CONCEPTUAL PAPER
The EU’s Internal and External Responses to the European Immigration Crisis
Joshua Salazar[1]
Abstract
Over the past two decades, millions of immigrants have begun to seek refuge within the European Union due to its open economy, stable job market, and security. This paper will help readers better understand the motives behind the current “European Immigration Crisis.” It highlights EU legislation and systems that have been proposed or have been put into effect throughout the 20th and 21st centuries, and their effectiveness. In particular, it examines the Commission’s efforts as well as individual member states’ responses within the Council and to the Commission. There have been growing internal concerns regarding the ongoing crisis, which many believe may be threatening the EU’s stability and identity. As a result, some member states have responded with reluctance to aid crisis relief efforts. Nonetheless progress has continued and various political shifts have occurred within the EU. For these reasons, the Commission and member states have begun to reassess their roles and put the European immigration crisis at the top of their agendas. This opens up entirely new prospects, raises new questions, and presents new efforts towards the preservation, protection, and promotion of global integration, cooperation, and unity.
Keywords
European Commission; European Council; member states; immigration; immigrant.
[1] Department of Global Studies, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA, USA. Corresponding author: [email protected].
© 2017 Joshua Salazar. Some rights reserved, licensed under CC BY 4.0
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1. Introduction More recently, the ongoing social, political, and economic instability of countries such as For most of the 20th century the Afghanistan, Eritrea, and Syria has European Union’s (EU) dialogue displaced countless individuals—dawning surrounding migration was largely focused the European immigration crisis. This then on internal migration as a spillover from the prompts the questions: how have the EU and implementation of the single market. The member states responded to the continuing implementation of a single currency pressed waves of immigrants entering EU territories EU leaders to further their attempts at and how have their relationships and creating a more unified union, market, and responses changed in regards to the crisis economy; therefore, the presence of internal over the past decade? Some member states EU borders had to be addressed. The have outwardly expressed, and realized, that Schengen project was without a doubt an they are ill-equipped financially, attempt to better support the single market; institutionally, and militarily to handle the thus, erasing all internal border controls in immigration crisis. Thus, this has led many EU member states signaled both a shift of to respond to the crisis with persistent consciousness and a new harmonization of reluctance. This paper will closely examine immigration policies. and argue that the EU Commission has A different type of migration taken on a more central role in addressing manifested as refugees began travelling this crisis by assisting member states with across EU borders towards the end of the the handling of immigrants and by becoming 20th century—external and non EU-member more adept at exercising its powers. And at state migration. However, this external the same time, it has become more vocal migration flow did not start to become a with member states in order to harmonize major topic of concern until the 1990s. The immigration and asylum policies at the Fall of Communism in 1989 unleashed both European level with the hopes of alleviating sharp tensions and a large influx of refugees this global humanitarian crisis and saving from Eastern European countries, thus countless innocent lives. In addition, it will serving as the cornerstone for immigration highlight the magnitude of the crisis which and policy reform in the EU. However, it is acted as the catalyst for legislative and worth mentioning that the failure of administrative reforms. Communism and the breakup of former Yugoslavia, yielded an unleashing of immigrants, various internal conflicts and 2. Examining the European Immigrant wars spanning through the turn of the Crisis century. 2.1 Asylum Seekers Before delving into the current seeking the protection in another. In other migration crisis, it is important to briefly words, asylum seekers can refer to highlight the history of mass migrations and individuals who have left their home country asylum-seeking migrations into the as political refugees hoping to seek the European Union. Asylum seekers refer to protection of another country. After the Fall individuals who have left their home country of Communism and the subsequent breakup as political refugees with the hopes of of the former Yugoslav Federation and the
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Kosovo wars in the 1990s, Europe began to two decades ago, then the EU’s stability face one of the largest immigration influxes would be much more at risk as a result of since World War II. Research by Eurostat today’s crisis. notes that in 2001, the European Union (EU) was handed 424,180 asylum applications as 2.2 Syrian Case Study a result of the Yugoslav conflicts (Eurostat, 2015). According to the European Immigrants yearning to be accepted Commission, the onset of the post in the EU often face much oppression in Communism crisis led 627,000 people to their home country—including seek asylum in 1992 and 425,000 disenfranchisement from political affairs or individuals to seek asylum within the EU in obstacles in labor mobility. Christopher 2001 (European Commission on Migration Kozak (Kozak, 2015) notes how countless and Home Affairs, 2017a). Moreover, Syrian refugees are caught in the midst of a Eurostat adds that the number of asylum civil war, and they have fallen victims to applications would only further decline to Syrian president, Bashar al-Assad's, 225,150 in 2008 (Eurostat, 2017a). It would “airstrikes and barrel bombs” due to his not be for another 11 more years after the ongoing efforts to have his army in ‘all Yugoslav migration that the EU saw another corners.’ Henceforth, the continuous strife in asylum-seeking immigration wave of that countries such as Syria has yielded massive size. migration, caused migrants to lack proper Theodora Dragostinova and other documentation, and has led many to seek scholars have widely debated this asylum in the EU. According to FRONTEX, contemporary discourse—i.e., the influx of in 2014, from Syria alone, the EU received European immigration—coining it as the over 120,000 asylum applications, and “European migration crisis” (Dragostinova, 79,169 immigrants from Syria were detected 2016). From 2013 to 2014, Eurostat reports at various EU border crossing points that Europe saw an approximate 50% (FRONTEX, 2015: 18). Eurostat also increase of asylum seekers—from 430,000 released a press statement highlighting that, to 630,000, and over a 100% increase in EU in 2016, they granted protection status to asylum seekers from 2014 to 2015—from over 400,000 Syrians, or approximately 57% 630,000 to 1.3 million (Eurostat, 2017a). of the total, resettled, 710,400 asylum More recently, Eurostat announced that in seekers (Eurostat, 2017c: 1). Although many 2016 the number of asylum seekers slightly immigrants remain stuck at border camps, at dropped to 1.2 million (Eurostat, 2017b: 1- sea, or holding centers, these statistics 2). These trends reflect the rising tensions underscore both the EU’s increased efforts and the sheer reality of this grave enigma. It to control and resettle the large influx of underscores the magnitude of the crisis and immigrants. the necessity to reform immigration and asylum policies, and institutions. If the 2. 3 Commission-Led Programs and Commission had not started to have an Institutions active role in regulating external migration The efforts that the EU has made in response to the European refugee crisis have had a great impact with the prolonging and saving of immigrants’ lives. Most member
Global Societies Journal Vol. 5 (2017) 88 states agree on the notion that they should rebuild and stabilize their economy, all try and save as many lives as possible. infrastructure, security, and life, thus they On 3 October 2015, in an effort to reach reduce the incentives for immigrants Italy’s southern isle of Lampedusa, wanting to leave their country and “bring approximately 500 immigrants drowned due about political change” (Fandrich, et al., to their boat capsizing. This event brought 2014: 9). There have been numerous shockwaves throughout the EU community, donations of humanitarian aid by the ultimately putting pressure on both the EU Commission and member states too. and member states to act. Sadly, this event is Numerically, the Commission boasts how only one tragedy of a plethora. Nonetheless, the EU remains at the forefront with the this event is often marked as the cornerstone highest, monetary, and humanitarian because it catalyzed member states to pledge response—donating over €5 billion to help various relief efforts within the European with “economic and stabilization assistance” Council, with the goal of trying to “bring an (European Commission on European Civil end to the conflict and . . . peace [in Protection and Humanitarian Aid Europe]” (European Council, 2015a). Operations, 2017: 1). The Commission, According to the United Nations Refugee along with many other NGOs, have created Agency, a similar tragedy took place in various recovery programs and increased April 2016 just off the coasts of Libya, humanitarian efforts in order to decrease where “as many as 500” died due to their immigration flows, thus reflecting their overcrowded boat capsizing—of which only increasing role in the crisis. The EU has 41 survived (UN Refugee Agency, 2016). In even pledged “one billion euros to . . . food the opening weeks of 2017, Lizzie Dearden programs” in order to help sustain writes that “[A]t least 226 asylum seekers . . immigrants (Open Society Foundation, . lost their lives attempting to reach Europe” 2016). Adil Çifçi, et al., assert that such due to freezing temperatures, wretched efforts rehabilitate a country's food supply, conditions, and rough seas (Dearden, 2017). finance the rebuilding of institutions, foster The International Organization for educational development, and ultimately Migration conservatively estimates that lead to the “protection of the civil 10,000 migrants have died en route to the population” (Çifçi, et al., 2011: 5). The EU via the Mediterranean Sea (International Commission notes that the EU Regional Organization for Migration, 2016). Thus, the Trust Fund, created in December 2014, is mounting tragedies taking place all through one program that has yielded “a more the Mediterranean or Aegean Sea, and on coherent, faster and integrated EU response land have begun to grasp the attention of the to the crisis (European Commission on EU Commission, member states, and the European Neighborhood Policy and global population. Enlargement Negotiations, 2016).” The Commission further argues that the 2.4 Monetary Aid European Refugee Fund has helped guarantee asylum seekers “access to Philippe Fargues and Christine consistent, fair, and effective asylum Fandrich note that much of the EU’s policies” (European Commission on financial efforts, allocated by the Migration and Home Affairs, 2017b). Commission, are designed to help war-torn Therefore, this further reflects an adamant and economically depressed countries presence to address the immigration crisis
Global Societies Journal Vol. 5 (2017) 89 and it too shows how the Commission has further underscore how it has taken on a begun to expand its efforts by creating and greater role in addressing the immigration supporting various programs to assist the crisis. These relief efforts have combatted European immigration crisis. food and shelter insecurity, saved immigrants from the treacherous waters of the Mediterranean and Aegean Sea, and 2.5 European Border and Coast Guard prolonged their lives as a whole. More Agency: FRONTEX importantly, the immigration crisis has helped to awaken the EU community, Aside from financial support, leading to the Commission’s growing Commission-led institutions—over the past competence to establish, reform, and decade—have begun to take greater control harmonize both immigration policies and on the immigration crisis by creating institutions. The Commission’s increasing security institutions and executing border initiatives to better address the immigration operations. Helena Ekelund (Ekelund, 2014: flows have helped to treat asylum seekers 99-116) explains how FRONTEX was first with respect (and not as terrorists) and to discussed and passed within the Council in support the construction of democratic October 2004 (ibid., 2014: 109). This is one institutions. In sum, these Commision-led security agency that continues to efforts underscore the Commission’s successfully monitor and manage the EU’s acquisition of a more central role in external borders. And it too, is responsible addressing immigration concerns. for alleviating immigration pressures on member states. Furthermore, Ekelund (ibid., 2014) writes that FRONTEX—under the 3. Legislative and Administrative jurisdiction entailed by the Council and Reforms Parliament—created the Rapid Border Intervention Team (RABIT) in July 2007, in 3.1 Common European Asylum System order to address security threats via special (CEAS) operations (ibid., 2014: 100). RABIT is specifically designed to quickly aid member In spite of the controversy regarding states faced with massive amounts of immigration into the EU, the creation of the immigrants at their borders. As a result, Common European Asylum System RABIT has executed numerous operations (CEAS)—that began as an official European such as Operation Triton or Operation project approximately two decades ago— Hermes. Operation Hermes coordinates acted as the cornerstone for an official missions to monitor the borders of the European legislation and system on central Mediterranean. Operation Triton’s migration, and it too further reflects the base country is in Italy, and it, like Commission’s rising role in addressing Operation Hermes, also monitors sea immigration concerns. The CEAS also borders and assists in the handling of reflects their acknowledgment of their recently-arrived immigrants through rescue responsibility to assist refugees. The operations. Commission’s establishment of the CEAS Therefore, the Commission’s was nonetheless an ethical response increasing efforts through rescue operations, prompted by the amassed and displaced legislative reform, and financial support individuals. Nevertheless, the CEAS
Global Societies Journal Vol. 5 (2017) 90 continues to help immigrants—whose life is System for asylum seekers which required at risk back in their original country— member states to examine asylum seekers because it grants them international upon their first country of arrival—also protection. Papademetriou (Papademetriou, known as the Dublin system. The Agenda 2016) states that although the CEAS has aims to strengthen common asylum policies, helped save many from returning back to improve external border management, but their own country, it is still difficult to aid also reduce the incentives for immigration. others due to the immigrants’ “lack of travel The Commission, in working with member document[ation], lack of detention facilities, states who have a dramatic population of and other factors.” Seeking asylum is the immigrants—i.e., Italy or Greece—has aspired goal among immigrants emigrating helped to alleviate their domestic pressures into the EU because many want to rebuild by relocating immigrants to other member their lives in more socially and economically states as entailed by this relocation system. stable countries—mostly northern European In order to yield equivalent redistributions, countries. With this being said, this has led the Commission notes that, “[T]hey will be the Commission to take on a more proactive based on criteria such as GDP, size of role—by seeking alternative measures—in population, unemployment rate and past order to save these immigrants’ lives and number of asylum seekers and of resettled futures. refugees” (European Commission on Migration and Home Affairs, 2015: 4). Since this system’s establishment in 3.2 European Agenda on Migration September 2015 and as of 12 May 2017, the Commission notes that they have resettled Another effort that parallels the 18,418 refugees from Italy and Greece Commission’s increasing assertions to (European Commission on Migration and address the migration crisis and further their Home Affairs, 2017c: 1). This system not European Agenda on Migration, is the only establishes a shared responsibility implementation of a so-called quota system among member states to assist relief efforts, or temporary relocation system for recently- it also reflects the Commission’s increasing arrived immigrants.2 The European efforts to take control of the crisis. However, Commission notes that relocation efforts this also shows how the Commission has not refer to the transfer of persons, in need of acted unilaterally; meaning, they have taken international protection, from one EU the interests and needs of member states into member state to another (European close consideration in order to ensure a fair Commission on Migration and Home distribution of asylum seekers. Affairs, 2016a: 1). In sum, the refugee relocation program lessens the burden of 3.3 The Return Directive and Asylum member states with high amounts of Procedures Directive immigrants because it helps relocate them to other member states in proportion to their As it was already formerly population. In May 2015 the Commission mentioned, the Commission has begun to created the EU Temporary Relocation establish a legal framework in order to recognize, resettle, protect, and or return 2 This relocation quota system is part of the European immigrants. The following paragraph shall Agenda on Migration–originally announced May of outline one directive which has helped to 2015.
Global Societies Journal Vol. 5 (2017) 91 reinstate political stability in the EU. In found to be immigrating under order to better address the amassing circumstances not protected by the CEAS, migration crisis into the EU, the they will be returned via the proceedings Commission also revised the Asylum disclosed by the Return Directive4. Although Procedures Directive in 2015. This directive this directive is a direct response to the presented major reforms because it made increasing trends of unpermitted asylum procedures more efficient and fair, immigration into the EU, it signals an and required all member states to examine increased coordination and harmonization of such applications according to harmonized, both immigration policies and concerns at high quality standards (European the European level. This directive also Commission Press Release Database, 2013). reflects none other than the Commission’s Eur-Lex explains how the Return Directive, rising role to address immigration concerns, created by the EU Commission in 2008, and this directive also shows how the outlined the “common standards and Commission has begun to push for a stricter, procedures” for the detainment and return of more supranational agenda on migration. immigrants who have attempted to bypass the EU’s legal documentation and (asylum) 3.4 Gridlock and Divisions Among EU application process (EUR-Lex, 2008)3. In Member States order to both demarcate the detention and return procedures of such immigrants, grasp Although member states have control of the crisis, and assert their power engaged in and contributed to the dialogue over immigration policy harmonization, the with the Commission to address immigrants Commission has taken measures to ensure entering the EU, as the European migration that “the implementation of the Return crisis has progressed, sharp cleavages have Directive [is coordinated] across all member also emerged between member states and states” (European Commission Press the Commission at the legislative and Release Database, 2015). However, implementation levels. Such divisions according to the Commission, the Directive between some member states and the does not “apply to those who [have] Commission converge to various degrees. appl[ied] for asylum or are in need of There has been a growing necessity to protection and fear war or persecution” catalyze a nexus among sharply divided (ibid.). This shows that the Commission has member states. The subsequent paragraphs not only recognized the necessity to assist will outline these divisions and the resentful these immigrants, but also, to take better discourse taken on by various member control of the immigrant population—siding with member states—and in doing so, they 4 have better stabilized and solidified The Return Directive was one preliminary measure immigration imbalances and procedures. On that the EU took to better establish a more united union and address the increasing migrant flows into the other hand, many immigrants dispose of the EU as a result of increasing EU enlargements. their legal documentation because if they are Thus, the EU places a heavy weight on legal documentation; and although in some cases immigrants may purposely and improperly dispose of 3 Unauthorized immigrants refer to non-EU nationals their travel documentation, most other instances who are residing on EU territory or who lack prior come as a result from the persistent violence approval as defined by: the Blue Card Directive, happening in these immigrants’ home countries Seasonal Workers Directive, Intra-Corporate which includes, but is not limited to, forced Transferees Directive, or Single Permit Directive. migrations, raids and fires.
Global Societies Journal Vol. 5 (2017) 92 states. (Papademetriou, 2016). This case has since The gridlock between member states made its way to the EU’s Court of Justice, and the Commission has come as a result of and Reuters reporter Gabriela Baczynska member states wanting to protect their writes that in May 2017, defendants—i.e., interests, market, and themselves first. The Slovakia, Hungary, and more recently, euBulletin (Unattributed, 2015) quotes Poland—“defended their refusal to take in Juncker stating that member states’ asylum seekers, drawing a clear rebuke from blasphemous response to lower official Germany and others who [have] stressed the development assistance (ODA) is need for European solidarity” (Baczynska, ‘scandalous’ (ibid.). ODA refers to financial 2017). support given to countries in order to Despite France’s traditionally highly promote economic and social reconstruction approving views of Muslims, they have or development. This reluctant responses become increasingly reluctant to cooperate further underscores the necessity for the with asylum relocation efforts from Syria or Commission to take on a European Afghanistan due to their uneasiness and Migration Agenda, to be more assertive, and precaution set forth by the Paris terrorist as the Eubulletin notes, it too is why ‘[The attack of 2016, among more recent terrorist Commission] won’t change its ideas attacks in Stockholm and London—the regarding legal and [unauthorized] former being in April of 2017 and the latter migration’ (ibid.). in March of 2017. To further underscore the evidence of member states’ reluctance toward a more harmonized immigration 3.5 Slovakia, Hungary, France, Poland, policy and the heightened tensions among Slovenia, Sweden, United Kingdom member states and the Commission, immigration analyst, Frank Keith recalls Member states, such as Slovakia and Hungary’s Foreign Minister, Péter Szijjártó, Hungary, have become increasingly noting the EU’s proposed relocation efforts reluctant to recognize, support, and as “unfeasible, unrealizable, and nonsense” implement the Commission’s efforts such as (Keith, 2015: 18). Marian Chiriac recalls the the quota system or asylum applications. views of Romania’s previous prime One reason is that they fear that the massive minister, Victor Ponta, whose remarks immigrant relocations would disrupt the paralleled those of Szijjártó; he too stability of their domestic, economic, social, denounced the Commission’s “mandatory and labor markets. In response, Italian quotas [as] not [the] solution to Europe’s leaders, Paolo Gentiloni and Matteo Renzi migration crisis” (Chiriac, 2015). Thirdly, have called to both the Commission and French presidential election runner-up, member states to act in solidarity and to Marine Le Pen, also expressed racist cooperate with Italy’s and the Commission’s epithets towards immigrants, asserting that efforts to relocate migrants and to assist they “have no reason to stay in France” financially. In fact, Papademetriou writes, (Branford, et al., 2017). These xenophobic that in December 2015 both Slovakia and remarks have garnered, and they continue to Hungary expressed their refutation of the garner, widespread support among Commission’s efforts by “fil[ing] court nationalists. For these reasons, this further proceedings against the [Commission’s] highlights the catalysts to the Commission’s plan” to establish a quota system rising role and their assertive responses.
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In late October of 2015, Slovenian Treanor underscore how France’s former and Swedish governments announced that Prime Minister, Manuel Valls, has defended they would be imposing stricter asylum his stance by “opposing [immigrant] quotas” policies and decreasing their immigrant and protecting France’s borders, arguing that intake as part of their effort to restabilize the “very idea of Europe will be questioned” and adapt to their recently-handed if such measures are not taken (Crisafia, et immigrants. Therefore these similar al., 2016). Furthermore, these responses halt reluctant and resentful responses have the process and cooperative efforts with the hindered immigrants’ possibilities of recognition, dialogue, and harmonization of relocation. In early 2016, Slovakian Prime general immigration policies. Second, Minister, Robert Fico, asserted that Gareth Mulvey outlines how the UK has “migrants cannot be integrated. It’s taken on “a firm approach, [and] that [they] impossible” (Unattributed, 2016). This quote will not assist in any EU-wide resettlement” reflects traces of the deeply-rooted and racist efforts (Mulvey, 2015). Such measures not sentiments in European political discourse. only delegitimize the proposals and power Patrick Strickland (Strickland, 2016) writes of the Commission but also negatively affect that Hungarian officials have begun to immigrants in the long-run. If countries, increase border presence by “sending an such as the UK or Hungary, continue to additional 1,500 police and army officers” to respond with such reluctance and their border, and of the 177,135 asylum ambivalence, then immigrants will not be applicants that they received, only 146 were relocated and integrated successfully, or in a approved by Hungary (ibid.). The fact that timely fashion. In recognizing the latter many of these immigrants either identify as opinion, such countries argue that the large Muslim or are coming from predominantly immigration waves are undermining Muslim countries, has begun to incite fears nationalistic ideals. Therefore these notions and reluctance among Hungarians to have led member states to reaffirm not only cooperate or accept immigrant quotas. their national rights but also their Hungary’s current prime minister, Viktor citizenship. Moreover, these similar Orbán, like many other contemporary responses reflect the sharp divisions that European far-right nationalists, possesses exist between the Commission and some strong anti-Islamic sentiments and is member states when it comes to determined to impede relocation efforts due immigration; and they too show how to his fear that immigrants’ Islamic ties member states are willing to jeopardize their would undermine the very face of relationship with the EU in order to put their “European Christianity.” These case studies country’s needs and interests first. reflect some member states’ hindering Addressing the magnitude of the responses, and they too reflect the catalysts immigration crisis has proven difficult, but it for the Commission’s necessity to take on a has nonetheless yielded many successes, greater role during this global discourse. including the growth of leadership of the The following paragraph will further Commission, and the strengthening of examine member states that have impeded immigration policies. the amelioration of European immigration Member states have also begun to crisis. France, like Hungary, has also retake control of their borders—reflecting a responded to the immigration crisis in an more realist approach—thus, yielding unwelcoming fashion. Crisafia, Elliot, and amassed tensions between member states
Global Societies Journal Vol. 5 (2017) 94 and the Commission, and leaving millions of security and stability. Many argue that their immigrants displaced. Migration analyst, country’s security and stability are put at Rahsaan Maxwell, argues that many EU risk by the mass relocations of refugees. As member state and citizens believe that a result, many countries have begun to speak immigrants still possess a strong allegiance and act unilaterally or, in other terms, to their host country, and that they may according to their own interests— become a potential threat (Maxwell, 2010: disregarding and even abandoning many EU 25). Andrew Geddes and Peter Scholten proposals—by increasing border controls write that “anti-immigration [views] and and even refusing to accept immigrants. [the] opposition to the presence of Islam” Although the Commission has tried to act in are common sentiments among member solidarity with member states, relocation states (Geddes, et al., 2016: 93). In other efforts of immigrants remains an ongoing words, many Europeans believe that these struggle. The refugee relocation program, immigrants would ultimately undermine however, has only proved partially effective their societies and values. Moreover, there because member states continue to reject has been a dramatic rise in far-right asylum seekers due to their lack of capital, nationalist leaders such as: the United negative sentiments, or capacities. As a Kingdom, Hungary, Austria, Poland and result, this delays relocation and other aid France. And there has also been a dramatic efforts for immigrants, and underscores the increase in the amount of strong nationalistic necessity to have the Commission take on a sentiments expressed. These anti- more central and proactive role. multiculturalist epithets have halted John McCormick and Jonathan relocation efforts, undermined the global Olsen note that Schengen states reserve the cosmopolitan project and immigrants’ right to “reimpose border controls”— humanity, but more importantly, have according to a conditional clause under the jeopardized the lives of countless refugees. Schengen Agreement—if it is a “particular Therefore one may conclude that racial, need” (McCormick, et al., 2014: 243). cultural and social hierarchies and narratives Countries possessing strong nationalist are still very much alive in European sentiments have become apprehensive in geopolitics. admitting immigrants due to the wide array of (Middle Eastern or African) cultures and customs, and their polarity to the dominant 3.6 Undermining the European customs and or ideologies of EU member Commission and the Schengen states. Moreover, Ruud Koopmans examines Agreement how countries, such as the UK, that have limited welfare systems, have been left with It is important to further examine no choice but to remain reluctant in member states’ discourse of reluctance— accepting immigrant quotas, due to fear of i.e., with the Commission and with the their own collapse (Koopmans, 2009: 21). In crisis—because it helps readers better early 2016, Hungary responded to the crisis understand why the Commission has taken by enforcing not just their border security, on a more assertive role. In spite of all the but also by building a fence. They believe Commission’s efforts to help combat the that their open borders and massive crisis, some member states have continued immigration influxes are threatening their to express great concerns for their country’s well-being and social policies. Hungary has
Global Societies Journal Vol. 5 (2017) 95 also increased their border security and Schengen area and the single market, but technology. Immigrants arriving at also on the Commission to act more Hungary’s borders are met with a daunting assertively. These uncooperative efforts lead surprise. Reuters notes that a cadenced the Commission to take a back seat in loudspeaker announces in English, Farsi, implementing legislation. Ultimately, and Arabic, “Attention, attention. I’m member states reserve the right to engage in warning you that you are at the Hungarian and support the political discourse of the border. If you damage the fence, cross immigration crisis. Therefore the illegally, or attempt to cross, it’s counted to implementation efforts of the Commission be a crime. I’m warning you to hold back lays, ultimately, in the hands of the member from committing this crime” (Dunai, 2017). states’ bureaucracies; thus if member states Obstacles such as these continue to push fail to parallel or cooperate with the efforts these immigrants out of the EU community of the Commission, the policies will not be and from existence. implemented, and the immigration crisis Geddes and Scholten highlight a prevails. study conducted by the Pew Research Greece, among other EU countries Center in 2014, which found that 70% of bordering the Mediterranean Sea, has been Italy and Greece’s population feel that receiving an increasing number of asylum immigrants are a burden on their country seekers. A Commission report released in and that they are taking all of their jobs and May 2017 notes that approximately 2,500 benefits (Geddes, et al., 2016: 14). Another immigrants have been successfully relocated study conducted by the the Pew Research from Italy and Greece since October 2015 Center in 2016 reflects a stagnancy where a (European Commission on Migration and median 59% of member states still believe Home Affairs, 2017c: 1). According to immigrants increase domestic terrorism another Commission-released report in (Poushter, 2016). Thus, immigrants become November 2016, there have been 24 EU racialized and dehumanized from these countries that have pledged to accept a quota essentialist stereotypes and narratives. of the 11,305 immigrants currently in Europeans have become increasingly Greece; however only 5,376 have been concerned with the massive influx of effectively relocated (European Commission immigrants because they also fear that they on Migration and Home Affairs, 2016b: 2). pose a threat to their national security and Likewise, the Commission also notes that 24 peace. Ethnically-prejudiced member states, EU countries have pledged to accept a quota in many cases, withhold jobs within the of the 4,954 currently in Italy, however only tertiary from immigrants, therefore leading 1,549 have been effectively relocated to a further negation of immigrants’ (European Commission on Migration and humanity and increasing the unemployment Home Affairs, 2016c: 2). One reason for this statistics for immigrants. failure in the relocation process is Italy and Ramping up border security, Greece being short-staffed in reviewing however undermines the Schengen asylum applications. The Commission adds Agreement of 1985—a milestone in the that countries such as Greece and Italy need harmonization of EU migration policies— to progress faster, increase their steadiness which led to the overall abolition of border and have a more active involvement with checks. Thus re-enforcing border security relocation efforts if they wish to fulfill not only puts tremendous pressure on the relocation quotas (European Commission on
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Migration and Home Affairs, 2016d: 6). among the heads of member states, their reluctance is repeatedly conveyed through their contradicting efforts back in their home 4. Responses Within the European countries—via public denouncements of Council migration quotas or reinstatements of border controls. In order to assess a deeper In March of 2016, the Council met commitment of EU institutions to a more with Turkish heads of state, for a third time harmonized immigration policy, it is since November 2015, to further discuss the important to analyze the responses of the European immigration crisis. And similar European Council to the immigration crisis, Council conclusions can also be noted in to see if their initiatives have paralleled their October 2016 convening. At this those of the Commission. In December of summit, the Council appeared to take on a 2014 the Council recognized and agreed more external approach in solving the upon a collective accountability to assist migration crisis. The Commission released a with the crisis. The Council even called reporting stating that the Council has upon the Commission “to provide guidance collectively decided to enhance protection on how to incorporate and strengthen along external borders, tackle migratory migration . . . policy dialogue and flows—along the Mediterranean route—and programming” (European Council, 2014: 2). “further intensify their efforts to accelerate Thus, the increased coordination and relocation” (European Commission Press cooperation among member states and the Release Database, 2017). Commission to revisit immigration policies In March 2017 the Council met in have catalyzed discussions on immigration Brussels and, President Tusk notes that “the reforms. Nevertheless, the European Council effective application of the principles of continued to profess similar, yet more responsibility and solidarity remains a progressive views at the Valletta Summit in shared objective. The European Council December of 2015—around the time in calls for further efforts to rapidly deliver on which the EU had received over 1.3 million all aspects of the comprehensive migration asylum applications. The leaders at the policy resilient to future crises” (European summit appeared to be in solidarity agreeing Council, 2017). The former response by to: President Tusk also reflects a call-for-action, as well as his yearning to aid the “address the root causes of irregular Commission’s efforts in alleviating the migration . . . enhance cooperation crisis. With these conclusions, one can begin on legal migration and mobility . . . to see an increasing trend to deepen the reinforce the protections of migrants dialogue of the ongoing crisis within the and asylum seekers . . . and work Council and alongside the Commission. more closely to improve cooperation However, as previously mentioned, many on return, readmission and countries continue to remain reluctant to reintegration” (European Council, execute or aid in the crisis relief efforts. 2015b).
Although the decisions reached at the 2015 summit reflect a continuous consensus
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5. EU-Turkey Dialogue willingness to solve the problem by solving the immigration imbalances along EU- In an effort to halt the immigration Mediterranean borders. flows into the EU via Turkey, the Commission continued to assert its power by striking up a deal with Turkey in November 6. Conclusion of 2015. According to the Commission, The EU-Turkey Joint Action Plan entails that 1) The work of the Commission in Turkey will accept the return of immigrants controlling immigration has proved arriving on Greek shores (if they have failed successful and abundant despite the constant to follow the necessary asylum procedures); gridlock and reluctance by some member 2) for every Syrian returned to Turkey the states. The Commission’s push towards a EU will resettle a Syrian; 3) the two entities more supranational agenda has allowed it to will increase humanitarian relief in Syria; reform and harmonize immigration policies, and 4) Turkey will increase their efforts to and it also reflects their acquisition of a prevent immigrants from arriving via land or more central role in addressing the crisis. sea (European Commission Press Release Moreover, the response of the EU executive Database, 2016). Pinar Gedikkaya Bal branch to intervene and establish specialized writes that in November 2015, the measure agencies, directives, and funds to address the made its way to the Council—later gaining immigration crisis reflects some level of their endorsement. In other words, this deal solidarity with member states, as well as a was an effort to mend member states’ yearning to re-establish a more stable union. relations with Turkey and decrease the If the EU wishes to embody a united and amount of immigrants trying to enter the EU democratic front, then the Commission (Gedikkaya Bal, 2016: 26). Greece, on the needs to continue to listen to and work other hand, remains hesitant to send diligently with member states. On the other immigrants back to Turkey because they hand, member states must also act more fear for their humanitarian rights back in cooperatively with the Commission, by Turkey. Nonetheless, the plan has proved to increasing their monetary assistance and be a success in regards to lowering the accepting immigrant quotas. amount of immigrants coming from Turkey The European immigration crisis to Greece. In sum, the Commission also continues to threaten the unity and stability adds that prior to the signing of the EU- of the European Union—the Schengen area, Turkey deal it was estimated that 1,740 the single market, and member states’ immigrants were crossing into Greece via relations with one another. The crisis has the Aegean Sea every day, however after the also yielded much animosity and implementation of the deal, that number disagreement by nationalist parties. lowered to 47 (European Commission on However, the work of the Commission has Representation in Ireland, 2017). This plan become increasingly evident due to their highlights a major shift in power to the efforts to support countries receiving a high Commission in trying to better tackle the volume of immigrants—both directly and immigration crisis. This program not only indirectly—monetarily and administratively. conveys a general consensus and concern The evidence shows that although member among the 28 heads of state for the states say that they want to help as many immigration crisis, it also reflects their immigrants as possible, their reluctant and
Global Societies Journal Vol. 5 (2017) 98 polar efforts have proved otherwise. And policies, and led to many needed reforms of although the rhetoric at the European immigration and asylum policies. This Council embodies a progressive and migration crisis continues to test the EU’s unifying tone, its words are short-lived. solidarity and policy effectiveness, as it Nonetheless, the efforts of all parties have raises questions of universal ethics, rights, still saved a plethora of immigrants, tested and responsibilities. the strength of asylum and immigration
Acknowledgements
I would like to recognize and thank Dr. Valentina Padula at the University of California, Santa Barbara for her consistent guidance and support on this project.
Conflict of Interest Statement
The author declares no conflict of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
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