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Values of "Pure Science": Nishina Yoshio's Wartime Discourse Between Nationalism and Physics, 1940-1945

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Values of KENJI ITO* Values of “pure science”: Nishina Yoshio’s wartime discourse between nationalism and physics, 1940-1945 NISHINA YOSHIO FOUND in 1940 a new application of Niels Bohr’s “complementarity.”1 Nishina had studied in Copenhagen between 1923 and 1928. His most important work was in theoretical physics, relativistic treatments of Compton scattering, particularly the so-called Klein-Nishina formula. 2 After his return to Japan in late 1928, Nishina built a strong school of atomic physics. Based at the Institute of Physical and Chemical Research (or Riken) in Tokyo, Nishina mentored many able young physicists, among others the later Nobel laureate Tomonaga Sin-itiro, and laid the foundation for the development of modern phys- ics in Japan. During the war, as Japan’s supreme authority of atomic physics, Nishina led one of the principal wartime nuclear power projects. 3 *Research Center for Advanced Science and Technology, University of Tokyo, 4-6-1 Komaba, Meguro-ku, Tokyo 153-8904, Japan; [email protected]. Japanese per- sonal names are written in the traditional order (family name first, given name second), except when they appear as authors of writings in European languages. Romanization of Japanese words generally follows Kenkyûsha’ s New Japanese-English dictionary , but in case of personal names, I used the person’s preferred form when I am aware of it. I used circumflexes to indicate long vowels. I would like to thank Alexis de Greiff, David Kaiser, Gentarô Katô ,and Keiko Nagase-Reimet. 1. On complementarity, see, Henry J. Folse, The philosophy of Niels Bohr: The frame work of complementarity (Amsterdam, 1985); Dugald Murdoch, Niels Bohr’s philosophy of physics (Cambridge, 1987); Gerald Holton, Thematic origins of scientific thought: Kepler to Einstein (Cambridge, 1988), 99-146. 2. Oskar Klein and Yoshio Nishina, “Über die Streuung von Strahlung durch freie Elektronen nach der neuen relativstischen Quantendynamik von Dirac,” Zeitschrift für Physik, 52 (1929), 853-868; Yoshio Nishina, “Die Polarisation der Comptonstreuung nach der Diracschen Theorie des Elektrons,” Zeitschrift für Physik, 52 (1929), 869-877; Yazaki Yuji, “Klein- Nishina no kôshiki dôshutsu no katei: Riken no Nishina shiryô wo chûshin ni, (How was the Klein-Nishina formula derived?: Based mainly on the source materials of Y. Nishina in Riken),” Kagakushi kenkyû , 41 (1992), 81-91, 129-137. 3. Like the Germans, the Japanese did not get far enough to have to decide whether to build a bomb or a reactor; therefore, “nuclear power project” is more appropriate than “atomic bomb project” for their endeavor. HSPS, Volume 33, Part 1, pages 61-86. ISSN 0890-9997. ©2002 by The Regents of the University of California. All rights reserved. Send requests for permission to reprint to Rights and Permissions, University of California Press, 2000 Center St., Ste. 303, Berkeley, CA 94704-1223. 62 ITO Nishina’s adaptation of complementarity appeared in an article in December 1940. In this article, Nishina pointed out two apparently contradictory claims: While until recently the problem of the “overemphasis of science” had been loudly criti- cized, now everyone called for “promotion of science.” Nishina suggested that these claims were in a complementary relation in Niels Bohr’s sense. The appar- ently incompatible views had different areas of applicability. The problem of the overemphasis of science should be addressed in the matter of mind, while the pro- motion of science should be advocated in the material issues. These two were not always clearly distinguished, just as the position and momentum of an electron was not always exactly determined. According to Nishina, in the matter of “mind,” Japan had traditional beautiful morality and spirituality, whereas in the matter of “science,” Japan had been underdeveloped. 4 In about a year, immediately after the Pearl Harbor attack, Nishina applied a similar logic on the issue of national defense. Nishina claimed that, while the re- cent achievements of the Japanese army were, “evidently,” mainly made possible by the superior “spirit” and training of the “loyal and brave” Japanese soldiers, what was similarly important was the weaponry and military equipment developed by Japanese military engineers. Although the “spirit” played an important role, these material conditions should not be neglected. Therefore, he concluded, Japan should not rely on her “superior” spirit, but also try to develop her science and technology so that Japanese soldiers would be equipped with these two weapons, mental and material. 5 Thus, in a way Niels Bohr probably never imagined, Nishina appropriated his mentor’s pet idea for political propaganda. But exactly for what? Was Nishina a fellow traveler of the Japanese fascists, or was he taking advantage of Japan’s military adventure to fund and advance science? Although the wartime Japanese nuclear power project receives much less publicity today than its German counter- part, similar moral questions can be discussed concerning Japanese scientists’ acts during the war. In this paper, I establish Nishina Yoshio’s moral attitude toward the war on the basis of his large corpus of popular writings from 1940 to 1945 regard- ing science and war. I analyze these writings in terms of the question posed above: Was he collaborating for Japan’s war effort, or making the war an excuse to pro- mote “pure science”? Some literature on the subject exists. Hirosige Tetu, in his classic study of the institutionalization of science in modern Japan, depicts Nishina as one of the most active proponents for the mobilization of science for war, who, moreover, remained cheekily in power after the war. 6 Yamazaki Masakatsu, another Japanese historian of science, in his work on Nishina’s nuclear energy project, suggests that Nishina 4. Nishina Yoshio,”Sô hosei to busshin ichinyo,” Chisei, 3 (Dec 1940), 162-167. 5. Nishina Yoshio, “Daitôa sensô to kagaku gijutsu no shinkô,” W aseda Daigaku shimbun (14 Jan 1942), 3. 6. Hirosige Tetu, Kagaku no shakaishi: Kindai Nihon no kagaku taisei (Tokyo, 1973), 168, 210, 278. PHYSICS IN JAPAN 63 used military research as a “shield” to protect young scientists in Japan from being drafted by the military. Nishina’s disciples, including Tomonaga Sin-itiro, held similar views. In his studies on science in Nazi Germany, Mark Walker depicts most of his actors in “shades of gray.” 7 I limn Nishina’s portrait in a similar way. Nishina identified himself as a scientist (or rather a practitioner of what he called “pure science”). He defined “pure” or “fundamental science” as the investi- gation of nature with the sole purpose of deepening knowledge about it, whereas the goal of applied science was to use the results of “pure science” for the benefit of people.8 He considered it his task to work for a deeper understanding of nature, not to find useful applications of science. However, Nishina was an ardent nation- alist, who had an extremely strong sense of responsibility for the fate of his coun- try. The two commitments did not necessarily pose a dilemma for Nishina; he believed his argument that “pure science” was good for his country, if not neces- sarily for winning the current war. Jeffrey Herf, in his book Reactionary modernism , points out the tenuous rela- tions between nationalism and appreciation of science and technology in early- 20th century Germany, where politically conservative “mandarins” had to endorse science and technology because of their utility for the nation. 9 Wartime Japan light- ened a similar tension between science and political conservatism. 1. WARTIME THOUGHT CONTROL IN JAPAN AND THE “SLAVE’S LANGUAGE” Wartime publications should not be taken at face value since Japanese authors had to express cryptically whatever discontent they felt. Accounts written after the war help us no more, since they often contain apologia and post hoc justification of wartime collaboration with the Japanese military, which was summarily stig- matized in postwar pacifist Japan. Nishina’s wartime writings might appear shock- ingly jingoistic. We need to realize, however, that he wrote under a strict censor- ship. From 1940 to 1945, Japanese newspapers and magazines were strictly super- vised by the military and government. Thought control stood in the frontline of “ideological warfare” ( shisôsen). The government had six main means to enforce its control on periodicals. 10 The Book Censorship Section of the Police Bureau of the Home Ministry 7. Mark Walker, Nazi science: Myth, truth and the German atomic bomb (New York, 1995), 2. 8. Nishina Yoshio, “Senjika no kiso kagaku,” Chû ôkô ron, 57:657 (May 1942), 95. Nishina used the words kiso kagaku (basic or fundamental science) and junsui kagaku (pure sci- ence) interchangeably. I use the word “pure science” to refer to both. 9. Jeffrey Herf, Reactionary modernism: Technology, culture, and politics in Weimar and the Third Reich (Cambridge, 1984). 10. This classification roughly follows Mimasaka Tarô, Fujita Chikamasa, and Watanabe Kiyoshi, Yokoahma jiken (Tokyo, 1977). 64 ITO (Naimushô Keihokyoku Toshoken’etsuka ) took charge of censoring publication. After September 1941, the censorship took place before circulation. The publish- ers submitted manuscripts to the Censorship Section, which, if it spied problems, called up the publisher a few days later. The censors might merely admonish the publisher, or order deletion of some parts of the manuscript, or ban its circulation altogether. If the materials to be deleted in part were already printed, the publisher had to tear out the banned pages. Prior clearance did not guarantee that the publi- cation had no major fault, however. The Censorship Section or another branch of the government or the military might criticize it later, and even press criminal charges on the publisher and the author for a work that had passed the censorship. If the book or magazine was already on sale, all the employees of the publishing company had to go to the police stations, which had confiscated the material from the bookstores, in order to tear off the banned pages under the supervision of the thought police.
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