Annals of Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW Animal Science

ISSN 1898-8830

ISSN 1898-8830 No 57 (1) 1898 8830 2018 Agriculture (Agricultural and Forest Engineering) Animal Science Forestry and Wood Technology Horticulture and Landscape Architecture Land Reclamation

Editorial Board Marian Binek Katarzyna Bogacka Bogdan Brzeziecki Bogdan Klepacki Włodzimierz Kluciński Anna Kołłajtis-Dołowy Andrzej Lenart Małgorzata Łobocka Józef Mosiej Arkadiusz Orłowski Małgorzata J. Riedel Marek S. Szyndel Jacek Wilkowski Janusz Wojdalski Michał Zasada

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Annals of Warsaw University of Life University of Life Sciences Press in two Sciences were originally published in 1957 copies. Papers submitted for consideration as Zeszyty Naukowe SGGW (Scienti- by the Editorial board should not exceed 0.5 ﬁ c Fascicles of SGGW). In 1980 the na- of a printed sheet (about 11 pages includ- me was changed to Annals of Warsaw ing illustrations, and should consist of the University of Life Sciences. following elements: 1) name and surname The Annals (5 subject series) are publi- of the author, 2) title of the paper, 3) abstract shed once or twice a year and will carry pre- (about 20 lines), 4) text of the paper, 5) date viously unpublished papers that are mainly in English, but also in French, German or when the paper was sent to the Warsaw Uni- Russian, followed by a short summary in versity of Life Sciences Press and mailing Polish. Manuscripts for publication should address of the author, 6) summary (one be typewritten and submitted to the Warsaw page), 7) tables and ﬁ gures with captions. Annals of Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW Animal Science No 57 (1) Warsaw 2018

Contents

DAMAZIAK K., RIEDEL J., GOZDOW- KUROSAD A., PASŁAWSKA U., JANE- SKI D., NIEMIEC J., SIENNICKA A., CZEK A., PASŁAWSKI R., JONKISZ P., RÓG D. Effects of ginger or ginger and SIKORSKA-KOPYŁOWICZ A., JANK thyme extract in laying hens feeding on M., GŁOGOWSKI R. Impact of food type productive results and eggs quality 5 on long term consumption kinetics in group- -housed domestic cats (Felis catus) 47 JANUS K., LESIŃSKI G. Birds and bats using buildings as a place of breeding or ŁUKASIEWICZ M., MATUSZEWSKI shelter 19 A., FLORCZUK KOŁOMYJA P., KAMA- SZEWSKI M., WARDECKI Ł. Selected KANIA-GIERDZIEWICZ J., GAŁKA E., invasive species of the Polish and European GIERDZIEWICZ M. Analysis of genetic avifaunae 55 structure of Silesian horses from Książ Natio- nal Stud 31 PRZYSUCHA T., GOŁĘBIEWSKI M., ZĄBEK K., KONEFAŁ K., KRYSZCZAK J., WNĘK K., SLÓSARZ J., KUNOWSKA- GOLAN I., KALIŃSKA A., KRUZIŃSKA -SLÓSARZ M., BALCERAK M. Compa- B., DAMAZIAK K., BOGDAŃSKA K., rison of recording results of purebred and MICHALCZUK M. The effect of paper sub- crossbred Limousine cattle in Poland 67 strate type used at the beginning of rearing on foot pad dermatitis (FPD) occurrence and production results of broiler chickens 77 SERIES EDITORIAL BOARD Editor-in-Chief prof. dr hab. Anna Rekiel Animal Science series Secretary dr Danuta Dzierżanowska-Góryń Address of Editorial Ofﬁ ce Wydział Nauk o Zwierzętach SGGW ul. Ciszewskiego 8, 02-786 Warszawa, Poland

EDITORS prof. dr hab. Wanda Olech – statistics editor Natalia Filipczak – English language consultant Agata Cienkusz – Polish language consultant

THEME EDITORS dr hab. Elżbieta Michalska – genetics and animal breeding dr hab. Elżbieta Pezowicz – biology and ecology dr hab. Iwona Kosieradzka – animal nutrition and feedstuffs dr hab. Tadeusz Kaleta – behaviour and welfare of animal prof. dr hab. Ewa Sawosz – biological engineering of animal dr hab. Ewa Skibniewska – welfare of animal dr hab. Justyna Więcek – animal husbandry and production technology

SERIES EDITOR Anna Rekiel

SERIES EDITORIAL ADVISORY COUNCIL Prof. DSc. Andrzej Chwalibóg (Denmark) Prof. dr hab. Jarosław O. Horbańczuk (Poland) Prof. DSc. Konrad Dąbrowski (USA) Prof. Dr Drago Kompan (Slovenia) Prof. DSc. Ondrey Debréceni (Slovakia) Prof. Dr Sándor Kukovics (Hungary) Prof. Ewgienij Dobruk (Belarus) Prof. Dr Stoycho Metodiev (Bulgarian) Prof. dr hab. Robert J. Eckert (Poland) Prof. DSc. Francois K. Siebrits (RSA) Prof. Dr Sophie Ermidou-Pollet (Greece) Prof. dr hab. Jacek Skomiał (Poland) Prof. dr hab. Grażyna Garbaczewska (Poland) Dr hab. Arkadiusz Terman (Poland) Prof. DSc. Luis L. Gosálvez (Spain) Prof. dr hab. Romuald Zabielski (Poland) Prof. DSc. Adrian Harrison (Denmark)

The Editorial Board (Ofﬁ ce) of “Annals of Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW. Animal Science” informs that the printed version of the journal is the original version. Redakcja „Annals of Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW. Animal Science” informuje, że wersja drukowana czasopisma jest wersją pierwotną (referencyjną).

Covered in: AGRO, Index Copernicus (2014 – 83.35; 2015 – 78.24), CAB Direct, CEON, ARIANTA, ePNP, PBN, POL-INDEX, POLON Bazy: AGRO, Index Copernicus (2014 – 83,35; 2015 – 78,24), CAB Direct, CEON – Biblioteka Nauki, ARIANTA, e-Publikacje Nauki Polskiej, PBN, POL-INDEX, POLON

WARSAW UNIVERSITY OF LIFE SCIENCES PRESS

ISSN 1898-8830

EDITORIAL STAFF Anna Dołomisiewicz Print: ZAPOL sp.j., al. Piastów 42, 71-062 Violetta Kaska Szczecin Annals of Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW Animal Science No 57 (1), 2018: 5–18 (Ann. Warsaw Univ. of Life Sci. – SGGW, Anim. Sci. 57 (1), 2018) DOI 10.22630/AAS.2018.57.1.1

Effects of ginger or ginger and thyme extract in laying hens feeding on productive results and eggs quality

KRZYSZTOF DAMAZIAK1, JULIA RIEDEL1, DARIUSZ GOZDOWSKI2, JAN NIEMIEC1, ANNA SIENNICKA1, DANIEL RÓG3

1Faculty of Animal Science, Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW 2Faculty of Agriculture and Biology, Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW 3General Industrial, Trading and Service Company Bellako Limited

Abstract: Effects of ginger or ginger and thyme INTRODUCTION extract in laying hens feeding on productive results and eggs quality. This experiment was aimed A growing demand for table eggs has at determining the potential of extracts from gin- led to strong intensification of the sector ger and from ginger and thyme for enhancing the of laying hens. Unfortunately, a high production performance of laying hens and eggs number of hens in one flock and high quality. A total of 216 laying hens were divided stock density per surface area unit of into 3 feeding groups: standard diet, diet with a 0.0032% addition of a ginger extract, and diet a hen house facilitate the occurrence and with the addition of ginger (0.0016%) and thyme spreading of diseases. The elimination (0.0016%). Fresh eggs were analyzed for: egg of antibiotics, whose use ban has been weight, yolk weight and yolk weight ratio to egg introduced in many European countries weight, yolk color, albumen quality, strength and since the 1 January 2006 (Castanon thickness of the eggshell. Boiled eggs were analy- 2007), from a diet for laying hens has zed for: yolk color, consistency, aroma, and taste. resulted in deterioration of hens’ health The results demonstrated that hen diet supplementation had a beneﬁ cial effect on egg weight, and lowering their productivity. It has but did not affect egg production rate nor feed been proved many times that the use conversion ratio. Fresh and hard-boiled eggs of of some plants in poultry feeding has the hens administered diet with a ginger extract a positive effect on their health status addition were characterized by a darker color of as well as may become an alternative to the yolk. Both the ginger extract and the ginger + antibiotics, and may boost production + thyme extract contributed to albumen quality results. Olobatoke and Mulugeta (2011) improvement. Considering results obtained in this study, it seems advisable to investigate the demonstrated that hen diet supplementa- feasibility of extending storage time of eggs of the tion with garlic powder improved their hens fed a diet with various doses of a ginger and production results and albumen qual- thyme extract. ity. They showed, however, that the 5% addition of garlic powder resulted Key words: laying hen, ginger and thyme extract, in a strong scent of garlic developed production results, egg quality in eggs, which severely reduces the 6 K. Damaziak et al. applicability of this plant in table eggs 3 antiviral and 5 bactericidal substances production. It has been proved earlier in the composition of thyme. that the use of some oil plants, like rape- Both ginger and thyme have been seed and flaxseed, in diet for laying hens investigated as feed additives to diets for had a negative impact on the odor of eggs laying hens, however the published data (Caston et al. 1994, Lichovniková et al. are often inconsistent, or refer to some 2008). In turn, the addition of the extract selected production parameters as well from garlic and onion with standardized as different forms and doses of the prepa- quercetin content to the feed mixture for rations used. The application of a thyme laying hens was reported to improve the oil additive in laying hen feeding was typical aroma and taste of eggs, without confirmed to improve the feed conver- causing changes in yolk color nor albu- sion ratio and increase egg production men consistency (Damaziak et al. 2017). rate and egg weight (Bölükbaşi et al. The effect of quercetin extracted from 2008). These authors demonstrated also onion on the laying performance and that thyme oil was reducing the count of egg quality was investigated by Liu et al. Escherichia coli bacteria in feces. Saki (2013, 2014), who demonstrated that its et al. (2014), who supplemented hen addition in the dose of 0.4% was improv- diets with a phytogenic additive being ing production results of hens and egg a mixture of garlic, pot marigold, fennel, quality, in particular by improving albu- and thyme, showed an increase in egg men quality and reducing cholesterol weight and a decrease in trimethylamine level in yolk. level in yolk, which resulted in egg odor Due to the presence of biologically- improvement. In turn, thyme added to -active components, e.g. [6]-gingerol and a diet in the form of powder together [6]-sholaol, an extract from ginger (Zin- with powdered garlic (1 : 1) was shown giber officinale) possesses anti-inflam- not to affect laying yield nor egg qual- matory and antioxidant properties as ity (Mohebbifar and Torki 2010). In well as displays anticarcinogenic activity contrast, Akbarian et al. (2011) showed (Akimoto et al. 2015). In turn, the major that the addition of ginger root powder to constituents of thyme (Thymus vulgaris) laying hen diet in doses of 0.25–0.75% include: essential oils (borneol, carvacrol, was improving egg production, but had cymene, linalool, thymol), tannin, flavo- no influence on the feed conversion ratio noids (apigenin, luteolin), saponins, and and egg weight. triterpene acids. Even a small amount of To the best of authors’ knowledge, this herb has a sedative effect, whereas apart from sparse studies addressing the its higher does have stimulating effects effect of broiler chicken diet supplemen- (Porte and Godoy 2008, Grigore et al. tation with a ginger and thyme extract 2010). Among the biologically-active (Rahimi et al. 2011, Fakhim et al. 2013), substances of the discussed plants, Hashe- no research has been conducted so far to mi and Davoodi (2011) demonstrated as analyze the effect of this form of these many as 6 antioxidative, 6 antiviral and herbs on production traits of other techno- 17 bactericidal substances in the compo- logical groups of poultry, including laying sition of ginger as well as 4 antioxidative, hens, nor on the quality of table eggs. In Effects of ginger or ginger and thyme extract... 7 addition, very little is known about the available ad libitum from two nipple effect of these plants on the sensory traits drinkers in each cage. Experimental of eggs. An advantage of the extract over diets were limited to 114 g/hen/day and other forms these herbs are applied in administered to 240 cm long feeders feed mixtures is a high concentration of (20 cm/hen) twice a day (in 57 g por- biologically-active components. Note- tions) after switching on the light and at worthy is that feed additives for laying the 8th h of the day. hens may evoke various effects on sen- For easier adaptation, feed provided sory characteristics of eggs, including by the producer was administered for particularly products that contain natural 7 days since hens introduction to cages. flavonoids or essential oils. Supplements Its composition was consistent with that should not be perceptible by consumers declared by the ISA Management Guide because odor and flavor in table eggs are – Cage Production System (Hendrix- important both aesthetically and physi- -Genetics 2014). Since the 17th week ologically as they stimulate the secretion of life, the hens were fed experimental of digestive juices. feed mixtures in the previously divided It may be expected that hen diet sup- groups, i.e.: control diet (C) (no diet plementation with ginger and thyme in supplementation), diet supplemented the form of extracts will have a more with 0.0032% ginger extract (G), diet positive effect on production results than supplemented with 0.0016% ginger and the earlier applied forms of these plants. 0.0016% thyme extract (GT). Compo- In addition, this supplementation should nents and nutrients of the diets can be not deteriorate the quality and sensory found in Table 1. Extracts were provided traits of eggs. Considering the above, the by the producer (Bellako Limited Com- objective of this study was to analyze pany, Warsaw, Poland) in the powdered the effect of diet supplementation with form, with maltodextrin used as the extracts from ginger and thyme on pro- carrier (starch substance in the form of duction results of laying hens and their loose white powder). The content of pure egg quality. extracts in the supplement was 0.8%. The supplements were premixed with MATERIAL AND METHODS 2 kg of basal diet and next mixed into an appropriate quantity of basal diet to Two hundred sixteen ISA Brown laying obtain the level of 0.04%. The extracts hens at the age of 16 weeks were were standardized for cineol content; obtained from a commercial facility. its content in the crude extract reached Hens were kept in three-level battery of 0.2–0.23%. furnished cage, that meet the standards Control of laying performance, egg of the European Union. Each treatment weight and feed intake was started had 72 laying hens arranged in 6 rep- from the 19th week of life, assuming licates of 12 laying hens. A 16L:8D this moment as the 1st week of produc- lighting program and the average room tion. The mortality rate for laying hens temperature of 18° ±2°C were main- throughout the experimental period was tained during the experiment. Water was 0% in each group. A weekly production 8 K. Damaziak et al.

TABLE 1. Composition of diets and nutrient content (air-dry basis) Content Item CGGT Ingredient (%) Wheat 33.35 33.31 33.31 Maize 30.00 30.00 30.00 Soybean meal 15.20 15.20 15.20 Sunflower meal 10.00 10.00 10.00 Rapeseed meal 2.00 2.00 2.00 Sunflower oil 1.00 1.00 1.00

CaCO3 6.23 6.23 6.23 Dicalcium phosphate 1.28 1.28 1.28 Ginger suplement1 – 0.04 – Ginger and thyme suplement2 – – 0.04 Premix3 0.30 0.30 0.30 NaCl 0.24 0.24 0.24

NaHCO3 0.18 0.18 0.18 Lysine + Methionine 0.22 0.22 0.22 Nutrient Metabolizable energy (kcal/kg) 2 731.10 2 731.10 2 731.10 Total protein (%) 17.76 17.76 17.76 Crude fiber (%) 3.94 3.94 3.94 Crude ash (%) 10.65 10.65 10.65 Total calcium (%) 2.75 2.75 2.75 Available potassium (%) 0.45 0.45 0.45 Lysine + Methionine (%) 1.27 1.27 1.27 C – control group (standard diet); G – experimental group (diet supplementation with ginger extract); GT – experimental group (diet supplementation with ginger and thyme extract). 1, 2The carrier of extract was maltodextrin (content of pure extract in the supplement 0.8%); i.e. extract level in feed was 0.00325 ginger in G group and 0.0016% ginger + 0.0016% thyme in GT group.

3 Provided per kg of diet: vit. A 11,500 IU; vit. D3 3,000 IU; vit. E 12 IU; vit. K 3 mg; vit. B1 2 mg; vit. B2 6 mg; vit. B6 3 mg; vit. B12 0.012 mg; biotin 0.04 mg; folic acid 0.6 mg; niacin 20 mg; pantothe- nic acid 10 mg; chromium picolinate 0.5 mg; Cu 10 mg; I 0.30 mg; Fe 65 mg; Mn 120 mg; Se 0.30 mg; Zn 60 mg. of eggs was calculated from the number of was controlled once a week. Feed conver- eggs laid in each of the 7 days of a week sion ratio (FCR) was computed as kg of in the period from the 1st to the 16th week feed per 1 kg of egg weight. of production. Because there was no one Egg quality assessment was conducted dead hen during the experiment the hen in the: 6th, 8th, 10th, 12th, 14th and 16th day and hen housed numbers were the week of the laying period. Thirty eggs same in each group. Egg weight (±0.1 g) from each experimental group (five Effects of ginger or ginger and thyme extract... 9 randomly selected from replicate) were four equal parts. The sensoric test was collected the same day and placed in performed by employing untrained pan- a cold store (4°C). Analyses were carried elists but usual consumers of eggs. All out the next day. The eggs were removed panelists received three coded pieces from cold storage immediately before of egg, each representing a different quality assessments to ensure compara- experimental group. A randomized de- ble egg temperatures. Egg temperature sign allowed the sampling of eggs in was monitored throughout quality asses- any order, however panelists rinsed their sments and ranged between 6° and 8°C. mouths with pure water after each bite. Shell breaking strength (N) was assessed Samples of eggs to be assessed were using the test machine ZWICK (ZWICK free of any seasonings and salt. During type 1120, Germany), with a cylindrical assessment, the panelists were asked to probe 75 mm in diameter. A test speed of express their opinion in five-point scales, 2 mm/s and a trigger force of 0.001 kg i.e. regarding yolk color and egg consist- were used. Further analyses were car- ency: 1 – very undesirable, 2 – unde- ried out using the Egg Analyzer device sirable, 3 – acceptable, 4 – desirable, (ORKA Food Technology, USA). This 5 – highly desirable; and; regarding aroma: electronic instrument determines egg 1 – intense undesirable, 2 – perceptible weight, yolk weight, and yolk color. Yolk slightly undesirable, 3 – imperceptible, color range corresponds to the DSM scale 4 – typical perceptible, 5 – desirable and from 1 through 15 units. Haugh units are regarding taste: 1 – bad, 2 – poor, 3 – sat- automatically calculated from the meas- isfactory, 4 – good, and 5 – very good. urements made (expressed on a scale of Data concerning egg production 0 to 130). The achieved data were used to rate, egg white and FCR in the entire calculate the content (%) of egg yolk in experimental period were compared egg weight. Eggshell thickness (μm) was with the one-way analysis of variance defined using a digimatic micrometer and Duncan test or Kruskal–Wallis test (Mitutoyo Corporation, Japan). (in the case of the lack of normality of Sensory properties were analyzed distribution – based on Shapiro–Wilk using eggs collected in two terms of hens test or in the case of variance inequal- laying period: in the 7th week analyses ity between experimental groups – based were conducted for 27 eggs from each on Levene test). Results of morphologi- experimental group, and in the 15th cal and sensory analysis of eggs were week for 48 eggs from each experimen- analyzed with the two-way analysis of tal group. The different number of eggs variance (diet supplementation and week in the analytical terms resulted from the of laying production) with interaction. difference in the number of panelists Because the interactions between the able to conduct the assessment. Eggs analyzed factors (diet supplementation collected each day were stored at 4°C for and week of laying production) were 7 days. They were cooked in an automat- not significant and, thus, did not affect ic egg cooker (Egg Boiler FA-5115, TZS any of the studied parameters (except First, Austria) and then cooled to a room yolk weight; P = 0.025), they were not temperature, shelled and divided into shown in the tables. In addition, the 10 K. Damaziak et al. multivariate differences of the analyzed The addition of both plant extracts sig- experimental groups of hens regarding nificantly improved the mean egg weight egg quality traits were evaluated with computed for the entire production cluster analysis. The square of Euclidean period (P = 0.003). No differences were distance was adopted as a measure of confirmed in mean egg weight between distance for standardized data, and the experimental groups of hens (Fig. 2). The grouping of objects was conducted with most favorable FCR was determined in the Ward method. Results were depicted the case of hens administered a diet with in the form of dendrograms. Multivariate the extract containing additionally thyme differences of the groups were addition- (GT), however comparative analysis of ally assessed with multivariate analysis all three groups of hens did not confirm of variance (MANOVA) and Wilk test. significant differences (P = 0.708) in the All statistical analyses were carried out values of this parameter determined for in Statistica 12 software, at significance the entire experimental period (Fig. 3). levels of 0.05 and 0.001. The quality analysis of fresh eggs demonstrated a positive effect of the RESULTS AND DISCUSSION applied plant extracts on yolk color (P = = 0.001) and albumen quality expressed The average weekly egg production rate in Haugh units (P < 0.001). Yolks of eggs over the 16-week period of egg produc- of the hens from experimental groups tion is shown in Figure 1. Hen diet sup- were darker, and eggs were character- plementation with extracts from ginger or ized by a better albumen quality espe- from ginger and thyme had no effect on cially at the later stage of the egg-laying the average egg production rate over the period (Table 2). The age of hens had entire experimental period (P = 0.223). a significant effect on all analyzed traits

100

▲ = 86.81% 40 ◊ = 84.78% ● = 85.79% 20 Eggproduction rate (%)

0 12345678910111213141516

Week of egg production

▲observed egg production rate for group C — fi tted curve for egg production rate for group G − − fi tted curve for egg production rate for group C ● observed egg production rate for group GT ◊ observed egg production rate for group G … fi tted curve for egg production rate for group GT FIGURE 1. Fitted curves for weekly egg production rate using Yang model Effects of ginger or ginger and thyme extract... 11

40 ▲ = 55.81a b 30 ◊ = 57.37 ● = 57.06b

Egg weight (g) 20

0 12345678910111213141516

Week of egg production

− −▲− − group C —◊— group G …●… group GT FIGURE 2. Egg weight curves of hens production period. a-bEgg weight differed signiﬁ cantly between treatment group at P ≤ 0.05, and ** at P ≤ 0.01

15 ▲ = 3.96 ◊ = 3.59 10 ● = 2.91

Feed coversion ratio (kg) ratio coversion Feed 5

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 Week of egg production

− −▲− − group C —◊— group G …●… group GT

FIGURE 3. Feed conversion ratio (kg/kg egg weight) curves of hens production period. ** Differ sig- niﬁ cantly between treatment groups at P ≤ 0.01

(P < 0.001) except for Haugh units and panelists demonstrated that the consist- shell thickness (P = 0.601). ency of eggs originating from older hens Both the addition of ginger extract (age 15 weeks old) was more favorable and ginger + thyme extract had not effect (P = 0.001) compared to eggs from upon results of the sensory evaluation birds at the early stage of the laying of eggs, except for yolk color which in period (age 7 weeks old). The remain- consumers’ opinion was the most favora- ing traits of hard-boiled eggs received ble in eggs of hens from group GT (P = similar scores in both terms of analysis = 0.017; Table 3). Scores made by the (P > 0.05). 12 K. Damaziak et al.

TABLE 2. Fresh egg quality characteristics Egg morphology characteristics Week of Number of Shell Shell Item laying analyzed EW YW YR YCF HU strength thickness production eggs (N) (mm) C 180 55.6 12.9 23.2 4.34a 83.5ab 40.4 0.367 G6th–16th 180 56.3 13.1 23.3 4.69ab 86.0a 41.0 0.369 GT 180 56.6 13.0 23.0 4.46b 86.7b 41.6 0.365 SEM 0.90 0.22 0.40 0.16 1.54 1.61 0.008 P-value Diet supplementation 0.124 0.279 0.354 0.001 < 0.001 0.430 0.671 Week of laying production < 0.001 < 0.001 < 0.001 < 0.001 0.118 < 0.001 0.601 C – control group (standard diet); G – experimental group (diet supplementation with ginger extract); GT – experimental group (diet supplementation with ginger and thyme extract). EW – eggs weight (g); YW – yolk weight (g); YR – yolk weight ratio to egg weight (%); YCF – yolk color fan; HU – Haugh units of albumen. Values differ signiﬁ cantly between treatment groups at P ≤ 0.05. Means within a column for the same test time (week) with a common superscript differ signiﬁ cantly (Duncan test) between treatment groups (diet supplementation), a-bP ≤ 0.05.

TABLE 3. Hard-boiled egg sensory evaluation and consumer acceptance in a 1–5-point scale

Week of Number of Egg sensory characteristics Item laying analyzed 1 1 2 3 production eggs yolk color consistency aroma taste C 75 3.27a 3.61 3.66 3.96 G 7th and 15th 75 3.29b 3.69 3.73 3.79 GT 75 3.60 ab 3.79 3.75 3.84 SEM Week 7 0.177 0.190 0.124 0.148 Week 15 0.111 0.119 0.117 0.132 P-value Diet supplementation 0.017 0.600 0.682 0.399 Week of laying production 0.468 0.001 0.675 0.768

C – control group (standard diet); G – experimental group (diet supplementation with ginger extract); GT – experimental group (diet supplementation with ginger and thyme extract). 1Numerical rating scale for yolk color and egg consistency: 1 – very undesirable; 2 – undesirable; 3 – acceptable; 4 – desirable; 5 – high desirable. 2Numerical rating scale for egg aroma: 1 – intense undesirable; 2 – felt slightly undesirable; 3 – imperceptible; 4 – typical perceptible; 5 –intense undesirable. 3Numerical rating scale for egg taste: 1 – bad; 2 – poor; 3 – satisfactory; 4 – good; 5 – very good. Differ signiﬁ cantly between treatment group for P ≤ 0.05. Means within a column for the same test time (week) with a common superscript differ signiﬁ cantly (Duncan test) between treatment groups (diet supplementation), a-bP ≤ 0.05. Effects of ginger or ginger and thyme extract... 13

Results based on MANOVA and pair- group than the eggs of hens from groups wise multivariate comparisons for fresh C and GT (Fig. 5). egg quality and hard-boiled egg sensory The lack of a significant effect of evaluation and consumer acceptance hen diet supplementation with a ginger were presented in Table 4 and in dendro- extract and a ginger + thyme extract con- grams (Figs. 4 and 5). The multivariate cerning the egg production rate and FCR comparison of all 7 morphological traits obtained in this study is consistent with of fresh eggs demonstrates that hen diet the findings published earlier by other supplementation with the ginger extract and with the ginger + thyme extract affected (P < 0.001) the overall quality of eggs. Figure 4 shows explicitly a large distance especially between eggs of hens from groups C and G and these of hens from group GT. In contrast, a simultane- ous comparison of four sensory attributes of hard-boiled eggs made in both evaluated terms of the laying period of hens shows no effect (P = 0.100) of the applied plant extracts on the analyzed traits of hard-boiled eggs (Table 4). Never- FIGURE 5. Dendrogram presenting multivariate theless, results of the cluster analysis similarity of the hard-boiled egg sensory evalu- conducted based on standardized variation and consumer acceptance depending on ables demonstrate that eggs of the hens diet supplementation, based on cluster analysis (Ward method of agglomeration). Explanations fed a diet with 0.0032% addition of in the text a ginger extract are in other homogenous

TABLE 4. Results based on MANOVA and pair- wise multivariate comparisons for fresh egg quality and hard-boiled egg sensory evaluation and consumer acceptance Hard-boiled egg sensory Fresh egg evaluation quality Item and consumer acceptance FP-value FP-value Diet 3.35 < 0.001 1.68 0.100 supplementation Week of laying 15.14 < 0.001 3.10 0.016 FIGURE 4. Dendrogram presenting multivariate production similarity of the fresh egg quality depending on diet supplementation, based on cluster analysis F – statistics based on Wilk lambda and P-value (Ward method of agglomeration). Explanations in based on multivariate analysis of variance were the text results of Wilk test differ signiﬁ cantly P ≤ 0.05 14 K. Damaziak et al. authors who applied various forms of the have a favorable influence on poultry discussed herbs. Bölükbaşi et al. (2008) productivity, which may have partially did not demonstrate any effect of thyme contributed to the increased egg weight oil, whereas Zhao et al. (2011) – of a gin- of the laying hens in this study. ger powder on the improvement of laying The darker color of raw and hard- performance of hens. It has been demon- -boiled egg yolks in the case of hens strated many times that the addition of an administered feed mixtures with the extract from ginger to feed mixtures for addition of plant extracts was, probably, laying hens, both in the form of powder due to natural pigments of ginger impart- (Akbarian et al. 2011, Zhao et al. 2011) ing a deep yellow color to this plant such and oil (Nasiroleslami and Torki 2010), as: curcumin, demethoxycurcumin, and has no effect on changes in the FCR value. 6-dehydrogingerdione (Lijima and Joh On the contrary, Ghasemi et al. (2010) 2014, Ajileye et al. 2015). Unfortunate- demonstrated a decreased FCR value in ly, the available literature provides no laying hens after the application of the information about the effect of thyme thyme + garlic extract, however it has on yolk color. However, Zomrawi et been confirmed several times that garlic al. (2014) did not confirm a significant itself has not impact on FCR (Chowd- effect of hen diet supplementation with hury et al. 2002, Damaziak et al. 2017). a ginger powder on yolk color, likewise Earlier, Al-Kassie (2009) reported FCR Ademola et al. (2012) did not demon- decrease in broiler chickens administered strate such an effect upon the addition an extract from pure thyme (200 ppm), of powder from ginger and garlic to which – in authors’ opinion – was caused feed mixtures. It may be speculated by the presence of a biologically-active that ginger pigments significantly affect substance – thymol. Also, thymol has yolk color only when this plant is incor- been reported to stimulate digestion, porated into a hen diet in the form of an including the secretion of amylase from extract. These results demonstrate also saliva, bile, small intestinal mucosa and that ginger pigments which are accu- development of intestinal villi (Platel mulated in the yolk, are not degraded and Srinivasan 2004), which has a direct during the cooking of eggs. effect on FCR value decrease. In this study, fundamental was the The results demonstrated that the positive effect of extracts on egg albu- laying hens fed the diet containing the men quality. This trait is, most of all, extract of ginger and ginger + thyme had affected by the period and conditions of higher egg weight than the control birds. eggs storage and by hen age (Samli et al. The mechanisms by which the ginger 2005). The effect of the plant extracts and thyme extracts increased egg weight was observed mainly in the last two are not clear. Positive anti-inflamma- terms of analyses, i.e. in the 14th and tory, antioxidant, bactericidal and diges- 16th week of production, when albumen tion-stimulating effects of both herbal quality usually begins to deteriorate. The supplements were reported (Platel and antioxidative effect of ginger probably Srinivasan 2004, Hashemi and Davoodi minimizes albumen quality deterioration 2011, Akimoto et al. 2015). All of these through lesser lipid and protein oxidation. Effects of ginger or ginger and thyme extract... 15

Earlier, Yalcin et al. (2006) demonstrated (2001) demonstrated that 2% addition of a similar effect after supplementing diets thyme to feed mixtures for laying hens for laying hens with a feed additive of may prevent the negative effects on the garlic, which is also regarded as a plant sensory assessment of eggs at the simul- with antioxidative properties. The most taneous supplementation of bird diet beneficial effect of supplementation with with 10% of linseed. an extract from ginger and thyme on It is concluded that diet supple- albumen Haugh units could, in turn, be mentation with an extract from ginger due to the additional effect of carvacrol (0.0032%) and an extract from ginger being one of the main essential oils of (0.0016%) with thyme (0.0016%), thyme. Denli et al. (2004) observed sig- in both cases, has a positive effect on nificant improvement in quail albumen egg weight, without reducing the egg quality upon bird diet supplementation production rate of hens. Though insig- with black seed characterized by a significantly, but a lower value of FCR nificant content of carvacrol. It has been determined in the hens receiving the demonstrated several times that the bio- extract with thyme suggests that the use active material of medicinal plants has of the mixture of these herbs may con- a strong power to protect magnum and tribute to a reduction of costs of table uterus cells and also to increase the level eggs production. Egg yolks dyed with of albumin in laying hens (Denli et al. a natural intensive yellow color and 2004, Nadia et al. 2008). preserving appropriate taste and aroma Except for the changes in the color of values as well as consistency are desir- egg yolks, the remaining traits of hard- able by direct consumers and by proces- -boiled eggs assessed by the panelists sing plants of table eggs. Undoubtedly, were not affected by the plant extracts. a measurable benefit of applying both These results are satisfactory because analyzed dietary supplements is the it has been proved many times that the improvement of albumen quality in eggs additives of some plants to feed mixtures from older hens. In the future, it would for laying hens, e.g. rapeseed (Licho- be advisable to investigate whether the vniková et al. 2008) or linseed (Stearns improvement of albumen quality upon et al. 1994), may negatively influence the influence of the analyzed plant the sensory traits of eggs. Motozono et extracts could affect the extension of al. (1999) demonstrated also that the 2% storage time of eggs. It would also be addition of garlic to diet for hens caused recommended to analyze other doses of a perceptible unpleasant aroma. The the applied preparations. available literature lacks information about the effect of ginger addition to feed REFERENCES mixtures for hens on the sensory quality of eggs. Some sparse studies concerning ADEMOLA S.G., LAWAL T.E., EGBEWANDE the effect of ginger as a feed additive on O.O., FARINU G.O. 2012: Influence of dietary mixtures of garlic and ginger on lipid com- quality attributes of meat did not confirm position in serum, yolk, performance of pullet such a correlation either (Naveena 2004, growers and laying hens. Int. J. Poult. Sci. 11: Janz et al. 2007). In turn, Tserveni-Gousi 196–201. 16 K. Damaziak et al.

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Chem. Soc. 73: 307–310. morfologicznej i sensorycznej jakości jaj. W su- RAHIMI S., ZADEH Z.T., TORSHIZI A.K., mie 216 kur niosek ISA Brown utrzymywanych OMIDBAIGI R., ROKNI H. 2011: Effect of w klatach, w systemie intensywnym przydzielono three herbal extracts on growth performance, do 3 grup żywieniowych: dieta standardowa bez immune system, blood factors and intestinal suplementacji (C), z dodatkiem 0,0032% eks- selected bacterial population in broiler chic- traktu z imbiru i imbiru (0,0016%) z tymiankiem kens. J. Agr. Sci. Tech. 13: 527–539. (0,0016%). Analiza surowych jaj obejmowała: SAKI A.A., ALIARABI H., SIYAR S.A.H., SA- masę jaja, masę i udział żółtka w masie jaja, bar- LARI J., HASHEMI M. 2014: Effect of a phy- wę żółtka, jakość białka oraz wytrzymałość i gru- togenic feed additive on performance, ovarian bość skorupy. Analiza gotowanych jaj obejmowa- morphology, serum lipid parameters and egg ła: kolor żółtka, konsystencję, zapach i smak jaj sensory quality in laying hen. Vet. Res. Forum gotowanych. Uzyskane wyniki wykazały, że su- 5: 287–293. plementacja diety kur miała korzystny wpływ na 18 K. Damaziak et al. masę jaja, ale nie wpłynęła na wielkość produkcji MS received 12.10.17 i wykorzystanie paszy. Surowe i gotowane jaja kur żywionych dietą z dodatkiem ekstraktu z im- MS accepted 31.01.18 biru cechowała ciemniejsza barwa żółtka, która dla jaj gotowanych uzyskała najwyższe noty pa- Authors’ address: nelistów. Zarówno ekstrakt z imbiru, jak i imbiru Krzysztof Damaziak z tymiankiem wpłynęły na poprawę jakości białka Zakład Hodowli Drobiu jaja. Zasadne są dalsze badania dotyczące moż- Katedra Szczegółowej Hodowli Zwierząt liwości wydłużania okresu przechowywania jaj Wydział Nauk o Zwierzętach pochodzących od kur żywionych paszą o różnym Szkoła Główna Gospodarstwa Wiejskiego poziomie ekstraktów imbiru i tymianku. w Warszawie ul. Ciszewskiego 8, 02-786 Warszawa Słowa kluczowe: kury nioski, ekstrakt z imbiru Poland i tymianku, wyniki produkcyjne, jakość jaj e-mail: [email protected] Annals of Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW Animal Science No 57 (1), 2018: 19–29 (Ann. Warsaw Univ. of Life Sci. – SGGW, Anim. Sci. 57 (1), 2018) DOI 10.22630/AAS.2018.57.1.2

Birds and bats using buildings as a place of breeding or shelter

KRZYSZTOF JANUS, GRZEGORZ LESIŃSKI Faculty of Animal Science, Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW

Abstract: Birds and bats using buildings as -Pomorskie Voivodship most often built their nests a place of breeding or shelter. The presence of under roofs and birds from Voivodships Mazo- birds and bats was analysed in buildings intended wieckie and Łódzkie in fl at roof spaces. A total of for thermal refurbishment. Study material was 31 bat roosts were located in 30 buildings in 5 dif- collected in the years 2012–2016 in 336 build- ferent locations. Bats most often occupied fl at roof ings from 11 voivodships. For detailed analyses spaces and attics and least often occupied crevices concerning birds, data from three voivodships behind the gutter. were selected: Kujawsko-Pomorskie, Łódzkie and Mazowieckie. To determine differences in the Key words: birds and bats in buildings, nesting location of bat roosts, buildings from all voivod- and roosting places ships were compared. Bird nesting places and daytime bat roosts were divided into 22 locations. Regional differences in the occupation of build- INTRODUCTION ings were analysed. For comparison, the analysed In Europe at least 15 or so bird species buildings were divided into churches, tenements, permanently or temporarily use build- public buildings, and residential blocks. Buildings used by birds were also compared with respect to ings. Some of them like house sparrows the degree of urbanization of their surroundings. Passer domesticus or swifts Apus apus Species-specifi c differences in their preference have permanently migrated to towns, for occupying buildings of different types were and buildings are their main nesting and analysed in birds. Birds were found in 78.9% of resting places, though the latter species buildings and bats – in 8.9% of buildings. Amount is also known to live in colonies on rocks of 2,250 bird nests in 265 buildings and over or in tree holes (Gory 1997). An inven- 1,000 bats in 30 buildings were inventoried. The tory of avifauna in Warsaw revealed bird species most often found in buildings were: the swift Apus apus (40.5%), house sparrow Pas- permanent or temporary presence of ser domesticus (31.7%) and jackdaw Corvus 247 species, 132 of which were nesting monedula (9.9%). Bat species found in buildings species and 16 species built their nests included: the common noctule Nyctalus noctula, in buildings (Luniak et al. 2001). Find- serotine bat Eptesicus serotinus, lesser horse- ing birds’ nests in buildings is difficult shoe bat Rhinolophus hipposideros, pipistrel- and requires a great deal of experience les Pipistrellus and long-eared bats Plecotus. The (Zyskowski and Zielińska 2014). There house sparrow most often inhabited buildings in are many places suitable for nesting and Kujawsko-Pomorskie Voivodship and the swift providing concealment from the sight of most often inhabited buildings in Voivodships Mazowieckie and Łódzkie. Birds in Kujawsko- predators and humans. Birds carefully 20 K. Janus, G. Lesiński hide their nests by exploiting available In order to directly protect animals, cracks in walls or rooms rarely or never regulations prohibit intentional killing, used by man. Birds like the wood pigeon mutilation and catching. Indirect impact Columba palumbus, magpie Pica pica, on animals like scaring or disturbing is great tit Parus major, blue tit Cyanistes also prohibited. To protect animals’ habi- caeruleus, song thrush Turdus philo- tats, there are bans on the destruction or melos or jay Garrulus glandarius, that removal of nests and on the intentional rarely used buildings as nesting places prevention of animals from accessing years ago, now do so more and more their refuges. Despite these regula- frequently. One of the reasons noted for tions, nests are destroyed as a result of the decreasing number of bird popula- renovations and thermal refurbishment. tions that use buildings is renovation and Bat habitats incur similar losses but the thermal refurbishment of those buildings occurrence of this phenomenon is hard (Biaduń 2008, Grochowski 2012). to assess because of two main reasons. In Poland 26 bat species have been First, there is no legal requirement to recorded so far (Ciechanowski and make an ornithological and chiroptero- Bogdanowicz 2014, Uhrin et al. 2016). logical inventory before renovation of Most species are being found in build- a building. The second reason is that ings. Bats use various spaces in buildings the existing biological inventories are of for hibernation and reproduction (Ko- poor quality. walski and Lesiński 2000, Lesiński The aim of the performed studies was 2006). Man-made buildings are an impor- to assess the frequency of occurrence of tant element in keeping synanthropic bat particular bird and bat species in build- populations in good condition (Lesiński ings. 2006). Bats use buildings as places for reproduction, hibernation and swarming, MATERIAL AND METHODS and as daily shelters. Searching for bats in various parts of a building is a very Studies were carried out in Poland in difficult task, even for chiropterologists 11 voivodships: Małopolskie, Wielko- with a lot of experience. Ultrasonic polskie, Mazowieckie, Dolnośląskie, detectors, endoscopes and infrared cam- Kujawsko-Pomorskie, Pomorskie, Pod- eras are used to find bats (Kowalski and karpackie, Łódzkie, Lubelskie, Śląskie, Lesiński 2000). Flat roof spaces, attics, and Warmińsko-Mazurskie. Analysed cellars are checked and wall cracks are buildings were situated in large (e.g. Łódź, inspected with the use of elevators and Warsaw), medium-size (e.g. Inowrocław, climbing equipment. Even with such Sochaczew) and small (e.g. Janikowo, techniques, the probability of detection is Gniewkowo) towns and in rural areas only between 50 and 90%. Therefore, it is (e.g. Żakowola Poprzeczna, Brzozowica important to disseminate good practices Duża). Inventoried buildings included: that should be implemented during any residential blocks, tenements, churches, inventory of birds and bats in buildings. monasteries, and public buildings like All species of birds and bats are sub- schools, kindergartens, hospitals and city ject to strict or partial legal protection. council offices. Birds and bats using buildings... 21

Study material was collected in the crevices were surveyed using torches and years 2012–2016. In total, the presence of endoscopic cameras. Bat droppings and birds and bats was checked in 336 build- prey remains (e.g. moth wings) proved ings. The duration of an inventory of the presence of these mammals. Sites birds’ nests and bats’ roosts in a building in building elevations occupied by bats depended on its physical characteristics were checked using a ladder or hydraulic (size, condition of building elevations, jack and endoscopic cameras. access to rooms) and was prolonged Bird nesting places and daytime bat as the number of difficulties in search- roosts were divided into 22 sites: in flat ing increased. The mean time of one roof space, in the attic, under finishing inspection was from 40 to 120 min. The materials, under the roof, in electricity number of inspections per single build- boxes, under window sills, on gutters, ing depended on the number of difficul- under gutters, in technological open- ties met while performing that inventory ings, in cracks, on balconies, in house and varied from 1 to 5. Most buildings martin nests, in vents, in the construc- were inventoried during the breeding tion elements, in windows, on building season (April through August). elevations, on window sills, in lamp cas- Bird broods were searched for early in ings, behind LED advertising panels, in the morning, when most of birds show the chimneys, under air-conditioners, behind highest level of activity, using binoculars outlets. or a telescope in the case of tall buildings. To determine regional differences in To find broods of swifts, observations building occupation by birds, 245 select- were performed in the evening. In some ed buildings were divided into 2 groups. cases a hydraulic jack was used to check Buildings from Kujawsko-Pomorskie openings and crevices in the elevation. Voivodship constituted the first group A few buildings were surveyed outside and those from Voivodships Mazo- of the bird breeding period. In this case wieckie and Łódzkie – the second one. the birds’ species were determined based To determine differences in the location on nests or other remains confirming of bat shelters in buildings, data from all brooding had taken place (e.g. the pres- voivodships were compared. ence of white excrements). All objects were divided into 4 groups: In order to record bats evening obser- churches (19), tenements (36), public vations of the roost departure were buildings (114) and residential blocks performed. In some cases these animals (167). All basic parameters like percent- were observed before sunrise during the age of occupied buildings, species iden- morning swarming. Observations were tification, location of nesting sites were supported by using a bat sound detector compared. LunaBat DFD-1. Sounds were recorded Buildings were also divided into by Zoom H1 and analyzed by the Cool 3 groups with respect to the degree of Edit Pro 2.1 program to determine species urbanization: large towns of with popula- or genus. In a few cases, bats were netted tion of ≥ 50,000 inhibitants (236), small to confirm breeding status or to determine towns with population of < 50,000 inhib- the exact species. Building interiors and itants population (80) and rural areas 22 K. Janus, G. Lesiński

(20). All basic parameters listed above ships Mazowieckie and Łódzkie) showed were compared. significant differences (χ2 = 92.5; df = 13; Statistical analysis of data was car- P < 0.001) in the occupation of buildings ried out using the Statistica 13 software. by various species: the house sparrow, The chi-square test was used to test the swift, jackdaw, house martin Delichon differences between species structure in urbicum, rock dove Columba livia groups (significance level P = 0.05). f. urbana and starling Sturnus vulgaris (Table 1). Total occupation was 85.4% in RESULTS AND DISCUSSION group I and 80.2% in group II. Birds were found in 78.9% of buildings TABLE 1. Percent occupation by selected species and bats in 8.9% buildings. Amount of in analysed voivodships 2,250 birds’ nests were inventoried in Kujawsko- Mazowieckie, 265 buildings and over 1,000 bats were Species -Pomorskie Łódzkie found in 30 buildings. Fifteen bird spe- (N = 622) (N = 1 206) cies were found to breed in buildings. Passer domesticus 37.3 26.6 The most frequently breeding birds Apus apus 37.0 47.0 were: the swift Apus apus 40.5%, house Corvus monedula 7.7 12.5 sparrow Passer domesticus 31.7% and Delichon urbicum 10.0 5.0 jackdaw Corvus monedula 9.9%. The Columba livia 2.1 5.6 least frequently breeding species includ- f. urbana ed the swallow Hirundo rustica (one Sturnus vulgaris 2.6 0.6 clutch), magpie Pica pica (one clutch), Others 3.3 2.7 song thrush Turdus philomelos (two clutches), and wood pigeon Columba Comparative analysis of groups I and palumbus (two clutches). Bat species II showed significant differences (χ2 = noted in buildings included: the common = 537.2; df = 19; P < 0.001) in different noctule Nyctalus noctula, serotine bat breeding sites of birds (Table 2). Flat Eptesicus serotinus, lesser horseshoe roof spaces were most frequently occu- bat Rhinolophus hipposideros, pipi- pied by birds in Voivodships Łódzkie strelles Pipistrellus and long-eared bats and Mazowieckie while cracks under the Plecotus. The serotine bat was the most roof were most frequently occupied in frequently noted, in 16 buildings, and Kujawsko-Pomorskie Voivodship. the least frequently noted was the lesser Occupation of buildings by particular horseshoe bat – in only one building. species differed among three groups of Places preferred by birds for nests were: buildings (χ2 = 238.3; df = 28; P < 0.001) flat roof space (36.8%), cracks under the distinguished according to the degree roof (16.6%) and cracks in the building of urbanization (Table 3). House spar- elevation (15.2%). rows and tree sparrows were noted most Comparative analysis of buildings frequently in buildings situated in rural from group I (Kujawsko-Pomorskie areas. The swift occupied buildings most Voivodship) and from group II (Voivod- frequently in small and large towns and Birds and bats using buildings... 23

TABLE 2. Percent occupation of selected breed- Occupation of breeding sites in ing sites in buildings of analysed voivodships buildings differed (χ2 = 510.8; df = 42; Kujawsko- Mazowieckie, P < 0.001) with respect to the degree of Location of -Pomorskie Łódzkie urbanization (Table 4). Flat roof space breeding site (N = 620) (N = 1 157) were most frequently occupied in large Flat roof space 16.6 56.8 towns while in rural areas birds preferred Under finishing to build their nests under finishing mate- 11.3 5.4 materials rials. Nests under the roof were mostly Under roof 26.0 4.3 localised in small towns. Cracks were In cracks 16.8 14.6 occupied with similar frequency in all Under gutter 8.7 2.0 locations.

On a balcony 0.2 4.4 TABLE 4. Percent of occupation of selected In window 9.7 0.4 breeding sites in buildings in relation to the de- Others 10.7 12.1 gree of urbanization Large Small Rural the house martin built its nests most Location town town areas often in buildings in small towns. Total (N = 1 696) (N = 407) (N = 98) Flat roof 43.3 11.8 28.6 occupation of buildings within large space towns, small towns and rural areas was Under 80.1, 73.8 and 85%, respectively. finishing 7.2 3.4 13.3 material TABLE 3. Percent occupation of buildings from Under roof 9.4 45.9 18.4 different locations by selected species Under gutter 3.8 0.2 0 Small Rural In a crack 15.0 15.0 15.3 Large town Species town areas (N = 1 732) Others 21.3 23.7 24.4 (N = 418) (N = 100) Passer 30.7 30.6 55.0 Total occupation and occupation domesticus by particular bird species differed P. montanus 0.7 3.8 16.0 (χ2 = 313.1; df = 42; P < 0.001) among Apus apus 43.5 34.9 12.0 different types of buildings: churches (I), Corvus tenements, (II) public buildings (III) and 10.6 7.4 8.0 monedula residential blocks (IV) – Table 5. House Phoenicurus sparrows preferably chose tenements and 0.5 0.2 4.0 ochruros tree sparrows – public buildings. The Delichon 5.8 11.0 2.0 swift most often occupied tenements, urbicum and least frequently residential blocks. Columba The jackdaw preferred residential blocks livia 5.9 8.1 0 and was absent from churches. Total f. urbana occupation for groups I to IV was: 63.2, Others 2.3 4.0 3.0 86.1, 67.5 and 86.8%, respectively. 24 K. Janus, G. Lesiński

TABLE 5. Percent occupation by selected species of various types of buildings

Church, monastery Tenement Public building Residential block Species (N = 82) (N = 239) (N = 790) (N = 1 136) Passer domesticus 32.9 38.1 30.1 31.4 P. montanus 0 0 4.3 0.9 Apus apus 47.6 51.0 40.6 37.7 Corvus monedula 0.0 6.7 5.4 14.4 Phoenicurus ochruros 0 0.4 1.5 0 Delichon urbicum 0 0 3.4 10.6 Columba livia f. urbana 15.9 1.7 11.9 2.2 Others 3.6 2.1 2.8 2.8

Birds occupied various nesting places often occupied residential blocks. Public in four types of buildings with different buildings were preferred by the tree spar- intensity (χ2 = 901.0; df = 63; P < 0.001) row and rock dove. – Table 6. Flat roof space were most Five places were differentiated in often used in residential blocks and nests buildings occupied by bats. In total, under roofs were most often built in ten- 31 bat shelters were found in 30 build- ements. Technological openings and the ings (Table 8). Statistical analysis did attics were preferred by birds in religious not show significant differences in occu- buildings. pation of each type of place (χ2 = 20.5; Groups of particular bird species df = 16; P = 0.20). were compared among various types Three species among those nesting in of buildings (Table 7), and showed sig- buildings: the wood pigeon, song thrush nificant differences (χ2 = 313.1; df = 42; and magpie were found incidentally P < 0.001). The house sparrow, swift, since they do not typically build nests in jackdaw, house martin and starling most buildings and their clutches may be con-

TABLE 6. Percent of nesting sites occupied by birds in various types of buildings Church, monastery Tenement Public building Residential block Location (N = 84) (N = 238) (N = 762) (N = 1 117) Flat roof space 26.2 0.0 36.0 46.0 Under roof 13.1 42.4 27.6 3.8 Under gutter 16.7 5.5 3.0 4.7 Technological 14.3 10.9 3.8 1.1 openings In crack 4.8 16.0 6.8 21.5 On balcony 0.0 0.0 0.0 4.7 In attic 15.5 2.1 6.7 0.0 Behind outlet 1.2 7.1 3.5 1.0 Others 8.2 16.0 12.6 17.2 Birds and bats using buildings... 25

TABLE 7. Percent presence of clutches of particular species in various types of buildings

Passer Passer Apus Corvus Delichon Columba livia Sturnus Type of building domesticus montanus apus monedula urbicum f. urbana vulgaris (N = 714) (N = 44) (N = 911) (N = 223) (N = 148) (N = 136) (N = 27) Church, 3.8 0 4.3 0 0 9.6 3.7 monastery Tenement 12.7 0 13.4 7.2 0 2.9 0 Public building 33.3 77.3 35.2 19.3 18.2 69.1 22.2 Residential block 50.1 22.7 47.1 73.5 81.8 18.4 74.1

TABLE 8. Numbers of bat shelters according to places in buildings (N = 31)

Crack under Crack Crack Flat roof Species Attic finishing behind the in the wall space materials outlet Plecotus spp. 40000 Rhinolophus hipposideros 10000 Nyctalus noctula 00102 Pipistrellus spp. 02104 Eptesicus serotinus 74212 sidered exceptional there. The remain- in Leszno (Dyrcz et al. 1991, Bednorz et ing 12 species most often build nests in al. 2000). In Warsaw its numbers are esti- buildings. This is a large pool of species mated at 3 to 6 thousand pairs (Luniak considering a lack of building preferen- et al. 2001). A moderate increase in the ces and their relatively low number. For number of this species has recently been comparison, during the inventory of the noted in Poland (Chylarecki 2013). The whole of Warsaw, 16 species were found house sparrow has the status of common nesting in buildings (Luniak et al. 2001). nesting bird (Tomiałojć and Stawarczyk Such a high diversity of species occupy- 2003), though recently a decrease in its ing buildings calls for selecting appropri- abundance has been recorded in many ate methods of ornithological inventory European towns (Robinson et al. 2005, to ensure the possibility of finding every De Laet and Summers-Smith 2007, Chy- species. The species most frequently larecki 2013, Węgrzynowicz 2013). The noted were the swift, house sparrow main reason of such a decline is renova- and jackdaw. All are the most common tion and thermal refurbishment of build- cavity nesters living in towns (Tomiałojć ings, which has decreased the number of and Stawarczyk 2003). The swift, con- available nesting sites (Siriwardena et sidered moderately numerous to numer- al. 2002, Summers-Smith 2003, Balaji ous in the whole country (Tomiałojć and 2014). Stawarczyk 2003), achieves the highest Swifts breeding in buildings were densities in old town districts, e.g. 60–68 more common in Voivodships Mazo- pairs/10 ha in Wrocław or 64 pairs/10 ha wieckie and Łódzkie and less common 26 K. Janus, G. Lesiński in Kujawsko-Pomorskie Voivodship. most often in buildings situated in rural There are no data for comparisons areas, which agrees with the literature and literature references report that data (Tomiałojć and Stawarczyk 2003). the swift is most common in Mazury The house martin preferred occupation (Tomiałojć and Stawarczyk 2003). of buildings in medium-size towns. Most Observed differences may be explained probably, this was associated with easy by the fact, that studies in Voivodships access to small water bodies resulting Mazowieckie and Łódzkie included two from habitat preferences of the spe- large city agglomerations: Warsaw and cies (Tomiałojć and Stawarczyk 2003). Łódź. The swift prefers nesting in old Such water bodies were situated in the town districts, which prevail in the two outskirts of towns like Janikowo, Opole voivodships. According to Tomiałojć Lubelskie, Kruszwica, but were not and Stawarczyk (2003), the jackdaw always present in large towns. is distinctly more numerous in the east An analysis of the selection of nest- than in the west of the country. This was ing sites brought about different results also reflected in our studies, in which depending on the degree of urbaniza- the jackdaw nested more often in build- tion. Birds in large towns preferred ings in Voivodships Mazowieckie and nesting sites in attics, while those in Łódzkie than in those of Kujawsko- small towns chose places under the -Pomorskie Voivodship. roof. The difference was not related to Surprising results were obtained when the availability of nesting places and comparing locations of nesting sites. In the reason for such selection was hard Voivodships Mazowieckie and Łódzkie to interpret. Comparison of building more than half of the nests were located occupation by various species showed in flat roof space while in Kujawsko- that the house sparrow preferred occu- -Pomorskie Voivodship it was only 16.6% pation of tenements and the differences of nests. This is difficult to explain, more in its preference of churches, public so that the availability of flat roof spaces buildings and residential blocks were was similar in both areas. In Kujawsko- negligible. The tree sparrow was not -Pomorskie Voivodship birds preferred present in churches and tenements, but to build nests in cracks under the roof. occurred mainly in public buildings. Intra- and inter-specific differences The swift almost equally occupied dif- were found in the occupation of build- ferent types of buildings and the house ings in large towns, small towns and in martin preferred residential blocks. rural areas. The frequency of occupa- Nesting sites most frequently chosen tion of buildings by the house sparrow by birds were those in flat roof spaces of was similar in large and small towns but residential blocks, under the roof in tene- definitely smaller than in rural areas. The ments and under the gutter in churches. density of the house sparrow in housing One may consider that birds choose vari- estates in the 2000s was 18.5 pairs/10 ha ous nesting places depending on the type (Węgrzynowicz 2013). In rural areas, the of a building. This is partially related density was 17.4 pairs/10 ha (Dębowski to the availability of places in different et al. 2015). The tree sparrow was noted objects, for example tenements usually Birds and bats using buildings... 27 do not have flat roof spaces. Selection al. 1995) and in the Carpathians in the of such places is also species-specific in years 1999–2001 (nearly half of build- most common species: the swift, house ings) (Kozakiewicz 2003). A similar sparrow and jackdaw. All these species frequency (a half of the objects) of prefer nesting places in flat roof spaces occupied religious buildings was found and the swift and house sparrow most in the Lublin region (Grzywaczewski et often decide to build nests in the upper al. 2005). Contrary to the former stud- part of a building and hence select sites ies, bats’ presence in the latter objects under the roof (Šálek et al. 2015). was also inferred from faeces; the same Preference for buildings as nesting approach was adopted in our analyses. sites differed among species. The house From among a total of 31 bat roosts, sparrow, swift, jackdaw and house 12 were found in the attics. This finding martin most often occupied residential agrees with other studies and confirms blocks. Nearly half of house sparrows the attractiveness of such places for bats and swifts chose residential blocks, as (Kowalski et al. 2001, Ciechanowski et did most jackdaws, starlings and house al. 2002, Ciechanowski 2003, Lesiński martins. This observation confirms the 2006). The second place occupied by importance of such constructions, which bats was cracks. Cracks in the wall are recently being replaced by modern and cracks under finishing materials high-rise residential buildings tightly and were occupied 10 times. Other stud- precisely finished and devoid of access ies confirmed frequent occupation of to flat roof spaces. The tree sparrow and such roosts (Kowalski and Lesiński rock dove most often built their nests 1995, Lesiński 2001). Literature data in public buildings. The occurrence of rarely give any information on roosts the rock dove in such buildings may be in attics of residential blocks (flat roof explained by the fact that public build- spaces). We found 8 roosts localised in ings are less often protected against bird such attics. These places are even more habitation, when compared to residential important because they were occupied houses. by nearly 1,000 bats. The percentage of buildings occupied by bats was lower than given in other CONCLUSIONS studies. For example, systematic checks of 238 buildings on forest clearings in The species composition and nesting Białowieża Forest in 2002 showed the or roosting site preferences in buildings presence of bats in 38 (16%) buildings depends on the type of building. These (Mazurska and Ruczyński 2005). In characteristics also differ between areas another study, a survey of 900 church with different levels or urbanization and lofts, suitable for bats, revealed that between different regions of Poland. bats were present in 118 of these church lofts (13%) (Fuszara et al. 1995). A still Acknowledgements higher frequency of building occupa- We are grateful to Geoff Boulton for tion (1/3) was noted in 1991 on Kra- a linguistic help and Daniel Klich for kowsko-Wieluńska Upland (Kurzak et advices about statistical analyses. 28 K. Janus, G. Lesiński

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ŠÁLEK M., RIEGERT J., GRILL S. 2015: House na 22 lokalizacje. Wykonano analizę różnic re- Sparrows Passer domesticus and Tree Spar- gionalnych w zasiedleniu obiektów. Wykonano rows Passer montanus: fine-scale distribution, porównanie zasiedlenia obiektów z podziałem na population densities, and habitat selection in ich charakter: kościoły, kamienice, budynki uży- a Central European city. Acta Ornithol. 50: teczności publicznej, budynki typu blok miesz- 221–232. kalny. Wykonano również porównanie budynków SIRIWARDENA G.M., ROBINSON R.A., wykorzystywanych przez zwierzęta ze względu CRICK H.Q.P. 2002: Status and population na stopień zurbanizowania ich lokalizacji. Po- trends of the House Sparrow Passer domesti- równano preferencje gatunkowe ptaków do za- cus in Great Britain. In: H.Q.P. Crick, R.A. siedlania budynków o różnym charakterze. Ptaki Robinson, G.F. Appleton, N.A. Clark, A.D. stwierdzono na 78,9% budynków. Nietoperze Rickard (Eds.), Investigation into the causes of stwierdzono na 8,9% budynków. Zinwentaryzo- the decline of Starlings and House Sparrows in wano 2250 gniazd ptaków występujących na 265 Great Britain. BTO, Thetford: 33–51. budynkach i ponad 1000 nietoperzy znalezionych SUMMERS-SMITH J.D. 2003: The decline of w 30 budynkach. Najczęściej stwierdzanymi ga- the House Sparrow: a review. Br. Birds 96: tunkami ptaków były jerzyk Apus apus 40,5%, 439–446. wróbel Passer domesticus 31,7% i kawka Corvus TOMIAŁOJĆ L., STAWARCZYK T. 2003: The monedula 9,9%. Gatunki nietoperzy wykryte na avifauna of Poland. Distribution, numbers and budynkach to: borowiec wielki Nyctalus noctula, trends. PTPP “pro Natura”, Wrocław. mroczek późny Eptesicus serotinus, podkowiec UHRIN M., HÜTTMEIR U., KIPSON M., ES- mały Rhinolophus hipposideros, karliki Pipistrel- TÓK P., SACHANOWICZ K., BÜCS S., lus i gacki Plecotus. Wróbel najczęściej zasiedlał KARAPANDŽA B., PAUNOVIĆ M., PRE- obiekty w województwie kujawsko-pomorskim SETNIK P., BASHTA A.T., MAXINOVÁ E., (37,3%), a jerzyk obiekty w województwach ma- LEHOTSKÁ B., LEHOTSKÝ R., BARTI L., zowieckim i łódzkim (47,0%). W województwie CSÖSZ I., SZODORAY-PARADI F., DOMBI kujawsko-pomorskim ptaki najczęściej budowały I., GÖRFÖL T., BOLDOGH S.A., JÉRE C., gniazda pod dachem (26,0%), a w województwach POCORA I., BENDA P. 2016: Status of Savi’s mazowieckim i łódzkim w stropodachu (56,8%). pipistrelle Hypsugo savii (Chiroptera) and ran- Wyróżniono pięć lokalizacji, w których łącznie ge expansion in Central and south-eastern Eu- stwierdzono 31 kryjówek nietoperzy znajdują- rope: a review. Mammal Rev. 46: 1–16. cych się na 30 budynkach. Nietoperze najczęściej WĘGRZYNOWICZ A. 2013: Changes in the zajmowały strych i stropodach (20), a najrzadziej House Sparrow Passer domesticus population szczelinę za spustem (1). in cities and towns of Poland in 1960–2010. Ornis Polonica 54: 225–236 Słowa kluczowe: ptaki i nietoperze w budynkach, ZYSKOWSKI D., ZIELIŃSKA D. 2014: Prze- miejsca lęgowe i schronienia wodnik do inwentaryzacji oraz ochrony pta- ków i nietoperzy związanych z budynkami. Federacja Zielonych GAJA, Szczecin. MS received 19.04.17 MS accepted 06.02.18 Streszczenie: Ptaki i nietoperze wykorzystujące budynki jako miejsce lęgów i schronienia. Prze- analizowano występowanie ptaków i nietoperzy Authors’ address: w budynkach przeznaczonych do termomoder- Krzysztof Janus nizacji. Materiał został zebrany na 336 budyn- Zakład Zoologii kach w latach 2012–2016 w 11 województwach, Katedra Biologii Środowiska Zwierząt a do szczegółowej analizy ptaków wybrano dane Wydział Nauk o Zwierzętach z trzech województw: kujawsko-pomorskiego, Szkoła Główna Gospodarstwa Wiejskiego łódzkiego i mazowieckiego. Porównanie kryjó- w Warszawie wek dziennych nietoperzy dotyczyło wszystkich ul. Ciszewskiego 8, 02-786 Warszawa województw. Miejsca lęgowe ptaków oraz kry- Poland jówek dziennych nietoperzy zostały podzielone e-mail: [email protected]

Annals of Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW Animal Science No 57 (1), 2018: 31–45 (Ann. Warsaw Univ. of Life Sci. – SGGW, Anim. Sci. 57 (1), 2018) DOI 10.22630/AAS.2018.57.1.3

Analysis of genetic structure of Silesian horses from Książ National Stud

JOANNA KANIA-GIERDZIEWICZ1, EWELINA GAŁKA1, MACIEJ GIERDZIEWICZ2 1Faculty of Animal Science, University of Agriculture in Krakow 2 Faculty of Electronical Engineering, Automatics Computer Science and Biomedical Engineering, AGH University of Science and Technology

Abstract: Analysis of genetic structure of Silesian in the new breeding programme, which would re- horses from Książ National Stud. The aim of the sult in creation of 2 subpopulations: old-type and study was to analyze the genetic composition of new-type Silesian horses, is not recommended. Silesian horses bred in Książ National Stud ba- For maintaining genetic diversity, it could be also sing on their pedigrees and to try to answer the possible to carefully import of semen or stallions following question: is the subdivision of Silesian of similar breeds, i.e. German Alt-Oldenburger horse population really necessary to prevent lo- horses or German Heavy Warmblood horses. The cal horse breed? As the material 72 pedigrees of plan should also include the matings recommen- brood mares and stallions, born between 1991 and ded within the population of all available Silesian 2009 were used. On average, 93.1% of animals horses of both types. The authors consider intro- were inbred, there were 96.55% inbred stallions ducing such a program essential. It should be also and 90.70% inbred mares. The mean inbreeding clearly stated in the plan how large proportion of coeffi cient for all horses was 2.3%, for inbred the Silesian mares population could be each year horses it reached 2.5%. There were more inbred mated to Thoroughbred stallions. Division into mares (39) than stallions (28). All 72 Silesian two types implies that some fraction of new-type horses from Książ State Stud were related with Silesian horses and their progeny would not be re- the average relationship coeffi cient of 8.5%. The garded as potential parents of individuals for the total and effective number of founders were 458 conservation programme. and 163, respectively. The total and effective number of ancestors were 64 and 22, respectively. Key words: inbreeding, relationship, founder, an- Among the founding breeds Thoroughbred horses cestor, Silesian horse breed predominated, the next were Oldenburg and Sile- sian horses, whereas among ancestors there were INTRODUCTION much more Silesian horses than Thorougbreds. All in all, the genetic diversity of the Silesian hor- The origin of Silesian horses can be ses from Książ National Stud was satisfactory, ho- traced back to 19th and the beginning wever its monitoring is required because of both upward inbreeding and 100% related animals. Be- of 20th century. Before that time, Sile- cause the population of Silesian horses is small, sian region was not considered as that less than 2,000 animals and sligtly over 1,000 ani- of highly developed horse breeding. mals included in conservation programme, the ar- Formation of Silesian horses is closely tifi cal subdivision of this population as proposed related to National Studs. The State Stud 32 J. Kania-Gierdziewicz, E. Gałka, M. Gierdziewicz in Lubiąż was settled in 1817 and moved -type Silesians (Tomczyk-Wrona 2014a, afterwards to Książ in 1939. The second b). New requirements for horse candi- State Stud was formed in Koźle in 1877 dates to entry Silesian horse studbook (Lawin 2004a, Tomczyk-Wrona 2014b). were published in 1996 and updated in Primarily stallions of draft breeds from 2014 (Wójcik et al. 2014). Only Silesian, Belgium, England and France were old-type Oldenburg and Thoroughbred imported to Koźle, but then breeding ancestors can occur in a horse pedigree. was targeted at importation of old-type With this breeding policy the opportuni- Oldenburg horses and horses from ty both to breed the modern warmblood Ostfriesland (Tomczyk-Wrona 2014b). sport horse and to keep and protect the Lawin (2004a) reports that proportion old-type, traditional Silesian coach horse of those stallions reached 40% of all appeared (Cześnik 1999, Tomczyk- stallions used in Silesian area in years -Wrona 2014a). 1917–1938. Therefore it is believed In 1997 and 1998 National Studs in that those stallions had major impact on Strzegom and Strzelce Opolskie were creating Silesian horse breed after World liquidated and most of stud mares were War II. After WW II, the majority of moved to Książ (Rajca-Pisz 2005). the population had gone, especially the Although Książ National Stud in has been most valuable horses and the Ministry of operating since 1947, only since 1997 it Agriculture issued the decision to settle has been breeding Silesian horses, as the State Studs in Koźle and Książ. In those last national stud, which cooperates with places Silesian horses, old-type Old- many private breeders. According to enburg horses and other stallions were the latest breeding program for Silesian gathered. State Studs with mares were horses (Tomczyk-Wrona 2014a, Wójcik arranged in Strzelce Opolskie (1950), et al. 2014), the main breeding goal is Wojanów (1951) and Strzegom (1955) to keep the population in purebred and (Lawin 2004b). In next years 20 old- to protect local breed (old-type Silesian -type Oldenburg stallions, which set up horses). The part of the population can breeding lines, some of which still exist be used to obtain sport horses through today, were imported from Germany crossbreeding to Thoroughbred horses. and Denmark (Lawin 2004b, Tomczyk- With this specific purpose, the Silesian -Wrona 2014b). Later on, the aim of the horse breed has been divided in two breeding program was to create a multi- branches with different requirements for purpose horse breed. Stallions Diebitsch, a horse to enter the studbook. At present Rittmeister, Holdek, Firley and Ulan the active population is composed of were chosen as the best, to reach this slightly more than 1,600 mares and about aim (Walkowicz 2009, Tomczyk-Wrona 230–250 stallions, from which about 2014b). 56% mares are included in the Genetic Next, an attempt was made to breed Resources Conservation Programme Silesian mares to stallions of warmblood (Tomczyk-Wrona 2014a, Wójcik et al. breeds such as Thoroughbred or Malo- 2014), which tends to establish two, polska. Therefore National Studs bred more or less separated, subpopulations also purebred Silesian horses called old- of Silesian horses. Because of the above- Analysis of genetic structure... 33

-mentioned conditions and the relatively as well as means for all and for inbred small population size, which is still lead- animals. The values of mean kinship ing to the increase in relationship and coefficients (RXY) were estimated for all inbreeding levels (Walkowicz 2009) pairs of individuals, for pairs within sex and also because of the implementation (for male and female group separately) of the above-mentioned conservation and between males and females. The programme for Silesian horses, which RXY coefficients were computed using termed the Książ National Stud as the the algorithm proposed by Tier (1990) valuable breeding center influencing with recursive modification (Gierdzie- the whole Silesian horse population wicz and Kania-Gierdziewicz 2007). (Tomczyk-Wrona 2014a, b, Instytut Zo- The relationship coefficients obtained otechniki PIB 2017), the aim of the by tabular method were transformed into study was to analyze the state of the art classic relationship coefficients (Kania- in Silesian horse breeding, basing on -Gierdziewicz 2008). the genetic structure of Silesian horses The total number of founders and from Książ National Stud assessed from ancestors and also the effective number genealogical data, and to try to answer of founders (fe) and ancestors (fa) were the following question: Is the subdivi- analyzed for the reference population sion of Silesian horse population really including 72 horses from Książ National necessary in order to prevent that local Stud, using Lacy’s method (1989, 1995) horse breed? It should be stressed that in with modification accounting for “bot- the above-mentioned conservation pro- tleneck effect”, made by Boichard et al. gramme (Instytut Zootechniki 2017) it is (1996, 1997). The effective number of assumed that the genetic material should founders is always higher than the effec- be exchanged with the foreign breeders. tive number of ancestors. The bigger the difference, the bigger the “bottle- MATERIAL AND METHODS neck effect” leading to the loss of genes (Kania-Gierdziewicz 2006).

As the material 72 pedigrees of Silesian The effective number of founders (fe) horses born in 1991–2009, which were and the effective number of ancestors (fa) qualified as breeding horses in 2013 or were estimated as follows: earlier, were analyzed. For the pedigrees The effective number of founders of Silesian horses obtained in this way (Lacy 1989) was: the contribution of ancestors actually existing in a horse pedigree, i.e. equiva- f 1 lent of complete generations (ECG), e f q2 according to Maignel et al. (1996) was k1 k calculated. where: Based on data from pedigrees of 72 horses classified in the active popula- fe – the effective number of founders; tion, inbreeding coefficients (FX) were f – the number of founders; estimated for the whole examined popu- qk – the probability of gene origin from lation, for stallions and brood mares, k-th founder; 34 J. Kania-Gierdziewicz, E. Gałka, M. Gierdziewicz

and the effective number of ancestors TABLE 1. The mean inbreeding (FX) and relation- (Boichard et al. 1996, 1997) was com- ship (RXY) coefﬁ cients for Silesian horses from puted as: Książ National Stud Sex Item f 1 male female a f Number of animals in p2 29 43 k1 k active population Number of animals in 560 803 where: pedigrees fa – the effective number of ancestors; Mean ECG 7.21 7.32 f – the number of ancestors; Range of ECG 5.93–8.36 5.57–8.45 pk – the marginal contribution of k-th Number of inbred 28 39 ancestor. animals

Mean FX – all animals 0.0178 0.0265 Mean F – inbred X 0.0184 0.0293 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION animals Inbreeding and relationship Maximum FX value 0.0464 0.1260 Pairs Item The extended pedigrees of 72 Silesian male female mixed* horses had the equivalent of complete Number of pairs 406 903 1 247 generations – ECG (Maignel et al. 1996) Number of related pairs 406 903 1 247 ranging from 5.57 to 8.45, with mean Mean RXY – all pairs 0.0774 0.0974 0.0784 value of 7.27. However, the Silesian Mean RXY – related pairs 0.0774 0.0974 0.0784 mares had more complete pedigrees than Maximum RXY value 0.5305 0.5419 0.5981 stallions (Table 1). * male × female pairs. On average, over 93% Silesian horses from the examined reference popula- All animals (100%), in the examined tion were inbred. In the examined herd population were related, regardless of there were more inbred stallions than the comparison applied. The average mares (96.6 vs. 90.7%). In the whole relationship coefficient in the whole ref- analyzed population Silesian mares were erence population was 8.5%. The high- more inbred (over 2.5%), than stallions est mean RXY value was between Silesian (almost 1.8%). While mean level of FX mares (almost 10%). In the remaining for whole reference population reached groups (between stallions and between 2.3%, mean values of inbreeding coef- stallions and mares) these values were ficients for inbred individuals was on almost at the same level: 7.7 and 7.8%, average 2.5%. The inbred Silesian respectively. The maximum relationship mares had higher level of FX, reaching values were high, exceeding 50% for about 3%, while in the inbred group of all groups, but for male-female pairs it Silesian stallions the mean FX value did could be much more disadvantageous not exceed 2%. Maximum inbreeding and lead to serious problems in design- value for Silesian stallions was almost ing mating plans (Table 1). It should be three times lower than for Silesian mares pointed out that dividing the small Sile- (Table 1). sian horse population into two smaller Analysis of genetic structure... 35 subgroups, assumed in Breeding Pro- 0.08 mares 0.07 gramme (Wójcik et al. 2014), will only stallions make the matters worse. 0.06 0.05 Fx The mean inbreeding coefficients 0.04 mean for inbred Silesian stallions and mares 0.03 from the ancestor group and from the 0.02 reference population, depending on the 0.01 0.00 year of birth, are illustrated in Figures 1 up to 1960 1961–1970 1971–1980 1981–1990 1991–2001 and 2. In the ancestor group (Fig. 1) the birth period mean inbreeding coefficients of stallions FIGURE 1. Mean inbreeding coefﬁ cients (FX) for oscillated between 2 and 3% in the con- mares and stallions from ancestor group secutive birth periods, however those of mares increased rapidly in last birth 0,033 period (1991–2001), reaching over 7%. 0,03 The average inbreeding coefficients for 0,027 examined Silesian horses (Fig. 2) were mares Fx stallions slightly lower for stallions (up to 2%) 0,024 mean mean than for older males in all birth periods 0,021 and for mares they were much lower than 0,018 in female ancestor group and decreased 0,015 slightly from over 3% for females born up to 2000 2001–2005 2006–2010 before 2000 year to 2.8% for the young- birth period est mares probably because they had FIGURE 2. Mean inbreeding coefﬁ cients (FX) for less ancestors of Silesian origin due to mares and stallions from examined herd over birth periods occurence of Thoroughbred ancestors (as fathers). In the group of 67 inbred Silesian From the 24 sires of the group of inbred horses from the active population most Silesian horses only four sires had FX = 0 were born in years 2000–2009. Only and five sires near zero and they produced 12 individuals were born earlier, from 21 out of 67 inbred animals (over 31%). 1991 to 1999. In the inbred group Three sires had inbreeding coefficients

13 individuals had FX smaller than 1%: lower than 0.5% and one slightly above 7 stallions and 6 mares. Inbreeding coef- this value and all four sired 17 inbred ficient ranging from 1 to 3.5% was found animals (more than 25%). Among those in 39 horses (18 stallions and 21 mares). four sires there was one Silesian stallion There were 15 horses with inbreeding with 10 inbred progeny. The remaining coefficients higher than 3.5% (3 stallions 11 sires had FX values ranging from 1% and 12 mares). In this group five mares to over 4.5% and produced 29 out of were progeny of one Silesian stallion 67 inbred animals (over 43%). and two other Silesian stallions had two The 67 inbred Silesian horses had inbred daughters each. The highest FX in 46 mothers. Only four of those mothers this group, over 12.5%, was that of the had FX = 0 and seven near zero and they Silesian mare born in 2009. all gave 18 inbred progeny (about 27%). 36 J. Kania-Gierdziewicz, E. Gałka, M. Gierdziewicz

Next 12 mares, the mothers of 16 inbred value of about 13.9%, which was sig- Silesian horses, had inbreeding coef- nificantly higher than that of Silesian ficients from about 0.1% to near 1%, horses. but only three had FX lower than 0.5%. The above-mentioned authors (Bokor The remaining 23 mothers had FX values et al. 2013) also estimated average RXY between 1% and more than 8% and for Thoroughbred horses by generation produced 33 out of 67 inbred horses and the calculated mean exceeded 10% (over 49%). from reference population (generation 0) Walkowicz (2009) analyzed inbreed- till 24th generation back. For generations ing level in the modern population of 0–5 (used routinely by breeders) the aver-

849 Silesian horses and obtained FX age relatedness mean values were close values slightly lower than in presented or higher than 20%. The authors pointed study, 1.26 and 2.32% for all and for out that the increase of the inbreeding inbred Silesian horses, respectively, but level began because of lack of impor- the maximum value of inbreeding coef- tation. In comparison to the presented ficient in their study was higher than for study about Silesian horses, the results Silesian horses from Książ State Stud for Hungarian Thoroughbreds were (18.35 vs. 12.6%). The percent of inbred higher, which means that inbreeding for animals in their study was also much the examined population should not be lower, reaching 54%, because of lack considered at present as a problem. of pedigree information for some horses Zechner et al. (2002) analyzed pedi- (Walkowicz 2009). The pedigrees in the grees of 565 Lipizzan horses from eight presented study were more complete European studs. The inbreeding coef- and, consequently, much higher percent ficients ranged from 8.6% to over 14% of inbred animals was detected. between studs, whereas the mean inbreed- Bokor et al. (2013) investigated the ing coefficient for all units reached pedigrees of Thoroughbred horses with 10.8%. So the Lipizzan horses were also racing career in Hungary and obtained more inbred than the examined Silesian similar proportion of inbred animals in horses, which lead to decrease in genetic the population (94.94%) but a higher variability in Lipizzan horses. The above level of inbreeding coefficient (aver- mentioned authors found that the popu- age 9.58%) compared to the presented lation subdivision (male or female lines), study. However, in Bokor’s research in order to preserve gene pool variability, over 56% horses in the population had does not necessarily lead to maintenance

FX value higher than 10% compared to of such variability. Álvarez at al. (2010) only two mares in the examined Sile- assessed genetic variability in the endan- sian horse group. Hungarian Thorough- gered Mallorquí horse and obtained bred population had also more complete average FX values of 2.5% for the whole pedigrees than Silesian horses (average population and 4.7% for the reference ECG = 15.64). In the previous research population (animals born between 2005 of Cunningham et al. (2001) the Brit- and 2007). The results were slightly ish population of Thoroughbred horses higher than for Silesian horses, but were achieved mean inbreeding coefficient calculated from less complete pedigrees Analysis of genetic structure... 37

(ECG = 1.8 and ECG = 2.4, respective- gered Slovak breeds and obtained mean ly) than in our study. The RXY coefficients inbreeding coefficients ranging from for Mallorquí horses, over 10% for the over 2.5% for Slovak Sport Ponys to whole and over 11% for the reference over 6% for Hucul horses. Slovak Lip- population, were also higher than those izzan horses and Shagya Arabians had for Silesian horses. Álvarez at al. (2010) the mean FX within the above range. found that, in order to prevent gene pool All those FX values were higher than variability of the Mallorquí horses, their in Silesian horses in the present study, breeders should not exclude black horses but the ECG values obtained for Sile- and, especially, heterozygous chestnut sian horses were similar to those from horses from stock population. the cited paper. The relationship coef- Recently Kania-Gierdziewicz et al. ficient values reported by Pjontek et (2015) examined the pedigrees of the al. (2012) were similar (Hucul horses, American Quarter horses and found FX Slovak Sport Pony) or slightly smaller and RXY values almost similar to or slight- (Lipizzan horses, Shagya Arabians) than ly lower than those for Silesian horses, for Silesian horses. According to those whereas the percent of inbred and related results, the authors expected inversion Silesian horses were higher than for Amer- of inbreeding trend for Hucul horses and ican Quarter horses. Duru (2017) analyzed Slovak Sport Ponies in the next genera- pedigrees of 23,668 Turkish Arab horses tions and recommended monitoring of and found two or four times higher mean mating. inbreeding coefficient values for all and Olsen et al. (2010) analyzed pedigrees inbred animals and also the maximum of two endangered Norwegian horse FX values, for almost the same percent of breeds and estimated that, for the refer- inbred horses, than in our study. The RXY ence population of 1,535 Døle horses, values obtained by the above mentioned the mean FX value was 11.8% and for author were similar to or slightly higher 1,050 Nordland/Lyngen horses – 12.8%. than for Silesian horses. The ECG values were 10.5 and 7.2 for Siderits et al. (2013) investigated Døle and Nordland/Lyngen horses, pedigrees of 2,364 German Paint Horses respectively. The authors found the con- and found much lower FX values and siderable loss of heterozygosity in Nor- also much lower percentage of inbred dland/Lyngen horse breed and slightly animals than those for Silesian horses in higher genetic variance in the Døle breed this study. due to cross-breeding in the past, and Pinheiro et al. (2013) analyzed pedi- recommended, for both breeds, optimal grees of 653 horses of the endangered contribution selection without additional Sorraia breed and obtained the mean cross-breeding. inbreeding coefficient value of about Bhatnagar et al. (2011) analyzed pedi- 0.27 and average relatedness of over grees of 1,659 North American Norwe- 0.46, which were much higher than those gian Fjord horses and obtained higher obtained for Silesian horses. FX values for much lower percentage Pjontek et al. (2012) examined genetic of inbred animals than in present study. variability from pedigrees of four endan- The authors stated that, even though the 38 J. Kania-Gierdziewicz, E. Gałka, M. Gierdziewicz

inbreeding values for American Norwe- about seven times smaller than fe. The gian Fjord horses seem to be not very gene pool of the reference population is high, the reduction in genetic variabil- steadily narrowing down, because 50% ity is still possible due to overall small of genetic variability was explained by population size. only 8 ancestors, whereas 90% – by Hasler et al. (2011) examined genetic about 50% of all ancestors (Table 2). variability of Franches-Montagnes horse The value of fa/fe (0.35) is strongly below breed and achieved high mean FX value 1 and indicates the presence of the “bot- (over 5%) for ECG = 7.8, i.e. similar to tleneck effect”, i.e. the downward trend that in presented study. Those authors in the level of genetic diversity. Because (Hasler et al. 2011) also obtained higher most mares from Książ National Stud, relationship coefficients for indigenous which is called the Silesian horses breed- Swiss horse breed and emphasized ing center, are considered as the genetic that maintenance of genetic variability reserve of the Silesian breed, such situa- within a small, endangered population tion seems to be very harmful to the Stud is possible and could be achieved via and also could be troublesome for the mating optimization by using pedigree whole Silesian horse population. information (relationship) and also per- Table 3 shows breed and sex composi- formance data. tion of the groups of 458 founders and Sevinga et al. (2004) analyzed inbreed- 64 ancestors. In the group of founders ing level and its possible influence on about 60% were mares. Almost 33% of retained placenta in Friesian mares. For Friesian foals born in 1999–2000 the inbreeding coefficient ranged from 15.6 TABLE 2. Total number of ancestors and founders, effective number of founders (f ) and effective to 15.7%. The authors concluded that e number of ancestors (fa) for reference population the increase of inbreeding level gener- from Książ National Stud ates problems with retained placenta in mares. Similar fertility problems have Parameter Value Number of animals in reference been reported by Silesian horse breed- 72 ers from Książ National Stud (personal population Number of animals in pedigrees 1 363 communication). Mean ECG 7.27 Total number of FOUNDERS AND ANCESTORS founders 458 ancestors 64 The total and effective number of Effective number of founders and ancestors of the examined founders (fe) 163

Silesian horses are in Table 2. ancestors (fa) 22 For the 72 individuals from the ref- Explaining 50% of gene pool erence population the total number of founders 59 458 founders and 64 ancestors were ancestors 8 found. The effective number of found- Explaining 90% of gene pool ers (fe) was 163, whereas the effective founders 231 number of ancestors (fa) was 22 and was ancestors 33 Analysis of genetic structure... 39 them were Thoroughbreds. The Silesian TABLE 3. Breed and sex of founders and ances- and Oldenburg female founders consti- tors of the reference population tuted about 17 and 16% of all female Number of Breed founders, respectively. Seven other minor Breed contribution breeds were also reported in the group mares stallions (%) Founders of founder mares with the superiority 275 182 × of the Trakehner breed. In the group of (N = 458) 182 founder stallions, the Thoroughbred Thoroughbred 86 57 31.22 horses prevailed as well (over 30% of all Arabian horse 0 1 0.22 male founders). Another most popular Silesian horse 48 30 17.03 breeds in the male founder group were Oldenburg horse 44 41 18.56 Silesian and Oldenburg breeds, over Holsteiner horse 0 1 0.22 16% and more than 22% of all founder Trakehner/East- 9 7 3.49 stallions, respectively. Also male found- -Prussian horse Wielkopolski ers from Trakehner breed (about 4% of 3 1 0.87 all stallions-founders) and three other horse breeds were shown. However, signifi- Friesian horse 3 0 0.66 cant number of founders (over 26%) had Ostfriesen horse 1 0 0.22 Anglo-Norman missing information about their breed. 1 0 0.22 Most of these horses were born at the horse Half-blood beginning of 20th century or even earlier, 1 0 0.22 at the end of 19th century (Table 3). The Anglo-Arabian Warmblood total number of 64 ancestors included 2 0 0.44 about 47% of mares and 53% stallions. horse Without breed The Silesian breed dominated in this 78 44 26.64 designation group, because almost all female ances- Ancestors 30 34 × tors belonged to this breed and 59% of (N = 64) male ancestors as well. Oldenburg and Thoroughbred 0 5 7.81 Thoroughbred stallions were also in the Silesian horse 29 20 76.56 group of male ancestors. Distribution of Oldenburg horse 0 8 12.50 sex among founders indicates that mares constituted the majority (60% of all founders), whereas the ancestor group seems to be unnecessary or even harm- was dominated by stallions (53% of all ful for the population. The alternative ancestors) – Table 3. way of maintaining the genetic diversity The Thoroughbred horses were one of of a whole population, very important the horse breeds that strongly influenced for Silesian breed, is probably to look the origin of Silesian breed (founders) for phenotypically similar horse breed but has a little impact on the current of possibly similar origin, as for exam- Silesian horse population (ancestors), as ple the Alt-Oldenburger in Germany it has been shown in Table 3. Thus, creat- (http://www.ostfriesen-alt-oldenburger. ing two subpopulations according to the de). In the pedigrees of some stallions breeding programme for Silesian horses of this breed we found, to some extent, 40 J. Kania-Gierdziewicz, E. Gałka, M. Gierdziewicz the same ancestors (Oldenburg or Ost- and Szilvásvárad studs. Those results friesen stallions) as in the pedigrees of were lower than in this study, although Silesian horses. The possibility of taking they were conducted on greater number advantage of such breeding has also of individuals. The authors (Zechner et been mentioned in the conservation pro- al. 2002) also found that over 52% of gramme of Silesian horse breed (Instytut genetic variability of Lipizzan horses Zootechniki PIB 2017). And it should originated from so-called baroque horses, be pointed out that Eckermann, a grey which in most cases were of Italian and stallion of German Heavy Warmblood Spanish origin. Among other founder breed, which is in one-half of Silesian breeds there were Arabian horses (21% breed, has been recently used for mating of gene contribution), Lipizzan horses in Książ National Stud. (10%), Frederiksborg horses (8%), Cunningham et al. (2001) obtained, Kladruby horses, Thoroughbreds and for the reference population of 211 Thor- Shagya Arabians. It was quite similar to oughbred horses, 158 founders (85 stal- the examined Silesian horses, since their lions and 73 mares). The value of fe in founders were also of different breeds, their work was 28.15. To explain 78% with, however, Thoroughbreds, Silesian genetic diversity, the joint contribution and Oldenburg horses predominating. of 30 founders was needed. Therefore, The above-mentioned authors concluded the British Thoroughbred population was that exchanging stallions between Lipiz- much less varied than the Silesian horses zan studs according to relationship coef- in the present study. In recent research ficients calculated from the joint pedigree on Thoroughbreds from Hungary Bokor file should be taken into consideration in et el. (2013), found that the total number mating plans. of founders was 1,062 and the fe reached The total number of founders for 42, which was a lower value than for the four Slovak horse breeds examined by examined Silesian horses. Noteworthy is Pjontek et al. (2012) and the effective that 232 founders (all born before 1793) number of founders for Hucul horses, were responsible for 88.58% of diversity Lippizan horses, Shagya Arabians and in the reference population gene pool. Slovak Sport Ponys, respectively. Those The total and the effective number of results were close to or lower than those ancestors were 908 and 15.32, respec- in the presented study. The authors rec- tively. Only six ancestors explained 50% ommended use for mating stallions with of the genetic diversity of the Hungar- optimal contribution for the genetic man- ian Thoroughbreds, which was slightly agement of those Slovak horse breeds. lower than in the Silesian horses. Recently Kania-Gierdziewicz et al. For Lipizzan horses from European (2015), who examined pedigrees of the studs investigated by Zechner et al. (2002) American Quarter horses, obtained simi- the fe was on average 48.2 and ranged lar values of the fe and fa (121 and 26, from over 39 in Piber stud to almost 56 respectively). The number of ancestors in Fagaras stud, whereas the fa for all explaining 50 and 90% of the genetic studs exceeded 26 with the range from pool was found to be 10 and 39 ances- 12.5 for Djakovo stud to 18.8 in Piber tors, respectively, which was slightly Analysis of genetic structure... 41 more than in the presented study. Duru the examined Trakehner population and (2017) analyzed Turkish Arab horse recommended bettering of monitoring population and, for reference population system. of 14,838 animals, obtained the fe and fa Hamann and Distl (2008) calculated values of 40 and 22, respectively. Those the effective number of founders (fe) values were similar to our findings, but and ancestors (fa) for Hanoverian horses, they were calculated for a much bigger which were higher than in present study. population and indicated that Turkish They also examined the average contri- Arab population had lower genetic diver- bution of various breeds to the genetic sity than the examined Silesian horses. pool of Hanoverian horses and found In the work of Siderits et al. (2013), that the breeds with the highest contri- for German Paint Horse population, bution (except Hanoverians with 49.1%) much higher fe and fa values (from two were Thoroughbred horses (34.8%), and to 10 times higher) were found than in then Trakehner horses (7.9%), Arabians, Silesian horses. The authors concluded Holsteiner warmblood horses and Old- that the genetic variability of the German enburg horses. The above mentioned Paint Horse population was kept at a sat- authors found the large random loss of isfactory high level. founder alleles due to the fact that only Pinheiro et al. (2013) found for endan- 15 stallions (from famous sire lines) had gered Sorraia horse population very low about 35% of gene contribution to exam- values of fe and fa (7.46 and 4, respec- ined breed. tively). Additionally, only 2 ancestors Olsen et al. (2010) examined genetic explaining 50% of the Sorraia breed variation in two native Norwegian horse gene pool. The authors concluded that breeds and found that in Døle breed the Sorraia horse breed is still in the brink of most influenced ancestor (stallion) had extinction and required the introduction the gene contribution about 22% and of an efficient conservation plan. in Nordland/Lyngen population the top

Bhatnagar et al. (2011), for fe and fa in ancestor (stallion) had the contribution North American Norwegian Fjord horses value over 26%. The authors suggested found the values of 96 and 30, respec- that in both populations the loss of tively. The authors pointed out that the genetic diversity appeared because of effective number of founders and ances- low number of animals and high level of tors and also the fa/fe were low, thus the relationship and inbreeding. reduction of the genetic variability is Toro et al. (2011) summarized the find- possible. ings about the different ways to measure Teengen et al. (2009) examined the of genetic diversity is small livestock contribution of other breeds to the recent populations in order to conserve animal Trakehner horse population and found genetic resources. They concluded that that over 22% of genes came from Thor- the maintenance of genetic variability is oughbred horses and almost 12% of gene the most important in all cases, but the pool originated from Anglo-Arabian most useful tools for measuring genetic horses. The authors found also increas- variability could be the rate of inbreeding rate of inbreeding and relationship in ing and coancestry or even the effective 42 J. Kania-Gierdziewicz, E. Gałka, M. Gierdziewicz population size, all basing on pedigree introducing different ways for breed- information. On the other hand the effec- ing value estimation for the two types tive population size would be useful of Silesian horses depending on their for indicating changes in longer time kind of use, but without subdividing the periods, and the effective number of whole population, and also more clari- founders and ancestors – for estimating fication of the Herdbook requirements, recent changes in gene pool taking place which should be written clearly in the as a result of current breeding decisions newly introduced breeding programme (Kania-Gierdziewicz 2006). (Wójcik et al. 2014). Specifying the old-type Silesian horse as having less CONCLUSIONS Thoroughbred ancestors in the pedigree (up to two ancestors only in the third Summing up all the above results, generation back) for mares and with less genetic variability of Silesian horses restrictive conditions for stallions and from Książ National Stud is still on the the new-type Silesian horse with more satisfactory level, which was confirmed Thoroughbred ancestors (in some cases by high values of the effective number it could be one-half Silesian and one-half of founders and relatively small values Thoroughbred) seems to be highly insuf- of individual contributions of founders ficient, because in the latter case the gen- and ancestors in the genetic pool in com- erations, in which those ancestors occur parison to the small number of examined are also very important. In our opinion, horses. However, the relatively low value for maintaining genetic diversity of Sile- of the effective number of ancestors and sian horses, it could be also possible to the fact that 100% individuals were re- introduce a well thought-out importation lated to each other and 90% individuals of semen or stallions of similar breeds, were inbred in the Książ National Stud, i.e. German Alt-Oldenburger horses or which is treated as a breeding center for German Heavy Warmblood horses (last Silesian horses, suggest that now the year one of the stallions of the latter breed downward tendency in genetic variabil- was mated to the mares from the Książ ity exists. Because the whole population National Stud), because these breeds of Silesian horses is very limited in size have to some extent the same ancestors – in general less than 2,000 animals as the Silesian horses. The plan should and slightly above 1,000 individuals include, as suggestions for the breed- included in the conservation programme ers, the matings recommended within (Tomczyk-Wrona 2017), which may be the population of all available Silesian insufficient to maintain genetic diversity, horses regardless of their type – old or artifical subdivision of this population, new. It should be also clearly stated in as it is proposed in the new breeding the plan how large proportion of the programme, which would result in Silesian mares population could be each creation of two subpopulations: old-type year mated to Thoroughbred stallions. and new-type Silesian horses, is not Division into two such types implies recommended. We suggest one thing that that some fraction of new-type Silesian certainly could be necessary – namely, horses and their progeny would not be Analysis of genetic structure... 43 regarded as potential parents of individu- BOICHARD D., MAIGNEL L., VERRIER E. als that would fulfill the conditions for 1996: Analyse gẻnẻalogique des races bo- the conservation programme. Yet such vines laitiẻres françaises. INRA Prod. Anim. 5: 323–335. a possibility would allow some Silesian BOICHARD D., MAIGNEL L., VERRIER E. horses of the new-type, especially those 1997: The value of using probabilities of gene with more than 75% Silesian breed con- origin to measure genetic variability in a popu- tribution, to serve as a sort of the initial lation. Genet. Sel. Evol. 29: 5–23. group in the conservation programme. BOKOR Á., JÓNÁS D., DUCRO B., NAGY I., BOKOR J., SZABARI M. 2013: Pedigree Mating them to old-type Silesian horses analysis of the Hungarian Thoroughbred popu- would give, in the next one or two lation. Livest. Sci. 151: 1–10. generations, the progeny eligible to CUNNINGHAM E.P., DOOLEY J.J., SPLAN enter the main conservation programme, R.K., BRADLEY D.G. 2001: Microsatellite broadening therefore the gene pool of diversity, pedigree relatedness and contributions of founder lineages to thoroughbred hors- the Silesian breed. The authors consider es. Anim. Genet. 32: 360–364. introducing such a program essential. CZEŚNIK B. 1999: Ślązaki czy Oldenburgi? Koń Analogous solutions, concerning various Polski 12: 12–14. livestock breeds for which procedures of DURU S. 2017: Pedigree analysis of the Turkish protection have been initiated because Arab horse population: structure, inbreeding and of small population size and low genetic genetic variability. Anim. 11 (9): 1449–1456. 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Książ na podstawie danych rodowodowych oraz 82: 982–986. wypracowanie odpowiedzi na pytanie, czy słusz- SIDERITS M., BAUMUNG R., FUERST-WALTL ny jest założony w programie hodowlanym koni B. 2013: Pedigree analysis in the German Paint rasy śląskiej podział na stary i nowy typ konia Horse: Genetic variability and the influence of śląskiego z osobnymi wymogami dotyczącymi pedigree quality. Livest. Sci. 151: 152–157. wpisu do ksiąg. Materiałem badawczym była gru- TEEGEN R., EDEL C., THALLER G. 2009: Pop- pa 72 koni rodowodowych, zakwalifikowanych ulation structure of the Trakehner Horse breed. jako hodowlane (populacja aktywna). Populację Anim. 3 (1): 6–15. referencyjną do analiz stanowiły 72 konie nale- TIER B. 1990: Computing inbreeding coefficients żące do populacji aktywnej urodzone w latach quickly. Genet. Sel. Evol. 22: 419–430. 1991–2009. Udział osobników zinbredowanych TOMCZYK-WRONA I. 2014a: Charakterystyka w populacji aktywnej wynosił 93,1%, przy czym ogierów śląskich, dopuszczonych do krycia więcej było zinbredowanych ogierów niż klaczy. klaczy uczestniczących w programie ochro- Średnie zinbredowanie dla wszystkich koni wyno- ny zasobów genetycznych koni rasy śląskiej. siło 2,3%, a w grupie koni zinbredowanych było Wiad. Zoot. 52 (1): 38–46. równe 2,5%. Bardziej zinbredowane były klacze Analysis of genetic structure... 45 niż ogiery. Wszystkie badane 72 konie śląskie uwzględniać, jako sugestie dla hodowców, moż- były ze sobą spokrewnione, a średni współczyn- liwości kojarzeń w obrębie całej dostępnej popu- nik spokrewnienia dla nich wyniósł 8,5%. Ogólna lacji koni śląskich bez podziałów na stary i nowy liczba założycieli wyniosła 458, zaś przodków typ. Podział taki powoduje, że pewna część koni – 64. Efektywna liczba założycieli wynosiła 163, śląskich nowego typu i ich potomstwo nie jest a przodków – 22. Wśród ras założycielskich prze- brana pod uwagę jako ewentualni rodzice koni, ważała pełna krew angielska, a następnie konie które będą spełniały warunki programu ochrony. oldenburskie i śląskie. Wśród przodków występo- Na przykład pozwoliłoby to wykorzystać konie wały przeważnie konie śląskie, a udział koni peł- śląskie nowego typu, u których udział genów rasy nej krwi był niewielki. Ogólnie można stwierdzić, śląskiej jest większy niż 75%, i które stworzyłyby że zmienność genetyczna wśród koni śląskich ze „grupę wstępną programu ochrony”. Ich kojarze- Stada Ogierów Książ pozostaje jeszcze na zado- nie z końmi starego typu mogłyby dać potomstwo walająco dobrym poziomie, ale wymaga monito- (dzieci, wnuki), które spełniałyby w przyszłości rowania ze względu na tendencję do wzrostu inbre- warunki programu ochrony, powiększając tym sa- du przy jednoczesnym spokrewnieniu wszystkich mym dostępną pulę genów. osobników. Ze względu na małą liczebność populacji koni śląskich (poniżej 2000 osobników, w Słowa kluczowe: inbred, pokrewieństwo, założy- tym nieco ponad 1000 osobników w programie ciel, przodek, konie śląskie ochrony zasobów genetycznych rasy) wprowadzenie bardziej restrykcyjnego podziału na 2 sub- populacje koni starego i nowego typu będzie dla MS received 05.06.17 rasy bardzo niekorzystne. Aby utrzymać zmien- ność genetyczną koni śląskich na zadowalającym MS accepted 01.02.18 poziomie, korzystne byłoby również posłużenie się reproduktorami ras mających te same korzenie co rasa śląska, np. Oldenburgami w starym typie Authors’ address: czy końmi rasy ciężkiej gorącokrwistej niemiec- Joanna Kania-Gierdziewicz kiej. Wprowadzenie indywidualnego planu koja- Katedra Genetyki i Metod Doskonalenia Zwierząt rzeń w obrębie całej populacji koni śląskich jest, Wydział Hodowli i Biologii Zwierząt według autorów niezbędne. Plan taki powinien ja- Uniwersytet Rolniczy w Krakowie sno określić, jaka część populacji klaczy śląskich al. Mickiewicza 24/28, 30-059 Kraków corocznie mogłaby być ewentualnie krzyżowana Poland z ogierami pełnej krwi angielskiej. Powinien on e-mail: [email protected]

Annals of Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW Animal Science No 57 (1), 2018: 47–53 (Ann. Warsaw Univ. of Life Sci. – SGGW, Anim. Sci. 57 (1), 2018) DOI 10.22630/AAS.2018.57.1.4

Impact of food type on long term consumption kinetics in group-housed domestic cats (Felis catus)

AGNIESZKA KUROSAD1, URSZULA PASŁAWSKA1, AGNIESZKA JANECZEK2, ROBERT PASŁAWSKI4, PAWEŁ JONKISZ1, AGNIESZKA SIKORSKA-KOPYŁOWICZ1, MICHAŁ JANK5, ROBERT GŁOGOWSKI3 1Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Wrocław University of Environmental and Life Sciences 2Veterinary Clinic “Cztery Łapy i Ty” 3Faculty of Animal Science, Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW 4Faculty of Medicine, Wroclaw Medical University 5Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW

Abstract: Impact of food type on long term con- INTRODUCTION sumption kinetics in group-housed domestic cats (Felis catus). The aim of the current research was Feeding a group of domestic cats (Felis to assess the impact of the type of dry food on the catus) housed together in a shelter, cattery long term acceptance in cats, expressed as con- or in an experimental facility is of a par- sumption curves. A group of 14 adult neutered do- ticular importance, because the type of the mestic cats were subsequently offered three types of products: economy, medium and premium. The food has to be carefully selected to cover consumption of food has been carefully monito- the requirements of all group members. red each day of the experiment, which enabled the Generally, high quality commercial foods drawing of the precise consumption curve. The providing balanced macronutrients and average daily consumption showed differences be- of high-digestibility are recommended tween feeding periods (98.33, 61.17 and 55.04% (Bradshaw and Cook 2006). Cats are strict for premium, medium and economy diet type, respectively). In all groups the monotony effect carnivores, relying on nutrients present in has been observed, but the relative stability of the animal tissues to fulfill their specific and consumption has been observed only in cats fed unique nutritional requirements. Although with the premium type of food. The attractiveness they have adjusted to commercial diets, of the economy type of food was distinctively low, limitations of substituting animal-origin resulting in a regularly waved consumption curve. nutrients with plant-origin in foods It can be concluded, that the prolonged offering of a particular type of complete dry pet food within formulated for cats are being generally the limits of metabolizable energy requirements realized (Zoran 2002). may potentially lead to adverse consequences for Currently a tremendous interest in cats. The food consumption level that supplies the identifying the ideal macronutrient pro- minimal daily energy amount can likely result in file to maximize health and longevity in imbalanced macronutrient intake. cats is being observed (Hewson-Hughes Key words: cat, consumption, pet food, accepta- et al. 2011). However, nutritional recom- bility, colony mendations are based on minimal intake 48 A. Kurosad et al. data rather than optimal, as the optimal and light cycle (Serisier et al. 2013). All intake is harder to measure due to sub- animals had access only to single food stantial difficulties in measuring health source, i.e. supplied by caretakers. and longevity outcomes (Villaverde and Fascetti 2014). Diets According to Bradshaw (2006), cats Before and during the experiment all are equipped with flexible behavioral animals were fed dry expanded diets in strategies, based on experience, aiming amounts covering the daily metaboliz- at achieving a balanced diet regardless of able energy requirements of spayed cat, available types of food. Hewson-Hughes i.e. 313.6 × (body weight)0.67 kJ (Gross et al. (2011) described mechanisms of et al. 2010, Mitsuhashi et al. 2011), strong dietary macronutrient regulation complying to 100% consumption of the in cats, towards a target profile high in daily ration. protein and fat. It has to be noted, that According to descriptions given by domestication led to a modification of Crane et al. (2010), the types of pet foods cats’ way of life and feeding. Currently used in the study can be defined as: available commercial cat foods contain generic with low price set as their prima- various amounts of carbohydrates for ry selling point (economy), private label technical and economic reasons (Salaun with varying ingredient selection and et al. 2017). quality (medium) and specialty products Metabolic adaptation was previously with emphasized superior ingredients demonstrated in cats chronically exposed and nutritional adequacy (premium). to high-fat or high-carbohydrate diets, Basic analytical constituents and the but it was suggested that studies exceed- percentage of metabolizable energy (% ing 14 days may be required to show ME) supplied by the particular type of effects of restricted macronutrient intake cat food are presented in Tables 1 and 2. (Gooding et al. 2014). The current study, therefore, aimed at assessing the effects of prolonged offer- TABLE 1. Analytical constituents of cat food types as declared on the labels ing of three different types of commercial Chemical dry foods on the consumption kinetics in Premium Medium Economy group-housed cats. analysis Protein (% DM) 32 35 32 Fat (% DM) 15 11 8 MATERIAL AND METHODS Fibre (% DM) 4.4 7 2 Animals and housing Ash (% DM) 6.9 7 6 ME 1.49 1.34 1.37 The research was conducted on 14 (MJ/100 g DM) neutered adult domestic cats of mixed gender, between 3 to 8 years of age, Major fee materials, as listed on the in good health and physical condition labels of the products, were the follow- (average body weight 4 kg). The cats ing: were housed as a colony in a stable room • economy – cereals, meat and meat temperature with controlled humidity derived products, plant proteinaceous Impact of food type... 49

TABLE 2. Calculated* percentage of metaboliz- and (3) premium. To avoid the possible able energy in 100 g of DM derived from macro- competition and hierarchy effects, indi- nutrients in foods vidually calculated amount of food was % ME Premium Medium Economy always served in a sufficient number of Protein (P) 31 38 34 bowls for the group (Ramos et al. 2013). Fat (F) 36 30 21 Drinking water was constantly available. Carbohy- During the experiment, daily food con- 33 32 45 drates (C) sumption was continuously recorded and P : F : C 1 : 1.2 : 1.1 1.3 : 1 : 1.1 1.6 : 1 : 1.3 pooled to express the overall average for *On the basis of information labeled by producers. the colony, which was considered an experimental unit throughout the study. On extracts, vegetables, oils and fats, the basis of the calculated data the daily minerals; food consumption kinetics curves were • medium – meat and meat derived constructed for all subsequent periods of products, plant proteinaceous extracts, controlled feeding. cereals, oils and fats, yeast; • premium – dried chicken meat, rice, RESULTS AND DISCUSSION animal fat, maize, maize gluten meal, lignocellulose, hydrolyzed animal Evaluation of consumption curves for protein, LIP, wheat, beet pulp, yeast, premium, medium, and economy cat minerals. food revealed relative stability of the former. For medium and economy type Experimental procedures the acceptance showed temporary fluctuations (the figure). In the case of the In three consecutive 31-day periods dif- medium type, the consumption fluc- ferent type of food was served to all the tuation was regular, and occurred every cats in the colony according to the follow- 3–4 days. On the other hand, feeding ing sequence: (1) medium, (2) economy cats with the economy product led to

120

100

40 Food consumption (%) consumption Food 20

0 1 3 5 7 9 1113151719212325272931

premium Days medium economy FIGURE. Consumption kinetics of three different types of cat food during 31-day observation periods 50 A. Kurosad et al. more frequent variations in food intake Koppel 2015). Hewson-Hughes et al. (approximately every other day). (2016) demonstrated that in the short On the first day of offering the medium term, organoleptic properties may over- type diet, the cats almost completely ride the dietary selection in cats, but with refused it, showing clearly a neophobic experience the macronutrient regulation reaction to the food. On the second day prevails. This effect can be the plausible the acceptance increased to approxi- explanation of the consumption fluctua- mately 55% of the offered amount. On tions observed for medium and economy day 4 the consumed amount was only type of foods in the current study. Similar ±30%, followed by the increase to 65 on results of prolonged commercial dry food day 5. Onwards, from 7th to 31st days of consumption kinetics were described for observation, the observed range of con- young cats by Bermingham et al. (2013). sumption of the medium type food was Towards the end of a 28-day long obser- between 55 and 80%. vation period, the daily intake tended Similarly, on the first day of serv- gradually to decrease. Moreover, sig- ing the economy diet, the acceptance nificant differences in the average food dropped to 10%. Then, from day 2 to intake were reported in cats fed moderate day 6 it increased and ranged between 40 or high-protein diets for 8 weeks, but the and 50%. The peaks of consumption of tendency of time-dependent decreasing this diet (80%) were observed on days 11 consumption was observable irrespective and 16. Afterwards, it started to decline of the protein content (Wei et al. 2011). until 30% on day 31. The differences between average From the beginning of feeding the daily consumption of particular types of colony with the premium type of food, foods calculated for the whole observa- the acceptance was substantially higher tion period were distinct, namely 98.33 than that for two other products. The ±5.96%, 61.17 ±13.91% and 55.04 most notable fluctuation was found on ±17.83% for premium, medium and day 3 with acceptance of 70% followed economy diet type, respectively. Further, by an increase to about 90% on day 4 after the re-calculation of ingested food and than another slight decrease on day amount (in grams) into caloric intake it 5 (the figure). From day 6 of the obser- turned out that an average daily energy vation period, the premium type of food intake was 350, 196 and 180 kcal ME, was consumed in 100% until the end of for premium, medium and economy the experiment. type, respectively. This indicates, that the We speculate, that the initial low consumption of the premium food deliv- acceptance of medium and economy ered approximately double energetic types of foods, can be attributed to the load to animals as compared to medium neophobic behavior, affected most and economy products. The plausible likely by the flavour (Bradshaw 1986, explanation for the limited acceptance of Bradshaw et al. 1996). It was previously high-carbohydrate economy diet in the reported, that in a switchback design current study is the ceiling for carbohy- study, the animals presented with no drate consumption in cats that constrains choice refuse new food (Aldrich and them to deficits in protein and fat intake Impact of food type... 51

(Hewson-Hughes et al. 2011). There type) presented generally low attractive- are reports, however, that over time, the ness for cats, and resulted consumption carbohydrate ceiling is higher if cats are barely covering their minimal energy more adapted to the diet (Farrow et al. requirements. 2013), but the present results do not sup- port the adaptive tendency for the econ- CONCLUSIONS omy diet. We observed noticeably low attractiveness of the economy type food, The prolonged observation of food which resulted in a regularly waved con- acceptance in colony cats fed quantities sumption curve, with the intake increase of restricted energy content may help occurring most likely due to inefficient reveal substantial information on the supply of metabolizable energy. Conse- macronutrient intake regulation of com- quently, distinct differences in macro- mercially available products. nutrients content between products Particular types of complete dry pet assessed in the study (Table 2) may lead food offered within the limits of metabo- to potential unbalanced dietary intake in lizable energy requirements may render cats, during longitudinal offering. ineffective or lead to imbalanced macro- One explanation for the fluctuations, nutrient intake in adult neutered cats. both at the beginning of premium food feeding period and from day 6 to the end Acknowledgements of periods of medium and economy type foods offering can be a monotony effect, There is no conflict of interest to affecting the palatability of repeatedly disclose in this work. served food. Cats may show growing aversion toward products that have formed a significant part of their diet in REFERENCES the past (Bradshaw 2006). ALDRICH G.C., KOPPEL K. 2015: Pet food The apparent stability of the food con- palatability evaluation: a review of standard sumption has been observed for the pre- assay techniques and interpretation of results mium type, and the instinct of looking with a primary focus on limitations. Animals 5: 43–55. for new food was either not activated, or BRADSHAW J.W.S. 1986: Mere exposure redu- weak due to apparently low risk of mal- ces cats’ neophobia to unfamiliar food. Anim. nutrition (Thorne 1982). Behav. 34: 613–614. Additionally, the premium type BRADSHAW J.W.S. 2006: The evolutionary product supplied almost twofold more basis for the feeding behavior of domestic metabolizable energy, compared to dogs (Canis familiaris) and cats (Felis catus). J. Nutr. 136: 1927–1931. medium and economy types. Consider- BRADSHAW J.W.S., COOK S.E. 1996: Patterns ing that the taste of the commercial dry of pet cat behavior at feeding occasions. Appl. cats food relies mostly on the fat and Anim. Behav. Sci. 47: 61–74. protein contents, in line with the sparing BRADSHAW J.W.S., GOODWIN D., LE- manufacturing practice, it seems likely GRAND-DEFRÉTIN V., NOTT H.M.R. 1996: Food selection by the domestic cat, an obliga- that products containing the breakpoint te carnivore. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. 144A: amount of fat (medium and economy 205–209. 52 A. Kurosad et al.

BERMINGHAM E.N., WEIDGRAAF K., HEK- glucocorticoid metabolite analysis. Physiol. MAN M., ROY N.C., TAVENDALE M.H., Behav. 122: 72–75. THOMAS D.G. 2013: Seasonal and age effects SALAUN F., BLANCHARD G., Le PAIH L., on energy requirements in domestic short-hair ROBERT F., NICERON C. 2017: Impact of cats (Felis catus) in a temperate environment. macronutrient composition and palatability in J. Anim. Phys. Anim. Nutr. 97: 522–530. wet diets on food selection in cats. J. Anim. CRANE S.W., COWELL C.S., STOUT N.P., Physiol. Anim. Nutr. 101: 320–328. MOSER E.A., MILLICAN J., ROMANO Jr SERISIER S., FEUGIER A., VENET C., BIO- P., CRANE S.E. 2010: Commercial pet foods. URGE V., GERMAN A.J. 2013: Faster growth In: M.S. Hand, C.D. Thatcher, R.L. Remillard, rate in ad libitum fed cats: a risk factor predic- P. Roudebush (Eds.), Small animal clinical nu- ting the likelihood of becoming overweight du- trition. 5th edn. MMI, Topeka: 157–190. ring adulthood. J. Nutr. Sci. 2: 1–8. FARROW H.A., RAND J.S., MORTON J.M., THORNE C.J. 1982: Feeding behaviour in the cat O’LEARY C.A., SUNVOLD G.D. 2013: Ef- – recent advances. J. Small Anim. Pract. 23: fect of dietary carbohydrate, fat, and protein 555–562. on postprandial glycemia and energy intake in VILLAVERDE C., FASCETTI A.J. 2014: Ma- cats. J. Vet. Intern. Med. 27: 1121–1135. cronutrients in feline health. Vet. Clin. Small GOODING M.A., FLICKINGER E.A., ATKIN- Anim. 44: 699–717. SON J.L., DUNCAN I.J.H., SHOVELLER WEI A., FASCETTI A.J., LIU K.J., VILLAVER- A.K. 2014: Effects of high-fat and high-car- DE C., GREEN A.S., MANZANILLA E.G., bohydrate diets on fat and carbohydrate oxi- HAVEL P.J., RAMSEY J.J. 2011: Influence of dation and plasma metabolites in healthy cats. a high-protein diet on energy balance in obese J. Anim. Physiol. Anim. Nutr. 98: 596–607. cats allowed ad libitum access to food. J. Anim. GROSS K.L., YAMKA R.M., KHOO C., FRIE- Physiol. Anim. Nutr. 95: 359–367. SEN K.G., JEWELL D.E., SCHOENHERR ZORAN D.L. 2002: The carnivore connection to W.D., DEBRAEKELEER J., ZICKER S.C. nutrition in cats. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 221: 2010: Macronutrients. In: M.S. Hand, C.D. 1559–1567. Thatcher, R.L. Remillard, P. Roudebush (Eds.), Small animal clinical nutrition. 5th edn. MMI, Streszczenie: Wpływ typu karmy na długookre- Topeka: 49–105. sową kinetykę konsumpcji u kotów domowych HEWSON-HUGHES A.K., HEWSON-HUGES (Felis catus) utrzymywanych w kolonii. Celem V.L., MILLER A.T., HALL S.R., SIMPSON doświadczenia było określenie wpływu typu S.J., RAUBENHEIMER D. 2011: Geometric podawanej suchej karmy pełnoporcjowej na analysis of macronutrient selection in the adult długookresowe wskaźniki akceptacji określane domestic cat, Felis catus. J. Exp. Biol. 214: dla utrzymywanych grupowo kotów domowych. 1039–1051. Grupa 14 dorosłych, kastrowanych kotów otrzy- HEWSON-HUGHES A.K., COLYER A., SIMP- mywała kolejno karmę typu medium, economy SON S.J., RAUBENHEIMER D. 2016: Balan- i premium w okresach trwających 31 dni. Spoży- cing macronutrient intake in a mammalian car- cie było ściśle kontrolowane każdego dnia trwa- nivore: disentangling the influences of flavour nia eksperymentu, co pozwoliło na wykreślenie and nutrition. R. Soc. Open Sci. 3 (6): 160081. dokładnych krzywych. Zaobserwowano istot- DOI 10.1098/rsos.160081. ne różnice wartości średniego współczynnika MITSUHASHI Y., CHAMBERLIN A.J., BI- konsumpcji między poszczególnymi okresami GLEY K.E., BAUER J.E. 2011: Maintenance żywienia (98,33; 61,17 i 55,04% odpowiednio energy requirement determination of cats after dla karmy typu premium, medium i economy). spaying. Brit. J. Nutr. 106 (1): 135–138. We wszystkich okresach zaobserwowano efekt RAMOS D., RECHE-JUNIOR A., FRAGOSO monotonii, relatywnie stabilny poziom akcep- P.L., PALME R., YANASSE N.K., GOUVĘA tacji zanotowano jedynie w okresie podawania V.R., BECK A., MILLS D.S. 2013: Are cats karmy typu premium. Atrakcyjność karmy typu (Felis catus) form multi-cat households more economy była wyraźnie mniejsza w porówna- stressed? Evidence from assessment of fecal niu do pozostałych. Zaobserwowano znaczące Impact of food type... 53 fluktuacje przebiegu krzywej konsumpcji tego MS received 03.01.18 produktu. Można stwierdzić, że długotrwałe po- dawanie kotom jednego typu karmy w ilości za- MS accepted 22.02.18 pewniającej pokrycie dziennego zapotrzebowania na energię metaboliczną potencjalnie może Authors’ address: mieć niepożądane konsekwencje. Regularne Robert Głogowski pobieranie taniej karmy pełnoporcjowej w ilości Zakład Hodowli Zwierząt Futerkowych zapewniającej pokrycie jedynie minimalnego Towarzyszących i Koni zapotrzebowania energetycznego może spowo- Katedra Szczegółowej Hodowli Zwierząt dować zaburzenie właściwego bilansu podaży Wydział Nauk o Zwierzętach podstawowych składników odżywczych. Szkoła Główna Gospodarstwa Wiejskiego w Warszawie ul. Ciszewskiego 8, 02-786 Warszawa Słowa kluczowe: kot, spożycie, karma dla zwie- Poland rząt, akceptacja, kolonia e-mail: [email protected]

Annals of Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW Animal Science No 57 (1), 2018: 55–65 (Ann. Warsaw Univ. of Life Sci. – SGGW, Anim. Sci. 57 (1), 2018) DOI 10.22630/AAS.2018.57.1.5

Selected invasive species of the Polish and European avifaunae

MONIKA ŁUKASIEWICZ1, ARKADIUSZ MATUSZEWSKI1, PATRYCJA FLORCZUK KOŁOMYJA1, MACIEJ KAMASZEWSKI1, ŁUKASZ WARDECKI 2 1Faculty of Animal Science, Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW 2The Warsaw Ringing Group “Tridactylus”

Abstract: Selected invasive species of the Polish INTRODUCTION and European avifaunae. The present paper de- ﬁ nes the potentially invasive and invasive non- Biodiversity is the variability among -native species of Polish avifauna that constitute the entirety of Earth’s living organisms a potential threat to the biodiversity and the eco- within its individual terrestrial, fresh- systems. The work describes two pieces of legi- water and saltwater ecosystems, as well slation currently in force in Poland that deal with as its ecological complexes (Convention the issue of invasive bird species. At the national level the issue is regulated by Art. 120 of the Na- on Biological Diversity 1992). Any dis- ture Conservation Act from 2004, which prohibits cussion of such biodiversity cannot fail the relocation of the listed species and their intro- to touch upon the two important notions duction into the natural environment. At the EU of non-native (alien) species and invasive level, the relevant legal act currently in force is species. Non-native species are species the Regulation (EU) 1143/2014 on the prevention (or sub-species taxa), gametes, seeds, and management of the introduction and spread of spores or eggs that extend beyond their invasive alien species. An overview of non-native and invasive species is included, which takes ac- natural range. These may establish small count of the Canada Goose (Branta canadensis), reproducing populations, but they may the Egyptian Goose (Alopochen aegyptiacus), and also fail to adapt to the new conditions the Ruddy Duck (Oxyura jamaicensis). In addi- and die out (Convention on Biological tion to the species included in the national law, Diversity 1992). Therefore, it is not mention is also made of potentially invasive non- always possible to assess whether or not -native species, namely the Mandarin Duck (Aix an alien species is likely to pose a threat galericulata) and the exotic Rose-ringed Parakeet (Psittacula krameri). Using members of Anseri- to biodiversity in a given environment. formes as examples, the paper discusses concerns The definition of invasive species dif- regarding brood parasitism and hybridization of fers from that of non-native species. birds. Measures undertaken to control invasive According to Garcia-Berthou (2007), an species are mainly limited to monitoring, but they invasive species is a non-native species also include trapping and eradication via shooting that poses a threat to biodiversity and in certain cases. ecosystems. This threat results partially Key words: birds, non-native species, invasive from the very high adaptability of some species non-native species, which allows them 56 M. Łukasiewicz et al. to thrive in their new environments (Al- hibits the relocation of the listed species caraz et al. 2005). Such species are also and their introduction into the natural able to reproduce and proliferate at a fast environment. The Annex to the Regula- rate, and are often generalist in nature, tion of the Minister of the Environment i.e. not specialized in regards to their of 9 September 2011 defines plants and diet (Andrzejewska et al. 2011). Invasive animals of non-native species that could species not only colonize the habitats of pose a threat to native species or natural native species and outcompete them, but habitats if released into the natural envi- also disrupt food cycles. Invasive species ronment. This list includes the following of animals are certain or likely to eventu- species of birds: the Canada Goose ally affect the fauna and flora of a given (Branta canadensis), the Egyptian Goose ecosystem through competition for food (Alopochen aegyptiacus), and the Ruddy or nesting, predation, ecosystem altera- Duck (Oxyura jamaicensis). Fifty-two tion, and transmission of disease. They species of plants and animals are listed in may also spawn interspecific crossings total. At the EU level, the relevant legal (Gurevitch and Padilla 2004). According act currently in force is the Regulation to Caughley and Gunn (1996), invasive (EU) 1143/2014 on the prevention and species are responsible for 40% of animal management of the introduction and and plant species extinctions. spread of invasive alien species. 3 August There is also another definition of 2016 saw the entry into force of Com- invasive species used within ornitho- mission Implementing Regulation (EU) logy. Within the scope of this second 2016/1141 adopting a list of invasive definition, invasive species are ones that alien species of Union concern pursu- appear periodically in large numbers in ant to Regulation (EU) 1143/2014. The areas where they are naturally absent implementing regulation lists 37 species or scarce. This phenomenon is referred of invasive non-native birds, including to as irruption (Jędrzejewski 2000). the African Sacred Ibis (Threskiornis It is usually associated with species- aethiopicus), the Ruddy Duck, and the -specific population fluctuations, e.g. House Crow (Corvus splendens). The within migration pathways. At irregular Committee on invasive alien species intervals, larger groups of individuals has accepted a proposal to extend the begin to migrate in search of food, usu- list and include 12 additional species of ally when the food is in short supply and plants and animals of European Union lacks variety (Newton 2006). concern, such as the Egyptian Goose. The amended list is valid as of 2 August LEGISLATION 2017. Of note is the inclusion of the Ruddy Duck and the Egyptian Goose in There are two principal pieces of leg- both of these legal acts. islation concerning invasive species in Poland, and their scope includes REVIEW OF SPECIES invasive species of birds. At the national level the issue is regulated by Art. 120 of The Red Crossbill (Loxia curvirostra) the Nature Conservation Act, which pro- is one example of a species that irrupts Selected invasive species... 57 within the Polish territory. In Poland, the Egyptian Goose (described below) the Red Crossbill’s main nesting habitat in the two legal acts. The bird was intro- is the mountains, and its prevalence is duced to the UK in 1948 to be bred in correlated with the abundance of spruce captivity (Hughes 1998). Accidental seeds that the bird feeds upon. In lowland escape of captive birds has resulted in areas these birds appear sporadically, but them rapidly acclimatizing to European usually in large numbers. Newton (2008) conditions, which in turn resulted in an links this with migrations spurred by food increase of the active breeding popula- shortages. From the boreal zone, which tion (currently numbering approx. 5,000 is the main area of occurrence, the birds individuals). In the UK, the bird was first move to southwest Europe. This type of observed to breed in the wild as early as irruptive migration was observed within in 1960 (Hughes 1998). Regular broods the Kalisz region from 2002 to 2003, with were subsequently noted in Ireland, the a total of 731 individuals counted across Netherlands, France, Spain, Iceland, the months (Wilżak 2012). Other species and Sweden (Hughes et al. 2004, Drake observed to undergo irruptive migra- 2009). The presence of the invasive tions include the Bohemian Waxwing Ruddy Duck has become a threat to (Bombycilla garrulus) and the Common the White-headed Duck (Oxyura leuco- Redpoll (Acanthis flammea) (Jankowiak cephala) native to the Mediterranean, et al. 2013), both highly specialized. The mainly due to the potential hybridization Common Redpoll feeds on birch (Betula between the two species and due to com- sp.) and spruce (Picea sp.) seeds, while petition for breeding sites and food. In the Bohemian Waxwing favours rowan- order to protect the White-headed Duck, berries (Sorbus sp.). Whenever seeds or a Ruddy Duck control and eradication fruit become scarce in the birds’ breed- program was implemented in Spain, ing areas (Scandinavia and Northern Portugal, and other counties (Hughes Europe), numerous individuals proceed et al. 2004). As of yet, the Ruddy duck to migrate in search of new food sup- does not pose a material threat to other plies. Mass arrivals of the Common species of Anseriformes in Poland, as Redpoll were recorded in the North there have been only individual sight- Podlachian Lowland region from 2005 ings of the duck, and even those have to 2006 and from 2007 to 2008 (Lindén been scarce. This is not entirely the case et al. 2011) as well as in the western and with the Egyptian Goose. The first brood central-eastern parts of Poland (Bednorz of the goose in Poland was discovered et al. 2000). Bohemian Waxwing irrup- in 2007 around the Odra river, within tions were detected not only in Poland the Powiats (Counties) Raciborski and but in other European countries as well, Wodzisławski. The geese in question including Germany, Switzerland (Posse had escaped from a mini zoo. Betleja and Volet 2005) and the Czech Republic and Rojek (Komisja Faunistyczna 2009) (Schröpfer et al. 2010). have already recorded three pairs and The Ruddy Duck is a duck species their offspring in the ponds of Upper native to North America. Of note is the Silesia in 2008. The natural range of the inclusion of both the Ruddy Duck and Egyptian Goose is the majority of Africa. 58 M. Łukasiewicz et al.

A free-roaming population of the goose goose came to be adopted as a game bird. has persisted in the UK for 200 years, This tradition has also spread to other descended from birds which escaped countries, including Germany, Norway, from private breeders (Holloway 1996). Finland, and Denmark. However, in spite A similar scenario occurred in the Nether- of the hunting, deliberate introductions lands, where the population of the and escapes from breeding farms and Ruddy Duck has reached over 10,000 as zoos have led to the rapid increase in the a result of uncontrolled escapes (Arens number of Canada Geese in the wild. At and Rebling 2007). More than 2,600 present, the largest number of free-living pairs also regularly nest in Germany. individuals is found in Sweden. Accord- This group partially consists of birds ing to Nilsson (2006), the population that migrated from the Netherlands, and was calculated to be 43,000 specimens in some of them have also escaped from 2005. Populations in the UK and Sweden German breeding farms. There is also are among the largest and constitute the a significant population in Belgium, major foci from which the species has numbering at approx. 1,000 individuals spread across Europe (the two European (Bauer and Woog 2008). Broods have populations are considered to be com- also been found in many other countries, pletely separate from each other). It is such as Switzerland, Denmark, France believed that the populations living in and Sweden. The main threats resulting Scandinavia (mainly in Sweden) gave from an invasion of this species are its rise to populations in Poland by way of potential to hybridize with other Anseri- migration. The Polish populations also formes (Banks et al. 2008a), its strong include escapees from zoos and orna- territoriality and aggressive behavior mental bird breeding farms. The species towards native species (Pieterse and has not been intentionally introduced to Tamis 2005), and its status as a potential Poland. The first Polish observations of vector of the avian influenza virus (Gyi- the Canada Goose date back to 1935. The mesi and Lensink 2010). geese have been found to annually winter The Canada Goose is another invasive in the waters of the Elbląg Bay. However, species of avifauna. Its assorted sub- the species has been mostly encountered species inhabit a multitude of different at the Gdańsk Bay and in the vicinity of regions of North America (Fabricius and Włocławek. The brooding female and Norgren 1987). The United Kingdom assisting male were detected in Gdańsk – was the first country to introduce the – Oliwa in 2004, however the nest was Canada Goose in Europe, doing so as destroyed by predator (Sikora et al. 2007) early as 1665. The species was initially The first brood was confirmed in Gdańsk introduced to royal gardens and parks in 2005, and the number of breeding as an ornamental bird (Kirby 1999). It birds increased in 2007 (Głowaciński is continually bred for this purpose to and Solarz 2011). A 2008 brood observed this day. The birds have been increas- around Lake Somińskie was unusual in ingly encountered in the wild throughout that it is thought to have been a result of the years. The species was introduced crossbreeding with the native Greylag to Sweden for a similar reason but the Goose (Anser anser). This may be indic- Selected invasive species... 59 ative of one of the dangers that the rising originally endemic to the Amur basin, population of the Canada Goose poses in Japan, Manchuria, and eastern China. Poland. The Canada Goose in considered It has been bred in Europe since the to be one of the 100 most dangerous non- 18th century as an ornamental species, -native species in Europe. It, alongside while free-living escapees are considered the Greylag Goose and the Snow Goose to be an invasive species. At present, (Anser caerulescens), has been observed little is known about the impact of intro- to engage in interspecific brood parasit- ducing Mandarins on native species and ism (Kampe-Persson and Lerner 2007), their habitats. Escaped Mandarins have which involves laying eggs in the nests been observed to destroy nests and eggs of other goose species. The hatchlings of other bird species, and further research recognize the foster parent as a member would be beneficial to determine the of their own species. It is very likely that impact of Mandarin Ducks artificially such birds will interbreed upon reach- introduced into the environment on the ing maturity, creating hybrids. Greylag native species and their habitats (Blair et Goose × Barnacle Goose hybrids are al 2000, Banks et al. 2008b, van Kleunen commonly found in Germany (Gebhardt and Lemaire 2014). The Mandarin is con- 1996) and Sweden (Söderholm 2005). sidered to be a protected species under Apart from the aforementioned spe- the International Union for Conservation cies, which are included in the national of Nature Red List of Threatened Spe- law, also worth mentioning are the cies, but only under the LC designation potentially invasive non-native species. (“least concern”). This designation refers to species that are There are many barriers to interspe- currently unable to function and multiply cific hybridization in the wild, which without human intervention, but whose encompass both pre- and post-zygotic populations may spike drastically given barriers. These include geographical, suitable conditions (such as the progres- ecological, and behavioral barriers, as sive warming of Poland’s climate). An well as anatomical barriers that prevent example is Mandarin Duck (Aix galeri- the egg cell of the female of one species culata), an escapee from private breeding from binding with the sperm of a male farms and zoos. A fairly numerous group from another species (Prager and Wilson of these birds has established itself in 1975). The Mandarin Duck is consid- the Łazienki Park in Warsaw. Tomiałojć ered to be the only duck species unable and Stawarczyk (2003) report that the to crossbreed with other species belong- first broods were recorded in the Park in ing to the Anatidae family. Hypotheses 2001, and the birds make new breeding to explain this fact are predominantly attempts annually, with varying results. centered around the different chromo- As of yet, the birds cannot be considered some numbers between different species to have fully adapted to the environmen- of the family. However, research to date tal conditions, as account must be made indicates that hybridization between for humans feeding the birds and other individuals with different chromosome factors. The Mandarin Duck is a species counts can occur. The Indian Muntjac of bird belonging to the Anatidae family, (Muntiacus muntjak), whose diploid 60 M. Łukasiewicz et al. chromosome number is 7 (the lowest NADH: Ubiquinone Oxidoreductase value currently recorded in mammals), Core Subunit 2) (Liu et al. 2014), and hybridizes readily with the Chinese the complete sequence of the mitochon- Muntjac (Muntjacus reevesi) despite the drial DNA (Liu et al. 2014, Zhang et al. latter’s diploid chromosome count of 2017). These studies have also indicated 2n = 46. Therefore, in light of current that the Mandarin Duck and the Mallard knowledge about the molecular mecha- (Anas platyrhynchos) fall into separate nisms of Mandarin Duck hybridization, phylogenetic clades and are separated it can be safely assumed that this species by several phylogenetic nodes, the does crossbreed with other members of exact number of which depends on the the Anatidae family, though very rarely. sequences analyzed and the method of In addition, the Mandarin’s capacity to phylogenetic tree construction (Sraml et hybridize has been confirmed by the al. 1996, Donne-Goussé et al. 2002, Jin results of crosses carried out by some et al. 2012, Liu et al. 2014, Zhang et al. scientific teams, including Ackermann 2017). The different phylogenetic posi- 1898, Gray 1958, Hopkinson 1926, tion of the two species may contribute to Leverkühn 1890, Prestwich 1960, Salva- them being unable to hybridize (Donne- dori 1895, all of which crossed a female -Goussé et al. 2002). Mallard with a male Mandarin Duck Also indicative of the considerable (McCarthy 2006). Members of this spe- evolutionary distance between the two cies are able to crossbreed with four other species are the results of the research species of ducks in captivity, while in the conducted by Prager and Wilson (1975) UK the Mandarin seems to be dominant that compared the immunological dis- over the closely related Carolina Duck tance (i.e. the measure of the degree of (Aix sponsa). However, hybridization reactions between antigens and antibod- of these two species has seldom been ies, used to determine the evolutionary recorded (Blair et al. 2000). Previous distance between the two studied groups studies employing phylogenetic analy- of animals) between different bird spe- sis have shown that the Mandarin and cies. These studies have shown that the Muscovy Duck (Cairina moschata) the albumin immunological distance belong to a single phylogenetic clade. between the Mallard and the Mandarin As such, they may exhibit considerable Duck is 8 units, while the transferrin genetic similarity and possess the capac- immunological distance is 16. When ity to hybridize. Membership to the same comparing the Mallard and the Muscovy clade has been demonstrated on the basis Duck, the values were 9 and 21 for albu- of multiple sequence analyses, includ- min and transferrin, respectively. ing: an analysis of a region of mtDNA There are also recorded attempts spanning a region of cytochrome b to create a Mandarin Duck × Mallard (Sraml et al. 1996), of the D-loop region hybrid in Poland, however, no informa- (Donne-Goussé et al. 2002), the COI tion is available on whether this venture gene also present in the mitochondrial was successful (Banks et al. 2008b). genetic material (Jin et al. 2012), the Another exotic species increasingly ND2 gene (Mitochondrially Encoded being encountered in the wild is the Rose- Selected invasive species... 61

-ringed Parakeet (Psittacula krameri). tious and subject to a certain measure While this species is rare in Poland, the of uncertainty, as others have reported number of Rose-ringed Parakeet sight- that the first recorded brood originated ings has been increasing year-to-year. in 1996 (Butler 2003). The introduction The bird is most commonly encountered of the Parakeet was spurred in some part along the western border of Poland, but by the interest from zoo owners, but individual specimens have also been the most significant driver was private found at the Świętokrzyskie Mountains owners eager to keep the exotic animal (Wachecki and Lewczuk 2013). Addi- as a pet. The Green Parakeet proved to tionally, in January 2016 five individuals be very intelligent, easily domesticated, were identified around the Gałczyński able to perform various tricks and imitate district in Nysa – something of a curi- single words. Black market activity and osity to the Polish avifaunistic commis- inattention on the part of the owners led sion. So far, the relatively cold climate to the uncontrolled escape of the birds to of Poland has been a significant factor in the environment and subsequent rapid limiting population growth. Consequent- adaptation. Invasive species are a sub- ly, while the birds are capable of surviv- ject of research across multiple Euro- ing the winter, they fail to breed due to pean countries. One such study aimed to the longer length of the cold season. determine the relationship between the That is not the case in other European Parakeet and the breeding population of countries. Butler (2003) reports that the the Eurasian Nuthatch (Sitta europaea) in Rose-ringed Parakeet has been found in Belgium (Strubbe and Matthysen 2007). 24 countries, though the size of the popu- The study showed that the non-native lation differs from case to case. In some species negatively impacts the Nuthatch countries only individual (and in many population by limiting the number of cases non-breeding) specimens (e.g. in available nesting sites – both the Rose- Romania and Bulgaria), while in other -ringed Parakeet and the Eurasian Nut- countries populations of over 10,000 hatch favor large diameter tree cavities, have been found. The largest European which are usually made by woodpeckers. populations have been found in the UK The conflict emerges during nest selec- – more than 30,000 individuals, Ger- tion. The Parakeet proceeds to search many – more than 10,960 individuals, for a breeding location in early February Belgium – approx. 10,800 individuals, and claims most of the available cavities and in the Netherlands – approx. 10,100 early. The Nuthatch begins the search individuals. In addition, the bird occurs between March and April. in fairly large numbers in Greece, Spain, Another study, conducted by Czajka Italy, France, bringing the total popula- et al. (2011), showed no negative impact tion count in Europe to 90,000 (Pârâu et of the Parakeet on the breeding popula- al. 2016). It is also interesting to note that tion of the Common Starling (Strunus some authors offer 1885 as the date of the vulgaris) within Germany. The findings first instance of Rose-ringed Parakeets indicated that the species have different breeding in the wild in Britain (Braun nesting preferences. Parrots choose cavi- and Wink 2013). This issue is conten- ties located on higher parts of trees and 62 M. Łukasiewicz et al. favor older trees with large trunk dia- inattention causes species that may pose meters. The Starling, in contrast, prefers a threat to the local avifauna to escape small cavities with narrow entrances, into the environment. For this reason, it located at the lower parts of young trees. is crucial that we possess a tool that will Similarly, the Belgian team’s observa- allow us to understand and control these tions of the Rose-ringed Parakeet’s phenomena. Keeping track of the wildlife bilateral relationships with the European is critical to the effectiveness of any and Green Woodpecker (Picus viridis) and the all conservation measures. Additionally, Great Spotted Woodpecker (Dendrocopos a solid understanding of ecological pro- major) (Strubbe and Matthysen 2007) cesses is an indispensable in terms of pre- failed to indicate any negative impact dicting the effects of political actions. of the Parakeet’s presence on the breed- When invasive species are concerned, ing success of the two woodpecker spe- educating the society on the impact of cies. Despite the Parakeets claiming the invasive on the local avifauna is well- available nesting sites earlier on (mainly -warranted. Such educational measures cavities made by the two species of wood- should contribute to better security in peckers), the woodpeckers bred at the aviaries and fowl yards where captive species-typical time. Whenever there was bird species are kept. Monitoring is one a shortage of cavities, the woodpeckers of the main methods through which the excavated new ones. However, refering ecological relationships between native to Reuven et al. (2016) Rose-ringed Pare- species and invasive/potentially invasive keet had a negative impact on indigenous species can be more effectively under- Eurasian Hoopoe (Upupa epops) due to stood. Monitoring may be understood as its aggressive behavior during takeover one of the essential prerequisites for the of cavities. Another study focused on the implementation of biological resource Greater Noctule Bat (Nyctalus lasiopter- management strategies. The entire deci- us), whose small population occupied the sion-making process for nature conser- tree cavities in a park in Seville (Spain) vation is based on information obtained during its breeding season (Hernández- from monitoring activities (species, -Brito et al. 2014). The study established behavior, habitat types, etc.). The con- that the Rose-ringed Parakeet completely cept of monitoring is currently under- dominated the bat population, displacing going a shift. Beforehand, past occur- it from the cavities and thus necessitating rences in a given system (e.g. population a marked relocation of the bat’s nesting growth or decline) were the focal point sites. – currently, the focus is placed on pre- dicting future developments and analyz- SUMMARY ing the obtained data with the target state in mind. 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Authors’ address: Arkadiusz Matuszewski Katedra Szczegółowej Hodowli Zwierząt Wydział Nauk o Zwierzętach Szkoła Główna Gospodarstwa Wiejskiego w Warszawie ul. Ciszewskiego 8, 02-786 Warszawa Poland e-mail: [email protected] Annals of Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW Animal Science No 57 (1), 2018: 67–75 (Ann. Warsaw Univ. of Life Sci. – SGGW, Anim. Sci. 57 (1), 2018) DOI 10.22630/AAS.2018.57.1.6

Comparison of recording results of purebred and crossbred Limousine cattle in Poland

TOMASZ PRZYSUCHA, MARCIN GOŁĘBIEWSKI, KAROLINA WNĘK, JAN SLÓSARZ, MAŁGORZATA KUNOWSKA-SLÓSARZ, MAREK BALCERAK Faculty of Animal Science, Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW

Abstract: Comparison of recording results of INTRODUCTION purebred and crossbred Limousine cattle in Poland. The aim of the study was to compare In Poland, there are currently 14 regis- purebred and crossbred Limousine cattle in re- tered beef breeds which are recorded spect to their compliance with the breeding goals and evaluated in terms of their breeding and standards adopted by the Polish Associa- value. Herd books and records are kept tion of Breeders and Producers of Beef Cattle by the Polish Association of Breeders (PABPBC). The study was based on data for the and Producers of Beef Cattle (PABPBC). years 2002–2015 from the PABPBC and for the The PABPBC breeding goals for the years 1996–2001 from the National Center of Animal Breeding (NCAB). The properties that Limousine breed are maintaining high were evaluated were the average weight of cows slaughter parameters, good weight, and (kg), average body weight of calves after birth easy calving courses as well as maintain- (kg), average daily weight gain of calves from ing and improving the daily weight gain birth to 210 days (g), average body weight of of calves as an indicator of maternal calves at 210 days (kg) and average milk yield milk production. The goal for adult cows of cows (kg). The average body weight of cows is a body weight of 600–650 kg with did not differ from the breeding goal for either a height of 135 cm to the sacrum, and for purebred or crossbred Limousine cows. Purebred bulls – a body weight of 1,100 kg with cows were always heavier than crossbred cows, a height of 145 cm to the sacrum. In the but the weight difference was almost 100 kg in 1999 and in 2006, only 20 kg. Body weight after national breeding program for Limousine birth for purebred and crossbred bull calves was cattle, the breeding standards entered in comparable. Purebred Limousine calves consi- the introductory part of the book include stently had higher daily weight gain than cross- the following: the minimum weight gain bred calves. The average milk yield of pure- from birth to 210th day of life should be bred and crossbred Limousine cows was about 850 g, and the minimum weight after 2,000 kg, and did not change signiﬁ cantly in any the first calving should be 480 kg. The year. share of purebred and crossbred Lim- ousine cattle in the national beef cattle Key words: beef cattle, Limousine, beef cattle re- population is dominant and in 2013 cording constituted 81.2%. The aim of this study 68 T. Przysucha et al. is to compare selected recorded results MCU – birth body weight, measured of purebred and crossbred Limousine within 48 h post-partum (kg); cattle with respect to their compliance to WW – average age of the animal when the breeding goals and standards adopted weighed (days); by the PABPBC. WS – standardized age of the animal.

MATERIAL AND METHODS The average daily weight gain of the animal from birth to 210th day of life Recorded results for purebred and cross- was calculated according to the formula: bred Limousine cattle in Poland were analyzed in this study. A comparison in PDMC = (MCC – MCP) × 1,000 / respect to their compliance to the breed- / (WK – WP) ing goals and standards adopted by the PABPBC was made. The study was based where: on data for the years 2002–2015 from the PDMC – increase in daily body weight (g); PABPBC and for the years 1996–2001 MCC – final body weight of the animal from the National Center of Animal on the weighing day (kg); Breeding (NCAB). The data set included: MCP – initial body weight of the ani- N – number of animals tested, min – minimal on the weighing day (kg); mum values of the studied traits, max WK – age of the animal on the final – maximum values of the studied traits, weighing day (days); AVG – average values of the studied traits, WP – age of the animal on the initial SD – standard deviation. The studied traits weighing day (days). were weight of cows (kg), body weight of calves after birth (kg), daily weight gain Milk yield in beef cows is expressed from birth to 210th day of life (g), body in kg of milk in conversion to calf’s body weight of calves at 210th day of life (kg), weight, according the formula: milk yield (kg), the annual distribution of calving of cows and heifers, the distribu- WMM210 = McOds × 1,700 / calf age tion of the population according to the lactation number. where: The standardized animal body weight WMM210 – amount of milk which for a given day in an animal’s life was was used during the 210- calculated according to the following -day lactation by calf of formula: the initial birth weight of 35 kg, which consumed MCS = [(MCB – MCU) / WW] × WS + 10 kg milk daily during the + MCU first 3 months, and 8–9 kg where: during 4–8 months; MCS – standardized animal body weight McOds – actual weight of the calf at (kg); weaning (kg); MCB – average body weight of the ani- calf age – actual age of the calf at the mal on the weighing day (kg); time of weaning (days). Comparison of recording results... 69

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Limousine cows should be 600–650 kg. According to breeding standards, the The average body weight of purebred minimum weight after the first calving and crossbred cows is shown in Figure 1. is 480 kg. The optimum weight of a cow depends The results given in Figure 1 show that mainly on the cattle production system the average body weight of cows did not (Fitzhugh 1978, Nogalski et al. 2000, differ from the breeding goal for either MacNeil 2003, Funston and Deutscher purebred or crossbred Limousine cows. 2004, Drennan 2008). The genotype and Purebred cows were always heavier than weight of mother cows are always given crossbred cows, but the weight differ- as two of many factors responsible for ence was almost 100 kg in 1999 and only the normal growth and development of 20 kg in 2006. calves. Many studies have shown that Figures 2 and 3 present the average the weight of the cow has a significant body weight of purebred and crossbred impact on calf birth weight, as well as calves after birth. Many authors have calves’ daily weight gain during rearing shown that calf body weight at birth has (Przysucha et al. 2002). Therefore, the a significant effect on calf body weight weight of a cow in adulthood is an impor- at weaning at the age of 210 days. Calves tant aspect to be considered in breeding with the highest body weight at birth also programs (Funston and Deutscher 2004). typically have the highest body weight at According to the breeding goal given by the end of rearing (Przysucha et al. 2002, the PABPBC, the body weight of adult Przysucha et al. 2005). Nogalski et al.

1999–2004: all cows; 2005–2006: cows after the ﬁ rst calving. FIGURE 1. Average cow body weight (kg) 70 T. Przysucha et al.

FIGURE 2. Average calf body weight at birth – heifer calves (kg)

FIGURE 3. Average calf body weight at birth – bull calves (kg)

(2000) reported a greater mortal rate of was about 1.5 kg. The body weight after small, less vital calves. They also noticed birth of purebred and crossbred bull that the mothers of dead calves had been calves was comparable. Bull calves, significantly lighter and in worse condi- shown in Figure 3, were about 2–3 kg tion during pregnancy, and consequently heavier than heifer calves in both popu- created worse conditions for the develop- lations. The significant effect of calf sex ment of the fetus, and were less prepared on birth weight is broadly described and to make effort in delivery. proved by many authors. Differences Figure 2 shows that since 2007, cross- in the body weight of bulls and heifers bred heifers were heavier than purebred have been found to be between 1 and ones. In 2015, the difference in weight 5 kg, depending on the study (Bellows et Comparison of recording results... 71 al. 1987, Ríha et al. 2001, Jakubec et al. The presented data show that the calves 2003, Choroszy et al. 2011). had high body weight gain during rear- The average daily weight gain of pure- ing: 900–1,010 g respectively for heif- bred and crossbred calves up to the age ers and 970–1,100 g for bulls. Purebred of 210 days is shown in Figures 4 and Limousine calves consistently had higher 5. It should be emphasized that the aver- daily weight gain than crossbred calves. age daily weight gain of calves increased It should be noted that Figure 5 shows considerably in the last years of analysis. that since 2002, bulls exceeded a daily

FIGURE 4. Average daily weight gain from birth up to the age of 210 days – heifer calves (g)

FIGURE 5. Average daily weight gain from birth up to the age of 210 days – bull calves (g) 72 T. Przysucha et al. weight gain of 1,000 g. This amount the breeding standards is considerably of weight gain means that after a short higher for bull calves than heifer calves. period (about 1 month) of supplemen- This is to ensure that after weaning, with tary fattening, bulls with a body weight proper nutrition, bull calves obtain the of approx. 300 kg previously eliminated required body weight for mating at the age from breeding can be sold for export at of 15 months (Przysucha et al. 2002). In a good price. The weight gain set out in Poland calves’ mortality is significantly

FIGURE 6. Average body weight of heifer calves at the age of 210 days (kg)

FIGURE 7. Average body weight of bull calves at the age of 210 days (kg) Comparison of recording results... 73 lower than in France. Limousine calves same age in both purebred and crossbred are also characterized by rapid growth populations. and development, and vitality (Przysucha The milk yield of suckler cows is one et al. 2002). In a study by Pogorzelska et of the most important factors affecting al. (1998), the daily weight gain of Lim- the growth rate of calf weaning weight. ousine bull calves from birth to weaning According to Minick et al. (2001), Quin- was more than 1,000 g, and at the age tans et al. (2010) and Cortés-Lacruz et al. of 3–4 months, these calves had a body (2017) suckler cows’ dairy performance weight of approx. 170 kg. is responsible for 60% of daily calves’ The average body weight of purebred growth during that period. Many stud- calves at the age of 210 days is presented ies indicate that the highest milk yield is in Figures 6 and 7. Body weight at this provided by Simmental cows, the aver- time was nearly always higher for pure- age milk yield by Limousine cows, and bred animals. From 2012, the weight of the lowest by Hereford (Gregory et al. purebred heifers exceeded 250 kg and 1995, Quintans et al. 2010, Silva et al. the weight of bulls exceeded 270 kg. 2015). Figure 8 shows the average milk This means that according to breed- yield of cows over the analyzed years. ing standards, body weight at weaning As can be seen, the average milk yield for both heifer and bull calves were at of purebred and crossbred Limousine a medium level. The average weight of cows were about 2,000 kg and did not bull calves was approx. 20 kg higher than change significantly in any year. In 2005 the average weight of heifer calves of the the significant drop in milk perform-

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Streszczenie: Porównanie wyników oceny użyt- MS received 28.06.17 kowości czystorasowej i mieszańcowej populacji MS accepted 31.01.18 bydła limousine w Polsce. Celem pracy było po- równanie wybranych wyników oceny użytkowo- ści czystorasowej i mieszańcowej populacji rasy Authors’ address: limousine w odniesieniu do ich zgodności z celem Marcin Gołębiewski hodowlanym i standardami rasowymi przyjętymi Katedra Szczegółowej Hodowli Zwierząt przez Polski Związek Hodowców i Producen- Wydział Nauk o Zwierzętach tów Bydła Mięsnego (PZHiPBM). Przedmiotem Szkoła Główna Gospodarstwa Wiejskiego analiz były wyniki oceny użytkowości francu- w Warszawie skiej rasy bydła mięsnego limousine w Polsce ul. Ciszewskiego 8, 02-786 Warszawa z lat 2002–2015 i Krajowego Centrum Hodowli Poland Zwierząt z lat 1996–2001. Oceniane cechy to: e-mail: [email protected]

Annals of Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW Animal Science No 57 (1), 2018: 77–82 (Ann. Warsaw Univ. of Life Sci. – SGGW, Anim. Sci. 57 (1), 2018) DOI 10.22630/AAS.2018.57.1.7

The effect of paper substrate type used at the beginning of rearing on foot pad dermatitis (FPD) occurrence and production results of broiler chickens

KATARZYNA ZĄBEK, KATARZYNA KONEFAŁ, JUSTYNA KRYSZCZAK, IZABELA GOLAN, ALEKSANDRA KALIŃSKA, BRYGIDA KRUZIŃSKA, KRZYSZTOF DAMAZIAK, KATARZYNA BOGDAŃSKA, MONIKA MICHALCZUK Faculty of Animal Science, Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW

Abstract: The effect of paper substrate type used surface of the footpads in growing broil- at the beginning of rearing on foot pad derma- ers and turkeys. This condition not only titis (FPD) occurrence and production results of causes downgrades and condemnations broiler chickens. The objective of the study was to of saleable chicken paws, the portion estimate infl uence of different paper type as additional substrate in broiler chickens rearing on foot of the leg below the spur, but is also pad quality. Animals used in experiments were an animal welfare concern in both the 320 Ross 308 chickens divided into groups accor- United States and in Europe (Shepard ding to substrate type: control group – chickens and Fairchild 2010). Frequency of foot reared on litter with paper produced from paper pad dermatitis in broiler chickens, its pulp, and experimental group – chickens reared reasons, consequences and possibility on litter with paper produced from paper pulp of reducing foot pad dermatitis are still with cellulose addition. Production results were controlled during rearing period (in 21st, 35th, subjects of surveys (Jankowski et al. 42nd days). Foot pad quality was visually defi - 2012, Świątkiewicz et al. 2017). High ned 5 days before slaughter. Effect of substrate quality of foot pad is important accord- type used during fi rst days of life on occurrence ing to poultry welfare, production costs, of foot pad skin injuries and production results food safety and quality (Shepherd and in chicken broilers was observed. Chickens from Fairchild 2010). Researchers described experimental group achieved higher production several factors influencing FPD forma- results (higher body weight, better herd health) and foot pad dermatitis appeared less frequently. tion, e.g. watering system, season time and humidity connected with it, stocking Key words: broiler chicken, type of substrate, foot density, nutritional deficiencies and type, pad dermatitis, production results depth, humidity and pH of litter (Jones et al. 2005, Nagaraj et al. 2007, Meluzzi et INTRODUCTION al. 2008, Hashimoto et al. 2011, Michal- czuk et al. 2014). Previous studies were Foot pad dermatitis (FPD) is a condition focused on high quality of chicken paws. that causes necrotic lesions on the plantar Therefore, avoiding FPD and high level 78 K. Ząbek et al. of birds welfare should be the main goal 1 m2 of the experimental RZD – SGGW for breeders if they want to achieve (Wilanów – Obory) farm. Starting from satisfying production results. According the first day, weekly measurements were to that fact, Polish export of chicken feet made of microclimate conditions in the to Asian countries is rapidly increasing. facility the birds were reared in, includ- Last year 30,000 t were sold (doubled ing: in-house temperature, air relative amount according to data from 2009) humidity and concentration of gases and our main recipient is Hong Kong. (CO2, NH3 and H2S). The chickens were Then chicken feet are sent to China, reared until the age of 42 days, and fed Vietnam, Thailand, Korea, Malaysia and in a three-period according to recom- Philippines. mendations of the Aviagen company Types of litter for growing broilers (starter 1–21 day, grower 22–35 day, and available in the market have different finisher 36–42 day). Table 2 presents the structure, absorbency and hygienic qual- nutritive value of feed used in the study. ity. In Poland straw, chips and sawdust One day old chickens were individually are the most common litters. Paper addi- weighted. Body weight, feed intake, mor- tion at the beginning of rearing ensures tality and culling level were provided in extra feed source for chickens, but also 21st, 35th, 42nd day. Obtained data was stimulates faster feeding and shortens used to calculate feed conversion ratio time from hatching to first feeding. This (FCR, kg/kg), level of animal culling and process is crucial for proper digestive mortality. Foot pad quality was visually system functioning and has significant defined 5 days before slaughter according effect for further production results. to five-steps scale (Butterworth 2009). Using paper substrate as additional Foot pads were assigned, according to litter in broiler chickens is a common five-steps scale (0–4), where 0 is foot practical solution, therefore the aim of pad with no damage and 4 is foot pad the study was to evaluate effect of sub- with damages leading to deformations. strate composition on incidence of FPD Figure 1 presents characteristic stages of and production results. foot pad dermatitis. Obtained results were analyzed statis- MATERIAL AND METHODS tically using Student’s test distribution for independent samples by means of the Ross 308 chickens were used in conduct- SPSS 21 software. ed experiment. During the 1st rearing period (till 5th day) chickens were kept on paper substrate placed on wheat straw TABLE 1. Comparison of grey and green paper litter. Control group (C) was kept on properties paper pulp (grey paper) and experimen- Specification Green paper Grey paper tal group (E) was reared on paper pulp Weight (g/m2) 43.6 40 with cellulose addition (green paper). Humidity (%) 4.2 > 5 Properties of green and grey paper are presented in Table 1. In both groups, Water absorbance (%) 13.2 30 stock density in a pen reached 11 birds per Stretching force (N/m) 343 200 The effect of paper substrate type... 79

TABLE 2. Composition and nutritional value of feeding by type of feed

Feed composition (%) Specification Starter Grower Finisher Wheat 34 45 44 Maize 23 17.20 20 Soybean meal (46) 31 29 26.2 Wheat bran 1.0 – – Soybean oil 3.5 5.0 5.20 Limestone Ca39 1.4 0.60 0.2 Premix 6.0 4.0 4.0 Nutritional value ME (MJ/kg) 12.70 13.15 13.40 Crude protein (%) 22.00 19.50 18.40 Crude fiber (%) 3.10 3.90 3.80 Crude fat (%) 4.10 4.90 5.50 Crude ash (%) 5.20 5.00 4.30

FIGURE 1. Foot pad damages in chicken broilers ranked in ﬁ ve-steps scale (0–4) used in the experiment

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION had green paper (with cellulose addition) on wheat straw litter. Obtained results suggest that paper Rearing environment (litter type in used in experimental group had higher first days of rearing) did not influence quality and was better additional feed value of FCR. However, quality of litter source for chickens at the beginning type had influence on broilers mortality of rearing and also influenced higher and culling levels (Table 3). production results at the end of rearing. Chickens from control group reared At the end of rearing period broiler with grey paper on wheat straw litter had chickens from experimental group the worst condition of foot pad. Share achieved higher (P < 0.001) average of 25% of these chickens were ranked body weight (2,670 g) than birds from with 3 (23%) and 4 (2%). None of them control group (2,299 g) – Figure 2. was classified as 0 (Table 4). Almost half Culling and mortality rates were lower of chickens from experimental group in group that during 1st rearing period (48%) were ranked with the lowest foot 80 K. Ząbek et al.

FIGURE 2. Effects of used different paper substrate on body weight of broiler chickens (g)

TABLE 3. Performance of broiler chickens analysis showed that litter type effects FCR Mortality Culling on foot pad quality. The best litter type, Group (kg/kg) (%) (%) according to foot pad quality, was door C 1.74 1.87 3.75 filler and mortar sand, the worst were E 1.73 1.25 2.50 pine shavings, chipped pine and chopped straw. Higher quality of paper used in experimental group at the beginning TABLE 4. The incidence of foot pad damages in ﬁ ve-steps scale (%) of rearing influenced higher final body weight and better herd health. Feed Group Scoring placed on the better quality paper and 01234 C 0 17 58 23 2 improved locomotion of chickens from E 6 48 42 4 0 this group most likely had direct influence on easier access to feed and higher feed intake during the most important pad damage step and 6% did not struggle and crucial days for further growth. with FPD problem. Litter quality, including its tempera- Deep litter is the most common main- ture, effects on farm zoohygienic condi- tenance system in Poland. Type and qual- tions during first days of life, Berg and ity of used litter is an important issue. Algers (2004) analysis points out that Paper can be used as additional substrate floor heating system positively influ- at the beginning of rearing because of ences foot pad quality. Stocking density its effects on production results and foot is one of the most crucial rearing factors pad quality. effecting production results and foot Bilgili et al. (2009) suggest that usage pad quality. Sirri et al. (2007) showed of different litter type does not influ- that decreased stocking density under ence production results. However, their 30 kg of live weight per 1 m2 allowed The effect of paper substrate type... 81 to achieve improvement in production ages ranked as rate 3 and 4 were less results and foot pad dermatitis score. frequent in experimental group in which Foot pad dermatitis causes injuries in paper with cellulose was used. foot pad that results in inflammation in It is important to consider further that area. This disease occurs in chicken studies, because foot pads were assessed broiler but also in turkeys. Studies car- only during the last week of rearing. ried out by Mayne et al. (2007) showed The positive effect of paper with cellu- that turkeys maintained on wet litter had lose addition should be verified also in lower body weight and felt walking dis- combination with other litter types than comfort. After 15 days from transferring wheat straw. on dry litter symptoms of FPD almost disappeared. 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Annals of Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW Animal Science

ISSN 1898-8830 No 57 (1) 1898 8830 2018