis of the contextual evidence given with the examples. The author's political orientation and his view of the Tojolobals as a people oppressed throughout much of their history becomes apparent in the illustrative material, as well as being expressly stated in the introductory section. 257 Navajo

The Spanish-Tojolobal listing was published in 1982. Numerous Spanish entries are virtually defned in Tojolobal, having no single-word translations in the vernacular. Many of the illustrations are infectional variants of a given root. B.6.4. Maya The new Diccionario maya Cordemex is one of the most impressive bilingual dictionaries available. The project was under the direction of Alfredo Barrera Vásquez and fnanced by the Cordemex Henequen company. As well as consulting present-day speakers of Yucatec Maya, the colonial dictionaries were used as sources. Each translation equivalent or sense discrimination is coded as to source if it originated in one of the historical dictionaries. There are around a thousand pages of Mayan entries, as well as an inverted index giving basic entry and page number for the Spanish translation equivalents. Scientifc terminology is included for fora and fauna where possible, and there is some ethnographic material. Dialect variants and derivatives are listed in the same article as the headword or basic form. This monumental work is beautifully bound and printed and is an outstanding contribution to the literature available on the Mayan language. B.6.5. Tarahumara Culminating 35 years among the Tarahumaras, in 1980 Father David Brambila published a Tarahumara-Spanish dictionary entitled Diccionario raramuri-castellano. In the tradition of the colonial friars, the dictionary represents a lifetime association with the speakers of an indigenous language. Although not a professional linguist, Bram- bila includes a grammatical sketch of the language, and, in fact, is the author of a previously published Tarahumara grammar. He disclaims a technical framework for the grammar but does use a number of terms more familiar to linguists than to the layman. The illustrative sentences or phrases are taken from conversations and text. Many of them are sentence fragments or are composed of conversations more extensive than one sentence. Numerous illustrations are religiously oriented but not ofensively so. Sense discriminations are distinguished from synonyms, and there is an extensive cross-referencing system for the verb forms. Lists of derivatives are included in the basic entries for the word stems. An unusual feature of the book is its three-color printing: black ink for the Tarahumara entries and subsidiary forms; red for the Span- ish translation equivalents, and blue for grammatical or semantic comments. There is no Spanish index to the dictionary. Some dialect variants are included, and there is some ecological and ethnographical material related to various species of fora and fauna. B.6.6. Navajo In 1980, Robert Young and William Morgan reached the apex of a distinguished career as collaborators in the feld of Navajo lexicography when the University of New Mexico published The Navajo language: A grammar and colloquial dictionary. The project was made possible by a grant from the National Endowment for the Humanities. Some of the techniques the authors developed for presenting and describing an agglutinative language will no doubt be copied and adapted by other compilers of bilingual dictionaries for generations to come. Compiled for educational purposes, the dictionary is aimed towards students and teachers of both of the languages involved. The grammar is written in a popular style, and the unusually wide range of examples for every point Bilingual dictionaries in Spanish North America 258 is designed to provide the raw material for a series of graded texts useful in teaching Navajo to non-speakers of the language. The lexicon includes entries from specialized felds such as ceremonial rituals and the fora and fauna of the southwest. However, the emphasis was on including lexical entries characteristic of the everyday life of the Navajo people. Although incorporating all of the previous lexical works for Navajo, the authors maintain that, although extensive, their vocabulary listings are not exhaustive. An exhaustive listing cannot be compiled until a body of literature is generated by Navajo writers as a resource for future lexicographical works. The new entries previously unlisted in any dictionary were obtained, in large measure, from the application of derivational afxes to other stems by the process of analogy. Because of the difculty in isolating a skeleton stem experienced by users of the previous Navajo dictionary, a more expanded and repetitive format was developed. In accordance with the tradition of listing full words as dictionary entries, the frst person singular form of each mode was listed. This was followed by the stem classifers and the defnition and illustrative sentences. Other modes followed, also in a frst person form. Finally, the stem, general defnitions, and identifcation of the derivational or thematic prefxes were included. Paradigms were provided and cross-referenced from the entries by the inclusion of page numbers indicating where tables could be found detailing the more complicated paradigmatic patterns. Semantic boundaries between Navajo and English are only approximate because of the radical diferences in the morphology of the two languages. Therefore, illustrative sentences are abundant and detail virtually every nuance of meaning for the main entries. The authors’ rationale for their dependence upon illustrative sentences to carry semantic content follows (1980):

Consequently, an equivalent in one context may not be acceptable in another, or the closest equivalent in one language, may include facets of meaning that are omitted in the other. Peculiarities of these types can be explained to a degree in terms of general defnitions, but the addition of examples portraying usage in meaningful contexts can be especially helpful to the learner of one or the other of the languages. The illustrative sentences and the etymological information refect the Navajo of today after the synthesis and intertwining of traditional thought patterns and new technology. This synthesis is the result of several hundred years of exposure to Western culture and the consequent changes in Navajo culture. Scientifc nomenclature is included for much of the fora and the larger species of the fauna found in the southwestern United States. An appendix lists the traditional personal or secret names of the Navajo along with sobriquets applied to outsiders, e.g., “He smells his mustache,” referring to Adolf Hitler. The grammar description, in keeping with its popular style, uses traditional English terminology as much as possible. Heroic measures were taken to classify and record all of the afxes of this complex agglutinative language. As the authors point out (1980): 259 Concluding evaluation

The Navajo verb has little in common with the corresponding word class in a language such as English, for the Navajo verb not only expresses an action or event, but it is capable, as well, of incorporating all of the elements associated with a complete sentence in English. Consequently, the grammar includes long lists of prefxes which may occur in any of the various positions. All are semantically and grammatically identifed and described. There are also lists of examples for all of the stem types. An appendix to the grammar lists all of the derivational prefxes (simple and compound) that occur in the dictionary, as well as an index to all of the verb themes listed by stem set. There is also a tabular presentation of many representative nouns together with their appropriate classifcatory stems, and possible afxes. The authors of this dictionary seem to have performed the almost impossible feat of meeting the needs of the academic scholar or linguist, the bilingual school teacher or student, and the curious browser—all between the covers of one book. B.7. Concluding evaluation Eugene Nida (1958) lists several types of dictionaries which have been compiled in the past. Beyond the short commercial type there are the following:

1. A list of words with identifying translation equivalents; 2. A list of words with more or less full treatment of the types of occurrences drawn from text material; 3. A list of words with fairly exhaustive treatment of the kinds of cultural contexts in which the word may occur; that is, an ethnolinguistic dictionary.

Of the dictionaries examined in this project, probably only Thord-Gray’s English-Tara- humara dictionary, Robert Laughlin’s Tzotzil dictionary, and the 1980 Young and Mor- gan Navajo dictionary, would measure up to the third class listed above. The Cordemex Maya dictionary contains some ethnographic material and is noteworthy for providing linguistic context and examples of usage for its entries. The other publications range from the second class to commercial class. Nida further lays down three fundamental propositions of bilingual dictionary making:

1. No word ever has exactly the same meaning in two diferent utterances. 2. No complete synonyms exist in a language. 3. There is no exact correspondence between any two words in diferent languages.

This third principle has often been violated, apparently, as some of the dictionaries seem very oversimplifed and, for ninety per cent of the entries, give only a one-to-one correspondence or translation for the item. Language and culture are interwoven, and there are defnite correlations between them. The vocabulary relating to a focus of the culture is more exhaustive than that of the nonlocal features. That is, the extent of the vocabulary relating to any phase is proportionate to the cultural relevance. A culture may have a large “cattle” or “corn” vocabulary if these are the essence of physical life and yet have a very meager vocabulary in terms of gadgets necessary to Western civilization. Failure to ascertain the important areas of the culture has led many would-be analysts to proclaim the paucity Bilingual dictionaries in Spanish North America 260 of words in the language. Many dictionaries prepared by outsiders omit a high percentage of the foci words. Admittedly, such items are hard to elicit and harder to describe. Idioms are often overlooked; they are difcult to alphabetize and are often erroneously considered transitory slang. The feld of meaning must be explored in order to determine the specifc area of meaning of semantically related terms. C Basic vocabulary of Mexican Spanish

The following table provides three types of help to the dictionary compiler. The frst column is a list of 3200 basic Spanish words. It can be used both as starter list to elicit the corresponding words or phrases in the indigenous language, and as a checklist to see whether most of the words normally included in a dictionary are covered. Furthermore, since they are all single Spanish words in their basic form, they can serve as headwords in the Spanish index (see chapter §15). The second column gives a composite grammatical category for each Spanish word which can be used in the corresponding entries in Spanish index.1 These categories correspond to Spanish usage in Mexico, and are not intended to be used on the vernacular side of the dictionary, where a diferent category should be specifed for each sense in the indigenous language (see chapter §17). This list of composite categories is suggestive, not defnitive.The Mexico Branch Spanish Editing department is the fnal authority on what categories are acceptable in publications by branch members. The third column gives the corresponding American English equivalents for the Span- ish words. This list is neither defnitive nor exhaustive, nor does it directly correspond to the summary categories. Rather, it is meant to illustrate the range of meaning for each Spanish word, from literal/concrete to fgurative/abstract. If the corresponding Spanish words are used as translation equivalents for indigenous language words, they will likely need to be qualifed with synonymous equivalents or qualifying comments to specify the exact sense (see chapters §10 and §11).

Spanish Category English a prep. to; at; into; upon; by; on; for abajo adv. down; below, under; downwards abandonar v. t., prnl. abandon, neglect; concede, yield abanicar v. t., prnl. fan; incite, taunt abarcar v. t. cover, include, span; surround; embrace abeja f. bee abejorro m. bumblebee abierto adj. open; receptive, amenable; frank ablandar v. t., prnl. soften; tenderize; diminish abofetear v. t. slap, smack abono m. fertilizer, compost; installment abortar v. t., v. i. abort, cut short; miscarry abrazar v. t., prnl. hug, hold, embrace; adopt, espouse

1In FLEx, they should be entered in Lists > Reversal Index Categories. 261 Basic vocabulary of Mexican Spanish 262 abrazo m. hug, embrace abrigo m. overcoat; shelter; haven abrir v. t., v. i., open; unfold; turn on prnl. abrochar v. t. button, fasten, zip absoluto adj. absolute, complete absorber v. t. absorb; consume; take up abstenerse prnl. abstain/refrain from; refuse abuela f. grandmother; elderly woman; female ancestor abuelo m. grandfather; elderly man; male ancestor aburrido adj. boring, tedious; unenthusiastic aburrir v. t. prnl. bore; tire, annoy, irritate acá adv. over here, around here; now acabado adj. fnished, complete; exhausted, worn out acabar v. t., v. i., fnish, end; complete; get through prnl. acarrear v. t. carry, transport, haul; lead to, result in acaso adv., m. perhaps, maybe; chance, luck acción f. action; efect aceite m. oil, grease aceptar v. t. accept; admit, allow; put up with acercar v. t., prnl. approach, move closer; endear; give ride acero m. steel; blade achicar v. t. bail/scoop out; shrink ácido adj., m. acidic, sour, tart; harsh, sharp; acid acompañar v. t. , prnl. accompany, go with; share, feel aconsejar v. t. advise acordar v. t., v. i., agree to/on/with, decide; remember; remind prnl. acorralar v. t. corral; corner, trap acostar v. t., v. i., lay down; go to bed, retire; lean prnl. acostumbrado adj. accustomed/used to; usual acostumbrar v. t., v. i. get used to; become familiar with/inured to prnl. actitud f. attitude; behavior actividad f. activity; agenda actual adj. actual, current, present actuar v. i. act; perform; behave acudir v. i. resort to, turn to, come to acuerdo m. agreement, understanding; memory, remembrance acusación f. accusation, charge; prosecution acusar v. t., prnl. accuse, charge; tell on, betray; confess adecuado adj. suitable, appropriate; sufcient adelantar v. t., v. i., overtake, pass; advance; improve, progress; hurry prnl. adelante adv. forward; in front/ahead of adelgazar v. i., v. t. lose weight, slim down; make thinner además adv. besides, as well as, in addition to adentro adv. in; at; inside; indoors 263 adherir v. t., v. i. adhere to, stick to; agree with prnl. adiós interj. goodbye, farewell adivinar v. t. discern, divine, perceive; foresee, predict; guess, deduct administrar v. t., prnl. administer, manage; distribute admitir v. t. accept, admit; allow, permit adobe m. mud brick adolorido adj. in pain adoptivo adj. adoptive; adopted adorar v. t. adore, worship adornar v. t., prnl. adorn, decorate; embellish; be gifted adquirir v. t. acquire, obtain; buy, purchase; gain, achieve adulterio m. adultery advertir v. t. warn, advise; inform, notify afectar v. t. afect, alter, change; concern afeitar v. t., prnl. shave aflar v. t. sharpen, hone; get thinner afojar v. t., v. i., loosen, slacken; diminish, decrease prnl. afuera adv. out; outside agachar v. t., prnl. bow, duck; bend down, crouch down agarradera f. handle; strap, cord, grab bar agarrar v. t., v. i., grab, grip, grasp; catch, nab; take root prnl. ágata f. agate agente m. agent, representative; ofcer ágil adj. agile, nimble, fexible agitar v. t., prnl. stir, shake, beat; wave, rustle; incite, goad, arouse agonizante adj. dying; fading, dimming agonizar v. i. be dying; die down, fade, abate agotar v. t., prnl. exhaust, wear out; use up, run out; drain agradecer v. t., prnl. show gratitude, express thanks agrario adj. agrarian, rural agregar v. t., prnl. add, include; incorporate agrícola adj. agricultural, farming agricultura f. agriculture agrietar v. t., prnl. open cracks, cause splitting; chap agrio adj. sour, tart; sharp, bitter; disagreeable agrupar v. t., prnl. group together; gather, assemble; arrange, classify agua f. water aguacate m. avocado aguacero m. downpour aguantar v. t., v. i., tolerate, endure; support, hold up; suppress, hold back prnl. aguar v. t., prnl. dilute, water down; spoil, ruin agudo adj. high-pitched, piercing; sharp, intense; clever, shrewd aguijón m. stinger; thorn; stimulus, incentive; catalyst águila f. eagle aguja f. needle; spire agujerear v. t., prnl. pierce, perforate; make holes in Basic vocabulary of Mexican Spanish 264 agujero m. hole; shortfall, defcit ahí adv. there; then ahijada f. goddaughter; protégé ahijado m. godson; protégé ahogar v. t., prnl. choke; sufocate; drown; smother; overwhelm; swamp ahora adv. right now; at present; very soon ahorcar v. t., prnl. hang, strangle ahorrar v. t., v. i., save, put away; economize; spare prnl. aire m. air; wind, breeze; resemblance; look, demeanor ajeno adj. alien, foreign ; someone else’s; unconnected, unafliated ajo m. garlic ajustar v. t., prnl. ft to; tighten; adjust/adapt to ala f. wing; branch; brim alabar v. t., prnl. praise; brag alacrán m. scorpion alargar v. t., prnl. lengthen, extend albahaca f. basil albañil m. builder, constructor worker; bricklayer alborotar v. t., prnl. disrupt, unsettle, upset; stir up; agitate, incite alcanzar v. t., v. i., reach; be enough; catch up; afect; achieve prnl. alegre adj. happy, cheerful; bright; frivolous; tipsy alegría f. happiness, cheerfulness alejar v. t., prnl. move away; put of, dispel aleta f. fn, fipper; fap, blade, wing alfler m. pin algo pron., adv. something; some, little; somewhat algodón m. cotton alguacil m. court clerk; sherif, bailif alguien pron. anyone, anybody; someone, somebody alguno adj., pron. one; someone; a few/some of them aliento m. breath; vapor; inspiration alimentación f. diet, food; supply alimentar v. t., prnl. feed, nourish; fuel; foster alimento m. food, nourishment; fuel alistar v. t., prnl. prepare; enlist, enroll aliviar v. t., prnl. alleviate, relieve, sooth; get better allá adv. there, over there; back then, sometime allí adv. there; then alma f. life, soul, heart; person, individual almácigo m. copperwood, copal tree almohada f. pillow almorzar v. t., v. i. eat lunch, have mid-morning snack alquilar v. t., prnl. rent out; hire alrededor adj., adv. surrounding; around altar m. altar; pedestal alterar v. t., prnl. alter, modify, change; upset, disrupt alto adj., adv. tall; top, upper level; high-heeled altura f. height, elevation, altitude 265 alumbrar v. t., v. i., illuminate, light up; bear, give birth to; fgure out prnl. alumno m. student alzar v. t., prnl. raise, lift up, elevate; erect, put up; rise, get up amable adj. nice, kind; polite, friendly amacizar v. t., v. i. fll in, fll up; make stronger; bait amamantar v. t. nurse, suckle amanecer v. i.; m. get light; wake up; sunrise, daybreak amansar v. t., v. i., tame, break in; calm down, appease prnl. amante adj., m., f. loving; lover, mistress amar v. t. love; be passionate about amargo adj. bitter, tart; embittered amarillo adj. yellow amarrar v. t., prnl. tie up, fasten; moor; secure; catch, hook, snag amasar v. t. kneed, mix; amass ambicionar v. t. really want, covet; aspire to ambiente m. environment, atmosphere ambos adj. both amenazar v. t. threaten americano adj. American amigo, -ga m., f. friend, buddy, mate amo m. owner, master amontonado adj. heaped, piled up amontonar v. t., prnl. stack, pile, heap; accumulate, amass; jumble together amor m. love amoroso adj. loving, afectionate ampliar v. t. increase, extend, expand, enlarge amplio adj. ample, large, spacious; loose, baggy; broad, wide ampolla f. vile; blister; globe añadir v. t. add, put in analizar v. t. analyze anaranjado adj., m. orange-colored anca f. leg, thigh; haunch, rump ancestro m. ancestor ancho adj., m. wide, broad; big, large; width, breadth anchura f. width, breadth; cheek, nerve anciano, -na adj., m. elderly man/woman; elder; old andar v. i. walk; get around; be around ánfora f. amphora; hip fask ángel m. angel angosto adj. narrow ángulo m. angle, corner angustia f. anguish, distress, anxiety anillo m. ring; loop animal m. animal, beast; lunatic, fool animar v. t., prnl. encourage, cheer up; enliven, spice up; have courage ánimo m. spirits, mood; energy; encouragement año m. year anoche adv. last night; yesterday evening Basic vocabulary of Mexican Spanish 266 anochecer v. i. get/grow dark anochecer m. dusk, nightfall anona f. sweetsop, sugar apple [Annona squamosa] ante prep. before, in front of; facing, faced with; compared to anteayer adv. day before yesterday antemano adv. beforehand, in advance, prior to anteojos m. eyeglasses; binoculars; telescope antepasado adj., m. previous, before last; ancestor, forebear anterior adj. previous, prior, earlier; in front of antes adv. before, in the past; frst antiguo adj. ancient, old; former; old-fashioned antojarse prnl. fancy, have craving for; feel like, think antojo m. whim, fancy, craving antorcha f. torch; insights, fndings anual adj. annual, yearly anunciar v. t. announce; herald, forecast; advertise apacentar v. t. graze, feed apachurrar v. t., prnl. squash, smash apagado adj. of; out; extinct; mufed; listless apagar v. t., prnl. turn of; put out; quench; extinguish; dampen; calm apalear v. t. beat, cane, thrash; winnow aparato m. apparatus, equipment, device; system aparcero m. sharecropper, tenant farmer aparecer v. i., prnl. appear; show up; come out apartado adj., m. remote, isolated; away from; section, part; PO box apartar v. t., prnl. move away; separate; remove; set aside aparte adj., adv. apart, aside, separate; special, unusual apedrear v. t. stone apellido m. last name, family name, surname apenas adv. barely, hardly, scarcely; as soon as apestar v. i., v. t., stink, reek prnl. apetito m. appetite, hunger; desire apilar v. t. stack up aplacar v. t., prnl. apply, put on; use aplanar v. t., prnl. fatten/level out; grade; become lethargic aplastar v. t. crush, quash, fatten; overwhelm aplaudir v. t., v . i. applaud; approve, welcome apoderar v. t., prnl. empower, authorize; overpower, take control of apoyar v. t., prnl. support, back; lean against, rest on apreciar v. t., prnl. appreciate, esteem, value; observe; rise aprender v. t., prnl. learn; memorize apretar v. t., prnl. squeeze; tighten; press aprobar v. t. approve, pass; sanction apropiar v. t., prnl. appropriate, take over; rule, dominate aprovechar v. t., v. i., use, leverage; take advantage of, make the most of prnl. aproximada- adv. approximately, about, roughly mente 267 apuntar v. t., v. i., write/note down; indicate, point at; declare; aim prnl. apurar v. t., prnl. fnish of; use up; rush, hurry; worry aquel adj. that aquél pron. that one; the former aquí adv. here; now arado m. plow araña f. spider; chandelier arar v. t. plow árbol m. tree; mast arbusto m. shrub, bush arco m. arch; bow; goal arder v. i. burn; smart, sting; seethe ardilla f. squirrel área f. area, part, zone, region arena f. sand; arena, stadium; bladder stones arete m. earring arma f. weapon; frearm aroma m. aroma, scent, fragrance arrancar v. t., v. i. uproot, pull up; originate, start up; burst out arrastrar v. t., v. i., drag, tow, pull; infuence; lead to; bear; crawl prnl. arrear v. t., v. i. spur/urge on; rush/hurry along; sack, loot; smack, hit arreglar v. t., prnl. repair, fx; resolve, clear up; tidy up; get ready arrepentirse prnl. regret, be sorry; change one's mind; back out of arriba adv. above; higher up; aforementioned arriero, -ra m., f. mule driver; traveling merchant arriesgar v. t. risk, endanger arrimar v. t., prnl. put against, put next to; bring closer arrodillar v. t., v. i., kneel prnl. arrojar v. t., prnl. toss, throw, hurl; produce, generate, emit; vomit arrollar v. t. mow/knock down; run over; crush, destroy; dominate arroyo m. steam/brook bed; gutter arroz m. rice arruinar v. t., prnl. ruin, destroy, wreck; bankrupt artesa f. mixing trough artista m. artist; actor; singer asar v. t., prnl. roast, grill asegurar v. t., prnl. secure, insure; claim; assure, guarantee asentar v. t., prnl. secure; lay down; assume asesino adj., m. murderous, homicidal; assassin, killer asfxiar v. t., prnl. choke, strangle, sufocate; stife así adv., conj. like this/that; in this/that way asiento m. seat, chair; entry; center, base asistencia f. attendance; assistance, aid asistir v. t., v. i. attend; help asolear v. t., prnl. sun-dry, sun-cure; sunbathe asomar v. t., v. i. stick out, lean out; appear asombro m. astonishment, amazement, surprise Basic vocabulary of Mexican Spanish 268 aspecto m. looks, appearance; aspect, facet áspero adj. rough, uneven; harsh, abrupt, surly asunto m. matter, subject, issue asustadizo adj. fearful, nervous, skittish, jumpy asustar v. t., prnl. scare, frighten, startle atacar v. t. attack, tear into atajar v. t., v. i., take shortcut; contain, check; interrupt; divide; catch prnl. ataque m. attack; ft atardecer v. i.. get/grow dark atardecer m. dusk, twilight, evening atascar v. t., prnl. block, clog, plug; hold up/back, obstruct ataúd m. cofn, casket atención f. attention; service, assistance atender v. t. attend to, deal with; look after, pay attention to atinar v. i. hit target; hit upon, fnd; be able/manage to atizar v. t., prnl stir up, incite; poke, stoke; give, mete out atole m. cornfour drink atorar v. t., prnl. block, clog; stammer, stumble atrapar v. t. catch, capture; overtake atrás adv. behind, in back of; at the back; earlier, before atravesar v. t., prnl. pierce, go through; cross; experience atreverse prnl. dare; be insolent aullar v. i. howl aumentar v. t., v. i., grow, increase; enlarge, magnify, amplify; raise prnl. aumento m. increase; rise aun adv. even, including aún adv. still, yet aunque conj. although, even if, in spite of ausentarse prnl. excuse, leave; be absent, be away autoridad f. authority; control autorizar v. t. authorize, allow, permit avance m. advance, progress avanzar v. i., v. t., progress, improve; advance, move forward; draw on prnl. avaricioso adj., m. avaricious, greedy, miserly; miser avaro adj., m. miserly, stingy, cheap; miser aventar v. t., prnl. fan, blow on; winnow; throw out; slap, smack; escape avergonzar v. t., prnl. embarrass, shame; be embarrassed/ashamed averiguar v. t. discover, fgure out; fnd out, look into avión m. airplane; house martin avisar v. t. advise, warn; inform, notify; call in aviso m. advertisement, notice; warning avispa f. wasp avispero m. wasp's nest, swarm, hive; problem, mess, jam avispón m. hornet axila f. armpit, underarm ay interj. ow, ouch; oh dear, oh my ayer adv. yesterday; past, yesteryear 269 ayuda f. help, assistance, aid; grant ayudar v. t., prnl. help, assist, come to aid; support ayunar v. i. fast azote m. scourge, lash; slap, smack, spank azúcar m. sugar; glucose azul adj. blue baba f. dribble, drool, spittle, saliva; slime, slobber babear v. i., v. t. drool, dribble; slobber; become emotional baboso adj. slimy; lovestruck bagazo m. husk bailar v. i., v. t. dance; be wobbly; be blurred baile m. dance, ball bajada f. slope, descent; drainpipe, downspout bajar v. t., v. i. take down; drop, fall; get of, disembark; lower, reduce bajo adj. prep. poor, low, below par; small, short; bass bala f. bullet, cannonball; hay bale balanza f. weighing scales balazo m. bullet hole; gunshot wound balde m. bucket, pail bañar v. t., prnl. bathe, shower; soak; coat, cover banco m. bench, pew, desk; bank; shoal banda f. band, group; sash, belt; gang bandera f. fag, banner; colors baño m. bathroom, restroom; bath, swim, dip baratillo m. cheap ware, secondhand goods; secondhand shop barato adj. cheap, inexpensive; easy, simple; old barba f. beard, stubble; whalebone; chin barbechar v. t. plow for sowing barbilla f. tip of chin barbullar v. i. babble, jabber; ramble on, talk nonsense barco m. ship, boat, vessel barranca f. ravine, gully, rift barrer v. t., prnl. sweep; clear/throw out; dispel; trail barriga f. belly, paunch, gut; stomach, tummy; bulge barrio m. neighborhood; borough, quarter barro m. mud, clay; pimple barzón m. saunter, stroll base f. base; basis; rules bastante adj., adv. enough, sufcient bastar v. i., prnl. be enough, be sufcient; be capable of bastardo m. bastard, illegitimate; spurious; boa constrictor basto adj., m. coarse, rough, uneven; rude, impolite basura f. litter, trash, rubbish; garbage can; flth batea f. tray; punt; trough batir v. t., prnl. beat, pound; whip, whisk; fap; defeat baúl m. storage trunk bautizar v. t. baptize; dilute bayo adj., m. yellowish white bebé m. baby beber v. t., v. i. drink Basic vocabulary of Mexican Spanish 270 bebida f. drink, beverage becerro m. male calf, young bull; calfskin bejuco m. liana belleza f. beauty; goodness bellota f. acorn bendecir v. t. bless, sanctify; bestow favor/blessing; thank bendito adj. blessed, sacred, holy; lucky, fortunate benefcio m. beneft, blessing, proft, earnings berrinche m. tantrum, ft, conniption besar v. t., prnl. kiss; graze, brush against beso m. kiss bestia f. beast; brute animal biblioteca f. library; media center bien adv., m. well, fne; properly; really, very; property, goods; beneft bigote m. mustache, whiskers bilis f. bile; temper, bad mood bisabuela f. great-grandmother bisabuelo m. great-grandfather bisnieta f. great-granddaughter bisnieto m. great-grandson blanco adj. white; pale blando adj. soft, tender; lenient, indulgent; weak, delicate blusa f. blouse; smock boca f. mouth; entrance, exit; dependent boda f. wedding, nuptials bola f. ball; scoop; lie, fb bolsa f. bag, sack; pouch, pocket; stock market bondad f. goodness, kindness bonito adj. nice, lovely, pretty, beautiful bordar v. t., v. i. embroider; nail, ace, do excellently borde m. border, edge; rim, brink borracho adj., m. drunk, intoxicated borrar v. t., prnl. erase, remove, delete; forget, fade borrego, -ga m., f. lamb, sheep; simple-minded borroso adj. blurred, indistinct; hazy, vague boscoso adj. wooded bosque m. forest, woods bostezar v. i. yawn botado adj. generous botella f. bottle botija f. earthenware pitcher; booty botón m. button; badge; switch bozal m. muzzle bramar v. i. roar, moo, bawl, howl; bellow, shout; scream, wail bravo adj. ferce, wild; brave, valiant; rugged, rough brazada f. stroke; armful, arm’s length brazo m. arm; front leg; branch; boom, jib brillante adj. bright, shiny, sparkling; brilliant, excellent brillar v. i. shine, glitter, sparkle; stand out brincar v. t., v. i. jump, leap; hop, skip, gambol 271 brinco m. jump, leap broma f. joke, prank; business, afair; shipworm bromear v. i. joke around/about brotar v. i., v. t. sprout, bud; appear, emerge; fow, rise bruja f. witch; old hag brujería f. witchcraft, sorcery, magic brujo m. wizard, sorcerer; shaman, witchdoctor bruto adj. brutish, rude; ignorant, stupid; gross, raw bucear v. i. swim underwater, dive; delve, explore bueno adj., adv. good; fne, well buey m. ox; tame bull búho m. owl; hermit, recluse bule m. squash, gourd bulto m. package, parcel; lump, bulge burbuja f. bubble burlar v. t., prnl. evade, outsmart; overcome; mock, make fun of burro m. donkey, ass; dumb, stupid buscar v. t. look/search for, seek; look/pick up; ask for caballo m. horse; knight cabello m. hair caber v. i. ft; be possible cabestro m. tame bullock, leading ox; bully cabeza f. head; leadership; capital cable m. cable, wire, lead cabo m. tail end, ending; rope, cable; cape cabra f. goat cacalote m. raven, crow cacao m. cocoa cachetear v. t. slap cachorro m. puppy; cub cada adj. each, every; such cadáver m. corpse, cadaver; carcass cadena f. chain; series, string cadera f. hip caer v. i., prnl. fall/drop down/of; realize; fall into caja f. box; cash register; cofn cajón m. drawer; crate cal f. limestone powder calabaza f. pumpkin, squash calambre m. shock; cramp calar v. t. v. i., penetrate, infltrate; be permeable; detect, discover prnl. calcar v. t. trace, copy calcular v. t. calculate, fgure out; reckon, suppose caldo m. broth, soup stock; bouillon calentar v. t., prnl. heat/warm up; turn on; arouse; get angry calentura f. fever, temperature; cold sore; desire calidad f. quality cálido adj. warm, warm-hearted; hot caliente adj. hot; warm; brand new Basic vocabulary of Mexican Spanish 272 califcar v. t. grade, mark; designate calizo, -za adj., f. lime-flled; limestone callar v. t., prnl. silence, hush; keep quiet, shut up calle f. street, road calmar v. t., prnl. calm, pacify; calm down calor m. heat; warmth, enthusiasm calvo adj. bald, hairless; bare, barren cama f. bed camarón m. shrimp, prawn cambiar v. t., v. i., change, modify; exchange, swap; shift prnl. cambio m. change; exchange rate caminar v. i., v. t. walk camino m. way, path, road; journey, trip camión m. truck; bus camioneta f. van, light truck; bus camisa f. shirt; jacket, sleeve, lining camote m. sweet potato; bruise campo m. feld, land; pasture, meadow; camp; countryside cana adj., f. grey/white haired; grey/white hair caña f. cane, reed, rod; beer; boot leg canal m. canal, channel; gutter canasta f. basket, hamper canción f. song; same story candil m. oil lamp cangrejo m. crab; crayfsh canica f. marble, marbles canoa f. canoe; trough cansado adj. tired, exhausted, weary cansar v. t., prnl. tire, exhaust; bother, annoy cantante m., f. singer cantar v. i., v. t. sing; trill, chirp, warble; confess, own up cántaro m. jug, pitcher; jugful, pitcherful; measure, ration cantidad f. number; quantity, amount canto m. song; singing; small stone; edge; edgewise capa f. cape; layer capacidad f. capacity, ability caparazón m. carapace, shell; skeleton capaz adj. capable, able; clever capital f. capital; resources; major, gross, huge capitán m. captain capricho m. whim, caprice; craving, yen capturar v. t. capture; arrest capullo m. cocoon; bud cara f. face; front; look caracol m. snail; winkle; seashell; cochlea; sluggard, slouch; ringlet característica f. characteristic, trait, quality, feature carbón m. coal; charcoal cárcel f. prison, jail carecer v. i. lack, not have 273 carga f. load, cargo; loading; charge; fee cargar v. t., v. i., carry; load; charge; blame prnl. cargo m. position; responsibility; crime; boss caridad f. charity, donation; kindness, goodwill caries f. tooth decay/cavity cariño m. afection, care; cuddle, caress cariñoso adj. loving, afectionate carne f. meat; fesh, pulp caro adj. expensive; dear, valuable carpintero m. carpenter, woodworker; woodpecker carrera f. race; degree; career; run; journey carretera f. highway, roadway carrizo m. reed, straw; bamboo carro m. car; carriage, cart carta f. letter; menu; card; chart casa f. house; home; place; company casado adj. married casamiento m. wedding, marriage ceremony casar v. i., prnl. marry; join, connect; match cascabel m. bell, rattle; scatterbrain cascada f. cascade, waterfall; worn out, broken down cascajo m. shard, chip, fragment cáscara f. skin, peel, rind; shell casco m. helmet; bottle; hoof casero adj., m. home-made; rudimentary; homebody casi adv. almost, nearly; hardly caso m. case; fact castigar v. t. punish; cripple; afict, damage; cut, slash castigo m. punishment, penalty; burden castrar v. t. castrate, geld, neuter casualidad f. chance, coincidence catarro m. cold categoría f. category; rank, status, standing catorce adj. fourteen; fourteenth causa f. cause, reason, motive; excuse causar v. t. cause, brink about; arouse, provoke cazador adj., m. hunter cazar v. t. hunt; shoot; land; get, obtain cazuela f. cooking pot, saucepan; stew, casserole cebolla f. onion cebú m. zebu cedro m. cedar ceja f. eyebrow; tab, fap; capo celebrar v. t., prnl. celebrate; hold onto; perform celestial adj. celestial, heavenly celo m. zeal, enthusiasm; tape; estrus cena f. dinner, supper cenar v. t., v. i. dine, have/eat dinner ceñidor m. sash Basic vocabulary of Mexican Spanish 274 ceniza f. ash; ashes, remains; powdery mildew centavo m. cent central adj., f. central, main; headquarters centro m. middle, center; institute cepillar v. t., prnl. brush; plane; clean; steal, rob; kill cepillo m. brush; plane cera f. wax, beeswax, earwax; crayon cerámica adj., f. ceramic; pottery, ceramics cerca adv., f. near, close; fence, wall cercar v. t. fence, enclose; gather around; siege cerdo m. pig, hog, swine; slob cerebro m. brain; mind; judgment cereza adj., f. cherry-colored; cherry cerezo m. cherry tree; cherry wood cerillo m. match; taper cerrado adj. closed; closed-minded; timid, shy; overcast cerrar v. t., v. i., close, shut; cover, seal; block prnl. cerro m. hill; mountain; mound cesta f. basket cesto m. basket, hamper; basketball hoop chamarra f. jacket, coat chamuscar v. t., prnl. scorch, singe chango m. monkey; boy chaparro adj. short, squat chapotear v. i., v. t. splash, slosh chapulín m. grasshopper; locust charco m. puddle; pool charlar v. i. chat, talk chícharo m. pea; bean chicharra f. cicada chico, -ca adj., m., f. small, little; kid, boy, girl chifar v. i., prnl. whistle (at); boo, hiss, jeer; go crazy chile m. chili pepper chillar v. i., v. t. shout, yell; shriek, scream; screech, squeal; bawl chinche f. bedbug; pest, nuisance chino adj., m. Chinese; curly-haired chismear v. i. gossip chistoso adj. funny, amusing chivo m. kid, young goat chocar v. i. crash, collide; annoy, bother chueco adj. crooked chupar v. t., prnl. lick; sip; suck; soak/sop up; sufer, endure chuparrosa f. hummingbird cicatriz f. scar, mark ciclo m. cycle, series; period, season ciego adj., m. blind; caecum cielo m. sky, heavens; heaven; ceiling; limit ciempiés m. centipede cien adj. one hundred 275 cierto adj., adv. true; one; certainly cigarra f. cicada cigarro m. cigar, cigarette cilantro m. coriander cimiento m. foundation; basis, premise cinchar v. t. cinch; work hard cinco adj. fve; ffth cincuenta adj. ffty cinta f. ribbon, tape; movie, flm; conveyor belt cintura f. waist, waistline cinturón m. belt; sheath circular adj., f. circular; notice, memo circular v. i. travel, move around círculo m. circle circunstancia f. circumstance, situation ciruela adj., f. plum-colored; plum citar v. t. set appointment; call, arrange; quote, cite ciudad f. city, town civil adj., m., f. civil; civilian cizaña f. darnel, ryegrass clarear v. t., lighten; grow light, clear up; thin out; be transparent v. imp., prnl. claro adj. light, pale; clear, simple; thin, transparent clase f. class, kind; category, grade clasifcar v. t., prnl. sort, classify clausurar v. t. close, end; close/shut down clavado adj., m. identical; punctual; dive clavar v. t., prnl. hammer, pound; stick, stab; pin, fx; steal; dive clave adj., f. key, essential; code, password; clef clavo m. nail; clove cliente m. client, customer, guest clima m. climate, weather; air conditioner coa f. hoe cobija f. blanket, quilt; poncho; protection cobijar v. t., prnl. wrap/cover up; shelter; seek refuge cobrar v. t., v. i., collect, earn; pay; bag, shoot; develop; claim prnl. cobre adj., m. copper-colored; copper cocer v. t., v. i., cook, bake; cook up prnl. coche m. car, automobile; coach, carriage cochinilla f. cochineal; woodlouse cocina f. kitchen; stove; cuisine cocinar v. t., v. i. cook; plot, hatch cocinero, -ra m., f. cook, chef coco m. coconut; boogeyman; noggin codiciar v. t. covet, desire codo adj., m. stingy, miserly; elbow; bend, kink codorniz f. quail Basic vocabulary of Mexican Spanish 276 coger v. t., v. i., catch, apprehend; come down with; board prnl. cojear v. i. limp, hobble; wobble; be lame cojo adj., m. cripple, disabled; lame, limping cola f. tail; glue; queue, line colar v. t., prnl. strain, flter; inform, leak; bleach; seep, get through cólera m., f. anger, fury, rage; cholera colgar v. t., prnl. hang/put up; unload, post; show v. i. colibrí m. hummingbird collar m. necklace; collar; ruf; ring, washer colocar v. t., prnl. put, place; lay, hang; invest; tidy up, organize colonia f. colony; community colorear v. t., v. i. color, dye; ripen; embellish colorín m. goldfnch columna f. column, pillar; spine, backbone columpiar v. i., prnl. rock, swing columpio m. swing comadre f. godmother; close friend comadreja f. weasel comal m. griddle, hotplate combatir v. t., v. i. fght, battle, combat combinar v. t., v. i., combine, mix; match; come together; collaborate prnl. comedero adj., m. edible; trough comején m. termite comentar v. t. tell, mention; discuss, commentate comenzar v. t., v. i. begin, start, commence comer v. t., v. i., eat; use up; eat away prnl. comercial adj.. m. commercial; advertisement comercio m. shop, store; business, trade comestible adj., m. pl. edible; food, groceries cometer v. t. commit/make mistake comezón f. itch; unease cómico adj., m. comic, funny; comedian comida f. food, groceries; meal; take, capture; eat/use up comisión f. commission, committee; duty, task como adv., conj. as, like, since, if cómo adv. how; why compadecer v. t. pity, feel sorry for, sympathize with compadre m. godfather; buddy, pal compañero, m., f. companion, comrade; school-/work-playmate; partner -ra compañía f. company; frm comparar v. t., prnl. compare compartir v. t. share compasión f. sympathy, pity competir v. i. compete, rival; fght for complacer v. t., v. i. please; take pleasure in 277 complemento m. complement, accompaniment; object completamente adv. completely, totally, utterly completar v. t. complete, fnish, conclude; fll out completo adj. complete; fnished, done; total, absolute componer v. t., v. i., compose, form, make; fx, repair; decorate; be made of prnl. comprador m. buyer, purchaser; consumer, customer comprar v. t., v. i. buy, purchase; bribe comprender v. t., prnl. understand; comprise, contain comprobar v. t. confrm, verify; check, test; realize comprometer v. t., prnl. compromise, endanger; implicate, involve; promise compromiso m. agreement; commitment, engagement; predicament común adj. common, usual, ordinary; shared, communal; majority comunal adj. communal, shared comunicar v. t., prnl. communicate; inform, notify; connect comunidad f. community; region; association con prep. with; along with; despite; as much as concebir v. t., v. i. conceive, develop; understand, comprehend conceder v. t. concede, attribute; give, award, grant concentrar v. t., prnl. assemble, gather; concentrate, focus concepto m. concept, idea, notion; view conciencia f. conscience condenar v. t., prnl. condemn; sentence condición f. condition, state; requirement, term conducir v. t., v. i., drive; carry, bring; lead to; run, manage; act, behave prnl. conducta f. conduct, behavior conducto m. conduit; pipe, tube, duct; channel conectar v. t., v. i., connect up/with; plug in; get along with prnl. conejo m. rabbit; biceps confesar v. t., prnl. confess, admit; plead guilty confanza f. confdence, faith, trust; familiarity, informality confar v. i., v. t., trust, have faith/confdence; be overconfdent prnl. confrmar v. t., prnl. confrm, support; validate, prove conforme adj. in agreement, satisfed; just as confundir v. t., prnl. confuse, mix up; confound, disorient; get wrong congelar v. t., prnl. freeze; suspend; be very cold conjunto adj., m. combination, ensemble; group, grouping conmigo pron. with me conocer v. t., prnl. know; recognize; meet; be friends/acquainted with conocimiento m. consciousness; knowledge consecuencia f. consequence, result; correspondence, agreement conseguir v. t. get, obtain; reach, achieve consejo m. advice; board, council consentir v. t., v. i. allow, permit, consent; spoil; agree to, tolerate conservar v. t., prnl. preserve, maintain; keep, conserve considerar v. t. consider, evaluate, judge; think about consigo pron. with you; with him/her Basic vocabulary of Mexican Spanish 278 consistir v. i. consist in; consist of consolar v. t., prnl. console, comfort; cheer up constante adj. constant, continuous; tenacious; fxed construir v. t. construct, build, form; put up, erect consuegra f. mother-in-law of son/daughter consuegro m. father-in-law of son/daughter consultar v. t. consult, check; consult with consumir v. t., v. i., consume, use; eat, drink; burn down; use up prnl. consumo m. consumption, use contagiar v. t., prnl. give, infect, transmit; catch, contract contar v. t., v. i. count; tell, narrate, relate; have contener v. t., prnl. contain, include; control, restrain contenido adj., m. contained included; controlled, restrained; contents contentar v. t., prnl. please, satisfy, make happy; be content; settle for contento adj., m. happy, pleased, glad; happiness, pleasure contestar v. t., v. i. answer, reply; talk back; protest contigo pron. with you (familiar) continuamente adv. continually, continuously continuar v. t., v. i., continue, carry out/on prnl. contra prep. against; on contraer v. t., prnl. contract, catch; acquire, incur; shrink contrario adj. contrary, opposite; opposing, rival contratar v. t. contract, hire, employ contrato m. contract, agreement controlar v. t., prnl. control, have power over; monitor, watch convencer v. t. convince, persuade; impress, please conveniente adj. advisable, best; convenient; good, fair convenir v. t., v. i. be advisable; agree to; convene conversar v. i. converse, talk, chat; discuss convertir v. t., prnl. convert, change, transform; make/turn into; become convidar v. t. , prnl. invite convivio m. banquet, feast; reception cónyuge m. spouse; husband, wife copa f. glass, cup; drink; crown, top copal m. copal tree; resin coralillo m. coral snake corazón m. heart; core, center; middle fnger cordillera f. mountain range/chain cornear v. t. gore corona f. crown; wreath, garland corral m. corral, pen; farmyard correa f. belt; band, strap; leash, lead correcaminos m. roadrunner corredor m. corridor, hallway; runner; broker, agent corredora f. runner; broker, agent corregir v. t. , prnl. correct; improve, mend; mark correr v. t., v. i., run, jog; fow; blow; spread; go by prnl. 279 corresponder v. t., v. i., compensate; be ftting; be responsible; belong; go with prnl. correspondiente adj. corresponding, related, belonging to; proportional corriente adj. common, ordinary; current; trend cortador m. one who cuts cortar v. t., v. i., cut, chop, carve; cut of/through; dilute; separate prnl. corte m. cut; edge; cutof; court; style; length corteza f. rind, peel, crust; bark; shell corto adj. short; brief cosa f. thing; situation cosecha f. harvest, crop; picking, gathering; harvest season cosechar v. t., v. i. pick, reap, harvest; achieve, gain, earn coser v. t. sew; sew up/on/together; stitch, suture cosquillas f. pl. tickling sensation costa f. coast, shore costado m. side costal adj., m. rib; sack costar v. i. cost; be difcult costilla f. rib; cutlet, chop costo m. cost, price costra f. scab; crust costumbre f. custom, tradition; habit coyunda f. strap; yoke; dependence crecer v. i., prnl. grow, rise; expand, swell; mature creciente adj., m., f. increasing, growing; swelling, rising; crescent, waxing creencia f. belief; faith creer v. t., v. i., believe; think prnl. crema f. cream, lotion; cream; custard cresta f. crest; comb; summit cría f. young, ofspring, litter; breading criar v. t., prnl. raise, rear; breed; grow up criatura f. creature; child, little one cristalino adj. crystalline, clear, transparent; translucent criterio m. opinion, judgment; rule, criterion, standard crítica f. criticism; review, critique criticar v. t. criticize; judge, evaluate, analyze crítico adj., m. critical, questioning; judgmental; critic crudo adj. raw; undercooked; harsh, rough cruel adj. cruel; ferocious, violent crujir v. i. rustle, crunch; creak; grind; crush, beat up cruz f. cross; burden cruzar v. t., prnl. cross; exchange; crossbreed; bump into cuadrado adj. square; stock, brawny cuadro m. square; painting, canvas; frame cuajar v. i., v. t., curdle, coagulate; set, jell, thicken; settle, stick prnl. cual pron. who, whom; as cuál pron. which; what Basic vocabulary of Mexican Spanish 280 cualquier adj. anyone, anybody; any, whichever cualquiera adj. anyone, anybody; ordinary, unremarkable cuando adv., conj. when; since, as, if cuándo adv. when cuanto adv. the more; whatever, anything; as much as cuánto adj. whatever; as much as; any/every cuarenta adj. forty; fortieth cuaresma f. Lent cuarto adj., m. fourth; room, quarter cuate m. mate, pal, buddy; guy, bloke cuatro adj. four cubeta f. bucket, pail; basin, tank; tray cubierta f. cover, jacket; deck; roof cubierto adj., m. overcast; covered; cutlery; place setting cubrir v. t., prnl. cover, conceal; reach; cover up/over; fll up cucaracha f. cockroach cuchara f. spoon; trowel cuchillo m. knife cuello m. neck; collar cuenta f. sum; bill, check; account; bead cuento m. story, tale cuerda f. rope, cord; string, thread cuerno m. horn, antler; croissant cuero m. leather, hide; wineskin cuerpo m. body; corpse; section, part; object, thing, team, group cuervo m. raven, crow cuesta f. slope, hill, grade cuete m. freworks; binge cueva f. cave; wineceller; pigsty cuidado m. care; attention cuidadoso adj. careful, thorough cuidar v. t., prnl. care for, look after; preserve, maintain cuitlacoche m. corn smut culebra f. snake, serpent; scufe, commotion; conga line culpa f. fault, blame; sin; ofense cultivar v. t., prnl. grow, raise; cultivate, practice cultura f. culture; knowledge cultural adj. cultural cumpleaños m. birthday cumplir v. t., v. i. accomplish, fulfll; reach, achieve; end, expire cuna f. crib, cradle cuña f. cuneiform bone; wedge; spot, advertisement cuñada f. sister-in-law cuñado m. brother-in-law cura m. cure; treatment; recovery; priest curandero m. healer; witch doctor curar v. t., v. i., treat, heal; tan; cure; recover, get better prnl. curioso adj. curious, inquisitive; nosy; strange, odd curtir v. t., prnl. harden; tan, bronze; weather; be hardened 281 curva f. curve, bend curvar v. t., prnl. curve, bend; bow, bend, lean curvo adj. curved cuyo adj. whose, of which dañar v. t., prnl. damage, harm; ruin, spoil; become damaged; wear down dañino adj. harmful, detrimental; bad, hurtful; noxious daño m. damage, harm; hurt, pain danza f. dance dar v. t., v. i., give; donate; pass; throw, hold; produce; surrender prnl. de prep. from; of; during; made/out of; belonging to debajo adv. under, below deber v. t., prnl. must, have to; owe; be due to deber m. duty; assignment debido adj. correctly, properly débil adj. weak; soft; feeble; faint decidir v. t., prnl. decide; make up one's mind decir v. t., prnl. say, tell; be rumored declarar v. t., prnl. declare, state; announce; propose declive m. slope, incline; decline, deterioration dedicar v. t., prnl. dedicate, allot; concentrate; work at dedo m. fnger, toe; tad defender v. t., prnl. defend, protect; hold one's own; get by defensa f. defense, protection; counsel defnir v. t., prnl. defne, determine, establish; make clear dejar v. t., v. i., let, allow; leave, abandon; stop, let up; leave alone prnl. delantal m. apron, smock delante adv. in front of; opposite delantero adj. front; forward delegación f. delegation delgado adj. thin, slender; skinny; fne delicado adj. delicate, fragile; subtle; sensitive; exquisite delirar v. i. rave, be delirious demás adj. rest, remaining demasiado adv. too much; too many demonio m. devil, demon; monster demostrar v. t. demonstrate, show; prove; display, express denegar v. t. deny, refuse; turn away, bar dentro adv. inside; within, in depender v. i. defend, protect; stand up for deporte m. sport; exercise depositar v. t., prnl. deposit; place, leave; settle derecha f. right; right side derecho adj., m. straight; right; law; fee (pl.) derramar v. t., prnl. spill, pour out; shed; scatter, spread; fow, drain derretir v. t., prnl. thaw, melt; water derrumbar v. t., prnl. demolish, raze; destroy, shatter; overthrow; break down desabotonar v. t., v. i.. unbutton; open up, blossom desabrochar v. t., prnl. unbutton, unfasten, undo Basic vocabulary of Mexican Spanish 282 desagradable adj. disagreeable, unpleasant; bad desaparecer v. t., v. i. kidnap; do away with; disappear, vanish desarmar v. t. disarm; disassemble; persuade; placate desarreglado adj. untidy; scrufy, ungroomed desarrollar v. t., prnl. develop; carry out; expound; grow, fourish desatar v. t., prnl. untie, undo; trigger, spark; get on one's nerves desayunar v. i., prnl. eat/have breakfast; fnd out, hear about desayuno m. breakfast desbaratar v. t. spoil, ruin; throw into confusion; lose one's composure descalzo adj. barefoot; discalced descansar v. t., v. i. lay to rest; bury; rest; sleep; lie fallow descanso m. rest; day of; relief; break, intermission; landing descascarar v. t., prnl. peel; shell; fay descendencia f. descendents, ofspring, progeny descobijar v. t., prnl. uncover, expose; get smart, be clever descolorido adj. faded; pale, pallid; dull, lackluster; ruined descomponer v. t., prnl. separate, split; upset; decompose, rot descortezar v. t. strip bark of, cut crust of; polish, refne descoser v. t., prnl. unstitch; become undone descubrir adj., f. discover, fnd; realize; uncover, fnd out descuidar v. t., prnl. neglect; be careless desde prep. from; since desear v. t. want, desire; look forward to desechar v. t. discard, reject; cast aside, throw away; turn down desempeñar v. t., prnl. perform, carry out, execute; redeem desenredar v. t., prnl. untangle, comb out; resolve, sort out deseo m. desire, wish desgastar v. t., prnl. waste; wear away/down; wear out, get tired desgranar v. t., prnl. dekernel; thresh; shell, hull, peel; split, separate deshacer v. t., prnl. undo; end, ruin, destroy; melt, dissolve; break up deshidratar v. t., prnl. dehydrate; dry; become dehydrated deshilar v. t., prnl. unravel; fray deshinchar v. t., prnl. reduce swelling; defate; become defated deshojar v. t., prnl. take leaves/petals of; lose leave/petals desierto adj., m. deserted, empty; desert designar v. t. designate, appoint; specify; describe, express desigual adj. unequal, diferent; uneven; varied desmayar v. i., prnl. lose heart, become demoralized; faint, pass out desmayo m. fainting ft; faltering, dismay desmontar v. t., v. i. dismantle, take apart; break up; fatten; fall down/apart desnudar v. t., prnl. undress; make bare; speak freely desnudo adj. naked, nude; bare, unadorned desnutrición f. malnutrition desnutrirse prnl. become malnourished desordenar v. t., prnl. mess up, clutter; become scattered; become confused despacio adv. slowly, gradually; quietly, softly despedir v. t., prnl. release, emit; dismiss, lay of; quit, leave despegar v. t., v. i., detach, remove; take/peel of; leave; come of/apart prnl. despejado adj. clear, cloudless; bright, smart; awake, clear-headed 283 despejar v. t., prnl. clear; resolve; clear one's mind despeñadero m. clif, precipice desperdiciar v. t. waste, squander; throw away; miss out on desperdicio m. waste; scraps despertar v. t., v. i., wake up; rouse; stimulate prnl. despertar m. dawn; awakening despierto adj. awake; alert, sharp despintar v. t. strip, remove despiojar v. t. delouse desplumar v. t., prnl. pluck; pick clean; molt despreciar v. t., prnl. despise, scorn; disregard, discount; pay no heed desprender v. t., prnl. detach; emit, give of después adj., adv. after; afterward; later; despite destapar v. t., prnl. uncover; open up destilar v. t., v. i. distil; flter; drip; reveal destino m. destination; destiny, fate; purpose, use destrozar v. t., prnl. destroy, wreck; ruin, damage; disintegrate destruir v. t., prnl. destroy, demolish; harm, damage; shatter, dash desvestir v. t., prnl. undress; divest desviación f. detour; digression; deviation desviar v. t., prnl. divert; defect, avert; distract; stray; digress desyerbar v. t. weed detalle m. detail; small present detener v. t., prnl. stop, detain; hold; apprehend; pause determinado adj. defnite; certain, particular; fxed, given; determined detonar v. i., v. t. detonate; spark of detrás adv. behind; at the back deuda f. debt; bond devolver v. t., prnl. return; give/take back; go/come back día m. day; daytime diablo m. devil; clever person diario adj., m. daily; diary; newspaper dibujar v. t., prnl. draw, sketch; describe, relay; appear dibujo m. drawing dicho adj., m. already stated, aforementioned; saying, proverb dichoso adj. happy; fortunate, luck; damned, blasted dictar v. t. dictate; pronounce; enact diente m. tooth, fang; prong, tine; cog; clove diez adj. ten, tenth diferencia f. diference; disagreement; remainder diferente adj., adv. diferent; special, unique; strange, odd difícil adj. difcult, hard, tough; unlikely, doubtful difcultad f. difculty, trouble, problem difcultar v. t. make difcult; complicate, hinder difunto m. deceased person; body, corpse digno adj. worthy, deserving; decent, respectable; appropriate dilatar v. t., v. i., dilate; expand; prolong; delay, postpone; be late prnl. diligente adj. diligent, industrious, hard-working Basic vocabulary of Mexican Spanish 284 dinero m. money, wealth diputado m. representative, legislator, member of parliament dirección f. direction; address; management; course; steering wheel directo adj. direct, straight; straightforward; through, non-stop director adj., m. managerial, administrative; director, manager dirigente adj., m., f. ruling, managing, leading; leader, manager, director dirigir v. t., prnl. run, manage, direct; address; oversee, supervise discurso m. discourse, speech, address; passage discutir v. t., v. i. argue, quarrel; contradict; discuss disfrutar v. t., v. i. enjoy; feature disgusto m. annoyance, disappointment; argument, quarrel disimular v. t., v. i. conceal, hide, disguise; pretend, bluf, fake disolver v. t., prnl. dissolve; break up; separate; scatter disparar v. t., prnl. discharge, fre; trigger; shoot up/of dispensar v. t., prnl. exempt, excuse; release, dispense; grant, bestow dispersar v. t., prnl. disperse, scatter; rout; deploy; lose track disponer v. t., prnl. have, get; arrange; be stipulated distancia f. distance; diference, gap distante adj. far of, distant; cool, standofsh distinguir v. t., prnl. distinguish, diferentiate; discern, make out distraer v. t., prnl. distract; amuse, entertain; have fun; get distracted distribuir v. t., prnl. distribute, allocate, deliver; arrange; spread out divertir v. t., prnl. entertain, amuse; have fun dividir v. t., prnl. divide; split up divino adj. divine, heavenly; delightful divisar v. t. sight, make out, distinguish división f. division, separation; divergence, splitting doblar v. t., v. i., double; fold; bend; peal; dub; cave in prnl. doble adj., m. double; dual; knell doce adj. twelve; twelfth docena f. dozen documento m. document; proof, evidence doler v. i., prnl. hurt; take ofense dolor m. pain; sorrow, grief doloroso adj. painful; excruciating domar v. t. tame, break; handle, control; suppress domesticar v. t., prnl. domesticate, train; tame doméstico adj. domestic, household; house trained domicilio m. home, residence; address dominar v. t., prnl. control, dominate; surpass, exceed; master, command domingo m. Sunday; allowance dominio m. command, knowledge; control, power; territory, domain don m. gift, knack; Mr. doña f. lady; Miss/Ms./Mrs. donde adv. where; in which; with; at dónde adv. where dondequiera adv. wherever dormir v. t., v. i., sleep; fall asleep; spend the night; slack of; go numb prnl. 285 dorso m. back; on the back dos adj. two; second doscientos adj. two hundred dudar v. t., v. i. doubt; hesitate, waver duende m. spirit; elf, goblin dueño m. owner, proprietor; landlord dulce adj., m. sweet; tender; candy dulce adv. lovingly, tenderly durable adj. durable, resistant durante prep. during, for; in the middle of durar v. i. last; exist durazno m. peach; peach tree duro adj. hard, tough; resilient; harsh ebrio adj. inebriated, drunk echar v. t., v. i., chase/throw out; fre, expel; pour; lie down prnl. eclipse m. eclipse; decline eco m. echo; faint/distant sound; efect, impact; infuence edad f. age edifcio m. building educación f. education; upbringing educar v. t., prnl. educate, teach; bring up, raise efectivamente adv. efectively, really efectivo adj. efective; cash efecto m. efect; impression; purpose, intention efectuar v. t., prnl. carry out, execute, complete efcaz adj. efective ejecutar v. t. carry out, implement; run ejemplo m. example ejercer v. t. practice, work as; apply, exert ejercicio m. exercise; problem, question; practice ejército m. army; horde, swarm ejote m. green bean el art. the él pron. he; him elaborar v. t. make, prepare; produce, develop elegante adj. elegant; fashionable elegir v. t. choose, select; elect elemento m. element, part, component elevado adj. elevated, raised, increased; high, tall; noble, lofty elevar v. t., prnl. elevate, raise; lift, hoist; increase; praise; rise, climb ella pron. she; her ello pron. it elote m. corn ear; corn on the cob embarazada adj. pregnant, expecting embarazar v. t., prnl. make pregnant; hamper, hinder; get pregnant embastar v. t. stitch; tack emborrachar v. t., prnl. make drunk; delight, enchant; soak, steep; get drunk emboscar v. t., prnl. conceal; lie in wait; go into hiding embotar v. t., prnl. weaken; become weakened Basic vocabulary of Mexican Spanish 286 embriagador adj. intoxicating, heady embriagar v. t., prnl. intoxicate, make drunk; get drunk empacar v. t., prnl. pack, stuf; become upset empachar v. t., prnl. fll up; glut, satiate; be fed up; gorge oneself empapar v. t., prnl. soak, drench, saturate; absorb; be soaked; learn about emparejar v. t., v. i., match, pair up; level, grade; draw; catch up; see, date prnl. emparentar v. t., v. i. link, trace; marry to/into empeñar v. t., prnl. pawn, hock empezar v. t., v. i. start, begin; open empleado adj., m. employed, used; employee, worker emplear v. t., prnl. use, utilize; spend, expend; hire, contract empleo m. job, work, employment empollar v. t., v. i. brood, incubate; cram emprender v. t. set out on, start; launch, undertake empujar v. t. push, shove; put aside; urge, pressure, compel en prep. in; on; for; at; during; by enano adj., m. miniature; shorty, runt; dwarf, midget encajar v. t., v. i. ft in/together; accept, take; belong; concede encantar v. t., v. i. bewitch, curse, charm; please, make happy encargar v. t., prnl. order, request; entrust with; handle, take charge of encargo m. order; assignment; errand encender v. t., prnl. turn/switch on; start, ignite; arouse; provoke; blush encerrar v. t., prnl. lock/shut up; put away; contain; clam up enchilar v. t., prnl. season; burn; get mad; become annoyed encima adv. on, over, above; not even, not only encinal m. oak grove encino m. oak tree encoger v. t., prnl. shrink encontrar v. t., prnl. fnd; discover, encounter; meet, run into; fnd oneself encorvado adj. stooped, bowed, hunched enderezar v. t., prnl. straighten; rectify, settle; stand/sit straight; get sorted endulzar v. t., prnl. sweeten; mellow, soften enebro m. juniper enemigo m. enemy, opponent; adversary enfadar v. t., prnl. irritate, annoy; get angry enfadoso adj. annoying; tedious enfermar v. i., v. t., make ill, sicken; get sick prnl. enfermedad f. illness, disease; scourge enfermo adj., m. sick, ill; patient enfaquecer v. t., v. i., make thin; weaken, undermine; loose weight prnl. enfrentar v. t., prnl. confront, face; tackle, deal with enfriar v. t., v. i., cool, chill; cool down; catch cold prnl. engañar v. t., prnl. deceive, fool; cheat on; curb, satisfy, assuage engordar v. t., v. i., fatten; infate, exaggerate; get fat, gain weight prnl. 287 enloquecer v. t., v. i., drive crazy; be crazy about; go mad; lose one's mind prnl. enmascarado adj., m. masked, concealed, disguised enojadizo adj. irritable, touchy, short-tempered enojar v. t., prnl. anger, infuriate; annoy, upset; get angry; break up enojo m. anger, rage; resentment; displeasure enojón adj. grouchy, bad-tempered enorme adj. enormous, huge; a lot; great, magnifcent enramada f. thicket, undergrowth; arbor, bower enredadera f. vine, creeper; tangle enredador adj., m. troublemaker; liar, cheat enredar v. t., v. i., tangle; confuse; mess with; be mixed up; be involved prnl. enrejado m. grille; lattice enrollar v. t., prnl. wind/roll up; chatter ensanchar v. t., prnl. widen, broaden; enlarge, expand; swell with pride ensartar v. t. string; skewer; rattle of escándalo m. scandal, disgrace; fuss, argument, commotion enseñanza f. teaching; education, training; moral, lesson enseñar v. t. teach, train; show ensillar v. t. saddle ensuciar v. t., prnl. make dirty; sully, tarnish; get dirty; degrade oneself entender v. t., v. i., understand; know about; get along with prnl. enterar v. t., prnl. inform, notify; realize, fnd out entero adj. entire, whole; self-contained; integer enterrar v. t., prnl. bury, entomb; cover up; bury oneself in entonces adv., conj. then, so; and, then entrada f. entrance; lobby; ticket; audience; start, inning; tackle entrañas f. core, nucleus; essence, crux; conscience (pl.) entrar v. i. enter, go/get in; penetrate; join; have; attack entre prep. in; among; between; together entrega f. delivery, shipment; installment; determination entregar v. t., prnl. deliver; entrust; betray; surrender; devote oneself to entretener v. t., prnl. distract; entertain, amuse entusiasmo m. enthusiasm, excitement; eagerness envejecer v. i., prnl. age; mature; get old envenenar v. t., prnl. poison; embitter; harm enviar v. t. send; dispatch envolver v. t. wrap; envelop; cloak; involve; roll up época f. epoch, age, era equipo m. team, side; equipment equivocar v. t. prnl. confuse; be mistaken error m. error, mistake eructar v. i. burp, belch escala f. ladder; scale; stopover escalera f. stairs, staircase; ladder escama f. scale; fake escapar v. i., prnl. escape; avoid; elude; shirk; slip away; pass up; miss escarabajo m. dung beetle Basic vocabulary of Mexican Spanish 288 escarbar v. t. dig; uncover; rummage; pick, poke; scrape; pry escardar v. t. weed escaso adj. lacking; limited, scarce escenario m. stage; scene, setting escoba f. broom; broomstick; skin and bones escocer v. i., prnl. sting, burn; hurt, wound; chafe; be annoyed escoger v. t. choose, select; elect esconder v. t., prnl. conceal, hide; hide out; disguise escondido adj. secret, hidden; remote escribir v. t., v. i., write; compose; correspond prnl. escuchar v. t., prnl. listen; heed; listen to oneself escuela f. school; education, training; expertise escupir v. t., v. i. spit out, cough up; disclose, divulge; spit escurridizo adj. slippery; easily untied escurrir v. i., v. t., drain, strain, wring out; drip, trickle; slip, slide; run out prnl. ese, esa adj. that ése, ésa, eso pron. that one esencial adj. essential, key esférico adj., m. spherical; soccer ball esforzar v. t., prnl. strain, force; apply/exert oneself esfuerzo m. efort; sacrifce esmeril m. emery stone esófago m. esophagus espacio m. space, area; place, room; duration espalda f. back; backstroke espaldera f. trellis; gym bars español m. Spanish; Spaniard espantapájaros m. scarecrow; slob, frump espantar v. t., prnl. scare, frighten; scare/shoo away esparcir v. t., prnl. spread; scatter, disperse; amuse; become known especial adj. special, specialized; impossible, trying especie f. species; kind, sort espectáculo m. show, performance; spectacle, sight espejo m. mirror; refection; model, image esperanza f. hope; confdence, expectation esperar v. t. wait for; hope, expect espeso adj. thick; dense espiar v. t. spy on; keep eye on espiga f. ear; sprig; clapper; pin, peg espina f. thorn, pricker; fshbone; sadness; problem espiral adj., f. spiral; coil, spring; series, succession espíritu m. sprit; ghost; energy, spunk espolvorear v. t. dust; sprinkle esponjar v. t., prnl. fuf up; rufe; preen, strut esposa f. wife; handcufs (pl.) esposo m. husband espuma f. foam, froth, lather esquina f. corner 289 esquivar v. t. dodge, avoid establecer v. t., prnl. establish, lay down; found, set up establecer v. t., prnl. establish; found, set up; settle down estaca f. stake; peg; stick, staf, cane estación f. season; station, plant; depot; channel estado m. state, condition; stage, phase estallar v. i. explode, detonate; burst, shatter; break out estancar v. t., prnl. hold back, block; stall, impede; stagnate, come to a halt estanque m. pond; reservoir estar v. i., prnl. be; stay, remain este m. east este, esta adj. this éste, ésta, pron. this one; the latter esto estéril adj. sterile, infertile; meager, sparse estiércol m. manure, dung; fertilizer, compost; scum estilo m. style, manner; fashion; elegance estimar v. t. respect, appreciate; consider, think estimular v. t., prnl. stimulate, encourage, motivate; improve, boost estirar v. t., prnl. stretch; crane; iron out; grow, shoot up estómago m. stomach; belly, tummy estorbar v. t. bother, disturb; hinder, obstruct, impede; upset estornudar v. i. sneeze estrechar v. t., prnl. narrow, reduce; hug, embrace; strengthen estrecho adj. narrow; tight; strict, rigid; tight knit estrella f. star; sign; pip estricto adj. strict; severe estructura f. structure; framework; arrangement estuche m. case, box estudiante m., f. student estudiar v. t. study; examine, evaluate estudio m. study eterno adj. eternal, everlasting evaporar v. t., prnl. evaporate; disappear, escape evitar v. t. avoid, miss; prevent, avert exacto adj., adv. exact, identical; exactly examinar v. t., prnl. examine, inspect; analyze; test excavar v. t. excavate, dig out; bore, drill excepción f. exception; not the norm exclusivo adj. exclusive; unique, sole exigir v. t. demand, require; entail existencia f. existence; life; supply, stock (pl.) existir v. i. be, exist; live éxito m. success explicación f. explanation, reason; lecture explicar v. t., prnl. explain; make sense of explosión f. explosion, blast; combustion; outburst explotar v. t., v. i. explode, detonate; exploit, utilize; burst exponer v. t., prnl. expound, present, explain; exhibit; risk expresar v. t., prnl. express, say; show, reveal Basic vocabulary of Mexican Spanish 290 exprimir v. t. squeeze, press; wring out; squander; exploit extender v. t., prnl. extend; spread out; issue; elaborate; reach extinguir v. t., prnl. extinguish; eliminate, eradicate; die out extraer v. t. extract, remove; calculate; deduce extranjero m. foreigner; abroad extremo adj., m. extreme; radical; other/opposite end fácil adj. easy; likely; loose facilidad f. ease; ability facilitar v. t. facilitate; ease; obtain; provide facultad f. faculty, ability; school department fajar v. t., v. i., swaddle, swathe; tuck in; beat up; bandage prnl. falda f. skirt; lap; tablecloth; hillside falla f. fault; error; defect, faw; failure fallar v. i. fail, miss; make mistake; fall, break down; rule faltar v. i. lack; miss; break fama f. fame, renown; reputation familia f. family; children familiar adj., m. familiar; homey; friendly; family; relative famoso adj. famous; notorious fantasma adj., m. haunted; phantom, ghost; show-of favor m. favor; support, acceptance favorito adj., m. favorite fe f. faith, confdence; religion; certifcate fecha f. date feliz adj. happy, glad, content; fortunate, lucky fenómeno adj., m. marvelous, fantastic; phenomenon; freak; wonder feo adj. ugly, hideous; awful; gloomy; unpleasant; dirty feria f. fair, exhibition, festival; cash, change far v. t., v. i., sell on credit; vouch for; trust prnl. fbra f. fber; grain; material; grit, spunk febre f. fever; frenzy; mania fel adj., m. faithful, loyal, devoted; believer; pointer ferro m. iron festa f. party, celebration; festivity; holiday fgura f. fgure; statue; outline; star; note; fgurine fjar v. t., prnl. fasten, attach; set, determine; focus; notice, detect fjo adj. fxed; permanent; frm; regular; defnite fla f. line, queue; row floso adj. sharp; yellow cytinus fn m. end; aim, purpose fnal adj., m. fnal, last; ending; fnale fnalmente adv. fnally, lastly; eventually fnca f. plantation, estate; ranch, farm fno adj. fne, thin; high-quality; smooth; skilled; sharp; refned frmar v. t., v. i. sign frme adj. frm, solid; sound, stable; determined; steadily físico adj., m. physical; physique, fgure; appearance; physicist faco adj. skinny, lean, lanky; slack 291 fama f. fame; lamp faquear v. i. weaken; falter, waver fauta f. fute; rolled taco fecha f. arrow; dart fema f. phlegm; calmness; indiference fexible adj. fexible, adaptable; variable; compliant; malleable fojear v. i. fag, drop; mess around fojera f. faintness, weakness; feebleness fojo adj. loose, slack; slow, weak; light; poor; good-for-nothing for f. fower, bloom; prime; compliment forecer v. i., prnl. fower, bloom; fourish, prosper; get moldy fotar v. i. foat; waft; hang fuir v. i. fow, stream; gush, course foco m. light bulb; fashlight; spotlight; focus; focal point fondo m. bottom, base; depths; crux; background; slip; funds (pl.) forma f. form, shape; fgure; way formar v. t., prnl. form, make; create; be made of; train; line up fortaleza f. fortress, stronghold; fortitude, strength; vigor fortuna f. fortune, luck; success; coincidence fotografía f. photograph; photography; picture, image; dirty look fracasar v. i. fail, be unsuccessful fraccionario adj. fractional; minute fracturar v. t., prnl. fracture, break frágil adj. fragile, breakable, brittle; weak, tender, vulnerable frecuente adj. frequent; common, usual freno m. brake; obstacle; bit frente f. forehead; front fresco adj. cool, chilly, cold; fresh, latest; rude frijol m. bean frío adj., m. cold; cool; indiferent fronda f. foliage frondoso adj. leafy, lush; dense, overgrown; thick, abundant frontera f. boundary, limit; border frotar v. t., prnl. rub; scrub frustrar v. t., prnl. frustrate, discourage; hinder, prevent, thwart fruta f. edible fruit fruto m. fruit, result; product fuego m. fre; fame, light; gunfre; canker sore; stove burner fuente f. fountain; spring; source; platter; font fuera adv. out, outside; away fuerte adj. strong; resilient; muscular; healthy fuerza f. force; strength; duress fumar v. t., v. i., smoke; squander; play hooky; run away prnl. fumigar v. t. fumigate, exterminate función f. function, operate; work, run funcionario m. ofcial; civil/public servant funda f. cover, case, jacket; sheath, holster fundar v. t., prnl. found, establish gacha f. mush; oatmeal (pl.) Basic vocabulary of Mexican Spanish 292 gacho adj. bowed, dropping; bent forward; awful gallina f. hen; chicken gallo m. rooster; false note; tough guy; serenade ganado m. cattle, livestock; herd, fock; crowd, mob ganar v. t., v. i., win; earn; beat; gain; improve; reach; deserve prnl. ganas f. pl. desire, fancy; hunger, urge; attitude, mood gancho m. hook; attraction; bait; charm; accomplice; clothespin garganta f. throat; neck; gorge, ravine; pass garra f. claw, paw, talon; courage, guts; rag garrapata f. tick, mite; moocher, deadbeat garza f. heron garzo adj. blue-eyed gastar v. t., prnl. spend; use up; wear out gasto m. outlay, expenditure; maintenance, upkeep gato m. cat, feline; jack; lackey gavilán m. sparrow hawk; quillon; ingrown nail gemelo adj., m. twin; calf muscle; cuf link; binoculars (pl.) generación f. generation; creation; class, group general adj., m. general; habitual, typical gente f. people; folks; team; type of person gerente m. manager germinar v. i. germinate, sprout, bud gesto m. gesture, sign; movement; expression girar v. t., v. i. spin, twirl, turn; send, transfer; issue, give; be about gobernador adj., m. ruling, governing; governor gobernar v. t., prnl. govern, rule; manage, direct, run; control, dominate gobierno m. government; administration golondrina f. swallow; motor launch golpe m. blow; dent; robbery; setback; pang; stroke; wisecrack golpear v. t. hit, punch; beat up; knock gordo adj. fat, plump; overweight; big; course, rough; jackpot gorgojo m. weevil gorra f. cap; bonnet gorrión m. sparrow gotear v. i. drip; leak; drizzle gozar v. i., prnl. enjoy; revel in gozoso adj. happy, joyful; pleasant, enjoyable grabar v. t., prnl. record, flm; engrave, incise; carve/chisel out; remember gracia f. grace; fair, gift; joke; thanks (pl.) gracioso adj. gracious; funny, amusing; attractive, elegant grado m. grade; degree, amount; rank; willingness grande adj. large, big; intense, profound; adult, older granero m. granary, silo, barn breadbasket granizo m. hail; hailstones (pl.) grano m. grain, seed; grape; blemish, pimple grasa f. grease; fat; polish grasiento adj. greasy, oily; sticky grato adj. pleasant, agreeable grave adj. grave, serious; deep 293 greñudo adj. tangled, matted; shaggy; disheveled grieta f. crack, crevice; rift grillo m. cricket gringo adj., m. American; foreigner gripa, gripe f. infuenza gris adj. gray; dull, monotonous; overcast; mediocre gritar v. t., v. i. shout, yell; call grito m. shout, yell, scream; call, cry grosero adj. rude, vulgar grueso adj., m. thick; thickset, stocky; thickness, depth; bulk, majority grumo m. lump; foret grumoso adj. lumpy, gritty gruñir v. i. growl, oink; groan, moan; grumble, complain grupo m. group; team; band; collection; squad; class guacal, m. calabash gourd; crate huacal guaje m. gourd; seeds guajolota f. female turkey guajolote m. male turkey; idiot guardar v. t., prnl. guard; keep; uphold; watch out for; avoid guardia f. guard, sentry; body/security guard; custody guarnición f. trimming, garnish; adornment; garrison; setting guayaba f. guava guerra f. war; fght, confict guía f. guide, advisor; trail; handbook, map guisado m. stew, casserole; dish guisar v. t. cook, stew gusano m. worm; maggot; caterpillar; despicable person gustar v. i. like, enjoy; be liked by gusto m. taste; pleasure; liking haba f. fava bean, broad bean; bruise, bump, welt haber v. aux., have; be; there is/are; happen; should (+de) v. imp. haber m. asset; proft habilidad f. skill, ability habitante m., f. inhabitant, resident; population (pl.) habitar v. i., v. t. inhabit, live in habla f. speech, language hablar v. t., v. i., speak, talk; be on speaking terms prnl. hacer v. t., prnl. make, do; prepare; cause; take; suppose; accept; move hacha f. axe; candle hachear v. t., v. i. cut down; wield hacia prep. toward; around halcón m. falcon hallar v. t., prnl. fnd; discover; be found; be present; feel right hamaca f. hammock hambre f. hunger, starvation; yearning, craving harina f. four harto adj. full, stufed; sick of, fed up with Basic vocabulary of Mexican Spanish 294 hasta prep., adv. until; as far as; even hebra f. thread, string; strand, fber; blade; grain hechicero adj., m. captivating, bewitching; sorcerer, wizard, witch doctor hechizar v. t. bewitch, enchant; curse, jinx; captivate hecho adj., m. done; fact, incident helar v. t., prnl. freeze; congeal; ice over hembra f. female; baby girl; old lady; socket, eye hender, v. t., prnl. split, cleave; crack, slit hendir hendidura f. fssure, crack; slot heno m. hay; Spanish moss heredar v. t. inherit, come from; give, pass down herida f. wound, injury herir v. t. wound, injure; hit, strike; hurt, damage hermano, -na m., f. brother/sister; friar/sister; pair, mate hermoso adj. beautiful, lovely, handsome; large; healthy; noble herrar v. t. brand; shoe hervir v. t., v. i. boil; roast; swarm/seethe with hiel f. bile; bitterness, gall hielo m. ice hierba f. grass; herb; weed hierro m. iron hígado m. liver; strong stomach; pain in the neck higo m. fg higuerilla f. castor oil plant hijo, -ja m., f. son/daughter; spawn; children (pl.) hilar v. t. spin; put/string together; connect, link hilo m. thread; wire; trickle hilvanar v. t. baste, tack; link; outline, sketch hinchar v. t., prnl. swell, bulge; burst; support; stuf oneself hinchazón f. swelling, bump, lump; conceit hipar v. i. hiccup; whimper hipo m. hiccup historia f. history; story; tall tale; gossip; background hocico m. nose, snout hogar m. home, household; freplace, hearth; orphanage hoja f. leaf, petal; sheet; blade; shutter hola interj. hello, hi, hey hollín m. soot hombre m. man; mankind hombro m. shoulder honda f. sling; catapult hondo adj. deep; profound; intense hondura f. depth hongo m. mushroom; fungus honor m. honor, virtue honrar v. t., prnl. honor; grace; design; take pride in hora f. hour; time hormiga f. ant; hard worker hormiguear v. i. tingle, prickle; teem, swarm 295 hornear v. t., v. i. bake, roast horno m. oven, kiln, furnace; sauna horqueta f. fork; pitchfork hospedar v. t., prnl. host, lodge, put up; stay hoy adv. today; now hoyo, hoya m., f. hole, hollow, pit hoz f. sickle; gorge hozar v. t. root, rout huarache m. sandal hueco adj., m. hollow; empty; shallow; shaft, gap, space; opening huella f. track, footprint; trace, remnant huérfano adj., m. orphaned; alone, isolated; orphan huerto, -ta m., f. orchard; garden hueso m. bone; stone, pit; hard nut; hard work huésped m., f. guest, lodger; host huevo m. egg; courage (pl.) huidizo adj. elusive, evasive; shy, timid huir v. i. escape, fee; avoid huisache m. acacia tree huitlacoche m. corn smut hule m. rubber; oilcloth humedad f. humidity; dampness, moisture humedecer v. t., prnl. dampen, moisten; get wet húmedo adj. moist, wet, damp; rainy humilde adj. humble, modest, unassuming; poor, lowly, meek humo m. smoke; vapor; fumes hundir v. t., prnl. sink, submerge; bury; defeat; go underwater; get dented idea f. idea, thought; concept; clue; impression; insight ideal adj., m. ideal, perfect; likely; archetype; goal, aspiration identifcar v. t., prnl. indentify idioma m. language iglesia f. church ignorar v. t. ignore; overlook; not know igual adj. equal, identical; like, the same; monotonous; equals sign iluminar v. t. illuminate; put lights on; enlighten; illustrate imagen f. image; picture; opinion; appearance; statue imaginar v. t., prnl. imagine; envision; suppose; suspect imbécil adj., m. dumb, stupid; naive, gullible; imbecile, fool imitar v. t. imitate, copy, mimic; stimulate impedir v. t. impede, prevent, block, hamper imponer v. t., prnl. impose; command; instill; deposit; prevail; be needed importante adj. important, signifcant; infuential, high-ranking importar v. t., v. i. import; be important; come to matter imposible adj. impossible; unbearable; extremely difcult impresión f. impression, imprint; printout, publication; feeling, mark impuesto adj., m. imposed; exacted; used to; tax, levy, duty incienso m. incense inclinar v. t., prnl. incline, bend; persuade; lean; favor; bow; double over inclusive adv. inclusive; including, even incluso adj., adv. even; including Basic vocabulary of Mexican Spanish 296 incorporar v. t., prnl. incorporate; add, mix in; join; sit/set up; establish incubar v. t., prnl. incubate; catch, contract; brew, build up independiente adj. independent, self-sufcient indicar v. t. indicate, signal; show, point out indígena adj., m. indigenous, native individuo adj., m. individual, member industria f. industry; plant; hard work; expertise infancia f. infancy; childhood infantil adj. infantile, childish infección f. infection, contagion inferior adj. inferior, subordinate; lower, below inferno m. hell; madhouse infamar v. t., prnl. infame, ignite; set on fre; fre up; swell up infuencia f. infuence, control; friends, contacts (pl.) informar v. t., prnl. inform, tell; report, announce; fnd out; investigate ingle f. groin inglés adj., m. English ingreso m. ingress, entry, gate; admission, joining; income, deposit iniciar v. t., prnl. initiate, start; originate; introduce to iniciativo adj., m. initiatory; initiative inmediato adj. immediate; adjacent inmenso adj. immense, enormous inocente adj. innocent, blameless; naive, gullible inquieto adj. restless, nervous; worried, agitated; lively insistir v. i. insist on; repeat; persevere instante m. instant, moment institución f. institution, body; creation, establishment instituir v. t. introduce, establish, put in place instruir v. t., prnl. instruct, teach, train; attend instrumento m. instrument; tool; machine; document; resource inteligente adj. intelligent, smart, clever; wise, astute, shrewd intensidad f. intensity, force; acuteness; brightness; amplitude intentar v. t. attempt, try intercambiar v. t. exchange, trade, swap interceptar v. t. intercept; block, jam; interrupt interesar v. t., prnl. interest, concern; afect, involve interior adj. interior, inside, indoor; inner; domestic; internal; inland interpretar v. t. interpret, perform; play, sing; take, understand interrogar v. t. interrogate; question, examine, quiz interrumpir v. t., prnl. interrupt, interfere; hold up, stop intervenir v. t., v. i. invade; take over; operate; tap, bug; intervene; inspect intestino m. intestine, gut, bowel; internal, civil intransigente adj. intransigent, uncompromising, infexible introducir v. t., prnl. introduce, present; initiate; insert; enter inútil adj. useless, worthless; unft, disabled investigar v. t. investigate, research, study invitar v. t. invite; motivate; treat invocar v. t. invoke, call on; plead, appeal to; cite, refer to ir v. i., prnl. go; work, run; wear; leave; quit ixtle m. cactus fber 297 izquierdo, adj. left, left-hand -da jabalí, -ina m. wild boar, wild pig jabón m. soap jadear v. i. pant, gasp jalar v. t., prnl. pull, haul, drag; work; draw in; guzzle; rush, dash jamás adv. never, ever jardín m. garden; outfeld jarra f. mug, tankard; pitcher; jar jarro m. pitcher, jug; pitcherful, jugful jefe m. boss, chief, leader, director, manager; mate, buddy jején m. gnat, midge jícara f. small cup/bowl, gourd jilguero m. goldfnch jinete m. horseman/horsewoman; rider, jockey; cavalryman jiote m. rash, impetigo jitomate m. tomato jorobado adj., m. hunched backed; hunchback joven adj., m., f. young, youthful; young person, adolescent juego m. game; set jueves m. Thursday juez, -za m., f. judge, magistrate; referee, umpire jugar v. t., v. i., play; toy with; mover, gamble, risk prnl. jugo m. juice; acid, secretion; advantage juguete m. toy, plaything; puppet; skit, sketch juguetear v. i. play, entertain oneself juguetón adj. playful, frisky; provocative, seductive juicio m. trial; judgment; sanity; good sense junta f. meeting, assembly; board, committee; junction, joint juntar v. t., prnl. join, unite; raise, collect; gather, assemble; hang with junto adj., adv. joined; nearby; together jurar v. i., v. t. swear; curse justicia f. justice; law; authorities justo adv. just, fair; unbiased; exact, right; tight-ftting; righteous juventud f. youth; young people; new, in early stages juzgar v. t. judge; try; decide la art., pron. the; her labio m. lip; rim, edge labor f. labor, work, task; sewing, embroidery labrar v. t., v. i. word, carve, cut; cultivate, till; form, forge ladear v. t., v. i., tilt, lean, incline prnl. ladera f. hillside, mountainside, slope; side, lateral lado m. side; place ladrar v. i. bark; bluster ladrillo m. brick; bore, drag ladrón m. thief, robber; adaptor, multiple socket lagartija f. small lizard, gecko lagarto m. large lizard, alligator; pinch; smart; scoundrel Basic vocabulary of Mexican Spanish 298 lago m. lake lágrima f. tear, teardrop; trickle laja f. fat rock, slab lamentar v. t., prnl. lament, regret; feel sorry for oneself; grumble, complain lamer v. t., prnl. lick; lick oneself lámina f. sheet, plate; layer, coating, veneer; photographic print lámpara f. lamp; light, light bulb lana f. wool; woolen thread; feece langosta f. locust; lobster lanza f. spear, lance lanzar v. t., prnl. throw, launch; initiate; shoot; pounce/leap on lápiz m. pencil; lipstick, lip liner; electronic pen largo adj. long; lengthy laringe f. larynx lástima f. pity, shame; compassion lastimar v. t., prnl. hurt, damage; become injured lata f. tin plate/can; bother, nuisance látigo m. whip laurel m. bay, laurel lavar v. t., prnl. launder; wash away; wash up lazar v. t. tie in bow; lasso, rope lazo m. bow, tie; snare, trap; lariat, rope le pron. him, her leche f. milk, cream; sap; latex lechuza f. owl lector m. reader lectura f. reading; interpretation leer v. t. read; present; detect, sense legaña f. sleepy seed lejano adj. far, distant lejos adv. far away leña f. frewood; stick, rod lengua f. tongue; language; clapper; fame lente m. lens; glasses (pl.) lento adj., adv. slow; methodical; slowly león, -na m., f. lion letra f. letter; writing; contract; lyrics levantar v. t., prnl. lift, raise; pick/stand up; found; erect; wake/get up; peel ley f. law, regulation; legislation libélula f. dragonfy liberar v. t., prnl. liberty, freedom; right; release libertad f. free, release; shake of, get rid/out of librar v. t., v. i., fght; draw, issue; be free; escape from prnl. libre adj. free; unoccupied, available; taxicab libro m. book licor m. liquor; liqueur líder adj., m. top, leading; leader liebre f. hare liendre f. nit 299 liga f. elastic band; union, league; garter; alloy ligero adj., adv. lightweight; swift; quickly, fast lijar v. t. sand down; smooth out lima f. lime, lemon; fle, rasp; emery board limar v. t. fle; polish, refne; resolve, settle límite m. limit, boundary; end, deadline limón m. lime, lemon limosna f. alms; handout limpiar v. t. clean, cleanse; wipe, polish; clean up; clear out limpio adj. clean lindo adj. beautiful; cute, pretty; charming, delightful; excellent línea f. line; route; cable; fgure líquido adj., m. liquid; net; fuid; liquidity liso adj. smooth, even; fat; plain listo adj. ready; clever, smart listón m. strip; batten; standard; ribbon liviano adj. lightweight; easy going; fast llama f. fame; llama llamar v. t., v. i., call; name; call on; speak to; be named prnl. llamear v. i. fame/blaze up llano adj., m. fat, even; plain, simple; ordinary; shallow llanta f. tire; rim llanto m. crying, weeping; tears, sobs llave f. key; wrench; faucet; switch llegada f. arrival; fnish llegar v. t., v. i. arrive; reach; become; be enough llenar v. t., prnl. fll; be flled lleno adj. full; covered; plump llevar v. t., prnl. carry, take; be, spend; drive, lead; steal; get along llorar v. i., v. t. cry, weep; beg, plead; mourn llorón adj., m. weepy; whiny; grumbly; crybaby; complainer llover v. i. rain; pour down llovizna f. drizzle, mist lluvia f. rain, shower, downpour; torrent, deluge lo art., pron. that which; him, it lobo, -ba m., f. wolf local adj., m. local; premises, establishment; shop, store loco adj., m. crazy, insane; wild, hectic; madman, lunatic lodo m. mud, sludge lodoso adj. muddy; slimy lograr v. t., prnl. manage, reach; achieve, attain; succeed loma f. hill, rise, mound lombriz f. worm luchar v. i. fght, struggle; wrestle luciérnaga f. frefy, lightning bug lucir v. t., v. i., wear, faunt; shine; impress; make fool of oneself prnl. luego adv., conj. later; soon, then; sometimes; right here/there; therefore lugar m. place Basic vocabulary of Mexican Spanish 300 lumbre f. fre, heat; stove; fuel; light luna f. moon; window, glass; long mirror lunar adj., lunar; mode, beauty/birth mark; polka dot m. lunes m. Monday luto m. mourning luz f. light; power; inspiration; span machacar v. t., v. i. mash, crush, thrash; hurt, destroy; cram; harp on machete adj., m. stingy; machete macho adj., m. masculine; manly; ignorant; male machucar v. t. crush, pound, mash, grind macizo adj. solid; burly, sturdy madera f. wood madre f. mother; source madrina f. godmother; patroness; maid of honor madroño m. arbutus; tassel madrugada f. dawn, sunrise; early morning madrugador adj., m. early; early riser madurar v. t., v. i. think through; mature; ripen; dry up maduro adj. ripe; mature, seasoned; older, venerable maestro m. teacher; master; matador maguey m. agave maíz m. corn, maize mal adj., adv., bad; wrong; sick; poorly; misfortune; harm; evil m. malacate m. winch; spindle maldad f. wickedness; malice, hostility; crime, misdeed maldecir v. t., v. i. curse; insult, revile; swear maleza f. weeds; underbrush malo adj. bad, evil; terrible, awful; harmful; sick; naughty maltratar v. t., prnl. mistreat, bully; hurt, damage; be abused malva adj., f. mauve; mallow mamá f. mom, mommy mamar v. i., v. t., nurse, breastfeed; absorb, soak up; drink, imbibe prnl. maña f. knack, skill; deception, trick; habit manada f. pack, herd, pride; mob, horde, gang mañana adv., f. tomorrow; morning manantial m. spring; source mancha f. stain; spot, patch manchar v. t., prnl. stain, spot; get dirty; mandamiento m. command; writ, warrant mandar v. t., v. i. send; prescribe; be in charge mandatario, m., f. president, CEO; agent, representative -ia mandíbula f. jaw mandil m. apron; net manejar v. t., prnl. manage; drive; manipulate; handle oneself manera f. way, method manga f. sleeve; beam 301 mango m. mango; handle manifestar v. t., prnl. express, state; reveal, show; protest; appear; declare mano f. hand; touch; ability; coat manojo m. bunch, handful, wad mañoso adj. handy, skillful; crafty, cunning manso adj. placid, docile; peaceful; calm, steady manteca f. lard; butter mantener v. t., prnl. maintain, afrm; support; hold, keep; endure manzana f. apple; block manzano m. apple tree mapache m. raccoon máquina f. machine; engine mar m., f. sea, ocean maravilla f. wonder; marigold maravillar v. t., prnl. delight, enchant; wonder; be amazed marca f. mark; brand; scar; style; record marcar v. t. mark; indicate; dial; shadow; score; leave impression marchar v. i., prnl. march; work, run; leave, depart marchitar v. t., prnl. wither, dry; fade, wane; die out marchito adj. withered, shriveled; faded, wizened marco m. frame; period, setting; goalpost marear v. i., prnl. make dizzy; annoy, irritate; get/feel faint/nauseated mareo m. dizziness, faintness; fatigue; trouble, pain marido m. husband; partner mariposa f. butterfy; wing nut marrano, -na m., f. pig; pork; disgusting, flthy martes m. Tuesday martillo m. hammer mas conj. but, else más adv. more; plus masa f. mass, dough; multitude mascar v. t., prnl. chew on/over; sense masticar v. t. chew; digest mata f. bush, shrub; plant matar v. t., prnl. kill; destroy; extinguish; blunt; be amazed; die materia f. matter, substance; subject, topic matraca f. rattle; pest, annoyance matrimonio m. matrimony, marriage; married couple maullar v. i. meow mayate m. fg eater beetle mayor adj., m. larger/-est, greater/-est; older/-est; major; mainsail mayordomo m. majordomo; butler mazorca f. corn ear, corncob; spindle; clique me pron. me, to me mecapal m. leather strap mecate m. rope, cord mechón m. hair lock media f. sock, stocking; average, mean; midfeld; half past mediado adj. half full/empty; in middle; halfway medianoche f. midnight; bread roll Basic vocabulary of Mexican Spanish 302 medicina f. medicine, medication medida f. measurement, size; step, measure; restraint; degree medio adj., m. half; middle; medium; means; half liter mediodía m. midday, noon; south medir v. t., v. i., measure; calculate; match; be (tall); size up; pace self prnl. mejilla f. cheek mejor adj., adv. better, best; highest; advisable mejorar v. t., v. i. beat; improve, get better; clear up melodía f. melody, tune memoria f. memory; report mencionar v. t. mention, name menear v. t., prnl. shake, agitate; wag, sway meñique adj., m. little fnger/toe, pinky menor adj. minor; smaller/-est; fewer/-est, less/least menos adj., adv., fewer; less; minus, below; except prep. mensaje m. message; moral mensajero, m., f. messenger, courier -ra mente f. mind mentir v. i. lie mentira f. lie, falsehood mentiroso adj., m. lying; liar mentón m. chin menudo adj., m. small, slight, trivial; tripe stew mercado m. market; sales merecer v. t. merit, deserve mero adj. mere, pure, simple mes m. month; monthly payment mesa f. table; food; plateau mesón m. inn, lodge; pub, tavern metal m. metal; brass instrument metate m. grinding stone meter v. t., prnl. put; make; score; become; get into; meddle in mezcal m. agave, peyote; agave liquor; agave fber mezclar v. t., prnl. mix, blend; involve; merge/blend in mezquino adj., m. mean-spirited; stingy, miserly; paltry, miserable; wart mezquital m. mesquite grove mi adj. my mí pron. me, myself miedo m. fear; apprehension, concern miedoso adj. cowardly, faint-hearted miel f. honey; sweetness miembro m. member; limb mientras adv., conj. meanwhile; whereas miércoles m. Wednesday mil adj. thousand; one thousand; lots, loads milagro m. miracle militar adj., m., f. military; soldier 303 millón m. million; zillion milpa f. cornfeld mío, mía adj. mine mirar v. t., prnl. watch, look at/through; see; face mirlo m. blackbird misa f. mass miseria f. misery; destitution, poverty; pittance; miserliness mismo, -ma adj. same, identical mitad f. half; midpoint; middle mitote m. sacred dance; commotion, disturbance mocho adj., m. cut of/short; cropped; prudish; butt; mop moco m. mucus; snood moda f. mode; style, fashion moderno adj. modern; latest modifcar v. t., prnl. modify, change; be transformed modo m. mood; manner, way mohoso adj. moldy mojado adj. wet, soaked, drenched mojar v. t. wet, soak; dampen, moisten; bribe; take a risk molcajete m. mortar (and pestle) mole m. mass, block, bulk; sauce moler v. t. grind, mill; annoy, bother molestar v. t., prnl. bother, disturb; hurt, upset; be ofended; make the efort mollera f. thick head/skull/brain momento m. moment; time; stage moneda f. coin; currency mono m. monkey, ape; cute, adorable; overalls; craving montaña f. mountain montar v. t., v. i., mount; ride; assemble; stage; beat, whip; get on prnl. monte m. hill; vegetation; forest montés adj. mountain, highland; wild montón m. mound, pile, heap montura f. mount; frame; saddle; assembling mora adj., f. Moorish; berry; arrears morado adj., m. purple; bruise, contusion morder v. t. bite; pinch, catch; etch, cut into; corrode moreno adj. swarthy, tanned; dark haired/skinned moretón m. bruise morillo m. fredog, andiron morir v. i., prnl. die; pass away; be dying morral m. bag, satchel; backpack mosca f. fy moscón m. blowfy; pest, nuisance mostrar v. t., prnl. show, display; express; teach, demonstrate; seem mota f. speck, spot; feck, dot; hillock motivo m. motive, reason, cause; motif motor m. motor, engine; driving force mover v. t., prnl. move; shift; control, drive; activate; budge; leave movimiento m. movement; motion; move; shift; circulation; activity Basic vocabulary of Mexican Spanish 304 mozo m. lad, youth; clerk, waiter, bellboy; servant muchacho, m., f. teenager, young boy/girl; servant -cha mucho adj., adv. a lot; many (pl.); very much; for a long time mudo adj. mute, dumb; silent muela f. molar; millstone; butte muerte f. death; murder; destruction; demise muerto adj., m. dead; lifeless; exhausted; corpse; guilt; drudgery muesca f. slot, notch muestra f. sample; showing; sign, proof; pattern mugriento adj. flthy; disheveled; gross mujer f. woman; wife mula f. mule; drug carrier multiplicar v. t., prnl. multiply; increase, expand; reproduce mundial adj. global, worldwide mundo m. world; experience muñeca f. doll; cutie, sweetie; wrist muñeco m. doll; action fgure; puppet, pushover municipio m. municipality, town, city; town/city council murciélago m. bat murmurar v. t., v. i., murmur, mutter; gossip; rustle, babble; be rumored prnl. muro m. wall músculo m. muscle museo m. museum, gallery musgo m. moss música f. music músico adj., m. musical; musician muslo m. thigh, quadricep muy adv. very; greatly, highly nacer v. i. be born; originate in; rise nacimiento m. birth, hatching; origin; base; source; nativity nación f. nation, country; people nada pron., adv. nothing; void; at all nadar v. i. swim, foat; roll/bask nadie pron. nobody, no one nagual/nahual m. spirit; sorcerer, wizard; shaman nalga f. buttock naranja f. orange naranjo m. orange tree nariz f. nose nativo adj., m. local, indigenous; native natural adj., m., f. natural; fresh; alternative; expected; native person navaja f. knife, razor neblina f. mist, fog necedad f. foolishness, nonsense; stubbornness necesario adj. necessary, required; inevitable necesidad f. need, necessity; urge necesitar v. t. need; miss necio adj., m. stupid, foolish; stubborn 305 negar v. t., prnl. negate, deny; reject, refuse; prohibit negocio m. business; deal; shop, store negro adj. black; upset nervio m. nerve, sinew, gristle, cartilage, tendon; energy, vigor nervioso adj. nervous, anxious, restless ni conj. nor, not even nido m. nest; den, hideout niebla f. fog, mist; blur nieto, -ta m., f. grandson/-daughter nieve f. snow; sherbet nigua f. chigger niña f. girl; daughter; pupil ningún/- adj. none, not any guno niño m. child; boy; son; young, green níspero m. loquat nivel m. level, height; standard nixtamal m. cooked corn dough no adv. no, not noche f. night; darkness, melancholy nodriza f. nursemaid, nanny; supply nombrar v. t. name; designate, appoint; proclaim nombre m. name; reputation; noun nopal m. prickly pear normal adj. normal, ordinary, typical, usual norte m. north, northern; north wind; focal point; goal, aim nos pron. us nosotros pron. we notar v. t. notice, observe; realize, perceive; feel; write down; show noventa adj. ninety; ninetieth novia f. girlfriend; fancée; bride novillo m. heifer, bullock, steer; truant novio m. boyfriend; fancé; groom nube f. cloud; billow; swarm; shroud nublado adj. cloudy, overcast nublar v. t., prnl. cloud, hide, obscure, darken nuca f. nape nudo m. knot; lump; junction; hub, node; crux, heart nuera f. daughter-in-law nuestro adj., pron. our; ours nueve adj. nine; ninth nuevo adj. new; fresh; latest número m. number; lottery ticket; edition, issue; size; act; fuss nunca adv. never, ever o conj. or, or else; either...or obedecer v. t. obey; comply; arise from objeto m. object; objective, aim; trophy; target obligación f. obligation, duty, responsibility; promissory note; debt obligar v. t., prnl. make, force, compel; commit oneself obra f. work; job; construction; deed; workmanship Basic vocabulary of Mexican Spanish 306 obrero adj., m. working; worker, laborer obscuro adj. dark; somber; obscure; cryptic; uncertain observación f. observation; inspection; comment; analysis; keeping observar v. t. observe; see, notice; note; analyze; keep obstruir v. t. obstruct, block; impede, hinder; be blocked/clogged obtener v. t. obtain, get; win; yield ocasión f. occasion, opportunity, chance; reason, cause; bargain ocasionar v. t. cause; incur occidente m. west ochenta adj. eighty; eightieth ocho adj. eight, eighth ocotal m. pine grove ocote m. pine pitch ocultar v. t., prnl. hide, conceal; hide out oculto adj. hidden, secret; mysterious; occult ocupar v. t., prnl. occupy; take up; hold; spend; employ; take on ocurrir v. i., prnl. occur, happen; come to mind oeste m. west; western; westerly ofender v. t., prnl. ofend, cause ofense; take ofense ofcial adj., m. ofcial, confrmed; skilled; ofcer ofcina f. ofce ofcio m. trade, profession; function, purpose; service; record ofrecer v. t., prnl. ofer, provide; promise; give; arise; like; happen ofrenda f. ofering, oblation, sacrifce; gift, present ofrendar v. t. ofer, give oído m. inner/musical ear; hearing oír v. t. hear; listen to ojalá interj. hopefully ojo m. eye; iris; caution; keyhole; knack ola f. wave; front; food; outbreak oler v. t., v. i. smell; stink, reek; suspect, sense olfato m. sense of smell; instinct/nose for olla f. pot, pan; eddy, whirlpool olor m. smell, odor, scent olote m. corncob olvidar v. t., prnl. forget; leave ombligo m. navel; nucleus, hub once adj. eleven, eleventh; team onda f. wave operación f. operation; surgery; deal; calculation operar v. t., v. i., operate; take place; be operated on prnl. opinar v. t. opine; believe, think opinión f. opinion; belief, view; reputation oponer v. t., prnl. oppose; resist; disagree with; object oportunidad f. opportunity, chance; timeliness oprimir v. t. oppress; crush, squeeze; press down/on oración f. prayer; sentence, clause, phrase orar v. i. pray; make a speech orden m. set order 307 orden f. command; religious/commercial order ordenar v. t., prnl. organize, arrange; order, command; be ordained ordeñar v. t. milk oreja f. ear; claw; wing; spy organismo m. organism; organization organización f. organization; society; body orgullo m. pride; self-respect; arrogance orgulloso adj. proud; pleased; vain, arrogant oriente m. orient; east; eastern origen m. origin, beginning; descent, background originario adj. original; initial; primary; native to/of orilla f. edge; bank, shore; rim, lip orina f. urine orinar v. t., v. i., urinate; wet oneself prnl. orla f. border, frame; class photo oro m. gold; coin oruga f. larva, caterpillar; earthmover oscurecer v. t., darken; tone down; make dim/complex; get dark v. imp., prnl. oscuridad f. darkness; un-clarity; ignorance oscuro adj. dark, gloomy, dull; shady, obscure; dismal; unclear oso, osa m. bear otro adj. other; another; next ovejo, -ja m., f. sheep; ram; ewe ovillo m. ball; fetal position ovoide adj. ovoid, egg-shaped óxido m. oxide, rust paciencia f. patience; acceptance paciente adj., m., f. patient; recipient padecer v. t., v. i. sufer, endure; worry padre adj., m. huge; marvelous; father padrino m. patron, sponsor; groomsman; godfather pagar v. t. pay, repay pago m. payment, installment país m. country paisano adj., m. from same place; country folk; civilian; individual paja f. straw, hay; wicker; grass; chaf; padding, fller pájaro m. bird; passerine; dubious pala f. shovel, spade; shovelful; spatula; racket; blade; incisor palabra f. word; promise; foor palacio m. palace, mansion paladar m. palate; taste palangana f. bowl, washbasin paleta f. palette; trowel; lollipop; popsicle; shovel; shoulder blade pálido adj. pallid, pale; faint, feeble palma f. palm; palm tree/leaf palmada f. slap, smack; clap palmear v. t., v. i. pat; clap Basic vocabulary of Mexican Spanish 308 palo m. stick; mast; beating; suit; club paloma f. dove, pigeon; meek person palomita f. popcorn; full-length dive palpar v. t. palpate, feel, touch pan m. bread; living; leaf, foil panal m. honeycomb; hexagon paño m. cloth; rag; material pantalón m. trousers, pants pantano m. swamp, marsh, bog; reservoir pantanoso adj. swampy, marshy; puddly; difcult, complicated pantorrilla f. calf pañuelo m. handkerchief; shawl, scarf panza f. paunch; belly; rumen papa m., f. pope; potato; fb papá m. father, dad papamoscas m. fycatcher; simpleton papel m. paper; document; role, part, function paquete m. package, parcel; wrapper; burden, responsibility par adj., m. even; paired, twin; pair, couple, few, couple; equal, peer para prep. to; for parado adj. standing; in good/bad shape paraguas m. umbrella; safety net paralizado adj. paralyzed; halted parar v. t., v. i., stop; intercept; stand prnl. parche m. patch; drumhead; blotch parecer v. i., prnl. appear, seem; be similar/alike parecido adj., m. similar; imagined; likeness, resemblance pared f. wall; lining; slope pareja f. couple, pair; partner parejo adj. similar, on a par with; level, even pariente m., f. relative, kin parir v. t., v. i. create, fashion; give birth párpado m. eyelid parque m. park; depot; ammunition parrilla f. grill, broiler; grid; schedule parte f. part, portion; notice, report partero, -ra m., f. OBGYN, midwife participar v. t., v. i. participate; share; announce particular adj. private, personal, individual; odd, peculiar, unusual partido m. political party; game, match, competition partir v. t., v. i., divide, share; leave, depart; break/split open prnl. pasado adj., m. past; old-fashioned; overcooked; expired; the past pasaje m. passage; ticket; passageway; text pasar v. t., v. i., pass; cross; smuggle; enter; proceed; happen; miss prnl. pasear v. i., prnl. go for walk; travel, ride; amble, stroll; drive around paseo m. promenade; walk, stroll; outing paso adj., m. dried; step, pace; walkway, path; passage; pitch 309 pasto m. pasture; grass pata f. leg, paw; female duck patada f. kick patear v. t., v. i., kick, boot; stamp; mistreat; trudge, tramp prnl. patio m. patio, courtyard; playground; orchestra section patrio adj., f. native; national; homeland patrón m. patron; boss, owner; master, mistress; skipper; pattern paz f. peace pecado m. sin; crime; guilty pleasure pecar v. i. sin; err, transgress; succumb pecho m. chest; breast pecoso adj. freckled pedazo m. piece, chunk, bit pedir v. t. ask for, request, order; demand, expect; need, want pedregal m. rocky/stony ground pegajoso adj. sticky; clingy; humid; catchy pegar v. t., v. i., hit, strike; stick, glue; move closer; beat; stick; be burnt prnl. peinar v. t., prnl. brush, comb; rake; clear; scour; style peine m. comb; truth of the matter pelar v. t., prnl. peel, shuck; cut hair; pluck; run away pelea f. fght; argument, quarrel pelear v. i., prnl. fght, compete; strive; argue, quarrel; be rivals peleonero adj., m. quarrelsome; troublemaker, bully peligro m. danger, risk, threat peligroso adj. dangerous, risky; violent pellizcar v. t., prnl. pinch; pick at pelo m. hair, fur; fuzz, down pelón adj. bald; close-cropped peluquero, m., f. barber; hair stylist; wig merchant -ra pena f. pity, sorrow; shame; sentence, punishment; difculty peñasco m. crag, rock; pinnacle peñascoso adj. craggy, rocky penca f. main rib; feshy leaf pene m. penis penetrar v. t., v. i., penetrate, pierce; seep, soak; spread, permeate; delve prnl. pensamiento m. thought; thinking; pansy pensar v. t. think; believe; intend, plan peor adj., adv. worse/worst pepenar v. t. pick up; search through; snatch; steal pequeño adj. little, small; short; young; minor; slight, tiny percibir v. t. perceive, sense; notice, make out; discern; receive perder v. t., v. i., lose; waste, leak; miss; sink; be lost prnl. pérdida f. loss; leak; waste; death perdón m. pardon; forgiveness; absolution; write of perdonar v. t. pardon; forgive; condone; waive, cancel; go without Basic vocabulary of Mexican Spanish 310 perezoso adj. lazy, idle, slothful; slow perfecto adj. perfect, faultless; ideal; total, complete periodo m. period, term; cycle perjudicar v. t. harm, damage; malign, slander; make things worse permanecer v. i. remain, stay permiso m. permission; leave; permit, license permitir v. t., prnl. permit, allow; aford pero conj. but perro, -ra m., f. dog; pig; idler perseguir v. t. pursue, chase; follow; harass, hound; persecute persignarse prnl. cross oneself persona f. person personal adj., m. personal, individual, own; personnel, staf personalidad f. personality; persona, facade; dignitary, celebrity personifcar v. t. personify; embody pertenecer v. i. belong to; be responsibility of pesado adj. heavy; slow; deep; boring; annoying pesar v. t., v. i., weigh; regret; infuence prnl. pescado m. dead fsh pescar v. t. fsh; hook; catch, get; catch on pescuezo m. neck peso m. weight; burden pestaña f. eyelash; tab, fap petaca f. suitcase petate m. mat; bedroll; baggage, kit; palm frond pez m. live fsh; pitch, tar picante adj. spicy, hot; sharp; racy picar v. t., v. i., bite, sting; break, chip; mince, chop; nibble, peck; goad, prnl. prod; itch, tickle; corrode; be spicy; fall, get hooked ... pico m. pick; peak; bill, beak; mouth, lip; and a bit; fortune picoso adj. hot, spicy pie m. foot; base; bottom, end piedra f. rock, stone; hailstone; millstone; piece, chunk piel f. skin; peel; leather pierna f. leg; haunch pieza f. piece, part; room; object; catch, kill; play pila f. pile; stack, heap; sink, basin, bowl; battery piloncillo m. brown sugar /pinole piña f. pineapple; pine cone pino m. pine tree; bowling pin pintar v. t., v. i., paint; draw; describe; seem; wear makeup; leave prnl. pinto adj. dappled, spotted, mottled pintura f. paint; painting; crayon, colored pencil piojo m. louse; nit; ugly person; burr piojoso adj. lousy; lowlife, scum pipa f. pipe; seed; tanker truck; pistol pisar v. t. step/walk on; crush, trample 311 piso m. foor; story; apartment; ground pista f. path, trail, track; clue, hint; dance foor; court, rink pistola f. pistol, handgun; spray gun; hair dryer pitar v. t., v. i. whistle, honk, beep; boo, hiss; referee; go, work pizca f. pinch, bit, smidgen; harvest pizcar v. t. pinch, nip; pick, harvest placer m. pleasure, enjoyment, recreation; sandbank plan m. plan; course, program; date, afair; level, height plancha f. iron; griddle, pan; sheet, plate plano adj., m. level, fat; blueprint, map; shot, scene; plane planta f. plant; foor; factory; sole plantar v. t., prnl. plant; seed; place, put; abandon; stand frm plata f. silver; silverware; silver-colored; money, cash plataforma f. platform; deck; movement plátano m. banana; banana tree plática f. talk, chat platicar v. i. talk, chat; gab, yak plato m. plate; plateful, helping; dish; clay pigeon; turntable playa f. beach plaza f. plaza, square; market; job, post; seat, place; stronghold plazo m. period, window; deadline, due date; installment pleito m. fght, quarrel, feud, dispute; lawsuit pleno adj., m. full, in middle/height of; plenary session pluma f. plume, feather; quill, pen; boom; author, writer plumaje m. plumage población f. population, residents; populated place poblar v. t., prnl. populate, settle, inhabit; fll, crowd; be awash pobre adj. poor; indigent; unfortunate poco adj., pron. not much, not many; little bit; few; not long podar v. t. prune, trim; remove, cut out poder v. t., v. i. be able to; can continue; put up with; overcome poderoso adj. powerful; strong, mighty; well of policía m., f. police force; police ofcer político adj., m. political; in-law; politician pollero m. poultry man pollo m. chicken; chick; kid, youngster polvo m. dust; powder pólvora f. gunpowder; instigator, hothead polvoriento adj. dusty, powdery pomada f. ointment, salve, cream ponchar v. t. puncture; strike out poner v. t., prnl. put, place; lay, set; make, put on; open, establish; impose; apply oneself; call, name; become poniente adj., m. setting; west, western popular adj. popular; common; working-class por prep. for; to; by, through; times porque conj. because porqué m. reason, cause portar v. t., prnl. port; carry, bear; behave porvenir m. future Basic vocabulary of Mexican Spanish 312 poseer v. t. possess, have, own posesión f. possession; property, land; occupation posible adj. possible, feasible poste m. post, pole potencia f. potency, strength, power; prowess, capacity pozo m. well; discard pile pozol m. corn drink pozole m. corn stew prado m. feld, meadow; lawn, grass precio m. price, rate, fare; cost preciso adj. precise, accurate; necessary, essential; very; exact precoz adj. precocious; premature; early; immature preguntar v. t., prnl. ask, inquire; wonder prenda f. garment; collateral prender v. t., v. i. fasten, attach; ignite, start; capture; take root preocupar v. t., prnl. interest; concern; worry preparar v. t., prnl. prepare; make; train; get ready presentar v. t., prnl. introduce; present; host; show up; report to presente adj., m. current; present presidente, adj., m., f. presiding; president; chairperson -ta preso adj., m. overwhelmed; prisoner prestar v. t., prnl. lend; give, provide; ofer, volunteer pretender v. t. hope, expect; court, woo; claim prevenir v. t., prnl. prevent; anticipate; warn, alert; prepare; get ready prieto adj. tight-ftting; dark-colored prima f. female cousin; bonus; premium primario adj. primary, prime; primitive primavera f. springtime; primrose primero adj. frst; best; main, primary primo m. male cousin; prime number principal adj. principal, main, chief principio m. start; principle prisa f. rush, hurry, urgency probable adj. probably, likely; credible, provable probar v. t., prnl. taste; test; prove; try on problema m. problem; issue; worry, concern proceso m. process; trial procurar v. t., prnl. obtain; ensure; try to get producción f. production; output; producers producir v. t., prnl. produce; make, generate; present, deliver; happen producto m. product; result profesión f. profession; occupation; declaration; working profesor m. professor, teacher, lecturer profundidad f. depth; profundity; bottom, depths profundo adj. deep; profound; in the depths of progenitura f. ofspring progreso m. progress; improvement, growth; development, advance prohibir v. t. prohibit, bar, forbid, ban prójimo m. neighbor, friend; fellow man 313 promedio m. average; middle, mid point prometer v. t., v. i., promise, pledge, assure; have promise; get engaged prnl. promover v. t. promote, foster, sponsor; provoke, cause; fle suit pronto adj., adv. prompt; quick, rapid; ready; quickly, early, soon pronunciar v. t., prnl. pronounce; articulate; utter; declare oneself; take stance propagar v. t., prnl. propagate, expand, spread; proliferate propiedad f. property; characteristic, attribute; land; propriety propio adj. one's own; typical; appropriate; him-/her-/itself proporcionar v. t. provide, supply; adapt, cater propósito m. purpose, intent proteger v. t. protect provecho m. proft; beneft, advantage provisión f. provision, supply próximo adj. close, near; next, coming prueba f. proof; evidence; test; event; rehearsal publicar v. t. publish; disclose, divulge público adj., m. public; audience, crowd pudrir v. t., prnl. spoil, decompose; corrode, eat away; go bad; languish pueblo m. village, town; people, nation; working class puente m. bridge; arch; long weekend puerco adj., m. disgusting, nasty; flthy, dirty; pig, sow, hog, swine puerta f. door, gate; doorway puerto m. port, harbor; pass, gateway; refuge, haven pues conj., since, as, so; well interj. puesto adj., m. well-dressed; well-informed; position; place; stand, stall pulga f. fea pulgar adj., m. thumb; big toe pulmón m. lung pulque m. fermented agave drink puñetazo m. fst punch puño m. fst; cuf; handle, hilt; handful punta f. point; tip, sharp end; top puntiagudo adj. sharp, pointed punto m. point, mark; dot, spot; period; stitch; item purifcar v. t., prnl. purify; be purifed puro adj., m. pure; mere; cigar que pron., conj. what; that; than qué pron., adv. what, which; how much quebradizo adj. fragile, breakable; brittle quebrado adj. uneven, rough; shaky; bankrupt quebrar v. t., v. i., break, fracture; go bankrupt prnl. quedar v. i., prnl. remain, be left; be located; settle on; ft; stay quejarse prnl. complain; groan, moan quelite m. pigweed; amaranth quemar v. t., v. i., burn; wilt, wither; scorch, scald; lose favor prnl. querer v. t. want, wish for; accept; love, like Basic vocabulary of Mexican Spanish 314 queso m. cheese quien pron. who; whoever; nobody quién pron. who, whom quieto adj. still; motionless; tranquil quijada f. jawbone quince adj. ffteen; ffteenth quitar v. t., prnl. remove, take away; steal, snatch; get out of the way quizá(s) adv. perhaps, maybe rábano m. radish; slightest bit rabia f. rabies; rage, fury rabioso adj. rabid; enraged, furious rabo m. tail; corner of one's eye racimo m. bunch, cluster; migraine raíz f. root; cause, origin rajadura f. crack, split rajar v. t., v. i., cut, slice, slash; slander, criticize; split apart; back out prnl. rama f. branch, limb rana f. frog; creeper, romper rancho m. ranch, farm; mess, meal rápido adj., adv., fast, quick; brief; quickly; express train; rapids (pl.) m. raro adj. rare, strange, odd, weird rascar v. t., v. i., scratch, scrape; scour, scrub; dig up; strum prnl. rasgar v. t., prnl. tear, rip; strum rasguñar v. t. scratch rasguño m. scratch raspar v. t., v. i. scrape, graze; be rough/sharp; be scratchy, feel rough rasposo adj. rough, scratchy, raspy; sharp-tasting rasurar v. t., prnl. shave rata f. rat; despicable/contemptible person ratero adj., m. despicable, vile; thief rato m. a little while; a moment ratón m. mouse raya f. line; stripe; dash rayado adj. striped; scratched; ruled; grated; screwy, nutty rayar v. t., v. i., scratch; dawn; verge on; get lucky prnl. rayo m. ray, beam; lightning bolt; spoke raza f. race; breed; class razón f. reason; reasoning; ratio real adj. real, true; royal realidad f. reality, fact realizar v. t., prnl. realize, achieve; make, direct; carry out; fulfll oneself rebajar v. t., prnl. reduce, lower; dilute, thin; humiliate; surrender rebasar v. t. overfow; overtake, pass; leave behind rebelión f. rebellion, uprising rebozo m. shawl rebuznar v. i. bray; speak insultingly 315 rebuzno m. bray, heehaw recado m. message, note; errand recargar v. t. recharge, refll, reload; increase, raise; overdo; clutter rechazar v. t. reject; repel; turn down; keep out rechinar v. i. grind; irritate, grate on recibir v. t., prnl. receive, accept; see, welcome; draw from; graduate reciente adj. recent; fresh recio adj., adv. robust, sturdy, hardy; tough, harsh; strongly, grufy reclamar v. t., v. i. claim, demand; require, need; complain recoger v. t., prnl. collect, gather; pick/roll/fold up; harvest; go home recomendar v. t. recommend, suggest, advise reconciliar v. t., prnl. reconcile; bring (back) together; make up; be reconciled reconocer v. t., prnl. recognize; appreciate; acknowledge; concede; examine recordar v. t., prnl. remind; recall, remember; be remembered recorrer v. t. go down/across/through/over; traverse; look over recoser v. t. stitch up, darn recto adj., m. straight; upright; fair; rectum recuerdo m. memory; memento recuperar v. t., prnl. recuperate, recover; make up; normalize; repeat recurso m. resource, means; appeal red f. net; trap, lure; system, network, grid redondo adj. round, circular; perfect; rotund; proftable reducido adj. reduced, limited reducir v. t., prnl. reduce; lessen, curb; shorten, trim; suppress oneself reemplazar v. t. replace referencia f. reference; mention; account; model referir v. t., prnl. refer; relate, recount; allude to refejar v. t., prnl. refect; be refected; bounce of refejo m. refection; refex reformar v. t., prnl. reform; correct; remodel; mend one's ways refresco m. refreshment; soft drink regalar v. t., prnl. give; award; treat oneself regañar v. t., v. i. reprimand, scold; quarrel, bicker regar v. t. irrigate; fow through; spill; scatter, separate registrar v. t., prnl. register; record; sign; show; occur, happen; enroll registro m. register; record; search regla f. rule, principle; ruler, straightedge; monthly period regresar v. t., v. i. return; give/take back; go/come back regreso m. return regular adj. regular; ordinary, mediocre; stable, steady regular v. t. regulate; adjust; standardize; make normal rehusar v. t. refuse; deny; turn down, pass up reinar v. i. reign, rule; dominate, prevail; take over reír v. i., prnl. laugh; ridicule, scof at; disregard, ignore relación f. relationship; connection, link; list, roster; ratio relacionar v. t., prnl. relate; connect; implicate; interact with; be friendly to relajo m. rest, relaxation; laxity; peace, bliss; mess relámpago m. lightning; bundle of energy; whirlwind relampaguear v. i. fash relativo adj. relative, relating; debatable, arguable; minor, trivial Basic vocabulary of Mexican Spanish 316 religioso adj., m., f. religious; priest; nun relinchar v. i. neigh, whinny relleno adj., m. stufed; stufng, padding remar v. t. row remedio m. remedy, solution; medicine remendar v. t. remedy; correct, sort out; mend; patch; remojar v. t. soak; steep; be soaked remolino m. whirlwind; eddy; cowlick; disturbance, commotion renacuajo m. tadpole; little guy rendimiento m. yield, output; capacity, efciency; performance rendir v. t., v. i., defeat; exhaust; produce; serve; admit; give in prnl. reñir v. t., v. i. tell of; fght, squabble renquear v. i. limp, hobble; sputter reparar v. t., v. i. repair; correct; notice repartir v. t., prnl. divide up, distribute; deliver; spread out, split up repasar v. t., prnl. review; revise; go over, look at; fuf up; sleep with repetir v. t., v. i., repeat; do/say again; imitate, mimic; retake; burp; recur prnl. reponer v. t., prnl. replace; rerun, revive; reinstate; recover reposar v. i. rest; take break; stand, settle; be buried reprender v. t. reprimand; reprehend representante m., f. representative; agent; manager; salesperson representar v. t. represent; portray; exemplify; seem to be; stand for requerir v. t. require; need, demand; summon, request res f. livestock; cattle; beef resbaladizo adj. slippery; delicate, sensitive resbalar v. i., prnl. slip, slide; run, trickle; slip up, blunder resbaloso adj. slippery resecar v. t. dry out; remove, cut of reseco adj. arid, parched; gaunt; dry, cold residencia f. residence; home; mansion; retirement/nursing home resina f. resin, gum resistente adj. resistant; tough; durable; resilient resistir v. t., v. i., resist; last, hold out; oppose, fght back prnl. resollar v. i. pant, puf resolver v. t., prnl. resolve; decide; settle; made up one's mind resonar v. i. resound; echo; reverberate respetar v. t. respect; observe; obey; have concern for respeto m. respect, admiration, esteem respirar v. i. breath; relax responder v. t., v. i. respond; reply; react; contradict responsable adj., m. responsible; in charge; culprit resto m. rest, remainder; return resucitar v. t., v. i. revive; recover; resurrect resultar v. i. result; emerge; become; seem; turn out retirado adj. isolated, solitary; retired retirar v. t., prnl. move away; leave, go away; go to bed; retire retoñar v. i. sprout again 317 retoño m. shoot, sprout; little one, tot retozar v. i. romp, frolic; smooch, make out retratar v. t., prnl. paint, draw, sketch; photograph; portray, depict; pay up retrato m. portrait; photograph reunión f. reunion, gathering, meeting reunir v. t., prnl. gather; join; muster; get together; collect reventar v. i., prnl. burst; break, crash; wear out; infuriate; explode, shatter revés m. setback, misfortune; backhand revisar v. t. inspect, examine, review; revise; service revivir v. t., v. i. revive; rekindle, relive; bring/come back to life revolcar v. t., prnl. knock over, send rolling; humiliate; roll around, wallow revolver v. t., prnl. stir, toss; turn; examine; turn on; writhe, squirm revuelto adj. scrambled; messy; unsettled; turbid; turbulent rey m. king, monarch rezar v. t. pray; recite, say rezo m. prayer, praying ricino m. castor oil; castor oil plant rico adj., m. rich, wealthy; delicious, succulent riesgo m. danger, threat, risk riesgoso adj. dangerous, risky rígido adj. rigid, stif; fxed, frozen; severe, strict rincón m. corner; hideout, retreat; neck of the woods río m. river, stream riqueza f. wealth; riches (pl.) risa f. laugh, laughter risueño adj. smiling, beaming; cheerful, smiley; promising, bright ritmo m. rhythm, beat, tempo; rate, pace rito m. rite, ritual robar v. t. rob, steal; kidnap, abduct; draw; captivate roble m. oak; strong person robo m. robbery, theft; stolen goods roca f. rock, stone; cold heart rociar v. t., v. i. spray, sprinkle; strew, scatter; fall as dew rocío m. dew, dew drops; mist, spray rodar v. t., v. i. shoot, flm; roll; circulate; roam rodear v. t., v. i. enclose, surround; go around; surround oneself with rodilla f. knee, knee joint; hock joint, stife roer v. t. gnaw, chew; eat away/into rogar v. t. beg, plead, pray rojo adj. red romper v. t., v. i. break, tear, rip; wear out; break out; shatter; take break roncar v. i. snore; roar ronronear v. i. purr ropa f. clothes, clothing, garments rosa adj., f. pink, rose-colored; rose rostro m. face, countenance; image, picture; nerve, audacity rozar v. t., prnl. graze, skim; chafe, rub; reach, touch; have contact with rubio adj. blond, blonde; blond tobacco; sea robin, gurnard ruda adj. rude, severe; rough, sharp rueda f. wheel, tire, caster; circle; cartwheel Basic vocabulary of Mexican Spanish 318 rugir v. i. roar, bellow; rumble ruido m. noise; commotion, uproar rumbo m. direction, path; course, heading rumiar v. t. ruminate, chew the cud; ponder, brood; grumble, moan sábado m. Saturday sábana f. bed sheet; savannah saber v. t., v. i. know; have favor; saber m. knowledge, wisdom sábila f. century plant sabino m. Mexican drooping juniper; Mexican bald cypress sabio adj., m. wise, intelligent; sensible; sage sabor m. favor, taste saborear v. t., prnl. savor, taste; enjoy, relish sabroso adj. tasty, favorful; juicy, salacious sacar v. t., v. i. remove; extract; subtract; get, achieve; serve sacerdote m. priest saciar v. t., prnl. quench, sate; fulfll, satisfy saco m. sack, bag; sackful, bagful; coat, jacket sacrifcar v. t., prnl. sacrifce, give up; slaughter; put down; abstain sacrifcio m. sacrifce, ofering; slaughter sacudir v. t., prnl. shake up/of; shock; dump sagrado adj. sacred sal f. salt; spark, vivacity salado adj. salted, salty salida f. exit; solution; end; release; trip; departure; staring line salir v. i., prnl. leave; come out; arise; play; date; sprout; take after; escape; leak; overfow; resign; recuse oneself saliva f. saliva, spit, drool salpicar v. t., prnl. splash, spray; spread, sprinkle; touch, afect salsa f. sauce, gravy; salsa; life, spice saltamontes m. grasshopper saltar v. i., prnl. jump, leap, spring, skip; sound of; lose temper; breach salud f. health saludar v. t. greet; salute salvaje adj. wild, feral; ferce, ferocious; savage, violent; intense salvar v. t., prnl. save; overcome; escape; get out of sanar v. t., v. i. cure, heal; recuperate sangrar v. t., v. i. bleed; phlebotomize; indent sangre f. blood; family; killing sano adj. healthy; good, wholesome; whole, intact santo adj., m. saintly, virtuous; innocent; utter; other half; name day sapo m. toad; rat, snitch sarna f. mange, scabies sastre, -ra m., f. tailor, dressmaker satisfacción f. satisfaction; settlement, compensation satisfacer v. t. satisfy, gratify; meet, fulfll; compensate, recompense satisfecho adj. satisfed; full, stufed; paid of savia f. sap; vitality, energy sazonar v. t., prnl. season; ripen; mature se pron. him-/her-/itself; each/one another 319 sebo m. tallow, fat, grease secar v. t., prnl. dry; run dry; heal over sección f. section, division, department seccionar v. t. divide; cut of seco adj. dry; dried; withered; arid; scrawny; stif; sharp; blank secretario, -ia m., f. secretary; clerk; chief of staf secreto adj.. m. secret, hidden secundario adj., m. secondary; supporting; side efect sed f. thirst, thirsty; hunger segador, -ra adj., m., f. reaping; reaper, mower seguido adj., adv. following; non-stop; directly; frequently, regularly seguir v. t., prnl. follow; chase, pursue; understand; continue según prep., conj. according to; as soon as; depending on; just as segundo, -da adj., m., f. second; second-in-command seguridad f. safety, security; certainty, assurance; conviction seguro adj., m. secure, safe; certain; reliable; lock; insurance seis adj. six, sixth semana f. week; weekdays sembrar v. t. sow, plant; spread, scatter semejante adj., m. similar, like; such, so much; neighbor semilla f. seed; germ, spark seña f. sign; clue; gesture; mark señal f. signal; sign; gesture; indication; mark; trait señalar v. t., prnl. mark, tag; note, point out; fx, decide on; stand out sencillo adj., m. simple; easy; plain; modest; natural; single senda f. path, route; footsteps seno m. breast, bust; bosom, womb; heart, core; sinus; inlet, bay señor adj., m. man, woman; Mr., Mrs.; lord, lady, master, mistress señor, -ra m., f. major, tremendous; God señorita f. young woman/lady; madam, miss; virgin sensible adj. sensitive; profound, deep; clear, appreciable sentado adj. seated, sitting; set down sentar v. t., prnl. seat; set, lay; establish; agree with; settle; sit down sentido adj., m. sensitive; heartfelt; sense; meaning; way; consciousness sentimiento m. sentiment, feeling, emotion sentir v. t., prnl. sense; feel, hear, taste; feel sorry; get upset sentir m. feeling; thoughts separación f. separation; distance; diference separar v. t., prnl. separate; divide; isolate; classify; leave; divorce sepulcro m. bury; inter; hide; be absorbed; retreat sepultar v. t., prnl. tomb, sepulcher sequía f. drought; dry spell ser v. i. be; serve as ser m. being; person serio adj. serious; grave; earnest; reliable, trustworthy serrucho m. hand saw servicio m. service; place setting; servants; lavatory servidor, -ra m., f. server; servant servilleta f. napkin Basic vocabulary of Mexican Spanish 320 servir v. t., v. i., serve; work; provide; help oneself; make use of prnl. sesenta adj. sixty, sixtieth setenta adj. seventy, seventieth severo adj. severe; stern, strict; grave, serious sexo m. sex; genitals si conj. if, whether; if only; but sí adv., m. yes; approval sí pron. your-/him-/her-/itself, your-/themselves siembra f. sowing; sowing time; cultivated land siempre adv. always, habitually; every time, whenever sierra f. mountains, mountain range; saw siete adj. seven, seventh siglo m. century; ages, forever signifcado adj., m. signifcant, important; meaning, sense signifcar v. t., v. i. signify; mean; indicate; mark siguiente adj. next, following silbar v. t., v. i. whistle; boo, hiss, jeer silencio m. silence; pause; rest silla f. seat, chair; saddle silvestre adj. wild; native, indigenous; ordinary; rustic simpatía f. liking, likeability; friendliness, charm simple adj. simple, easy; single; ordinary; naive, foolish sin prep. without sincero adj. sincere; true; deep síndico m. ofcial receiver, liquidator; administrator, representative sino prep., conj. but, except, save, only siquiera adv., conj. at least, even; even if/though sitio m. site, location, place; room, space; siege situación f. situation, condition; setting, location; position, standing sobar v. t. handle, feel, rub; squeeze, knead; fondle, paw, grope soberano, -na adj., m., f. sovereign; heavy, extreme; king, queen soberbia adj., f. superb, magnifcent; pride, arrogance sobrar v. i. be extra/left over; exceed; be useless sobre prep., m. over, above; on top of; around, about; envelope sobrino, -na m., f. nephew, niece sociedad f. society, community; company, partnership soga f. rope sol m. sun, sunlight; angel, darling solamente adv. only, just solar adj., m. solar; site, plot; ancestral home, lineage soler v. t. be accustomed to; tend to; used to solicitar v. t. request, ask for; seek, apply for solitario adj. solitary, lone; deserted, lonely; reserved solo adj., m. alone; lone, single; black; solo soltar v. t., prnl. release; drop; deliver; lose; let go; start to soltero, -ra adj., m., f. single, unmarried; along, by oneself; bachelor, spinster sombra f. shade, shading; shadow, shadowing sombrero m. hat someter v. t., prnl. subdue, suppress, subject; submit for/to; obey 321 son m. sound; pace sonaja f. rattle; jingle sonar v. t., v. i., sound; ring; seem familiar; blow one's nose prnl. soñar v. i. dream sonido m. sound; tone sonreír v. i. smile sonrisa f. smile sopa f. soup; bread sop soplador m. blower; blowing soplar v. i., prnl. blow; whisper; blow away/of; inform on; endure soportar v. t. support; bear, stand sordo adj., m. deaf; mufed; dull sorprender v. t., prnl. surprise; amaze, astonish, catch by surprise; be surprised sorpresa f. surprise sospechar v. t. suspect; suppose, imagine sostener v. t., prnl. hold; have; maintain; uphold; stand; be viable soyate m. palmetto; fan palm su adj. his, her; its; their suave adj. soft; smooth; gentle; pleasant; sweet subida f. ascent, incline; rise, increase subido adj. mounted, perched; high; bright, intense; loud subir v. t., v. i., climb; scale; raise, lift; upload; rise, increase; get on prnl. subsistencia f. subsistence, survival subsistir v. i. survive; linger succionar v. t. suck on, draw out; absorb; suckle suceder v. t., v. i. succeed; follow; occur, happen sucio adj. dirty, flthy; messy; shabby, slovenly; shameful; shady sudadero, -ra m., f. sweatshirt, hoodie; saddle blanket; hard sweat sudar v. t., v. i. sweat; exude; perspire sudor m. sweat, perspiration; efort, hard work sudoroso adj. sweaty suegro, -ra m., f. father-in-law, mother-in-law sueldo m. salary, wage, pay suelo m. ground; land; foor sueño m. dream; sleep suerte f. luck; fortune; fuke; chance; fate sufciente adj. sufcient, enough; smug, condescending sufrimiento m. sufering sufrir v. t. sufer; endure; undergo; sustain suma f. sum, amount; addition sumar v. t., prnl. add; equal; join; adhere to sumo adj.. m. supreme; extreme, great superfcial adj. superfcial; frivolous superfcie f. surface; space, area superior adj. superior; greater; upper súplica f. petition, request; plea, entreaty suplicar v. t. ask, request; beg, plead suponer v. t. suppose; imagine; entail Basic vocabulary of Mexican Spanish 322 supuesto adj. supposed, assumed; reputed, alleged sur m. south, southern surco m. furrow; wrinkle, crease; line, groove; rut, track surgir v. i. come/issue from; arise, emerge; appear suspirar v. i. sigh suspiro m. sigh; fash susto m. fright, shock, scare susurrar v. t., v. i. whisper; mutter, mumble; rustle suyo adj. odd, strange; peculiar, eccentric; typical suyo pron. yours; his, hers, one's; theirs tabaco m. tobacco; cigarettes; light-brown tabla f. board, plank; slab, counter; panel painting; table, index tacanear v. t. pound; crush, tread down taco m. peg, dowel; cue; pad; heel; cleat; stud; profanity; taco tal adj., adv. such; some; just as talega f. sack, bag; cash talla f. size; height, stature; sculpture, carving; class, standing tallar v. t. sculpt, carve; engrave; measure tallo m. stem, stalk talón m. heel; check tamal m. mess, muddle; tamale tamaño adj., m. so large a; such a; size también adv. too, also, as well tambor m. drum; cylinder; eardrum; drummer; tambour tan adv. so, such, as tanto adj., adv. so much, so many; so long tapar v. t. cover; wrap; hide, conceal; fll in; plug/clog up tapete m. mat, rug, carpet; tablecloth; nothing, rubbish tapón m. top, cap, lid; gauze; blockage, plug; ear wax; trafc jam tardar v. i., prnl. take time; be late tarde adv., f. late; afternoon tarea f. task, job, work; assignment; homework, schoolwork tartamudo adj., m. who stutters, who stammers tatemar v. t. pit roast taza f. cup, mug; cupful, mugful; toilet bowl te pron. you (fam.) té m. tea tea f. torch techo m. roof; ceiling técnico m. technician; expert, specialist; coach, trainer; repairman teja f. roof tile; russet; terracotta; petit four; ornamental comb tejer v. t. weave, spin; knit, crochet; hatch plan tejido m. weave, texture; cloth, fabric; weaving, knitting; tissue tejón m. coati tela f. fabric; clothing; web; foater; painting canvas telaraña f. cobweb; web, net; tangle tema m. theme; topic, subject; issue, mater; song, composition temazcal, m. sauna; bathing room temascal temblar v. i., v. t. tremble; shiver; shake; shudder 323 temblor m. trembling; tremor, earthquake temer v. t., v. i., fear, be afraid of; worry, suspect; be frightened prnl. temeroso adj. afraid, scared; fearful, frightened; God-fearing tempestad f. tempest, storm; turmoil temporada f. season; period temprano adj., adv. premature; early, soon tenate m. palm basket tendencia f. tendency, inclination; trend, movement tender v. t., v. i., hang up; lay out; hand, pass; tend to; approach; recline prnl. tener v. t. have; hold; be age; must teñir v. t. dye, tint; stain, tinge; lighten; become color tensión f. tension, tautness; strain, stress; blood pressure tentar v. t. feel; try, test, prove; goad; tempt tepalcate m. pottery shard tercero adj., m. third; mediator terco adj. stubborn, obstinate; hard to work termal adj. thermal, hot terminar v. t., v. i., fnish; end; come to end; fnish/break of prnl. término m. term; end; period; place; limit; stipulation; element terreno m. land, plot; feld; area; sphere; pitch terrible adj. terrible; awful; dreadful; incredible territorio m. territory; home turf; comfort zone terrón m. clod; cube, lump; dregs tesorero, -ra m., f. treasurer; bursar; sacristan testigo m. witness; sign, indication ti pron. you (fam.) tibio adj. warm; tepid; indiferent tiempo m. time; weather; moment; halftime; cycle; tense tienda f. store, shop; tent tierno adj. tender; soft; afectionate; undercooked; inexperienced tierra f. ground; foor; soil; earth; dry land tijera f. cut; edit; cutback; scissors (pl.) tímido adj. timid, shy; faint, feeble timón m. rudder, helm, tiller; beam, shaft tinaja f. clay pot/vessel/jar tinta f. ink; dye tío, tía m., f. uncle, aunt; guy, chick tipo m. type, kind; emblem; build; dude, dame tira f. strip, band tirado adj. stranded; sprawled tirano adj., m. tyrannical, despotic; tyrant; brute tirar v. t., v. i. throw; drop; shoot; print; waste; run; throw oneself prnl. tiznar v. t. blacken; smudge, stain, tarnish tizne m. soot, smut tlacuache m. opossum toalla f. towel, toweling Basic vocabulary of Mexican Spanish 324 tobillo m. ankle tocar v. t., v. i. touch; play; reach; mention; be one's turn tocón, -na adj., m., f. grabby; toucher, groper; fdgeter, wriggler todavía adv. still, yet; even so todo adj., pron. whole, entire; each, every; all tomar v. t., v. i., take; grab; capture; catch; get; drink prnl. tomate m. tomato; hole; fuss, mess tonelada f. metric ton; a lot of tono m. tone; voice; sound, signal; color, hue; tenor, mood tonto adj. stupid, dumb; foolish, silly; slow-/dim-witted topo m. mole; spy torbellino m. whirlwind; dust devil; bundle of energy/emotion torcer v. t., prnl. twist, turn; bend, curve; contort; sprain; buckle tormenta f. storm tormento m. torment, anguish; torture toro m. bull; forklift torpe adj. stupid, dumb; inept, awkward; hopeless, clumsy tortear v. t., v. i. make tortillas; clap, applaud tortilla f. tortilla, corn fatbread tórtola f. turtledove tortuga f. tortoise, turtle tos f. cough toser v. t., v. i. bully; cough tosferina f. whopping cough tostar v. t., prnl. toast; brown; tan; overcook, be burnt total adj., adv. total, whole, complete; all in all, in short trabajador, adj., m., f. hard-working, industrious; worker -ra trabajar v. i., prnl. work; manipulate trabajo m. work; job; labor; assignment tradición f. tradition, custom tradicional adj. traditional; conservative traducir v. t., prnl. translate; explain; clarify; turn into, become traer v. t., prnl. bring; wear; publish; pass; go on tragar v. t., prnl. shallow; gulp, guzzle; put up with; suppress; fall for traje m. garment; suit; dress; costume, garb trampa f. trap, snare; trick tranquilo adj. tranquil, serene, calm, peaceful; quiet transformar v. t., prnl. transform; change; renovate; turn into transparente adj. transparent; sheer; obvious transportar v. t., prnl. transport, move, carry; transpose; captivate; mesmerize transporte m. transportation; freight; delivery trapiche m. press, mill; crusher tráquea f. trachea, windpipe tras prep. behind; after tratamiento m. treatment; process; courtesy; form of address tratar v. t., v. i. treat; address; deal with, handle; try to; be about travieso adj. restless, lively; mischievous, naughty; clever, witty trazar v. t. trace, draw; sketch, outline; design, devise 325 trece adj. thirteen, thirteenth treinta adj. thirty, thirtieth trementina f. turpentine trenza f. braid; plait trenzar v. t., prnl. braid; plait trepador, -ra adj., m., f. climber, rambler, creeper; social climber; climbing iron trepar v. i. scale, climb; clamber, make one's way; grow up tres adj. three, third trigo m. wheat trillar v. t. thresh, winnow; wear out tripa f. intestine; innards, guts; belly, stomach, gut triste adj. sad, unhappy; distressing, mournful; meager, slight tristeza f. sadness, grief, sorrow triunfo m. triumph, victory; success; trump card troglodita adj. cave-dwelling; ignoramus; piggish, gluttonous troje f. granary; barn trompo m. spinning top; 180-degree spin tronado, -da adj., f. deteriorated; ruined; crazy, nuts; thunderstorm tronar v. t., v. i. fail; thunder, boom; rant, rave tronchar v. t., prnl. cut of/short; prune; shatter; break, bust; crack/bust up tronco m. trunk; branch, log; core tropezar v. i., prnl. stumble; bump/run into; trip over; hit upon trozo m. slice, piece, bit trueno m. thunderclap tu adj. your tú pron. you (fam.) tubo m. tube, pipe tumbar v. t., prnl. knock down/over; incline, tilt; thrash; lie down, sleep tumor m. tumor, growth; cancer tuna f. prickly-pear fruit túnica f. tunic, robe; habit; membrane tupido adj. dense, thick turbar v. t., prnl. disturb, trouble; interrupt; bewilder, shock; be broken tuyo pron. yours (fam.) tuza f. mole; corn husk ubicar v. t. prnl. put, place; assign; fnd; be located; occupy último adj., m. last, latter, latest; fnal ulular v. i. hoot; howl, wail un, una art., adj. a, an; one una f. one o’clock uña f. nail; hoof; stinger único adj. only, sole; unique unión f. union; marriage, wedding; merger unir v. t., prnl. unite, join, connect; mix; marry uno adj., pron. one; inseparable untar v. t., prnl. spread; smear urraca f. magpie urticaria f. rash, hives usar v. t., prnl. use; wear; exercise; be in fashion uso m. use, usage; purpose; custom Basic vocabulary of Mexican Spanish 326 usted pron. you ustedes pron. you all útil adj., m. useful, usable, handy; tool, implement; supplies (pl.) utilizar v. t. utilize, use; wear, don; take advantage of uva f. grape vaca f. cow; beef vaciar v. t., prnl. empty, vacate; hollow out; form; remove; leak vacilar v. t. tease, kid, rib, trick; stagger; hesitate, dither vacío adj., m. empty; vacant; superfcial; hole, gap, space vagabundo adj., m. wandering; homeless; vagabond, tramp, bum; urchin vago adj., m. vague, indistinct; lazy, idle; slacker vaina f. scabbard, case, sheath; pod, hush, shell; swindler; dork valer v. t., v. i., cost; be worth; deserve; be good at/for; make use of prnl. valiente adj., m., f. valiant, brave, courageous; brave man/woman valle adj., m. quiet, of-peak; valley valor m. courage, bravery; value; validity vanidad f. vanity, arrogance; futility; weakness vano adj. vain, futile; pointless; conceited; hollow, opening vapor m. vapor; steam vara f. stick, rod, cane; baton; sprig, stem, stalk; yard variedad f. variety, diversity; assortment; range; type varilla f. rod, bar; spoke, rib vario adj. various, diferent; varied, variable; some, several (pl.) varón m. son, boy vasija f. pot, receptacle, vessel; urn vaso m. glass, cup, tumbler; glassful; vein vástago m. shoot, stem; ofspring, descendants; piston, rode, shank vecino, -na adj., m., f. adjacent, nearby; similar; neighbor; resident veinte adj. twenty, twentieth veintena f. twenty, score vejiga f. bladder; blister vela f. candle; sail velador m. guard, watchman; nightstand velar v. t., v. i. watch for/over; guard; expose; veil; stay awake vello m. body hair; fuzz; bloom velocidad f. velocity, speed; gear veloz adj. quick, fast, swift, rapid vena f. vein; seam; grain; streak, stripe venado m. deer; stag vencer v. t., v. i. defeat, overcome, control; be victorious; fall due; expire vender v. t., prnl. sell; betray; be bought; sell out veneno m. venom, poison venenoso adj. venomous, poisonous vengar v. t., prnl. avenge; take/get revenge venir v. i., prnl. come, arrive, return; appear; develop; suit; settle venta f. sale; inn; sales (pl.) ventaja f. advantage; beneft; bonus ventana f. window; window frame; nostril ventilar v. t., prnl. ventilate, air out; disclose, reveal 327 ver v. t., v. i., see, watch; examine; understand; meet; fnd oneself prnl. verdad f. truth, fact verdadero adj. true, reliable; sincere verde adj. green; foliage; unripe, immature, young verdolaga f. purslane; leafy vegetable; greens vergüenza f. embarrassment, disgrace, shame verruga f. wart, verruca vertebral adj. vertebral, spinal verter v. t., v. i., pour, dump; spill; fow, run; voice, express prnl. vesícula f. vesicle; blister vestido m. dress, down; apparel, attire vestir v. t., v. i., dress; cover; wear; get dressed; embellish prnl. veta f. seam, vein, streak, grain vez f. time, occasion viajar v. i. travel; run, ride viaje m. voyage, trip viajero adj., m. passing; traveler, passenger víbora f. viper, adder, snake; sharp tongue vicio m. vice, bad habit vida f. life, lifetime, lifespan; term; living; activity vidriar v. t., prnl. glaze; glaze over vidrio m. glass; piece/splinter of glass viejo adj., m. old; worn out; traditional; old person; spouse, mate viento m. wind, breeze; rope, cord viernes m. Friday viga f. beam, rafter, girder; blade, vane, paddle vigilar v. t. guard, watch, monitor vino adj., m. maroon, burgundy; wine violencia f. violence, force; aggression, abuse violento adj. violent, forceful; aggressive, abusive; awkward virgen adj., f. unspoiled; virgin virtud f. virtue visible adj. visible; obvious, evident visita m. visit, hit; visitor, guest, caller visitar v. t. visit, call on; inspect, examine; see, consult vista f. eyesight; view; legal hearing; foresight viudo, -da m., f. widower; widow vivir v. t., v. i. experience; survive; live, exist; lifestyle vivo adj. alive, living; intense, deep; quick, clever; in efect volar v. t., v. i. fy; blow up; steal voltear v. t., v. i., turn over/around; fip/bend over; change sides prnl. voluntad f. will, willpower; wishes, orders; choice; goodwill volver v. i., prnl. come back, return; start again, resume; become vomitar v. t. vomit, throw up vómito m. vomit; gastric juices voz f. voice; vocalist; word; rumor Basic vocabulary of Mexican Spanish 328 vuelta f. lap, turn, revolution; return; change vulgar adj. vulgar, rude; common, everyday; tasteless y conj. and ya adv., conj. now, already; whether yegua f. mare yema f. egg yoke; bud, shoot; fngertip yerba/hierba f. herb; grass, lawn; marihuana, pot yerbabuena f. peppermint yerno m. son-in-law yo pron. I; self, ego yuca f. yucca, agave yugo m. yoke; oppression, bonds; burden, stranglehold zábila, sábila f. áloe zacate m. grass, forage, fodder; scourer, loofah zafar v. t., prnl. release, free; loosen, detach; get away with zambullirse prnl. dive, plunge; duck, hide; submerge/engross oneself zanate m. grackle, rook zancadilla f. tripping, stubbing; hindrance zancudo m. mosquito; long-legged zanja f. trench, ditch zapato m. shoe, footwear zarza f. bramble, thicket zona f. zone, area; space, sphere zopilote m. buzzard, vulture zorrillo m. skunk zorro, -ra f. fox; fox skin zumbar v. t., v. i. slap, thump, whack; buzz D Annotated bibliography of reference materials

Note: These references are essentially the same as in the frst edition. Al-Kasimi, Ali M. 1977. Linguistics and bilingual dictionaries. Leiden: E. J. Brill. The author observes that ninety per cent of the writings relating linguistics and lexicography deal with monolingual dictionaries. His purpose is to provide assistance in bilingual lexicography. An extensive bibliography is included. Al-Kasimi discusses the purpose of bilingual dictionaries as well as the semantics and grammatical considerations related thereto. The book has a readable style and an easy- to-follow structure. It is worth reading for background information. Much less theoretical and technical than Zgusta's work. The author’s checklist of criteria and his conclusions are quite applicable to a variety of situations. Alonso, Amado & Pedro Henriquez Ureña. 1969. Gramática castellana, 2 vol. Buenos Aires: Editorial Losada. This publication is designed as a course in Spanish grammar for secondary schools. It is written in a relatively simple and readable style. Grammatical terms and parts of speech are defned. Paradigms are included as illustrations for some points. A study of these volumes should be helpful in understanding Spanish grammatical designations and parts of speech, and in applying that information to the grammatical designations in the bilingual dictionary. Anonymous. 1978. Aristos diccionario ilustrado de la lengua española. Barcelona: Edito- rial Ramón Sopena. This brief Spanish dictionary contains relatively simple defnitions. Not much is included in the realm of sense discriminations or qualifying comments. There are illustrations in the outside margins and some color plates. Anonymous. 1964. Compendio de gramática española. Barcelona: Editorial Ramón Sopena. A very useful summary of Spanish grammar which includes all the irregular verbs arranged in categories. The Compendio is also found in the older editions of the Aristos dictionaries. Anpilógova, B. G. & E. Y. Valdímirskiy & V.I. Zimin & E.Y. Sosenko. 1969. Léxico básico español-ruso, translated by C. Marinero. Moscow: Editorial Progreso. Dictionaries: Journal of the Dictionary Society of North America. http://muse.jhu.edu/ journal/540. . An annual publication covering a wide range of topics of interest to lexicographers. 329 Annotated bibliography of reference materials 330

Beekman, John. 1968. “Eliciting vocabulary, meaning, and collocations”. Notes on translation 29:1-11. Berlin, Brent & Dennis E. Breedlove & Peter H. Raven. 1974. Principles of Tzeltal plant classifcation: An introduction to the botanical ethnography of a Mayan-speaking people of highland Chiapas. New York: Academic Press. In the forward, Harold C. Conklin states: “Unique in numerous ways, this many- faceted compendium written by an anthropologist and two botanists constitutes a major contribution to tropical ethnobotany... I fnd the publication of extensive systematic and ethnolinguistic data on the thoroughly collected local Tzeltal fora itself an outstanding achievement.” The authors also deal with ethnobiological semantics, the local system of categorization, and local means of diferentiating plants. Cabrera, Luis. 1992. Diccionario de aztequismos. Mexico City: Colofon. The author was a native of the Sierra de Puebla and learned the local dialect of Nahuatl as a child, which knowledge he refned and expanded as an adult. His book deals with Nahuatl terms in Mexican Spanish. Almost half of the entries refer to nomenclature for fora and fauna. Many of the rural Mexican terms for these items derive from Nahuatl and should be in this book. Scientifc nomenclature is included, unfortunately lacking in accurate spelling. The book’s greatest value lies in the standard Spanish equivalents given for regional vocabulary of Nahuatl derivation. Canfeld, D. Lincoln. 1934. Spanish literature in Mexican languages as a source for the study of Spanish pronunciation. New York: Instituto de las Españas en los Estados Unidos. Reading this book is like putting some long sought pieces into a jigsaw puzzle. Some of the principles behind lexical borrowing and the shifting pronunciation of borrowed words are explained and illustrated. An explanation of the historical processes can shed considerable light on the origin of loan words from the language of wider communication that have become part of the vernacular. Casagrande, Joseph B. & Kenneth Hale. 1967. “Semantic relationships in Papago folk- defnitions". In Dell H. Hymes & William E. Bittle, eds. Studies in southwestern ethnolinguistics, 165-193. The Hague: Mouton. Conklin, Harold C. 1962. “Lexicographical treatment of folk taxonomies". In Fred W. Householder & Sol Saporta, eds. Problems in lexicography. Bloomington: Indiana University. The author discusses folk systems of classifcation, hierarchic structure, taxonomy, and some of the problems these items present to the lexicographer. A very extensive bibliography is included. Corominas, Joan. 1954. Diccionario crítico etimológico de la lengua castellans. Madrid: Editorial Gredos. As an etymological dictionary, this work must be the preeminent one for Spanish. The historical treatment of the entries is exhaustive in many cases. It is often interesting to trace the derivation of a word in an indigenous language that originated in medieval Spanish. Cuyás, Arturo. 1972. Appleton’s new Cuycis English-Spanish and Spanish-English dictionary. Englewood Clifs, N.J .: Prentice Hal. 331

In this adequate Spanish-English dictionary, the main sense discriminations are listed as separate entries but numbered. There are lots of synonyms, no illustrative sentences, and fewer qualifying comments than in some of the others. Some regional Mexicanisms are included, but they seem to be fewer in number than in Collins, Williams, or Simon and Schuster. The editor stresses the inclusion of up-to-date and specialized terminology. Diehl, Lon G. 1981. Lexical-generative grammar: Toward a lexical conception of linguistic structure. Tesis doctoral. Bloomington, Ind. University of Indiana. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. A presentation of a theoretical model which includes all of the grammatical and lexical information for a language in the individual entries of the lexicon. Echegoyen Gleason, Artemisa. 1979. Luces contemporaneas del Otomí: gramática del otomí de la sierra. Serie gramáticas de lenguas indigenas de México 1. Mexico: Institute Lingüístico de Verano. García-Pelayo y Gross, Ramón. 1972. Pequeño Larousse en color: diccionario enci- clopédico de todos los conocimientos. Paris: Ediciones Larousse. The color pictures are good for identifcation purposes. There is a large section of biographical and geographical entries. Although basically European, it has more Mexicanisms than might be expected. García-Pelayo y Gross, Ramón. 1978. Pequeño Larousse ilustrado. Paris: Ediciones Larousse. A very complete and useful dictionary. Small illustrations are in black and white although there are also color plates. It does not have the large encyclopedic section of the Pequeño Larousse en color. García-Pelayo y Gross, Ramón. 1974. Diccionario Larousse usual. Paris: Editorial Larousse. This is Larousse’s dictionary for the mass market. Without illustrations or other frills, it nevertheless is quite adequate for everyday use. With a laminated paper cover, rather than hard cover stock, it is also easily afordable. It must be borne in mind that the contents are more limited and it should not be the defnitive reference for Mexicanisms. García-Pelayo y Gross, Ramón & Micheline Durand. 1977. Pequeño Larousse español- inglés. Mexico City: Ediciones Larousse México. Can be favorably compared with other recent and relatively complete Spanish- English dictionaries such as Simon and Schuster or Collins. There are no illustrations. The treatment of prepositions is especially detailed and complete. The dictionary emphasizes idioms and sense discriminations throughout. Gleason, H. A., Jr. 1962. “The relation of lexicon and grammar". In Fred W. House- holder & Sol Saporta, eds. Problems in lexicography. Bloomington: Indiana Univer- sity. A discussion of the areas of responsibility for the description of a language as divided between the grammar and the lexicon or dictionary. Gold, David L. 1979. “The ordering of lexemes in a dictionary". In B. Gillian Mitchell, editor. Papers of the Dictionary Society of North America 1979. Published by the School of Library and Information Science of the University of Western Ontario for the DSNA. Annotated bibliography of reference materials 332

Gómez, Tana de, editor in chief. 1973. Simon and Schuster’s international dictionary, English-Spanish, Spanish-English. New York: Simon and Schuster. This excellent Spanish-English dictionary includes numerous sense discriminations and idiomatic phrases. There is extensive treatment of idioms and colloquialisms. For an international dictionary, there are a surprising number of Mexicanisms and other local usages included, all labeled as to area of use. The irregular verbs in the text are followed by a number that refers to conjugated paradigms in the back of the book, a very helpful feature. The layout and typography are excellent. It is as easy to read as any of its competitors, and perhaps the easiest of all. Gove, Philip B., ed. 1961. Webster’s third new international dictionary. Springfeld, Mass: G. and C. Merriam Co. Grimes, Joseph E. 1980. “Systematic analysis of meaning”. Notes on linguistics 13:21- 30. Dallas: The Summer Institute of Linguistics. A brief discussion of the dictionary model and methods, known as the meaning-text model, espoused by Igor Mel’chuk and his Russian colleagues. Grimes, Joseph E. 1980. “Huichol life form classifcation I: Animals and Huichol life form classifcation II: Plants”. Anthropological linguistics 22:187-200. Grimes has organized the fora and fauna of the Huichol area according to the criteria used by the Huichols for classifcation. This procedure resulted in a diferent arrangement than that normally laid out by the scientifc establishment. A very worthwhile and interesting study in the logical processes and systematic arrangement of species from a diferent perspective. Grimes, Joseph E. et al. 1981. El huichol: apuntes sobre el léxico. Ithaca, New York: Department of modern languages and linguistics, Cornell University. The authors followed the model of Mel’ichuk and his Russian associates, adapting the principles as necessary. The result is this semantic inventory with heavy emphasis on semantic networks and relationships. The book represents an organized collection of observations on the lexical structure of Huichol rather than a standard dictionary, although it is presented in the traditional format. Included is a Spanish index to the Huichol listings. Guralnik, David B., editor. 1970. Webster’s new world dictionary of the American language, 2nd edition edition. Cleveland: The World Publishing Co. Haas, Mary. 1975. “"What belongs in the bilingual dictionary?"". In Fred W. House- holder & Sol Saporta, eds. Problems in lexicography, 45-50. Bloomington: Indiana University. The author discusses the characteristics of the bilingual dictionary that would be all things to all users. Perhaps she does not sufciently distinguish between the ideal and the possible, but her ideas are nevertheless worth considering. Hartmann, R. R. K., ed. 1983. Lexicography: Principles and practices. New York: Aca- demic Press. This textbook for the teaching of lexicography is a collection of essays by specialists in various aspects of dictionary compilation. The topics range over a wide spec- trum of monolingual and bilingual lexicography including special purpose dictionaries. Exercises for student assignments are included with many of the chapters. Hobar, Donald, editor. 1982. Papers of the Dictionary Society of North America 1977. Terre Haute: Indiana State University for the DSNA. 333

The printed form of the papers given at the 1977 meeting of the DSNA. A wide range of topics is covered, some of which are of interest to compilers of bilingual dictionaries. Householder, Fred W. & Sol Saporta, eds. 1975. Problems in lexicography. Bloomington: Indiana University. Composed of an anthology of papers presented at a seminar on lexicography, this publication is useful in providing some theoretical orientation as well as practical suggestions on various aspects of a dictionary project. Hufman, Franklin & Im Proum. 1978. English-Khmer dictionary. New Haven: Yale University Press. The introduction contains an interesting discussion of the principles underlying bilingual dictionaries aimed at several audiences. Hunn, Eugene S. 1977. Tzeltal folk zoology: the classifcation of discontinuities in nature. New York: Academic Press. This excellent book is a companion to Principles of Tzeltal plant classifcation (Berlin and Breedlove). The author’s goal was to compile an encyclopedic dictionary of the zoological lexicon of the Tenejapa Tzeltal. For over 500 fauna terms, he includes descriptive and anatomical terminology as well as behavioral and ecological information. An excellent book on several levels, it is an extensive study in ethnobiology with implications for semantic theory. It can also serve as a feld guide for the identifcation of species in the geographical area described. Iannucci, James E. 1962. “Meaning discrimination in bilingual dictionaries". Problems in lexicography IJAL 28(2.4):201-216. The author’s main emphasis is on qualifying comments which he refers to as "meaning discriminations." He includes numerous examples in his discussion as well as a bibliography. Instituto Nacional Indigenista. 1967. Diccionario gráfco de español básico. Mexico City: Instituto Nacional Indigenista. A picture dictionary for the primary grades. Illustrative sentences replace more formal defnitions. Kachru, Braj. 1980. “The new Englishes and old dictionaries: Directions in lexicographical research on non-native varieties of English". In Ladislav Zgusta, ed. The- ory and method in lexicography: Western and non-western perspectives. Columbia, S.C: Hornbeam Press. This article addresses the problems of loan words and regional vs. "standard" vocabulary. Kuhn, Sherman. 1980. “The art of writing a defnition that does not defne". In Ladislav Zgusta, ed. Theory and method in lexicography: Western and non-western perspectives. Columbia, S.C: Hornbeam Press. A tongue-in-cheek article that, with considerable wit, emphasizes the multiplicity of sense discriminations for common words, the necessity of qualifying comments, and the problems presented by a region's vocabulary. Lakof, George and Mark Johnson. 1980. Metaphors we live by. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Annotated bibliography of reference materials 334

The authors argue that, basically, most of our conceptual system is metaphori- cally structured. They discuss sense discriminations in relation to abstraction and homonymy. They also present the tantalizing idea that some metaphors are found cross-culturally and may even be almost universal. Lara, Luis Fernando. 1982. Diccionario fundamental del español de México. México: El Colegio de México, Fondo de Cultura Económica. This, the frst publication resulting from the dictionary project at the Colegio de México, is designed as a dictionary for elementary pupils. The desire is expressed that the book also will be of use to Mexico’s indigenous people. An efort has been made to simplify the material, but there are entries with a degree of abstraction that will probably make them difcult for non-native speakers of Spanish. Lara, Luis Fernando. 2010. Diccionario del español de México. México: Centro de Estudios Lingüísticos y Literarios de El Colegio de México. This is the defnitive dictionary of Mexican Spanish for some time to come. Atten- tion is paid to rural Spanish as well as that of the upper social classes. Naturally, the inclusion of rural Spanish makes it most valuable in the feld of bilingual lexicography. Lázaro Carreter, Fernando. 1973. Diccionario de términos flológicos. Madrid: Editorial Gredos. Leopold, A. Starker. 1959. Wildlife of Mexico: The game birds and mammals. Berkeley: University of California Press. In his treatment of the material within his stated range, Leopold is probably the most accurate and useful source. His mammal section is amplifed to include all families of fur-bearing mammals of any size, whether or not they are taken for food or sport. Each description is accompanied by an excellent line drawing and a map showing the range of the animal or bird. Scientifc terminology is included as well as popular Spanish names—even though there may be several terms for the same species depending on geographical location. Mitchell, B. Gillian, editor. 1979. Papers of the Dictionary Society of North America 1979. Published by the School of Library and Information Science of the University of Western Ontario for the DSNA. The papers given at the 1979 DSNA meeting form the contents of this volume. Wide ranging in scope, though a few articles are of special interest to bilingual lexicographers. Nguyen, Dinh-Hoa. 1979. “Bilingual lexicography in Vietnam. The state of the art". In B. Gillian Mitchell, editor. Papers of the Dictionary Society of North America 1979. Published by the School of Library and Information Science of the University of Western Ontario for the DSNA. Nguyen, Dinh-Hoa. 1980. “Bicultural information in a bilingual dictionary". In Ladislav Zgusta, ed. Theory and method in lexicography: Western and non-western perspectives. Columbia, S.C: Hornbeam Press. The author addresses some of the problems of intercultural interpretation encountered in the preparation of a bilingual dictionary. Nguyen, Dinh-Hoa. 1981. “Teaching culture through bilingual dictionaries”. Dictio- naries: Journal of the Dictionary Society of North America II-III:57-68. Nida, Eugene A. 1958. “Analysis of meaning and dictionary making”. International Journal of American Linguistics 24:279-292. 335

Nida, Eugene A. 1975. Exploring semantic structures. Satz: Wilhelm Fink Verlag München.

Poudevida, Antonio Raluy. 1976. Diccionario Porrua de la lengua española, Nueva edi- ción edition. México: Editorial Porrua. Prepared for secondary and preparatory students, this is a popular dictionary of Mexican Spanish. It includes a much higher percentage of Mexicanisms than most, if not all, of the foreign-published works. It does not diferentiate sense discriminations with numbers but includes them in the listing of synonyms. RAE (Real Academia Española). 1979. Esbozo de una nueva gramática de la lengua española, 5a reimpresión edition. Madrid: Espasa-Calpe, S.A. The book contains a good treatment of phonology and the best available statement of Spanish grammar using the terminology and concepts of the European school of structural linguistics. The authors do not claim to have written the defnitive description of Spanish grammar from the standpoint of structural linguistics but have made good progress towards that goal. The online version (http://dle.rae.es/) is a helpful tool to look up meanings and grammatical designations. Reddy, Michael J. 1973. “Formal referential models of poetic structure”. In Papers from the Ninth Regional Meeting of the Chicago Linguistic Society, 493-518. Chicago: Chicago Linguistic Society. Robinson, Dow. 1969. Manual for bilingual dictionaries, 3 vol: vol. 1, textbook; vol.2, 3, Spanish word list. Santa Ana, Calif: Summer Institute of Linguistics. The pioneering work in the development of an adequate model for dictionaries of indigenous languages. Roca Pons, José. 1976. Introducción a la gramática. Barcelona: Editorial Teide. This Spanish grammar places great emphasis on the parts of speech, their defnitions, functions, and distribution. It can serve as a crash course in Spanish grammar preparatory to working on the grammatical designations in a bilingual dictionary. Rodríguez Castellano, Juan & Charles Barrett Brownií. 1958. A new shorter Spanish review grammar. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons. Santamaría, Francisco J. 1983. Diccionario de mejicanismos, 4th edition. Mexico City: Editorial Porrúa. For Mexican languages, it would be hard to fnd a more useful volume for the preparation of the type of dictionary discussed in this manual. Santamaría discusses the regional Spanish lexical items, the "aztequismos" (and other indigenous borrowings), and more standard Spanish words having a specialized meaning in one or another area of the country. He has included idiomatic expressions, scientifc terms for fora and fauna if known, and references to various historical sources employing the word under discussion. A word of caution is in order regarding the Latin terminology for fora and fauna. Some of this nomenclature is outdated or inaccurate. The book remains an invaluable source as certain items can be documented here that are virtually impossible to track down in any other Spanish dictionary, whether monolingual or bilingual. Schoenhals, Louise C. 1982. “Towards a valid linguistic check of bilingual dictionaries”. Notes on linguistics 24:15-20. Schoenhals, Louise C. 1988. A Spanish-English glossary of Mexican fora and fauna. Mex- ico City: Instituto Lingüístico de Verano. Annotated bibliography of reference materials 336

Spanish, English, and scientifc nomenclature for some of the more common species of fora and fauna. Short, nontechnical descriptions are included which focus on the characteristics and economic importance of the item as perceived by the indigenous people. Annotated bibliography. Simons, Gary F. 1980. “The impact of on-site computing on feld linguistics: The power of man and machine in interaction”. Notes on linguistics 16:7-26. Dallas: The Summer Institute of Linguistics. A discussion of the operational or developmental computer programs useful in linguistic projects of the Summer Institute of Linguistics in Dallas. Smith, Colin, Manuel Bermejo Marcos and Eugenio Chang-Rodríguez. 1978. Collins Spanish-English, English-Spanish dictionary, 8th printing edition. London: Wm. Collins Sons and Co. Ltd. In this excellent bilingual dictionary, the authors try to provide extensive and complete coverage of all sense discriminations and idiomatic expressions involving relatively common words. They have placed the goal of complete coverage for words in common usage above that of including a certain number of thousands of words, some rather technical in nature. There is also good coverage of Mexican vocabulary. This dictionary is probably more useful in avoiding usage errors through choice of the wrong sense discrimination than any other on the market. Swanson, Donald C. 1962. “Recommendations on the selection of entries for a bilingual dictionary.". In Fred W. Householder & Sol Saporta, eds. Problems in lexicography. Bloomington: Indiana University. The author discusses the criteria of frequency, function, and culture as they are applicable to the selection of entries for a bilingual dictionary. Trench, Richard C. 1948. Synonyms of the New Testament, 9th edition. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans Publishing Company. Voegelin, Carl F. and Florence M. Voegelin. 1957. “Hopi domains-A lexical approach to the problems of selection”. International Journal of American Linguistics Memoir 14 23:88. Williams, Edwin B. 1955. Holt Spanish and English dictionary. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. An excellent, medium-size English-Spanish dictionary. At the time it was frst published, almost no Mexicanisms were found in other available Spanish dictionaries. Williams also pioneered a very extensive use of qualifying comments which remains one of the strengths of the book. Williams, Edwin B. 1978. The Williams Spanish and English dictionary expanded international edition. Bogotá: McGraw Hill, Co. The new and expanded Williams dictionary is as extensive as the large publications of Collins, Simon and Schuster, or Larousse. Advertising for the book justifably highlights the American emphasis, labeled regionalisms, current vocabulary, and up-to-date verb spellings. Qualifying comments continue to be a strong feature of the book and there is some scientifc nomenclature in the area of fora and fauna. Zgusta, Ladislav. 1971. Manual of lexicography. The Hague: Mouton. Zgusta’s work is probably the most basic theoretical treatise on lexicography available to us. Though more technical than the other available books, it is not too ob- tuse to be proftable reading. His basic orientation is to monolingual dictionaries, although he does have some sections dealing with bilingual works. He discusses 337

the problems of method, structure of the entry, grammatical designation, choice of citation form, and much more. The work is a translation from the original Czech and there are a number of English misspellings and typographical errors. Zgusta, Ladislav, ed. 1980. Theory and method in lexicography: Western and non-western perspectives. Columbia, S.C: Hornbeam Press. A collection of papers given at a meeting of the Dictionary Society of North America in 1978.

E Bibliography of bilingual dictionaries in Spanish North America

Note: This appendix has not been included in the second edition. The reader is referred to the frst edition (http://mexico.sil.org/resources/archives/2384) and the current list of dictionaries in the VIMSA series (http://mexico.sil.org/publications/i- vimsa).

339

F Implementing the MXB model in FLEx

The frst edition of this volume was published in 1983 just as personal computers were beginning to be used, and it was assumed that the dictionary compiler would provide paper copy, with standard formatting codes, to someone else to prepare the dictionary for publication. All discussion of such codes has been omitted in this edition. During the past couple of decades, the use of FieldWorks Language Explorer (FLEx; https://software.sil.org/feldworks/) for the preparation of dictionaries has become widespread, but until recently FLEx was unable to produce a volume that easily repli- cated the type of dictionary that is described in this book. With the advent of a third confguration in FLEx, called the Hybrid confguration, it is now possible to do exactly that, when that confguration is implemented with a few modifcations that are fairly easy to make. This modifed Hybrid confguration is referred to here as the MXB model. The purpose of this appendix is to explain how to confgure and then use FLEx to create a volume that follows the principles outlined in the body of this book. As stated in the Preface to this second edition, we believe the MXB model of lexicography is worth preserving and continuing to implement for the following reasons.1 Focus on the native speaker Unlike most models of lexicography, the MXB model is focused on the native speakers of indigenous languages as the primary users. Given that for many of them, the bilingual dictionaries we make will be the frst ones produced in their languages, and that reading their languages is a relatively new experience, this model keeps the presentation of dictionary entries as simple as possible, especially at the beginning. Thus, for example, etymological information and lists of infectional variants, such as plurals and past participles, are presented after the basic information for each sense is presented, instead of after the headword, as is the common practice in dictionaries of international languages. Specifcally, each dictionary article has the following general structure (where the feld names currently used in FLEx are given in bold):

1. Entry form in the vernacular: a. Citation form, an actual word written in the practical orthography. b. Pronunciation (optional), such as tone information not included in the practical orthography. 1Throughout this appendix, names of felds in FLEx are shown in boldface type when frst discussed and capitalized thereafter. 341 Implementing the MXB model in FLEx 342

2. Sense discriminations translated into the language of wider communication a. A grammatical category (Grammatical information), usually abbreviated. b. A translation equivalent (Defnition) of the entry form in the language of wider communication. If there is no equivalent form, a clear and concise explanation (Descriptive defnition) of its usage is given, especially for grammatical morphemes. c. A qualifying comment (Restrictions) on the translation equivalent, where necessary, to keep it as short as possible. d. An illustrative sentence (Example) that demonstrates the use of the entry word in a natural context. e. A natural free translation of the sentence (Translation) in the language of wider communication.

These two types of information are essential to every entry. That is, the entry word and its Senses make up the basic entry. All the other information that can be included is optional and amplifes the information included in the basic entry, such as:

A. Minimal linguistic information 1. The Components of complex entries, such as derived forms and compounds. 2. The conjugation class or “principal parts” of a paradigm (infectional Vari- ants). 3. A grammatical clarifcation (Note) necessary for correct usage of the word. B. Cross references 1. Pronunciation Variants within the same region (minor entries). 2. Regional (dialectal) Variants in a diferent region (main or minor entries). 3. Synonyms or Antonyms (main entries). 4. References to other words that are morphologically related (main entries). C. Subentries which refer to other entries that share a form of the entry word: 1. Derivative words based on the same root. 2. Compound words that utilize the same root. 3. Idioms that include the same root.

Native speakers may not need or want to refer to the optional information provided by the last three types, but linguistically aware speakers and non-speakers, especially linguists, may fnd this information useful.2 Of the information provided in the basic part of the entry, the Citation form, the Defnition, and optional Restrictions work together to provide a clear and concise presentation of the meaning of each lexeme.

2To help the reader keep track of these diferent types of information, the MXB model maintains a distinction between citations from the indigenous language (which are always shown in boldface type), translations into the analysis language (which are always shown in regular type), and metadata or technical information (which is always shown in italics). In addition, colors are used in FLEx to help the compiler further distinguish between various types of information in the entry. 343

Citation form The focus on the native speaker begins by citing a form for each lexeme that is recognized as legitimate in a spoken utterance, rather than an abstract form from which it can be derived. For example, verbs are cited in the form closest to the “infnitive” in the language of wider communication, which could be the future or present tense for third person singular. This increases the chances that native speakers will fnd the dictionary of interest to them, which in turn serves them as an aid to literacy. Furthermore, with more and more native speakers of indigenous languages compiling their own dictionaries, citing a naturally spoken form for each lexeme is much easier for them to manage than are abstract forms, especially in the early stages of analysis.3 Defnition vs. Gloss Given that a bilingual dictionary does not have defnitions such as those found in monolingual dictionaries, but rather translation equivalents in the language of wider communication, the MXB model makes a distinction between a Defnition and a Gloss. One invariant Gloss is ordinarily assigned to each root morpheme, both lexical and grammatical, as the “label” for that morpheme in the analysis language. These glosses are primarily used in glossing texts so that the analyst can keep track of homophonous morphemes and others which can easily be confused. In contrast, one or more translation equivalents in each analysis language are normally given as the Defnition of each sense of each lexeme in a bilingual dictionary. Focus on the native speaker is furthered by citing the equivalent word or words in the language of wider communication as the Defnition of each sense of a lexeme. This teaches the user what is the most appropriate way to translate these words when speaking the language of wider communication. Keeping distinct translation equivalents for each sense also makes it easier for the compiler to create the Reversal index in the language of wider communication. When these Defnitions are kept short, they are easily converted into headwords in the Reversal index. This would be much harder if they were long and complicated, as in monolingual dictionaries. When there is no simple translation equivalent in the language of wider communication, the MXB confguration provides a custom feld called the Descriptive defnition (Defnición descriptiva in Spanish). This feld is used instead of a Defnition. It is most useful for describing the meaning of grammatical morphemes. For example, the English sufx -graphy could be shown in following way in an English-Spanish dictionary:

(1) -graphy suf. s. Indica la acción de escribir; p. ej., lexicography lexicografía; typography tipografía.

This Descriptive defnition (in English: Indicates the action of writing; e. g., …) is normally followed by two short examples of the use of the afx in the given sense,

3It is helpful to maintain a clear distinction between the Citation form, which is an actual spoken word, and the Lexeme form, which is an underlying or abstract root of the entry word. In the MXB model, the Lexeme Form and the Gloss are used for text analysis, while the Citation Form and the Defnition are used for lexical analysis, as explained below. Implementing the MXB model in FLEx 344 all of which is punctuated as one grammatical sentence. This, plus the fact that the Descriptive defnition occurs in italics, sets it of as clearly diferent from a translation equivalent. Qualifying comments Since translation equivalents between languages seldom share all the same senses, qualifying comments are often needed in the Restrictions feld.4 These comments restrict the sense of the translation equivalent to the corresponding one in the indigenous language. For example, many languages have multiple words for carry depending on how the object is carried or what part of the body is used to carry it. In these cases, the dictionary compiler would translate each one as carry with the appropriate restriction, such as on one's back or in one's hands. The fact that these restrictions are in a separate feld means they can also be used to qualify the indigenous lexemes in the Reversal index. For example, on the English side of an English- Spanish dictionary database, the entry for entry could have one sense qualifed as in a dictionary.

(2) entry n. entrada (en un diccionario)

Then, in the Spanish reversal index, the corresponding entry could use the same qualifcation on the English word (where f. stands for a feminine noun).

(3) entrada f. entry (en un diccionario)

The main diference between these two entries is which language comes frst, but the restriction on the meaning of the sense in question is the same for both. Emphasis on illustrative sentences Another major distinctive of the MXB model is that it makes illustrative sentences a primary focus of the dictionary article. Illustrative sentences serve both the compiler of the bilingual dictionary and the user. During the process of eliciting illustrative sentences, the compiler becomes aware of sense discriminations, co-occurrence restrictions on classes of lexical items, or grammatical restrictions which might otherwise have been overlooked. For the user, the illustrative sentences serve more than one purpose. Native speakers will resonate with the naturalness of the examples and exclaim, “Yes, that’s the way we talk!” This provides a source of pride in their language and a means of demonstrating their unique form of expression to the outside world. For non-speakers, the illustrative sentences provide clear examples of correct morpho- syntactic usage in the language. They also open a window onto the indigenous culture which amply illuminates their unique form of thinking. Cultural observations (entered into the Encyclopedic information feld) can provide further explanations of customs mentioned in the sentences. 4In the later stages of analysis the compiler may want to limit these comments in the Reversal index, since the Restrictions feld automatically qualifes the vernacular word in the Reversal as well. See F.2.4 for details. 345 Step 2: Create custom fields

The rationale for the inclusion of illustrative sentences is explained further in §9, where it is shown that they perform one or more of the following functions for each sense of each word:

1. They clearly delineate the area of meaning of the entry word. 2. They illustrate the use of the word in a correct grammatical context. 3. They distinguish between applicable and non-applicable senses and contexts of the translation equivalent. 4. They clarify potential ambiguities due to multiple meanings of the translation equivalent. 5. They display the local culture and local literary style, providing a glimpse into the culture's unique world view.

F.1. Confguring the MXB model In order to correctly implement the MXB model in FLEx, the standard Hybrid confguration should be modifed as described in this section.

F.1.1. Step 1: Choose Hybrid confguration The frst step is to choose the Hybrid confguration in FLEx rather than the Lexeme- based or Root-based confguration. If this change is made after much work has been done on the database, there may be some unexpected results that need to be taken care of. Procedure: In the Lexicon Edit section, use Tools > Confgure > Dictionary to choose the Hybrid confguration, as shown in 5.

Figure 5. The Hybrid Confguration in FLEx

F.1.2. Step 2: Create custom felds The second step is to add some custom felds to FLEx that are used in the MXB model. Procedure: In the Lexicon Edit section, use Tools > Confgure > Custom Fields to create the felds shown in table 1 with the characteristics shown. It is important to note the diferent locations that must be chosen. The exact name of the custom feld is not crucial; two suggestions are given here, one in Spanish and one in English. You do not have to copy the Description in exactly as shown, but something like this is recommended to help all compilers know why the feld was created. All felds are of the same Type: Single-line Text, and all use the Spanish Writing system. Implementing the MXB model in FLEx 346

Table 1. Custom felds in the MXB model Custom Field Name Location Description Brief description Entry Only used when there is no translation equivalent in the Descripción breve Summary Defnition of a Minor Entry. Descriptive defnition Sense Only used when there is no translation equivalent in the Defnición descriptiva Defnition of a Main Entry. Qualifying comment Sense Only used to qualify the meaning in the Defnition Comentario restrictivo feld in a diferent way than in Restrictions.

Once these custom felds are added, they will appear as the last feld in the corresponding section in the Entry pane. That is, the Entry feld (Brief description) will appear before Sense 1, and the two Sense felds (Descriptive defnition and Qualifying comment) will appear after all the felds in each sense, as shown in 6.

Figure 6. Custom felds in FLEx 347 Step 4: Adjust entry configurations F.1.3. Step 3: Adjust feld styles If you want, you can adjust the styles of the felds so that the colors and font sizes match MXB publication standards. These adjustments will also help you to use the felds properly. The following table gives the standard values you can adjust using Format > Styles. If a style in this list does not yet exist in your database, you can create it using the Add or Copy button, as shown in 2.

Table 2. Styles in the MXB model Type Style Size Color Typeface a Dictionary-Contrasting 10 Dark Yellow Italic a Dictionary-CrossReferences 10 Blue Bold a Dictionary-Headword 11 Blue Bold ¶ Dictionary-Normal 10 Black — ¶ Dictionary-Pictures 10 Black — a Dictionary-POS 10 Dark Red Italic ¶ Dictionary-Sense 10 Black — a Dictionary-SenseNumber — Black Bold ¶ Dictionary-Subentry 10 Black — a Dictionary-Vernacular 10 Dark Blue Bold Spanish: Dark Yellow Italic English: Plum — a Emphasized Text 10 vernacular: Dark Blue Bold ¶ Homograph-Number — Blue — Spanish: Green — English: Plum — ¶ Normal 10 vernacular: Dark Blue — Spanish: Green a Reversal-Headword 11 English: Plum — ¶ Reversal-Normal 10 Black — ¶ Reversal-Sense 10 Black — ¶ Reversal-Subentry 10 Black — a Reversal-Vernacular 10 Dark Blue Bold

F.1.4. Step 4: Adjust entry confgurations Use Tools > Confgure > Dictionary to confgure the individual felds in both Main entries and Minor entries as follows. For Main entries, check for the appropriate felds in Senses, as shown in fgure 7. Implementing the MXB model in FLEx 348

Figure 7. Senses in the MXB model

Also for Main entries, check for the appropriate felds in the References Section, as shown in fgure 8:

Figure 8. The References Section in the MXB model

Finally, for Minor entries, check for the appropriate felds as shown in 9: 349 Configuration summary

Figure 9. The Minor Entry in the MXB model

F.1.5. Confguration summary When confgured correctly, the MXB model has the following parameters. Field styles and surrounding text5

Table 3. Field styles and surrounding text in the MXB model Field Style Before After Main Entry D-Normal • Headword D-Headword " [NBSP]" • Dialect labels (none) • • Abbreviation (none) "(" ")[NBSP]" • Pronunciations (none) • • Pronunciation (none) "[" "][NBSP]" Senses D-Sense • Sense number D-SenseNumber "." • Grammatical Info. (none) • • Category Info. D-POS ": " Between: ", " • Defnition (none) " " "[NBSP]" • Restrictions D-Contrasting "(" ")[NBSP]" • Defnición descriptiva D-Contrasting " " "[NBSP]" • Scientifc name D-Contrasting "[" "][NBSP]" • Examples (none) " " • • Example sentence D-Vernacular " " "[NBSP]" • • Translation (none) " " "[NBSP]" • Encyclopedic Info D-Contrasting " (" ")" (References section) D-Sense

5Double quotes surround text to be entered; [NBSP] = non-breaking space; D = Dictionary. Implementing the MXB model in FLEx 350

Field Style Before After • Component References (none) Between: ", " " [NBSP]" • • Complex Form Type (none) Between: ", " • • • Reverse Abbreviation D-POS • • Referenced Entries (none) " " Between: ", " • • • Referenced Headword D-Vernacular • Note D-Contrasting " [NBSP]" • Infectional Variants (none) "[" "] [NBSP]" • • Variant Type (none) Between: "; " • • • Abbreviation D-POS " " • • Variant Form D-CrossReferences Between: ", " • Variant Forms (none) Between: " " " [NBSP]" • • Variant Type (none) • • • Abbreviation D-POS • Variant Form D-CrossReferences • Cross References (none) • • Relation Abbreviation D-POS "[NBSP]" • • Targets (none) • • • Referenced Headword D-Vernacular " [NBSP]" Minor Subentries D-Subentry • Headword D-Headword " " " " • Senses (none) " " • • Grammatical Info (none) • • • Gram Info (Abbrev) D-POS " " "[NBSP]" • Summary Defnition (none) " " • Restrictions (Entry) D-Contrasting " (" ")" Minor Entry D-Minor • Headword D-Headword " " • Dialect labels (none) • • Abbreviation (none) "(" ")[NBSP]" • Pronunciations (none) • • Pronunciation (none) "[" "][NBSP]" • Variant of (none) " {" "}" • • Variant Type (none) • • • Reverse Abbreviation D-POS • • Referenced Entries (none) " " Between: ", " • • • Referenced Headword D-CrossReferences • Summary Defnition (none) "[NBSP] " " " • Restrictions (Entry) D-Contrasting "(" ")"

Spacing

• There should be two spaces between each “segment” of the entry: Headword; Cat- egory; Defnition; Example; Translation; References. • There should be one space between “parts” of segments: Headword & Pronuncia- tion; Senses Number & Category (or Defnition); Defnition & Restriction; Variant Label & Variant Form; Reference Label & Reference Form. 351 Grammatical category

Sense paragraphs

• For entries with multiple senses, the frst sense should follow the defnition without a paragraph break (Dictionary Normal style). All subsequent senses should start with a paragraph break with 0.3 cm. indent (set in the Paragraph tab of the Dictionary Sense style). • Subsenses should be concatenated and joined by a comma and space.

Reference paragraph

• Component references with one space between Complex Form Type (Comp. de or Deriv. de) and the Referenced Headword. • Note feld is a free form grammatical observation, punctuated as complete sentence. • Infectional variants: [abr1. form1; abr2. form2...] • Cross references: Abbreviation (Sinón., Antón. or Véase) plus form • Pronunciation variants: Var. plus form • Regional variants: DialA. plus form

Subentries Confgure as separate, bulleted paragraphs (Dictionary-Subsense style, Bullets and Numbering tab), with 0.6 cm indent and 0.4 cm hanging indent (Paragraph tab). F.2. Implementing the MXB model This section discusses how to implement the MXB model in the modifed version of the Hybrid confguration as presented in the previous sections.

F.2.1. Headword The Lexeme form feld in FLEx is used for organizing data6 and for glossing texts. It is not necessarily a complete word; it may be a root or a stem or an afx (among other things).7 Therefore, what is is discussed as a Headword in §5 in the BDIL presentation may not be what appears in the Lexeme Form feld in FLEx. In order to deal with this, the Citation form feld is used, and, when present, this form takes precedence over the lexeme feld. It is recommended that the citation form feld always be utilized, even when the form written there is identical to the form that is in the lexeme feld.8 See table 4. F.2.2. Grammatical category The grammatical category (see §17) is chosen from the list in the Grammatical Info feld in FLEx. The parts of speech available to the database are managed under Grammar section in the lower left pane of FLEx. See general FLEx instructions for how to alter that list.

6For example, in the case of infected words, it can be used as the basic form for the entire paradigm. 7Bound roots and stems are marked with an asterisk in FLEx, as in the table below. 8Forms may easily be copied from one feld to the other using the Bulk Edit feature of FLEx. Implementing the MXB model in FLEx 352 Table 4. Comparison of Lexeme form and Citation form felds FLEx FLEx Comment Lexeme Citation form feld form feld 1. más más (Spanish adverb) 2. feliz feliz (Spanish adjective that does not take a gender agreement sufx) 3. *tom tomar (Spanish infnitive) 4. *abr abrir (Spanish infnitive) 5. *roj rojo (Spanish adjective) 6. *fueg fuego (Spanish noun) 7. *ap quip (Seri citation form for verb) 8. *lit ilít (Seri citation form for obligatorily possessed body part noun)

F.2.3. Translation equivalents What is discussed as a translation equivalent in §8 should not appear in the Gloss feld in FLEx since the Gloss feld is used exclusively for interlinear glossing of morphemes (not words).9 The Defnition feld in FLEx overrides the Gloss feld for the purposes of a dictionary and so one may always utilize the Defnition feld, even if its contents are identical to that of the Gloss feld. It is appropriate to always use the Defnition feld exclusively for dictionary purposes. The Defnition feld may contain closely related translation equivalents, separated by commas, whereas the Gloss feld contains only one that is chosen as the basic gloss for working with interlinearized texts. Examples of the diferences between items in the FLEx Gloss feld and those in the FLEx Defnition feld — the one that should appear as the translation equivalent — are shown in table 5.

Table 5. Comparison of Gloss feld and Defnition feld FLEx Gloss feld FLEx Defnition feld 1. begin begin, start, commence 2. maternal.grandfather maternal grandfather 3. eagle eagle, hawk 4. fnd fnd, encounter 5. light light, candle

9Interlinear glosses that are consistent with modern conventions have specifc characteristics that make them diferent from dictionary translation equivalents. One such characteristic is that interlinear morpheme glosses should be a single word; two-word glosses are joined with a dot. 353 Illustrative sentences

If the lexical item is given with more than one sense (see §10 in BDIL), the Gloss feld will have the same gloss for both (again, for text glossing purposes), but there will be diferent Defnition felds in FLEx under the diferent senses (added individually in FLEx), which will eventually appear numbered as 1., 2.... in the FLEx output. Some examples are given in table 6.

Table 6. Comparison of Gloss and Defnition felds in diferent senses FLEx Gloss feld FLEx Defnition feld 1. plant 1. plant; 2. bush; 3. stick 2. stone 1. stone, rock; 2. mountain 3. sun 1. sun; 2. day 4. moon 1. moon; 2. month 5. land 1. land; 2. year; 3. down 6. female 1. female; 2. woman

F.2.4. Qualifying comments In §11 of BDIL, it is shown how a translation equivalent can be modifed by a qualifying comment. Such comments are not included with the translation equivalent in the Defnition feld; rather they are put in the Restrictions feld. If FLEx is confgured properly, the parentheses and the italics appear automatically. Some examples are given in table 7.

Table 7. Use of qualifying comment felds Example Headword FLEx Defnition FLEx Restrictions feld feld 1. uchoꞌan to go up in price 2. pꞌiteꞌ to raise a mosquito net 3. tsꞌiwiꞌ chuy hierba 4. tsuts chiquin hongo especie de color café arriba y blanco abajo que se cría en los árboles; se come cuando está brotando 5. lákstau ayate, huacal tejido de tarro o palma

In the later stages of analysis the compiler may want to limit these comments in the Reversal index, since the Restrictions feld automatically qualifes the vernacular word in the Reversal as well. This can be done by frst copying the Restrictions feld to a custom feld like Comentario restrictivo, then reconfguring the dictionary to show that feld on the vernacular side instead of Restrictions. After that, the two felds can be edited separately to achieve the desired balance of qualifcation for both parts of the dictionary. F.2.5. Illustrative sentences Illustrative sentences (§9 of BDIL) are handled in a standard way in FLEx, through the use of the felds named Example (for the vernacular sentence) and Translation (for the Spanish translation of the sentence). However, the Translation feld is not visible Implementing the MXB model in FLEx 354 until the Example feld is used. Once a sentence has been typed into the Example feld, the Translation feld automatically appears. This prevents the user from typing the illustrative sentence into the Translation feld by mistake. If a literalism is used in the Translation feld (§14.3), it needs to be manually formatted, After entering the entire translation, including "(lit. ...)" for the literalism, select it, including the parentheses, and use the right-hand drop down list above the Entries title bar from "Default Paragraph" to "Emphasized Text." Assuming the styles have been confgured correctly (F.1.3), the selected text should come out in dark yellow italics, as shown in Figure 10.

Figure 10. Literalism in a translation

F.2.6. Cultural information Whenever the illustrative sentence refers to cultural information not readily understandable to a non-native speaker of the language, it is appropriate to include an explanation of a custom or belief in the Encyclopedic Info feld. This feld can also be used to give other relevant information about the meaning of the headword not included in the example sentence, for instance, unusual patterns of behavior of an animal or little known uses of a plant. F.2.7. Scientifc name If the scientifc name of a plant or animal is known, it can be included in the Scien- tifc Name feld. Care should be taken to verify all scientifc information by consulting the best published works10 as well as local experts, whenever possible. It is important

10A good resource for Mexican fora and fauna is A Spanish–English Glossary of Mexican Flora and Fauna (Schoenhals 1988). 355 Cross references for the lexicographer to respect the established standards in other scientifc felds to gain respect and avoid criticism. F.2.8. Linguistic information Including linguistic information (cf. §19) in an entry is optional. If desired, the following types of information can be given.

1. The components of complex form entries, such as derived forms and compounds. Components are other words in the dictionary that are used to make up the headword. If the compiler wishes to bring attention to the fact that a given headword is derived from one or more other words, these can be specifed in the Com- ponents feld by clicking on the feld, on the three dots to the right (...), and typing in the word. If the component is not already a headword in the lexicon, it can be added frst by using the Create button. If it already exists, simply select it. After a component word is entered, the Complex Form Type feld appears. If only one component is cited, the Complex Form Type should be Derivada. If more than one component is cited, the Complex Form Types should be Compuesta. The Hybrid confguration places components frst in the Reference paragraph preceded by the appropriate abbreviation: Deriv. de for Derivada or Comp. de for Compuesta. Complex Form Types and abbreviations come from the corresponding list in the Lists section of FLEx.

2. The conjugation class or “principal parts” of a paradigm, which FLEx calls infectional variants. Infectional variants are specifed in the Variants section of the Entry pane, below the last Sense by clicking on Insert Variant. When the Find Variant dialogue box appears, enter the infectional variant in the box labeled Variant. If the form is already in the lexical database, you can select it from the list. If not, you can create it. Once the Variant Form appears, you need to specify the appropriate Variant Type from the list. Variant Types and abbreviations come from the corresponding list in the Lists section of FLEx, to which you can add or subtract as needed. After the minor entry is created for a variant by FLEx, if the compiler should go to it and manually enter a Summary Defnition which will appear as the translation equivalent for that minor entry headword.

3. A grammatical clarifcation (Note) necessary for correct usage of the word. This note should be about a grammatical restriction, such as in the example given in §19.1.5. Semantic restrictions should be given in the Restrictions feld of the corresponding Sense.

F.2.9. Cross references Cross references are of the following types:

1. Pronunciation variant within the same region. Implementing the MXB model in FLEx 356

These are specifed in the Variants section in the same way as infectional variants (F.2.8). First select or create the appropriate Variant Form, then choose the Variant Type Variante de pronunciación, which will appear in the preview window as the abbreviation Var. After the minor entry is created for this variant by FLEx, the compiler should go to it and manually enter a Summary Defnition which will appear as the translation equivalent for that minor entry headword.

2. Regional (dialectal) variant in a diferent region. If one region is considered the basic form of the headwords in the dictionary, regional variants should be cited as minor entries in the same way as infectional variants and pronunciation variants. The only diference is that the compiler must frst go to the Lists section and create the appropriate regional names and abbreviations in the variante regional section of Variant Types. Regional variants appearing as minor entries also need to have an appropriate Summary Defnition, which must be manually entered as with infectional and pronunciation variants. If all regional forms are given equal weight in the dictionary, regional variants should be cited as main entries with the appropriate Dialect Label from the Lists section. Cross referencing between these main entries must then be done by creating a generic Variante Regional (Var. Reg.) label in the Lists section under Lexical Relations. It will then appear for selection under the Cross Refer- ences feld in the Entry pane of Lexicon Edit.

3. Synonyms or Antonyms are other main entries. These are specifed from the list under the Cross References feld which comes from the Lexical Relations list.

4. References to other main entries that are morphologically related can be done using the Véase relation under the Cross References feld. These kinds of references should be done sparingly and only when there is no other way to refer to them. This feld should not be used to reference semantically related words. Rather, lists of words in the same semantic domains should be list in appendices or in separate tables interspersed throughout the dictionary printout.

F.2.10. Subentries Subentries are essentially cross references back to main entries that have the headword listed as a component. This is the most complicated part of FLEx and should be carefully understood before attempting to implement it. The frst step is to specify Components of the complex form as described above (F.2.8). It is important to remember that FLEx automatically makes the Complex Form appear as a subentry under the frst component listed, but not under any other components. If more than one component is listed, the compiler needs to go to the Publications Settings section at the bottom of the Entry pane and click in the Show subentry under feld to specify which components the complex form should appear under. 357 Main Entry – Basic Form

Once it is decided that the complex form should appear under at least one component, it is necessary to also specify a Summary Defnition in the complex form entry. In the Hybrid confguration, this feld does not show in main entries; it only shows as the translation equivalent of the corresponding subentries.11 The third part of a subentry is the grammatical category that corresponds to the sense(s) of the complex form entry. FLEx automatically shows these without the compiler needing to do anything. Thus a subentry is actually a three-feld cross reference back to a complex form entry. F.3. Sample entries in the MXB model The following examples of each type of entry (Basic, Complex, Variant and Reversal) are taken from the “MXB modelo” project in which English is the vernacular language and Spanish is the analysis language. The confgured format from the Dictionary view is shown frst, then what felds are used in Lexicon Edit to properly enter the displayed information. A unique feature of this hybrid confguration is that Complex Forms can appear both as main entries and as subentries.

F.3.1. Main Entry – Basic Form (4) entry s. entrada (en un diccionario) Many dictionaries contain entries for words that are no longer in use. Muchos diccionarios contienen entradad para palabras que ya no se usan. (La costumbre de incluir palabras obsoletas es antigua.) [pl. entries] Sinón. article ♦ entry word s. palabra de entrada (en un diccionario)

Table 8. Main Entry – Basic Form Lexeme Form entry Morph Type root Citation Form entry Dialect labels (Entry) Complex Forms Components Variant of Pronunciation Note Restrictions Summary Defnition Cross References Synonym article Descripción Breve(*) —————————————————————————————————————— Sense 1 Reversal Entries entrada Defnition entrada Restrictions en un diccionario 11Summary defnitions are confgured to show as the translation equivalents of minor entries, since these do not have senses. Implementing the MXB model in FLEx 358

Grammatical Info. sustantivo Example Many dictionaries contain entries for words that are no longer in use. Translation Muchos diccionarios contienen entradad para palabras que ya no se usan. Encyclopedic Info. (La costumbre de incluir palabras obsoletas es antigua.) Defnición descriptiva(*) Comentario restrictivo(*) en un diccionario —————————————————————————————————————— Variants Variant Form entries Variant Type plural —————————————————————————————————————— Publication Settings Publish Entry in Main Dictionary Show As Headword in Main Dictionary Subentries entry word

An asterisk (*) indicates a custom feld with a Spanish name. Descripción breve [“Brief Description”] is the entry level equivalent of Defnición descriptiva [“De- scriptive Defnition”]; it is used for minor entries (as in the sample entry for -graphy shown at the beginning of this appendix). The cited Headword is always the Citation form, if it exists; otherwise, it is the Lexeme form. If the Lexeme Form is used for root forms to facilitate text glossing, the compiler should be sure an appropriate Citation Form is also flled in for the dictionary headword. The Pronunciation feld is used to specify phonological details not evident in the practical orthography. It can take the form of a phonetic transcription (as shown below) or as tone patterns, such as: a-b.m.b. The Note feld is used for a grammatical or etymological observation (as shown below), not for semantic distinctions, which should be made in the Restrictions feld. Infectional Variants and Pronunciation variants create separate, minor entries which need to be completed with a Citation Form and a Summary Defnition (as shown below). The Publication Settings felds are used to include or exclude entries from a publication (Publish Entry in) or show or hide them as entries in a publication (Show As Headword in). Subentries can be manually sorted using the Subentries feld. F.3.2. Main Entry – Complex Form (5) entry word s. palabra de entrada (en un diccionario) The entry word of a dictionary article is usually written in the practical orthography. Normalmente se escribe la palabra de entrada del artículo en un diccionario en la ortografía práctica. Se pronuncia con intonación de frase. Véase entry, word 359 Main Entry – Complex Form

Table 9. Main Entry – Complex Form Lexeme Form Morph Type phrase Citation Form entry word Dialect labels (Entry) Complex Forms Complex Form Type Compound Components entry | word Variant of Pronunciation Note Se pronuncia con intonación de frase. Restrictions en un diccionario Summary Defnition palabra de entrada Cross References Descripción Breve(*) —————————————————————————————————————— Sense 1 Reversal Entries entrada: palabra de entrada | palabra: palabra de entrada Defnition palabra de entrada Restrictions en un diccionario Grammatical Info. sustantivo Example The entry word of a dictionary article is usually written in the practical orthography. Translation Normalmente se escribe la palabra de entrada del artículo en un diccionario en la ortografía práctica. Encyclopedic Info. Defnición descriptiva(*) Comentario restrictivo(*) en un diccionario —————————————————————————————————————— Variants Variant Form entries Variant Type plural —————————————————————————————————————— Publication Settings Publish Entry in Main Dictionary Show As Headword in Main Dictionary Subentries word

A Complex Form Entry is a Main Entry that has Components. When the frst component is entered, the Component Form Type feld shows up. In addition, the Show Subentry under feld appears in the Publications Settings. The frst component is shown there by default, but the user may decide whether to show the Complex Form as a subentry under all, only some, or none of its components. All the information for subentries comes from the corresponding Complex Form entry: (a) the subentry form comes from the Citation Form; (b) the grammatical category comes from the Grammatical Info feld(s) in the sense(s); (c) the defnition comes from the Summary Defnition feld; and (d) the qualifying comment comes Implementing the MXB model in FLEx 360 from the Restrictions feld (the one immediately above Summary Defnition, not the one in the senses). Since the Restrictions feld automatically serves as the qualifying comment for the vernacular word in the Reversal Index, the custom feld Comentario restrictivo (“Restrictive Comment”) allows users to have a diferent qualifying comment on the vernacular side, as in the above examples. Otherwise, this feld can be eliminated from view and the Restrictions feld can be confgured to serve as the qualifying comment on the vernacular side, too. F.3.3. Minor Entry – Variant Form (6) entries [`en.triz] {pl. de entry} entradas (en un diccionario)

Table 10. Minor Entry – Variant Form Lexeme Form entries Morph Type stem Citation Form entries Dialect labels (Entry) Complex Forms Components Variant Type plural Variant of entry Pronunciation `en.triz Note Restrictions en un diccionario Summary Defnition entradas Cross References Descripción Breve(*) —————————————————————————————————————— Publication Settings Publish Entry in Main Dictionary Show As Headword in Main Dictionary

Minor entries are created in the Variants section of a Main Entry by flling in the Lexeme Form and Variant Type. The headword of the Main Entry becomes the Variant of feld of the Minor Entry. All Variants that are cited in another entry of a Publication must be included in the Publish Entry in for that Publication. However, they do not have to be shown as headwords in that Publication. If the Minor entry shows as a Headword, the rest of the Minor entry can be manually edited to include a Citation Form, any Dialect labels or Pronunciation desired, and a Summary Defnition (with optional Restrictions) or alternatively, a Descripción Breve ("Brief Description"). F.3.4. Reversal Index Entry The Headword for a Reversal Entry must be entered in the Reversal Entries feld. In order to respect Spanish lexicographic tradition, the Headword should always 361 Reversal Index Entry be a single orthographic word. All Headwords from the same sense are entered in this line, each followed by a faint line that appears when a new word is entered. When the Defnition is a phrase, it should occur as a Reversal Subentry under one or more Headwords. This is also indicated in the Reversal Entries feld by the use of a colon: the word before the colon will become the Headword in the Reversal Index, and the words after the colon will become a Reversal Subentry under that Headword. The Restrictions feld automatically serves as the qualifying comment for the vernacular word in the Reversal Index. The Reversal Index must be manually edited to include the appropriate parts of speech in Spanish. The following Reversal Index entries show what the Reversal Entries felds in the above entries would produce, with the appropriate Spanish category added.

(7) entrada f. entry (en un diccionario) ♦ palabra de entrada entry word (en un diccionario) ... palabra f. ♦ palabra de entrada entry word (en un diccionario)

General references

Alonso, Amado & Pedro Henriquez Ureña. 1969. Gramática castellana, 2 vol. Buenos Aires: Editorial Losada. Anonymous. 1927. “Los Jesuitas y las lenguas indígenas de México”. Anales del Museo Nacional de Arqueología, Historia y Etnografía Epoca 4, Tomo V, Núm. 1:97-156. Anpilógova, B. G. & E. Y. Valdímirskiy & V.I. Zimin & E.Y. Sosenko. 1969. Léxico básico español-ruso, translated by C. Marinero. Moscow: Editorial Progreso. Aschmann, Herman & Elizabeth D. Aschman. 1973. Diccionario totonaco de Papantla, Veracruz: totonaco-español, español-totonaco. VIMSA 16. Mexico City: Instituto Lingüístico de Verano. http://mexico.sil.org/resources/archives/10932 Aulie, H. Wilbur & Evelyn W. de Aulie. 1978. Diccionario ch’ol de Tumbalá, Chiapas, con variaciones dialectales de Tila y Sabanilla. VIMSA 21. Mexico City: Instituto Lingüístico de Verano. http://mexico.sil.org/resources/archives/35328 Barrera Vásquez, Alfredo, et al. 1980. Diccionario maya Cordemex: maya-español, español-maya. Mérida, Yucatán: Ediciones Cordemex. Berlin, Brent & Dennis E. Breedlove & Peter H. Raven. 1974. Principles of Tzeltal plant classifcation: An introduction to the botanical ethnography of a Mayan-speaking people of highland Chiapas. New York: Academic Press. Cabrera, Luis. 1992. Diccionario de aztequismos. Mexico City: Colofon. Canfeld, D. Lincoln. 1934. Spanish literature in Mexican languages as a source for the study of Spanish pronunciation. New York: Instituto de las Españas en los Estados Unidos. Casagrande, Joseph B. & Kenneth Hale. 1967. “Semantic relationships in Papago folk-defnitions". In Dell H. Hymes & William E. Bittle, eds. Studies in southwestern ethnolinguistics, 165-193. The Hague: Mouton. Chomsky, Noam & Morris Halle. 1968. The sound pattern of English. New York: Harper & Row. Clark, Lawrence E. 1981. Diccionario popoluca de Oluta: popoluca-español, español-popoluca. VIMSA 25. Mexico City: Instituto Lingüístico de Verano. http://mexico.sil.org/resources/archives/10967 Delgaty, Alfa [Hurley vda. de] & Agustín Ruiz Sánchez, compilers. 1978. Diccionario tzotzil de San Andrés con variaciones dialectales: tzotzil-español, español-tzotzil. VIMSA 22. Mexico City: Instituto Lingüístico de Verano. http://mexico.sil.org/resources/archives/10949 DEM. 2010. Diccionario del español de México. Mexico City: El Colegio de México.

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Engel, Ralph & Mary Engel, compilers. 1987. Diccionario zoque de Francisco León. VIMSA 30. Mexico City: Instituto Lingüístico de Verano. http://mexico.sil.org/resources/archives/10927 Fries, Charles C. & Kenneth L. Pike. 1949. “Coexistent Phonemic Systems”. Language 52:29-50. García-Pelayo y Gross, Ramón. 1978. Pequeño Larousse ilustrado. Paris: Ediciones Larousse. García-Pelayo y Gross, Ramón. 1972. Pequeño Larousse en color: diccionario enciclopédico de todos los conocimientos. Paris: Ediciones Larousse. García-Pelayo y Gross, Ramón & Micheline Durand. 1977. Pequeño Larousse español-inglés. Mexico City: Ediciones Larousse México. Gleason, H. A., Jr. 1962. “The relation of lexicon and grammar". In Fred W. Householder & Sol Saporta, eds. Problems in lexicography. Bloomington: Indiana University. Good, Claude. 1978. Diccionario triqui de Chicahuaxtla. VIMSA 20. Mexico City: Instituto Lingüístico de Verano. http://www.mexico.sil.org/resources/archives/10957 Gove, Philip B., ed. 1961. Webster’s third new international dictionary. Springfeld, Mass: G. and C. Merriam Co. Grimes, Joseph E. 1980. “Huichol life form classifcation I: Animals and Huichol life form classifcation II: Plants”. Anthropological linguistics 22:187-200. Guralnik, David B., editor. 1970. Webster’s new world dictionary of the American language, 2nd edition edition. Cleveland: The World Publishing Co. Harrison, W. Roy, Margaret Harrison & Cástulo García H., compilers. 1981. Diccionario zoque de Copainalá. VIMSA 28. Mexico City: Instituto Lingüístico de Verano. http://mexico.sil.org/resources/archives/10920 Hooper, Joan. 1976. An introduction to natural generative phonology. New York: Academic Press. Hufman, Franklin & Im Proum. 1978. English-Khmer dictionary. New Haven: Yale University Press. Hunn, Eugene S. 1977. Tzeltal folk zoology: the classifcation of discontinuities in nature. New York: Academic Press. Instituto Nacional Indigenista. 1967. Diccionario gráfco de español básico. Mexico City: Instituto Nacional Indigenista. Jiménez Girón, Eustaquio. 1980. Guia gráfco-fonémica para la escritura y lectura del zapoteco: Cómo se escribe el zapoteco de Juchitán. Juchitán, Oaxaca: Editorial Vitoria Yan. Larson, Raymond S. 1997. Vocabulario huasteco del estado de San Luis Potosí. México, D.F: Instituto Lingüístico de Verano. Leopold, A. Starker. 1959. Wildlife of Mexico: The game birds and mammals. Berkeley: University of California Press. Molina, Fray Alonso de. 1571. Vocabulario en lengua castellana y mexicana. Mexico City: Casa de Antonio de Spinosa. Molina, Fray Alonso de. 1977 [1577]. Confessionario breve, en lengua mexicana y castellana. Mexico City: Pedro Balli. Moser, Mary B. & Stephen A. Marlett, compilers. 2010. Comcaac quih yaza quih hant ihiip hac: Diccionario seri-español-inglés, 2nd edition. Mexico City & 365 General references

Hermosillo: Plaza y Valdés Editores & Universidad de Sonora. http://www. mexico.sil.org/resources/archives/42821 Nebrija, Antonio de. 1492. Arte de la lengua castellana. Salamanca. Nellis, Neil & Jane G. Nellis. 1983. Diccionario zapoteco de Juárez: zapoteco-español, español-zapoteco (Ca titsa’ qui’ ri’u). VIMSA 27. Mexico City: Instituto Lingüístico de Verano. http://mexico.sil.org/resources/archives/10934 Neufeldt, Victoria. 1989. Webster’s New World dictionary of American English, 3rd college edition. New York: Simon & Schustert. Nida, Eugene A. 1975. Exploring semantic structures. Satz: Wilhelm Fink Verlag München. Nida, Eugene A. 1958. “Analysis of meaning and dictionary making”. International Journal of American Linguistics 24:279-292. Pensinger, Brenda J. 1974. Diccionario mixteco-español, español-mixteco (Mixteco del este de Jamiltepec, pueblo de Chayuco). VIMSA 18. Mexico City: Instituto Lingüístico de Verano. http://www.mexico.sil.org/resources/archives/10926 Pike, Kenneth L. 1947. Phonemics: A technique for reducing language to writing. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan. Pride, Leslie and Kitty Pride. 1970. Vocabulario chatino de Tataltepec: castellano-chatino, chatino-castellano. VIMSA 15. Mexico City: Instituto Lingüístico de Verano. http://mexico.sil.org/resources/archives/10951 RAE [Real Academia Española]. 2001. Diccionario de la Real Academia Española, 2nd edition. Madrid: Espasa Calpe. Raluy Poudevida, Antonio R. 2017. Diccionario Porrúa de la lengua española. Mexico City: Editorial Porrúa. Reddy, Michael J. 1973. “Formal referential models of poetic structure”. In Papers from the Ninth Regional Meeting of the Chicago Linguistic Society, 493-518. Chicago: Chicago Linguistic Society. Reid, Aileen A. and Ruth G. Bishop. 1974. Diccionario totonaco de Xicotepec de Juárez, Puebla: totonaco-castellano, castellano-totonaco. VIMSA 17. Mexico City: Instituto Lingüístico de Verano. http://mexico.sil.org/resources/archives/10925 Robinson, Dow. 1969. Manual for bilingual dictionaries, 3 vol: vol. 1, textbook; vol.2, 3, Spanish word list. Santa Ana, Calif: Summer Institute of Linguistics. Roca Pons, José. 1976. Introducción a la gramática. Barcelona: Editorial Teide. Rodríguez Castellano, Juan & Charles Barrett Brownií. 1958. A new shorter Spanish review grammar. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons. Santamaría, Francisco J. 1983. Diccionario de mejicanismos, 4th edition. Mexico City: Editorial Porrúa. Schoenhals, Alvin & Louise C. Schoenhals. 1965. Vocabulario mixe de Tontontepec; mixe-castellano, castellano-mixe. VIMSA 14. Mexico City: Instituto Lingüístico de Verano. http://mexico.sil.org/resources/archives/10965 Schoenhals, Louise C. 1988. A Spanish-English glossary of Mexican fora and fauna. Mexico City: Instituto Lingüístico de Verano. Schoenhals, Louise C. 1982. “Towards a valid linguistic check of bilingual dictionaries”. Notes on linguistics 24:15-20. General references 366

Smith, Colin, Manuel Bermejo Marcos and Eugenio Chang-Rodríguez. 1978. Collins Spanish-English, English-Spanish dictionary, 8th printing edition. London: Wm. Collins Sons and Co. Ltd. Anonymous. 1978. Aristos diccionario ilustrado de la lengua española. Barcelona: Editorial Ramón Sopena. Stairs, Glenn & Emily F. Stairs, compilers. 1981. Diccionario huave de San Mateo del Mar. VIMSA 24. Mexico City: Instituto Lingüístico de Verano. http://mexico.sil.org/resources/archives/10944 Trench, Richard C. 1948. Synonyms of the New Testament, 9th edition. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans Publishing Company. Velásquez Gallardo, Pablo. 1978. Diccionario de la lengua phorhepecha: español-phorhepecha. México: Fondo de Cultura Económica. Voegelin, Carl F. and Florence M. Voegelin. 1957. “Hopi domains-A lexical approach to the problems of selection”. International Journal of American Linguistics Memoir 14 23:88. Voigtlander, Katherine & Artemisa Echegoyen. 1985. Luces contemporáneas del otomí: Gramática del otomí de la sierra. Serie de grammáticas de lenguas indígenas de México 1. Mexico City: Instituto Lingüístico de Verano. http://mexico.sil.org/resources/archives/2018 Willett, Elizabeth R. & Thomas L. Willett, compiladores. 2015. Diccionario tepehuano de Santa María Ocotán, Durango. México, D.F.: Instituto Lingüístico de Verano, A.C. http://mexico.sil.org/resources/archives/63913 Williams, Edwin B. 1955. Holt Spanish and English dictionary. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. Williams, Edwin B. 1978. The Williams Spanish and English dictionary expanded international edition. Bogotá: McGraw Hill, Co. Young, Robert W. and William Morgan. 1943. The Navaho Language. Phoenix: Education Division, United States Indian Service. Young, Robert W. and William Morgan. 1980. The Navajo language: A grammar and colloquial dictionary. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press. Zgusta, Ladislav. 1971. Manual of lexicography. The Hague: Mouton. Index of topics and terms abbreviations, 126, 208 acknowledgments, 206 adjectives, 134-136 as stative verb, 48, 183 discussed in grammatical sketch, 187, 189 with noun stem, 193 adverbs, 143-145 discussed in grammatical sketch, 190 afxation: discussed in grammatical sketch, 187-189 distinguished from derivation, 35 afxes: as dictionary entries, 37, 156-157 classifcation of, 155-156 discussed in grammatical sketch, 190-191 alphabetization, 201-203 afxes in, 157 expanded for loan words, 119 explanation of, 202 ignoring diacritics, 202 listed in introductory material, 207 need for, 201 of compounds, 159-160 of diacritics, 201-202 of digraphs, 201-202 of irregular forms, 202 of words, not roots, 203 pressure for from national culture, 201 principles of, 201-203 subdivision of, 203 analogous words, 177-178 antonyms, 67 cross-referencing, 166 appendices, 211-212 approval by consultant, 225 bibliography, 212 ethnographic, 212 lexical, 211 areas of meaning, see sense discriminations/ semantic variants/ range of meaning.

367 Index of topics and terms 368 back translations, 94 to check translation equivalent accuracy, 97-98 bibliography, 212 bilingual dictionary: village uses of, 229-231 charts: in grammar sketch, 186, 194-195 checks / evaluation: by compiler: evaluation of dictionary article, 215-219 evaluation of illustrative sentences, 62, 98-99, 218 by consultant: content check, 224 linguistic, 224-225 semantic domains, 223 Spanish index, 225 thousand word, 218, 219, 222-223, 223 by Spanish editor, 54, 224 checklist, 215 front and back material approval, 225 illustration approval, 225 Chinantec, 149, 253 citation form (natural), 25-28 basic stem, 25-26 characteristics, 29-30 compounds as, 31-32 criteria for selection of, 25, 27-28, 29-33, 184 derived words as, 31 discovering, 28 glossing of verbal, 47-48 imperative as, 30 in dialect variants, 86-87 infnitive as, 30-31 necessity of, 26 orthography in, 32-33 clitics, 130, 173 discussed in grammar sketch, 157-158, 191 collocational restrictions, 184-185 compounds, 31-32, 172-175 adverbial, 39 as subentries, 176 cross-referencing of, 20, 21, 168 discussion in grammar sketch, 189 distinguished from idiom, 173-174 frequency, 37 generic/ specifc, 174-175 grammatical designation for, 159-160 inclusion/ exclusion as main entry, 20, 35-38, 172-174 prepositional, 39 semantic components, 42-43 special problems, 35-43 369 Index of topics and terms

translation equivalent for, 39-43 types of, 41-42 writing of irregular, 159-160 computer: bilingual reversal, 103, 105-108 cataloguing text material, 15 concordance, 14 discover sense discriminations, 17 concordance: by computer, 14 homonyms, 70 conjunctions, 147 discussed in grammar, 189 consultant services, 221 approval for publication, 225 editing, 224 for semantic domains, 223 tutorial, 222 cross-referencing, 165-168-170 alternate verb stem, 167-168, 185 antonyms, 166 compounds, 168 derivational forms, 168, 171-172 dialect variants, 86-87, 88 example of, 169-170 free variants, 88 irregular verb forms, 202 justifcation of, 217 principle parts, 167-168 redundancy in, 173, 178 special topics with grammar sketch, 185 synonyms, 166-167 to grammar sketch, 168 use of Véase, 178 culture: afecting the inclusion of loan words, 116-118 refected in illustrative sentences, 54, 62, 78 specifc items of, 100 use of illustrations, 211 dedicatory page, 205-206 derivational afx, 35-36, 39, 190 derivatives, 35-41 adjectives from verbs, 68 adjectives to nouns, 31 adjectives to verbs, 31 compare with sense discriminations, 69-70 cross-referencing, 168, 171-172 derived words, 31 discussed in grammar sketch, 189 displayed as subentries, 171-172, 176-177 Index of topics and terms 370

exclusion/ inclusion as entries, 21, 36-37, 39, 156-157 frequency, 37 glosses of, 39-41 listed in appendix, 39 nouns from verbs, 68, 133 semantic importance of, 38 dialect variants, 85-90 advantages of including, 85 cross-referencing of, 88 designation of, 164 how to display, 88-90 include text of, 89-90 procedure for selecting, 86-88 dictionary article: avoid redundancy in, 173, 178 checklist for, 215-219 cross-referencing in, 166-170 essential linguistic information in, 165-166 evaluation of, 215-219 explanation of the structure of, 208 free variants in, 85 grammatical designation in, 125-164 illustrative sentences in, 53-62 loan words in, 115-122 marking Spanish origin in, 120 overview, 13-14, 19-21 qualifying comments in, 73-78 sense discriminations, 63-72 translation equivalent in, 47-51 dictionary entry/main entry, see entry word:. dictionary: and grammatical sketch, 179-183 uses of, 181-182, 229-231 editing: by compiler, 97-99, 215-219 by consultant, 224 by local bilingual, 97-99 by Spanish editor, 96, 224 of frst display, 224 entry word: checks on, 217 compared with use in illustrative sentence, 98-99 complex, discussed in grammar sketch, 191 compounds, 172-175 displaying variants, 88-90 idiomatic phrases, 32 idioms, 175-176 infected forms with special meaning, 159 irregular infected forms, 159 loan words as, 115 371 Index of topics and terms

restricted by qualifying comment, 74-75 semantic domains, 79 essential linguistic information, 20, 165-166 alternate verb stem, 165 animate/ inanimate, 166 criteria for listing, 167-168 diferentiate from subentry, 165 discussed in grammar sketch, 184-185 listing of principal parts, 167-168 marking loan words, 120 plural or possessive of noun, 165-166 syntactic restrictions, 166 verb class designation, 125, 166 ethnographic appendices, 212 etymological information, 3-4 of compounds, 171-172 of derivation, 171-172 of Spanish loans, 120 evaluation, 215-219. See also checks / evaluation:. explanatory phrase as translation equivalent, 40, 50-51, 70 fgurative speech, 65 format: check, 223 of qualifying comment, 73-74 of translation equivalent, 47 glossary, 12 grammatical designation, 125-164. See also parts of speech. check for consistency, 131, 217 check for correctness, 110-111, 216 consistency in illustrative sentences, 53, 62 correlation with grammar sketch, 9, 131, 132 idioms, phrases, 160 in cross-referenced items, 167 in sense discriminations, 67-68 in Spanish index, 107, 110-113 morphological class designation, 163 multiple, 130, 160-162 purpose of, 130-131 refers to entry word, 110, 140 grammatical extension, 65 grammatical sketch, 19, 179-197 afxation discussed, 187-189 and lexicon, 179-181 approval by consultant, 225 coordinated with body of dictionary, 183, 224 cross-references to, 168, 185-111 discussion of compounds, 37, 174-175 discussion of derivations, 37 discussion of essential linguistic information, 184 discussion of grammatical system, 185-193 Index of topics and terms 372

discussion of phonology, 185-187 discussion of subentries, 185 examples in, 194 explains grammatical designations, 132, 183, 187 inclusion of paradigms, 191-193 inclusion of patterns and rules of infection, 4, 183, 187-189 linguistic check of, 224 organization of, 182-183 sample outline, 195-197 style, 194-197 use of charts in, 186, 194-195 homophones/ homonyms, 3 compare with sense discriminations, 70 in Spanish index, 107 idioms, 175-176 as subentry, 20, 175-176 check on, 216 compare with fgurative speech, 70 compared with sense discriminations, 70, 175 distinguish from compound, 173-174, 175 grammatical designation of, 160 idiomatic phrases, 32, 177 inclusion of, 21, 175 idiosyncratic subentries, 176-177 illustrations, 209-211 consultant approval for, 225 procedure for inclusion, 211 reasons for inclusion, 209-211 illustrative sentences, 53-62 choice of, 218 components of, 54-57, 59-61 evaluation of, 62, 98-99, 218 for clitics, particles, 158 for idioms, 176 infected forms in, 29 quantity, 59 rationale for use of, 53-54 sources of, 57-58 Spanish editor’s contribution to, 96, 98-99 translation of, 98-99, 100 unsatisfactory, 59-61 uses of, 53-54 used for cultural information, 54, 62 used for dialectal variants, 86-87 used to fnd sense discriminations, 17-18, 64, 65 used to generate glosses, 50, 94 used to justify glosses, 54, 101 imperative as citation form, 30 infnitive: 373 Index of topics and terms

as citation form, 30-31 infection: irregular, 159 nouns in grammar sketch, 188-189 variants, 4 verbs in grammar sketch, 187-188 with specialized meaning, 159 instructions in use of dictionary, 207, 218-219 interjections, 148, 189 introductory material, 205-208 abbreviations, 208 acknowledgements, 206 alphabet listing, 186, 207 approval by consultant, 225 dedicatory page, 205-206 instruction on use of dictionary article, 207-208 preface, 206 prologue, 206 pronunciation guide, 207 structure of dictionary article, 208 table of contents, 206 title pages, 205 introduction, 206-207 introductory note on cross-referencing, 168 introductory note on essential linguistic information, 184 introductory note on grammatical designation, 132 introductory note on selection of entry/ citation form, 184 introductory note on treatment of loan words, 117, 119 irregular forms: abbreviated entries for, 159 inclusion in alphabetical order, 202 listing of, 30 paradigms with, 192-193 verbal, 159 writing of compounds, 159-160 lexical analysis, 11-14 checking accuracy of, 99, 224 collecting words, 15-17 discovering meaning, 17-18, 93-97 levels of, 11-14 dictionary level, 13-14 glossary level, 12 word list level, 11-12 procedures of, 15-18 lexical appendices, 211 lexical fle, 15 lexical unit: collecting, 15-17 compared with roots, 25-26, 203 compounded, 31-32 Index of topics and terms 374

dependent, 157-159 derived, 31 distinguishing features: contrast, 3-4 infectional variants, 4 word class, 9 idiomatic phrases, 32 loan words, 115-122 word, 3-9 linguistic check, 224-225 literal translation in translation equivalent, 40-41 loan words, 115-122 historical processes afecting, 121-122 identifcation of, 115-118, 163-164 marking of in dictionary article, 120 spelling of, 118-119 main entries, see entry word:. dual, 88 minor main entries, 159 meanings, see translation equivalent. morphological classes designation, 163 nouns, 133 animate/ inanimate, 133, 149, 166 classifcation of, 127, 133 derived from verbs, 133 discussed in grammar sketch, 187 gender, 133 generic/ specifc compounds, 174-175 listing in Spanish index, 111 plural, 165-166 possession of, 149-150, 165-166, 184-185 translation equivalent, 48 numbers, 151 afected by syntax, 193 as adjective or separate word class, 135 discussed in grammar, 189 in appendix, 211 orthography: described in grammar sketch, 185-186 in citation form, 32-33 in introductory material, 207 used in publications in indigenous literature, 32 paradigms in grammar sketch, 191-193 instead of morphological rules, 186-187 show verbal infection, 187-188 use in fnding basic stem, 25-26 particles, clitics, 157-159 parts of speech, 9, 132-148. See also grammatical designation. closed sets of, 189-190 historical development, 126-127 375 Index of topics and terms

identifcation of, 127, 181, 183 in sense discriminations, 67-68 major classes, 187 minor classes, 189-190 parallel Spanish, 127-130, 132-148 phonology described in grammar sketch, 185-187 phrases: compared with word construction, 130 no grammatical designation, 111 used as translation equivalent, 40, 50-51 preface, 206 prepositions: discussed in grammar sketch, 145-147 extended meaning of body parts, 151-152 prologue, 206 pronouns, 136-139 as afxes, 157 discussed in grammar sketch, 189 unique categories, 150-151 pronunciation guide, 207 qualifying comments, 49, 73-78 check for adequacy, 217 co-occurrence restrictions, 40, 74-75, 105 cultural information, 40, 74, 78 contribution of, 73 explanatory phrase, 50-51 format of, 73-74 identifying sense discriminations, 68-69 omission of lexical component, 40 regional terms, 77-78, 97, 101 scientifc name, 76 semantic domain, 75-76, 76-77 sociolinguistic information, 77 use compared with essential linguistic information, 166 use in Spanish index, 73, 75, 99, 103-104-105, 217 use in unidentifable item, 76-77 redundancy: avoidance of, 173, 178 in cross-referencing compounds, 173 regional Spanish equivalents, 96-97, 100-101, 217 reversal index, 103-113 article, 20 bilingual reversal by computer, 107 checklist for, 113 consultant check of, 225 editing by compiler, 105 generated by computer, 105 geographic variants in, 87, 89, 109 juxtaposed glosses, 103 listing of synonyms, 106 Index of topics and terms 376

meshing grammatical systems, 110-113 qualifying comments, 75, 103-104 regional Spanish, 109 subentries, 108-109 vernacular glosses, 75 scientifc nomenclature, 76, 81-83, 95 semantic domains, 15, 100, 163 check for completeness, 218 check for harmony, 217 check with consultant, 223 ethnobiological classifcation, 83 identifcation by native speaker, 79-81, 97 identifcation procedures, 75-76, 79-83 Spanish translation equivalent for, 79-80 unidentifable items, 76-77 use of illustrations, 209 use of reference books, 80, 81, 95 semantic features, 3-4 determination of, 94-95 sense discriminations/ semantic variants/ range of meaning, 4-9, 17-18, 63-72 check of, 216 contrasted with idioms, 70, 175-176 criteria for, 66-68, 72 distinguish from homophone, 70, 107 distinguish from subentries, 69-70, 106 distinguish parts of speech in, 4, 65, 67-68, 160-162 fgurative extension, 5, 65 from illustrative sentences, 17-18, 50, 53, 54, 98-99 identifcation of, 70-72, 94-95 in loan words, 117 in Spanish index, 106-107 justifed by illustrative sentences, 64 numbering of, 20, 66-68 occurrences of, 64-66 parallel sets of, 69 Spanish editor’s contribution to, 96 types of, 63-64 use of computer concordance in, 17 sociolinguistic information, 77 Spanish editing or check, 96, 224 Spanish equivalents, 93-101. See also translation equivalent. contribution of Spanish editor, 96 reference books for, 95, 215 regional, 77-78, 95, 100-101, 109 responsibility for accuracy of, 94-96, 99, 215-217 sources of, 93-97 techniques for obtaining, 97-98 translation of illustrative sentences, 72, 98-99, 100 subentries, 20, 171-178 and sense discriminations, 68, 69-70 377 Index of topics and terms

as main entries, 177 compounds as, 168, 172-174 derived forms in, 171 discussed in grammar sketch, 185 idioms as, 69-70, 175-176 in Spanish index, 108-109 redundancy in, 178 related to translation equivalent promotion, 50 variant as, 176 with multiple sense discriminations, 176 synonyms: criterion of designation, 66, 72 cross-referencing, 166-167, 177-178 defnition, 3, 66 distinguished from analogous words, 177-178 esoteric, 49 in glosses, 49, 66, 68-69 in Spanish index, 106 syntax, 193 table of contents, 206 text material: contribution in dictionary compilation, 71, 97, 180-181 contribution in grammar sketch, 180-181 in evaluation of dictionary, 215, 218 inclusion for dialect variants, 89-90 title pages, 205 translation equivalent, 47-51. See also Spanish equivalents. accuracy of, 95, 99, 215-217 appropriateness of, 39-41 check for adequacy, 215-216 check for conciseness, 218 check for consistency, 217 defnition, 47 derived forms, 36, 39-41 discovery procedures, 17-18 expanded, 41 explanatory phrase, 53 false translation equivalent promotion, 50, 99 for compounds, 41-43 format, 47 grammatical congruence, 40, 98 interlocking meanings, 68-69 juxtaposed, 20, 49, 101 evaluation, 216-217 in Spanish index, 103 need for sense discriminations, 50, 63-64 of body parts, 65 of idioms in Spanish index, 75 of items in semantic domains, 79 of stative verbs, adjectives, 48 Index of topics and terms 378

phrasal, 40 promotion, 50, 98-99 qualifying comments in, 39 reinforced by illustrative sentences, 54, 98-99 restricted by qualifying comments, 49, 74, 216 simplicity in, 40, 218 sources of, 93-97 translation equivalent, see translation equivalent. Véase: refers to main entry, 167-168 verbs, 139-143 alternate stems, 165, 167-168, 202 as complex entries, 191 categories, 152-155 causative, 153 classifcation of, 127, 152-155, 166 compounds, 41-43 derivational forms as subentries, 171-172 discussed in grammar sketch, 184-185, 187-189, 190, 194 impersonal and meteorological, 155 incorporated object, 152 irregular forms/ parsing, 202 nominalized, 133, 143 organization of Spanish verbal features, 141-143 paradigms, 191-193 passive, 152 phrases, 193 principal parts, 167-168 refexive, 140-141 Spanish equivalent, 47-48 stative, 48, 134, 153, 155, 183 transitivity distinctions, 152-155, 189 word, see lexical unit:. word classes, see parts of speech. word list, 11-12, 16 alphabetization, 202-203 compare with Spanish word list, 105-106, 108 Spanish, 16 Index of languages, proper names and publications

Alvarado, Fray Francisco de, 246 Amuzgo, 74-75, 100, 190, 193 Anpilógova, 68 Aristos diccionario ilustrado de la lengua española, 132, 207 Aztec, 152 Barrera, Vasquez, 121, 257 Bello, 142 Berlin, Brent, 83 Brambila, David, 257 Cabrera, Diccionario de aztequismos, 95 Cakchiquel, 248-249 Canfeld, D. Lincoln, 121 Carochi, P. Horacio, 244 Casagrande, Joseph, 54 Chomsky, Noam, 236 Ch’ol, 51, 75, 76, 78, 153, 175 Collins Spanish-English dictionary, 95, 160 Cordemex Maya dictionary Barrera, Vasquez, 121 Córdoba, Juan, 246-247 Diccionario de mejanismos, 80, 95, 96-97 Diccionario de Motul, 247 Diccionario del español de México (Lara), 16 Diccionario gráfco de español básico, Instituto Nacional Indigenista, 54 Echegoyen, Artemisa, 183, 187, 189 Fries, Charles, 233 Gante, Fray Pedro de, 242 Gaya, Samuel G., 142 Gilberti, Maturino, 244 Gleason, H. A. Jr., 179 Gómez, P. Fernando, 244 Grimes, Joseph, 83 Hale, Kenneth, 54 Halle, Morris, 236 Hervás y Panduro, Lorenzo, 244 Hooper, Joan, 236 Hopi, 16 Huastec of Veracruz, 69, 155, 159 Huave, 67-68, 78, 95, 144, 145, 160, 161, 163, 169-170, 186-187, 192 379 Index of languages, proper names and publications 380

Hunn, 83 Ixcatec, 253 Khmer, xxv Lara, Luis Fernando, xxi, 16 Larousse Spanish-English dictionary, 66, 95, 100, 107 Lenkersdorf, Carlos, 256 Mam, 248 Maya, 247-248, 257 Mazatec, 172, 173, 174-175 Mískito, 249, 253 Mixe of Coatlán, 28 Mixe of Totontepec, 27, 36, 41, 75, 83, 109, 120, 158, 163, 167, 172 Mixtec, 246 Mixtec of Chayuco, 47-48, 246 Mixtec of Jamiltepec, 150 Molina, Alonso, 27-28, 182, 203, 233, 243 Nahuatl, 27, 117, 118, 146, 152, 182, 203, 242-244, 251-252 Nahuatl grammar, 182 Navajo, 38, 250-251, 257-259 Neve y Molina, 121 New shorter review grammar, A (Rodríguez and Brown), 12 New world dictionary of English, 159 Nida, Eugene, 127, 259 Otomí, 27, 47, 146, 193, 244 Otomí of the Sierra, 183, 187, 189 Papago, 54 Perez, Juan Pío, 247-248 Pike, Kenneth, 233 Popoluca of Oluta (Clark), 106-107, 154, 184, 255 Porrua Spanish dictionary, 95, 100 Quiché, 248, 249 Reader’s digest, 63 Real Academia, 100, 142 Reddy, Michael, 14, 235-236 Robinson, Dow, 16, 17, 26, 156, 181, 233, 234 Robinson, Gerald, 82 Roca Pons, José, 127, 132 Sahagún, Fray Bernardino, 244 Santamaría, Diccionario de mejicanismos, 80, 95, 96-97, 101, 254 Schoenhals, Louise, 225 Simēon, Rēmi, 251-252 Sopena, 192 Swadesh, Morris, 255 Swahili, 37 Tarahumara, 252, 257 Tarascan, 244-245, 256 Tepehua of Huehuetla, 65, 138, 139, 157, 186 Tepehua of Tlachichilco, 58, 117 Tepehuan, Northern, 120, 121-122, 138, 144, 171-172 Thord-Gray, I., 252 381 Index of languages, proper names and publications

Tojolobal, 256-257 Totonac of Papantla, 48, 49, 67, 69, 75, 78, 88, 156-157, 202 Totonac of Xicotepec, 88, 157, 159 Trench, 177 Trique of Chicahuaxtla (Good), 184 Tzotzil, 248, 251 Tzotzil of San Andres (Delgaty), 50, 54, 86-87, 89, 90, 104-105, 134, 164, 211 Voegelin, Carl F. and Florence M., 16 Watters, Juanita, 58 Webster’s new world dictionary of the American language, 156, 159 Webster’s third international dictionary, 175 Williams Spanish-English dictionary, 13, 64, 95, 159-160 Yaqui, 116 Young, Robert W., 38, 250, 257-259 Zapotec, 246-247 Zapotec of Choapan, 70, 151 Zapotec of Isthmus, 116, 118, 119, 136, 149-150, 150, 256 Zapotec of Juárez, 31, 138, 139, 150, 151, 155, 158, 184 Zgusta, Ladislav, 36-37, 179 Zoque of Copainalá, 27, 136, 162 Zoque of Francisco León, 37, 39, 42, 70, 96-97, 130, 143, 144, 145, 161, 171, 186