Trans.Inst.Indian Geographers ISSN 0970-9851 Geo-archaeological perspective of - a megalithic-early historic settlement in North ,

Hema Thakur, New Delhi

Abstract Maski (150 57’ 30” N. Latitude and 760 39’15” E. Longitude) is a well-known settlement in . Excavation has given information for four cultures - chalcolithic, megalithic, early historic and medieval. The continuous occupation at Maski can be contextualized in relation to the geographical and geological landscape. The excavated megalithic and early historic settlements at , Maski, Hallur, Piklihal, Sanganakallu as well as a large number of explored sites are situated in North Maidan. It is a plateau covered with rich black cotton soil. The region is well endowed with economically viable rocks and minerals. It is noteworthy that many ancient iron and workings have been found. This is an indication that metal was being systematically explored and smelted and there is a possibility that Maski and the surrounding area was crucial in producing metal. The region is not only well provided in minerals but also has a strong agricultural base. There is a possibility that powers such as Mauryas which were centered in North ventured into Karnataka in their quest for metals and minerals. In this paper availability of natural resources and its impact on the establishment and sustenance of Maski and other nearby settlements has been explored. Key Words : geographical and geological landscape, ancient iron and gold workings, Asokan edict

Karnataka is rich in tangible remains megalithic phase and the early historic phase of human occupation beginning with the are frequently found overlapping or the pre-historic period and continuing into the latter succeeding the former as borne out by medieval age and later. The almost continuous some of the important excavated sites such occupation at Maski (Fig.1) is indicative of as Maski, Brahmagiri and Chandravalli. suitable environment and favourable local This is not to imply that the early historic conditions. Archaeologically the immediate culture in Karnataka evolved entirely and background of the early historic period in only out of the preceding megalithic phase, Karnataka including Maski is the megalithic for it had certain distinguishing traits of its culture phase which is richly represented own such as the use of the Russet-coated over almost the whole of Karnataka. The Painted Ware, the construction of large study of megalithic culture is important for brick structures, the making of sculptures, the analysis of the early historical period coins of pre-Satavahana and Satavahana as many features typical of the megalithic period, script and inscriptions. phase continue into the early historic. The

Transactions | Vol. 41, No. 2, 2019 | 227 Peninsular gneiss with NNW-SSE belts of Dharwarschists. To the north of Dharwar and Peninsular gneisses, sedimentary rocks such as sandstone, limestone and mudstone of Cuddapah formations are found in a continous line in the west and Kurnool formations in the east. The remaining area is capped with Deccan trap (Singh 1971, 817). The region is well endowed with economically viable rocks and minerals. These include granites, sandstone, shale, limestone, agate, opal, chalcedony, chert, laterite, haematite, limonite, gold, copper, quartz, crystal, quartzites, mica, ochre, soapstone, gneisses, dyke rocks, etc. It is Fig.1 (Map – Courtesy, Author) noteworthy that many ancient workings have been found. Old iron workings have been noted at Somalingadhalli, near The Geographical and Geological Machnur, near Mandargi, Chikhesrur and Context Hirehesrur. Perhaps the most prominent Karnataka can be broadly divided between are the old gold workings which have been open Maidan and forested Malnad.The located in the Dharwars along the eastern Maidan consists in general of rolling margin of the belt from Mavinmatti to the plateau rising in the east (between Tumkur north of Kardhalli, at “Makan-gavi” south and Kolar) into disjointed granitic hills of Mavinmatti and north east of Janapur. of irregular plan and elevation (Spate However, the best known ancient gold and A.T.A. Learmonth 1984, 702).The workings have been discovered at Hutti vast Maidan, so named after its relatively gold mines situated in the Maski band of low and subdued relief, is divided into Dharwar schist rocks. The region is not north and south, largely owing to cultural only well provided in minerals but also has differentiations, the former is mostly a strong agricultural base. The level plains drained by the Krishna and the latter by with fertile soils are highly suitable for the Cauvery system. The settlements at agriculture. The climate is hot and dry with Sannati, Maski as well as the large number occasional droughts due to variable rainfall of surrounding early historic sites are but the agricultural activity does not suffer situated in North Maidan. It is a landscape because of the rivers such as Krishna, of monotonous seemingly endless plateau Bhima, Tungabhadra and their tributaries. covered with rich black cotton soil. The These rivers must have facilitated transport general elevation is about 600 mt. with and communication and in the process broad flat bottomed valleys ranging upto would have stimulated internal trade. 400 mt. Southern half of the area lies on They might have played an effective role

228 | Transactions | Vol. 41, No. 2, 2019 in the exchange of ideas. Incidentally, both the following period; the early historical, Sannati and Maski are situated on the banks period Ill, extending to the surface, with of river Bhima and close to Maskinullah a further height of nearly 2ft including the (a tributary of Tungabhadra) respectively. overlapped deposit; the medieval period, only represented in MSK-l2, covered Archaeological site at Maski – a height of 4 to 4 1/2 ft from the natural surface to the present ground level. (Maksi, 15o57'30"N Latitude and 76o39'15" e. Longitude) lies in LingsugurTaluk of District . To the north of the village Megalithic flows the Maskinullah, a tributary of the Archaeological assemblage from Maski– Turigabhadra. The ancient site is located Extensive vestiges of megalithic culture to the west of the present village and is were found at Maski, district Raichur. At surrounded on three sides by gneissic least five classes of burials were found. The outcrops rising about 400 ft above the burials on excavation yielded human remains plain. It was excavated between 1935-37 and funerary goods. These included pottery, by the State Archaeological Department of stone balls, stone axe, chert core, stones the Hyderabad state. It was systematically of indeterminate use, tanged arrowhead, excavated by BK. Thapar in 1954 (Thapar iron knife blade, iron dagger, iron axes, 1957). Four cuttings, labeled MSK-9 to iron lances, animal bones, etc. Excavation MK-12 were laid out in different parts brought to light only post-holes with no of the site. Only MSK-l0 was complete evidence for any structure. The pottery from and gave evidence of three successive the burials consisted of black-and-red ware occupational periods (numbered I to and red ware. Pottery from the habitational III from bottom upwards) with a break deposits comprised of black-and-red ware, between the first two and with a sprinkling all- black ware and red-slipped ware. The of the remains of the medieval period at habitational deposits gave the evidence of the top levels. MSK-9 revealed that the fragmentary bangle, tanged arrowhead, area, after a regular occupation of Period chisel, ferrule, blade of a dagger, blade of I had been used as a burial ground in the a sickle, axe, nail, etc. Among the copper next period. MSK-11 proved to be much objects noted prominent was a fragmentary disturbed by a late pit. In MSK-l2, remains bangle. Two gold objects, one bead and a of the Medieval Period alone were met small indeterminate fragementary leaf came with. The excavation established a four- to light. Ornaments comprised of beads, fold sequence--the chalcolithic, period 1, bangles, etc. Terracottas were collected. average height of 3ft. above the natural Remains of domestic Ass, Zebu or domestic surface with a, distinct break in occupation humped Cattle of India and domestic Sheep at the end of the period; the megalithic, were reported (Thapar 1957). period 2, height of 5ft 6 in, in the uppermost foot of which there was an overlap with

Transactions | Vol. 41, No. 2, 2019 | 229 to a period before 400 B.C. In most of the south Indian sites, Russet coated Kaolin Painted Ware overlaps and succeeds the iron age black-and-red ware. Russet coated Ware had been dated to the beginning centuries of the christian era on the basis of its association with Rouletted Ware, Roman and Satvahana coins, as witnessed primarily at Arikamedu and Chandravalli (Nagaraju S and B.K. GururajaRao , 326). Fig. 2 Interestingly in the opinion of scholars like K.V.SoundaraRajan, Asoka or his regional governors who were charged with the duty of dispersing the royal mandate Chronology – and desire, bestirred themselves under the In Karnataka iron objects first appear in sway of the iron using, megalith-building the period of overlap between the communities and it was seemingly these and the megalithic periods. This overlap that were to be influenced by the royal between the neolithic and megalithic edicts (SoundaraRajanK V 1983, 11). Thus cultures was found to be quite early at the the megalithic age in Karnataka can be site of Hallur. The beginning of iron-using assigned the time bracket of approximately culture at Hallur can be dated around 1100- 1100-1000 B.C. to 400-300 B.C. 1000 B.C. There is a possibility that iron might have been introduced a little earlier as the dates obtained are for layers 4 and Sustenance of archaeological settlements 5 whereas iron is to known to occur in Maski is located in North Maidan. In two earlier layers i.e. 6 and 7. Thus, the North Maidan megalithic settlements were introduction of iron might have been as situated on river banks as well as on terraces early as 1200 B.C. at Hallur. This possibility and foot hills. A large number of megalithic can not be ruled out until otherwise sites were found on the banks of the established by firmer evidence (NagarajuS tributaries of river Krishna, notable among and B.K. GururajaRao , 324). It is difficult which are Tungabhadra, Maskinullah, to fix the date for the end of this culture Malaprabha and its tributaries Bennihalla phase. There is stratigraphical continuity and Jaulhalla. Hallur is on Tungabhadra from early iron age phase right upto the while Maski is on Maskinullah. Along beginning of the christian era (Hallur, with certain excavated sites like Piklihal, Brahmagiri, Maski, Piklihal etc.), with the Sanganakallu a large number of explored iron age traits continuing and overlapping sites were found on the terraces and at with the early historic. However, it is the foot of sandstone and granite hills. It difficult to say with certainty if all the sites appears that man showed discrimination with iron and black-and-red ware belong in the use of land i.e. burial sites were

230 | Transactions | Vol. 41, No. 2, 2019 generally located on unarable lands while manufacture, bangle making, terracotta the habitation sites were normally found in making and spinning. Considering the large open fields (Nagaraju S and B.K. Gururaja number and type of megalithic monuments Rao, 326). The identification of numerous it appears that there must have been a fairly sites with burial vaults is suggestive of big category of workers who specialized in big population. Some of the burial vaults stone cutting and building. The discovery at times had remains of more than one of iron tools, implements and weapons person. Moreover the building of these from various sites such as Maski, Hallur, burials would have demanded an easy and Halingali and Piklihalthat iron ore was abundant labour supply. The stones used in being prospected and utilized. Ancient the construction of graves were both big iron smelting has been identified at places and heavy and would have depended upon like Kanivehalli, Kudligi, Kamalapura, extensive labour for working, transporting Kallahalli, near Sri Kumaraswamy Temple and hoisting them. An important factor near Deogiri on the Ramandurga plateau, that seems to have supported the large near Jambunatha ridge, etc. in district population was the availability of resources. Bellary (Gazetteer of India, Bellary Though climatic conditions are hot, dry and District, 20). Districts Bijapur, Raichur and the rainfall is not adequate, yet agriculture Bellary in North Maidan are known to be is an important activity in North Maidan rich in iron ore deposits. primarily because of the easy availability Gold objects such as a bead and a small of water for irrigation and fertile soils. indeterminate fragmentary leaf from Maski Agriculture of the period seems to have tend to suggest that gold was perhaps benefitted not only from irrigation but also systematically explored and prospected from the use of a wide range of iron tools by the megalithic folk. Numerous gold and implements, particularly knives, axes, workings have been found at Hutti which etc. As the iron tools were more durable constitutes the chief gold bearing belt of and effective vis-a-vis stone, it became the (Thapar 1957, 119). possible to work the soil faster and deeper. Indications of ancient workings for gold Furthermore, stone tools such as axes, are noticed near Konganahosur and pestles were probably used in agricultural Chigateri in Harapanahallitaluk and near activities. Agriculture was supplemented Ettinahatti in Sandurtaluk in Bellary district by hunting and domestication of animals. (Gazetteer of India, Bellary District, 22). That hunting was practised during the There is evidence for many old workings period is indicated by large number of of gold at places such as to the south of hunting scenes painted in the rock shelters Mangalur, at Makan-gavi, to the south at sites like Hire-Benkal. These paintings of Mavinmatti, to the north of Janapur, seem to hint at community hunting, carried to the west of the road to Kardhalli from on the horse back. Furthermore, the region Naganur, on the eastern flank of Mangalur witnessed the development of various hill, etc. (Gazetteer of India, industries, notable among which were stone District, 21-22) . The unpierced terracotta dressing, metal working, pot making, bead discs could be gaming counters possibly

Transactions | Vol. 41, No. 2, 2019 | 231 used in hop-scotch game by children, of Asokan inscription. An ancient lead coin the pierced ones could be either spindle- was found from the latest levels. Its date whorls or toy cart-wheels. That exchange has not been ascertained (Thapar 1957). network of certain magnitude might have This culture has been dated from first existed in the region is indicated by the century A.D. to third century A.D. (Murthy fact that at Maski, otherwise rich in beads, A.V.Narasimha 1987-88, 6). no cores or unfinished beads were found, thus suggesting that there was no local Chronology - industry at the site though some of the raw Early historic period in Karnataka is material used was within reach. Similarly, normally placed between third century B.C. six lapis lazuli beads were discovered. This to third century A.D. This chronological material is not available locally in India framework however does not imply that and must have been imported from outside. early historic culture showed uniform Important sources of lapis lazuli are in patterns in terms of space and time. While at Afghanistan, near Baikal, Siberia and Chile Vadgaon-Madhavapur it unfolded itself as (Thapar 1957, 104-105). early as third century B.C., at T. Narasipur its beginnings can be traced only to first Early Historic Period century A.D. The early historic culture in Archaeological assemblage from Maski– Karnataka can be broadly divided in two Excavation brought forth a rich variety phases - early and late. The early phase is of pottery which included Russet coated from third century B.C. to first century A.D. Painted Ware, red-slipped ware, black- The second phase is seen from first century and-red ware, grey ware, black ware A.D. to third century A.D. - coterminus and Rouletted Ware. A few brick bats of with the pre-Satavahana and Satavahana the dimensions of ? x 9x3 inches were period. Early historic culture seems to noted. The stone objects found here were have flourished during the second phase. asymmetrical flakes, parallel-sided blades, Excavations at Chandravalli, Brahmagiri, cores, balls, mortar, disc and marble. Metal Maski, Piklihal, Vadgaon-Madhavapur objects discovered included nail and blade and Sannati have demonstrated that early of a dagger or knife, both made of iron as historic culture with its distinctive traits like well as copper bangle and a copper broken permanent structures, Russet coated Kaolin bell. Ornaments discovered at Maski Painted Ware, metal and stone objects, comprised of beads, bangles and rings. ornaments particularly beads, terracottas Terracottas included spools, discs, flesh and sculptures, coins, inscriptions and rubbers and figurine of a bird, possibly script came to the fore in the period from a parrot. However, it it the torso of a first century A.D. to third century A.D. standing female figure which is particularly Excavation at Brahmagiri and Chandravalli noteworthy. Animal remains of the Indian in 1947 has given a chronological bracket domestic Buffalo and the domestic Sheep which is since then frequently applied were recorded. An important discovery to date early historic cultures elsewhere. which brought Maski to limelight was that Satavahana coins occuring in association

232 | Transactions | Vol. 41, No. 2, 2019 with Roman denarii and the Rouletted A notable feature of Maski which is Ware provided the main dating evidence common to the other major settlements of for the early historic culture at Brahmagiri the period is well made and sophisticated and Chandravalli. Both of them imparted ware, particularly the Russet coated kaolin a measure of chronological precision to Painted Ware. From the abundance of a widely distributed ceramic, the Russet pottery found it appears that Maskimust coated Painted Ware. By association this have been well populated. The discovery ware was assigned to about the middle of of Rouletted Ware is indicative of possible the first century to the third century A.D. Roman contact. So far no brick structures Consequently at Maski, the beginning of have come to light but stray brick bats period III i.e. the early historic which is suggest that permanent structures might marked by the appearance of the Russet have been in existence. The ornaments coated Kaolin Painted Ware is placed in recovered show a marked preference for the middle of the first century A.D. The shell which was probably obtained from occupation was slender and might have the nearby tributary of the Tungabhadra. It continued till about the third century A.D. is interesting that a large number of beads (Thapar 1957, 17). However, the Asokan have been recorded but like Brahmagiri inscription suggests an earlier date i.e. there is no evidence for local production. third century B.C. to second century B.C. In such a situation beads might have been for the beginning of the early historic supplied by a nearby settlement which period. specialised in their production. For instance, Devargonal has given evidence of remains Sustenance of archaeological settlements of furnaces for making beads. Infact, there Maski seems to have been a major settlement is every possibility that many of the basic of the period located in mineral rich zone. requirements were being fulfilled by the Thirteen gold workings have been found surrounding villages. Rich pottery, large near Maski. It has been suggested that number of ornaments and fine terracottas Maski itself may be the Suvarnagiri (“gold are suggestive that Maski was a thriving hill”) headquarters from which the Minor settlement of the period. It appears to have Rock Edicts of Asoka were issued. As there been an important administrative centre of are a number of Asokan inscriptions in that the Mauryas which continued to flourish general area such as those at Gavimath and till the early centuries of the Christian era. Palakigundu, near Kopbal, the Suvarnagiri headquarters may have been at one of Conclusion such places. The large number of Asokan Karnataka since ancient period has enjoyed inscriptions in this part and the attempt the benefit of multiple sources including to establish a cultural impact, as revealed fertile soils, adequate water for irrigation in the Minor Rock Edicts, were perhaps and conducive climatic conditions which deliberate and could be related to the has promoted agriculture and encouraged region’s high commercial and mining value habitation. Further, the availability of (Begley, 301). metals and minerals made it favourable for

Transactions | Vol. 41, No. 2, 2019 | 233 human occupation. Infact, Karnataka and Nagaraju S. and B.K. Gururaja Rao,‘Chronology particularly North Karnataka was extremely of Iron Age in ,’ Essays in appealing and political powers such as Indian Protohistory (eds.D.P. Agrawal and D.K. Chakrabarti) Mauryas whose centre of power was in North India seem to have ventured into Karnataka RajanK.V.Soundara, ‘Pre-Iron Culture Spectrum in Karnataka:An Appraisal’, in their quest for sources which were Perspectives in Indian Archaeology, needed for their army and administration. Art and Culture, Shri K.R. Srinivasan Incidentally, the edict of Mauryan emperor Felicitation Volume, Madras, 1983 Asoka was discovered at Maski. Maski is Rao B.K. Gururaja, ‘Socio-economic life located in mineral rich zone. It would be in Protohistoric Karnataka’ Rangavalli appropriate to infer that the exploitation and Recent Researches in Indology, Shri utilization of resources beginning with the S.R. Rao Felicitation Volume (eds. A.V. pre-historic and continuing into the historic NarasimhaMurthi and B.K. GururajaRao), Delhi, 1983 have influenced the development of the area, leading to distinct patterns. Rao M.S. Nagaraja and K. C. Malhotra, The Stone Age Hill Dwellers of Tekkalakota, Poona , 1965 References Singh R.L., (ed.), India -- A Regional Agrawal D.P. and C. Margaband, ‘Ancient Geography, Varanasi, 1971 14 Gold Workings: Some New C Spate O.H.K. and A.T.A Learmonth, India Dates’, Puratattva, No. 8, 1975-76, p. 139 and Pakistan --A General and Regional Allchin B. and F.R. Allchin, The Rise of Geography, New Delhi, 1984 Civilization in India and Pakistan, Sundara A., The Early Chamber tombs of South New Delhi,1983 India-A study of the Iron Age Megalithic Begley V., ‘From Iron Age to Early Historical monuments of North Karnataka, Delhi, in South Indian Archaeology’, Studies in 1975 the Archaeology of India and Pakistan (ed. Thapar B.K., ‘Maski 1954: A Chalcolithic Site J. Jacobson) of the Southern Deccan’, AI, no. 13, 1957 Gazetteer of India, Mysore State, Bellary District Hema Thakur Gazetter of India, Mysore State, Gulbarga Former Research Scholar District National Institute of Advanced Studies Indian Institute of Science Campus Murthy A.V.Narasimha 1987-88. Some Bangalore - 560 012 Aspects of Early Historic Archaeology and Numismatics of Karnataka, Prof. T. BalakrishnanNayar Endowment Lectures.

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