Outline of History May 20, 2013

Contents

SOCI>History ...... 2 SOCI>History>Philosophy Of History ...... 2 SOCI>History>Ethnic Groups ...... 2 SOCI>History>Ethnic Groups>Africa ...... 2 SOCI>History>Ethnic Groups>Americas ...... 4 SOCI>History>Ethnic Groups>Americas>North America ...... 4 SOCI>History>Ethnic Groups>Americas>South America ...... 7 SOCI>History>Ethnic Groups>Asia ...... 7 SOCI>History>Ethnic Groups>Asia>East Asia ...... 9 SOCI>History>Ethnic Groups>Asia>Middle East...... 10 SOCI>History>Ethnic Groups>Europe ...... 10 SOCI>History>Ethnic Groups>Europe>North Europe ...... 12 SOCI>History>Ethnic Groups>Europe>South Europe ...... 13 SOCI>History>History ...... 14 SOCI>History>History>Universe ...... 14 SOCI>History>History>Age ...... 22 SOCI>History>History>Battle ...... 27 SOCI>History>History>Culture ...... 46 SOCI>History>History>Dynasty ...... 71 SOCI>History>History>Era ...... 89 SOCI>History>History>Explorers ...... 100 SOCI>History>History>Invention ...... 105 SOCI>History>History>Invention>Africa ...... 107 SOCI>History>History>Invention>America ...... 112 SOCI>History>History>Invention>Asia ...... 123 SOCI>History>History>Invention>Asia>Middle East ...... 131 SOCI>History>History>Invention>Europe ...... 147 SOCI>History>History>Leaders ...... 165 SOCI>History>History>Life ...... 207 SOCI>History>History>Migration ...... 224 SOCI>History>History>Nation ...... 227 SOCI>History>History>Nation>Africa ...... 228 SOCI>History>History>Nation>America ...... 244 SOCI>History>History>Nation>Asia ...... 270 SOCI>History>History>Nation>Asia>Middle East ...... 298 SOCI>History>History>Nation>Europe ...... 323 SOCI>History>History>Population ...... 371 SOCI>History>History>Rulers ...... 373 SOCI>History>History>Rulers>Africa ...... 373 SOCI>History>History>Rulers>America ...... 374 SOCI>History>History>Rulers>Asia ...... 377 SOCI>History>History>Rulers>Asia>Middle East ...... 383 SOCI>History>History>Rulers>Europe ...... 399 SOCI>History>History>Town ...... 441 SOCI>History>History>Treaty ...... 446 SOCI>History>History>War ...... 457 SOCI>History>Historians ...... 483 SOCI>History>Historians>USA History ...... 488

1 Note: To look up references, see the Consciousness Bibliography, listing 10,000 books and articles, with full journal and author names, available in text and PDF file formats at http://www.outline-of-knowledge.info/Consciousness_Bibliography/index.html.

SOCI>History history Social studies can be about peoples, historical events, and philosophy {history}.

SOCI>History>Philosophy Of History philosophy of history History can have patterns, evolutions, and regularities, which convey meaning to history {philosophy of history}. History can reflect divine purpose or plan. History can be expression of Reason or Spirit in matter. Economic forces can determine history. History can have cycles.

Hegelian idealism History progressively realizes one self that hypothesizes itself {self-positing mind} as mind or spirit {Hegelian idealism}. historical rationalism History can have patterns {historical rationalism}. historical skepticism No one can know if history has patterns {historical skepticism}. historical subjectivism The only historical patterns are ones that people imagine or impose on history {historical subjectivism}. nihilism History can have no pattern {nihilism} {historical irrationalism}.

SOCI>History>Ethnic Groups ethnic group People {ethnic group} diversified over continents.

SOCI>History>Ethnic Groups>Africa

Bantu group central Africa {Bantu}.

Baster group south-Africa white and Khoi mixture {Baster}.

Basuto group south Africa {Basuto}.

Benin group west Africa {Benin, group}.

Berber group north Africa {Berber}.

Biaka group pygmy group {Biaka}.

2

Boer group south Africa {Boer}.

Bushmen group Kalahari Desert, Namibia {Bushmen}.

Egyptian group Egypt {Egyptian}.

Ewe group west Africa {Ewe}.

Hausa group north Nigeria {Hausa}. They are now Muslim.

Herero group Namibia {Herero}.

Ibo group Nigeria {Ibo}.

Khoi group south Africa and herders {Khoi}. Bushmen are Khoi.

Khoisan group south Africa. It includes Hottentot and Bushmen {Khoisan}.

Kung group Botswana Kalahari Desert {!Kung} {Kung}.

Mandenka group Africa {Mandenka}.

Masai group east Africa {Masai}.

Mbuti group pygmy group {Mbuti}.

Moor group north Africa {Moor}.

Nama group Namibia {Nama}.

Ovambo group Namibia {Ovambo}.

Pygmy group equatorial Africa rainforest {Pygmy}.

San or Hottentot group south Africa hunter-gatherers {San} {Hottentot}.

Somali group

3 east Africa {Somali}.

Swahili group Kenya {Swahili}.

Ubangi group Africa {Ubangi}.

Yoruba group Africa {Yoruba group}.

Zulu group south Africa {Zulu}.

SOCI>History>Ethnic Groups>Americas

Americas groups Americas groups {Americas groups} are in North and South America.

Karitiana group {Karitiana}.

Pima group {Pima}.

Surui group {Surui}.

SOCI>History>Ethnic Groups>Americas>North America

Aborigine group Australia {Aborigine}.

Algonquin group northeast USA {Algonquin}.

Apache group north USA {Apache}.

Arapaho group north USA {Arapaho}.

Blackfoot group north USA {Blackfoot}.

Cajun group French Acadians came from Nova Scotia to Louisiana. French from Caribbean also live near New Orleans, Louisiana {Cajun}.

Canuck group Canada {Canuck}.

Cherokee group USA {Cherokee}.

Cheyenne group

4 USA {Cheyenne, group}.

Chippewa group USA {Chippewa}.

Choctaw group USA {Choctaw}.

Comanche group USA {Comanche}.

Cree group USA {Cree}.

Creek group USA {Creek}.

Creole group Mixed peoples live in Louisiana {Creole, group}.

Crow group USA {Crow}.

Dakota group north-central USA {Dakota}.

Delaware group Delaware {Delaware, group}.

Eskimo group Alaska {Eskimo}.

Hopi group southwest USA {Hopi}.

Huron group Michigan {Huron}.

Iroquois group New York {Iroquois}.

Kwakiutl group northwest USA {Kwakiutl}.

Mandan group central USA {Mandan}.

Miami group Florida {Miami, group}.

Mohawk group northeast USA {Mohawk}.

Mohican group northeast USA {Mohican}.

5 Mound Builder group central USA {Mound Builder}.

Navajo group southwest USA {Navajo, group}.

Nootka group British Columbia {Nootka}.

Ojibway group USA {Ojibway}.

Okie group slang. Oklahoma {Okie}.

Omaha group Oklahoma {Omaha, group}.

Ottawa group east Canada {Ottawa, group}.

Pan-American group Western Hemisphere {Pan-American}.

Pawnee group USA {Pawnee}.

Pennsylvania Dutch group Netherlands-settler descendants live in Pennsylvania {Pennsylvania Dutch}.

Pueblo group southwest USA {Pueblo}.

Seminole group Florida {Seminole}.

Shawnee group USA {Shawnee}.

Shoshone group northwest USA {Shoshone}.

Sioux group USA {Sioux}.

Tlingit group northwest USA {Tlingit}.

Ute group USA {Ute}.

Yankee group northeast USA. It is slang {Yankee}.

Zuni group southwest USA {Zuni}.

6

SOCI>History>Ethnic Groups>Americas>South America

Arara group Amazon rain forest in Brazil {Arara}.

Guarani group South America {Guarani}.

Jivaro group Amazon River in Brazil {Jivaro}.

Korubo group Amazon rain forest in Brazil {Korubo}.

SOCI>History>Ethnic Groups>Asia

Ainu group north Japan, perhaps Caucasian {Ainu}.

Andaman Islander group Negrito. Burma {Andaman Islander}.

Arunta group Australia {Arunta}.

Balochi group central Asia {Balochi}.

Barusho group central Asia {Barusho}.

Brahui group central Asia {Brahui}.

Caroline group South Pacific Ocean {Caroline}.

Chinese group Adjective is Sino- {Chinese}.

Cimmerian group central Asia {Cimmerian}.

Cuman group Cuman, Polovtsi, or Kipchak were in central Asia {Cuman} {Polovtsi} {Kipchak}.

Dravidian group India {Dravidian}.

Dysk group Sarawak {Dysk}.

Gurkha group Nepal {Gurkha}.

7 Hazara group central Asia {Hazara}.

Hebrew group Adjective is Hebraic. Palestine {Hebrew}. Adjective is Judaic {Jewish}.

Hmong group Vietnam highlanders speak Miao {Hmong}.

Hun group central Asia {Hun}.

Indian group Adjective is Indic. Prefix is Indo-. India {Indian}.

Japanese or Nipponese Japan {Japanese, group} {Nipponese}.

Kafir group Hindu Kush Mountains {Kafir}.

Kalash group central Asia {Kalash}.

Khazar group central Asia {Khazar}.

Kurd group Iraq/Iran/Turkey {Kurd}.

Makrani group central Asia {Makrani}.

Mandingo group Philippines {Mandingo}.

Maori group New Zealand {Maori}.

Mongol group northeast Asia {Mongol}.

Oriental group Asia {Oriental}.

Papuan group East Indies {Papuan}.

Pathan group central Asia {Pathan}.

Polynesian group South Pacific Ocean {Polynesian}.

Samoyed group Siberia {Samoyed, group}.

8

Saracen group Arabia {Saracen}.

Sarawak group Sarawak {Sarawak, group}.

Semang group Negrito. Malaysia {Semang}.

Semite group Adjective is Semitic. Near East {Semite}.

Sherpa group Tibet {Sherpa}.

Sikh group north India {Sikh}.

Sindhi group central Asia {Sindhi}.

Sundanese group East Indies {Sundanese}.

Tanka group South Pacific Ocean {Tanka}.

Tonga group South Pacific Ocean {Tonga}.

Trobriand Islander group South Pacific Ocean {Trobriand Islander}.

Tuareg group Philippines {Tuareg}.

Turkoman group Kazakhstan {Turkoman}.

Uygur group central Asia {Uygur}.

Uzbek group central Asia {Uzbek}.

Veddoid group Negrito. Sri Lanka {Veddoid}.

White Hun or Ephthalite central Asia {White Hun} {Ephthalite}.

SOCI>History>Ethnic Groups>Asia>East Asia

Dai group {Dai}.

9

Daur group {Daur}.

Han group {Han}.

Hezhen group {Hezhen}.

Lahu group {Lahu}.

Miaozu group {Miaozu}.

Naxi group {Naxi}.

Oregen group {Oregen}.

She group {She}.

Tu group {Tu}.

Tujia group {Tujia}.

Xibo group {Xibo}.

Yakut group {Yakut}.

Yizu group {Yizu}.

SOCI>History>Ethnic Groups>Asia>Middle East

Bedouin Arabia {Bedouin}.

Druze {Druze}.

Mozabite {Mozabite}.

Palestinian {Palestinian}.

SOCI>History>Ethnic Groups>Europe

10 Adygei group {Adygei}.

Armenian group east Turkey {Armenian}.

Aryan group Europe/India {Aryan}.

Avar group east Europe {Avar}.

Breton group France {Breton}.

Burgundii group southeast France {Burgundii}.

Caucasian group Caucasia {Caucasian}.

Celt or Kelt group west Europe {Celt} {Kelt}.

Frank group east France and west Germany. Prefix is Franco- {Frank}.

Gaul group Adjective is Gallic. France {Gaul, group}.

Goth group east Europe {Goth}.

Magyar group central Asia and Hungary {Magyar}.

Merovingian group Europe {Merovingian}.

Moravian group Moravia {Moravian}.

Occidental group Europe/Western Hemisphere {Occidental}.

Orcadian group {Orcadian}.

Ostrogoth group east Europe {Ostrogoth}.

Salian Frank group east France {Salian Frank}.

Sardinian group Sardinia {Sardinian}.

11

Tartar or Tatar group central Asia {Tartar} {Tatar}.

Vandal group east Europe {Vandal}.

Visigoth group east Europe {Visigoth}.

Yiddish group Jewish peoples live in east Europe {Yiddish}.

SOCI>History>Ethnic Groups>Europe>North Europe

Alemanni group Germany {Alemanni, group}.

Angle group north Germany. Prefix is Anglo- {Angle}.

Bavarian group Bavaria {Bavarian}.

Bohemian group Bohemia {Bohemian}.

British or Briton group Britain {British} {Briton}.

Cantabridgian group Cambridge, England {Cantabridgian}.

Cossack group Russia {Cossack, group}.

Dane group Denmark {Dane}.

Druid group England {Druid}.

Finn group Finland {Finn}.

Gaelic group Ireland {Gaelic}.

German group Germany {German, group}.

Hessian group Germany Hess region {Hessian}.

Irish group Ireland {Irish}.

12

Jute group Germany {Jute}.

Lapp group north Norway and north Sweden {Lapp}.

Nordic group Norway {Nordic}.

Norman group Normandy {Norman}.

Oxonian group Oxford, England {Oxonian}.

Saxon group north Germany {Saxon}.

Scandian group Scandinavia {Scandian}.

Swiss group Switzerland {Swiss, group}.

Teuton group Adjective is Teutonic. Germany {Teuton}.

Viking group Norse, Northmen, Norman, Dane, or Viking were in Scandinavia {Viking} {Northmen} {Norse}.

Welsh group Wales {Welsh}.

SOCI>History>Ethnic Groups>Europe>South Europe

Achaean group Greece {Achaean}.

Attic group Greece {Attic}.

Basque group north Spain {Basque, group}.

Etruscan group north Italy {Etruscan}.

Greek group Prefix is Greco-. Greece {Greek}.

Gypsy group Romania {Gypsy}.

Iberian group Spain {Iberian}.

13

Latin group Rome, Italy {Latin}.

Lombard group north Italy {Lombard}.

Neapolitan group Naples, Italy {Neapolitan}.

Olympian group Mt. Olympus, Greece {Olympian}.

Panhellenic group Greece {Panhellenic}.

Portuguese group Portugal {Portuguese}.

Sabine group Italy {Sabine}.

Serb group Balkan Peninsula {Serb}.

Slav group east Europe {Slav}.

Spartan group Sparta, Greece {Spartan}.

Tuscan group north Italy {Tuscan}.

SOCI>History>History history in history history Earth -13720000000 to 2012 History includes ages, eras, future history, inventions, leaders, nations, rulers, treaties, and religions, and wars.

SOCI>History>History>Universe universe origin beginning Universe -13720000000 About 13.72 billion years ago, universe space-time began, and space expanded at light speed. It was not an explosion. Expansion happened to space, not in space. Because all space expanded equally, expansion and space had no center and no edge. Explosions have central point and farthest reach. At origin, radiation had maximum density, maximum temperature (too hot to allow particles), and maximum pressure. Radiation was homogeneous, so every point had the same temperature, pressure, and density. Space had maximum curvature. Radiation had random motion but no net motion, because space expanded equally in all directions. As universe cooled, lower energies allowed symmetry breaking, and new phases and matter-and-energy states arose.

14

Planck era beginning Universe -13720000000 From universe origin to Planck time {Planck epoch} {Planck era}, 10^-43 seconds after universe origin, universe was quantum foam, with quantum gravity. Temperature was more than 10^32 K. Total energy was more than 10^15 GeV. Universe diameter was less than 10^-36 meters. Universe was homogeneous, because all parts were close enough so gravitons and photons from any point affected all other points, and so united the universe. forces unified beginning Universe -13720000000 About 10^-43 seconds after universe origin, universe diameter was 10^-36 meters, temperature was 10^32 K, total energy was 10^15 GeV. Until 10^-39 seconds after universe origin, universe had united forces. Strong force was weaker, electromagnetic force was similar, weak force was stronger, and gravity was very much stronger. unity ended beginning Universe -13720000000 About 10^-39 seconds after universe origin, by symmetry breaking, strong nuclear force disengaged from electromagnetic and weak nuclear forces. Temperature was 10^30 K. Universe diameter was smaller than electron diameter. Some universe points were farther away than light travels during 10^-39 seconds, so universe had separate and independent gravitationally and electromagnetically evolving points, and was no longer homogeneous. Gravitational collapse can occur only in region sizes over which gravitons can travel during 10^-39 seconds, so energy distribution began to be irregular. inflation of universe beginning Universe -13720000000 Between 10^-36 and 10^-34 seconds after universe origin, temperature was 10^28 K, and universe diameter was smaller than electron diameter. Starting between 10^-36 and 10^-34 seconds after universe origin until 1 second after, space underwent even more rapid expansion {inflation of universe} of 10^30 times, as allowed by general relativity. Universe grew to softball size. Photons had least-ordered thermal energy states, and nucleons had most order.

Compton time beginning Universe -13720000000 About 10^-23 seconds {Compton time} after universe origin, universe was 10^-15 meters diameter {Compton wavelength}, electron size. unity stopped beginning Universe -13720000000 About 10^-11 seconds after universe origin, at temperature 2.5 x 10^15 K, electromagnetic and weak forces became independent, by symmetry breaking. Universe was atom size. hadrons and mesons beginning Universe -13720000000

15 About 10^-5 seconds to 10^-4 seconds after universe origin, quarks formed short-lived hadrons and mesons, as universe cooled enough to allow matter. Temperature was 2 x 10^12 K. Matter had charges, so universe had hot plasma. stable matter beginning Universe -13720000000 About 10^-3 seconds after universe origin, temperature was 10^12 K. Universe had diameter two light-years. Long- lived protons, neutrons, electrons, positrons, and neutrinos formed, all traveling at nearly light speed, with masses ten times more than rest masses. Universe density was 4 x 10^9 g/cm^3. Number of protons equaled number of neutrons. Universe had hot plasma. Strong force was dominant. neutrinos beginning Universe -13720000000 About 10^-2 seconds after universe origin, temperature was 10^11 K. Number of neutrinos became constant, because they no longer interacted with other matter. Neutrinos had lower background temperature than photons. Universe was mostly in thermal equilibrium. deuterium beginning Universe -13720000000 From 10^-2 seconds to 2 * 10^2 seconds after universe origin, protons and neutrons became deuterium, helium, and lithium. Free protons are hydrogen nuclei. One proton and one neutron bind to make deuterium nuclei. Two protons and two neutrons bind to make helium-4 nuclei. Three protons and four neutrons bind to make lithium-7 nuclei. antimatter ended beginning Universe -13720000000 About 1 second after universe origin, temperature was 5 x 10^10 K. Universe had diameter 1 light-year. Electrons and positrons were no longer created, so they annihilated each other, except for excess electrons that made hot plasma. Protons and neutrons were still being created, and universe was 75% protons and 24% neutrons. Density was 10^5 g/cm^3. helium beginning Universe -13720000000 About 100 seconds after universe origin, temperature was 10^9 K to 10^10 K. Particle creation stopped, so only protons, electrons, and neutrons existed. Neutron number was 1/6 to 1/7 of proton number: 85% protons and 15% neutrons. Protons and electrons made hot plasma. Weak force was dominant, so neutrons and protons were in thermal equilibrium. Nuclear fusion began to make helium nuclei from hydrogen nuclei. density fluctuations beginning Universe -13720000000 About 1000 seconds after universe origin, temperature was 10^9 K. Universe diameter was 100 light-years. 25% of protons were in helium. Lithium-7 nuclei had 10^-10 of protons. Hydrogen, deuterium, and tritium nuclei were 75% of matter. Helium was 25% of matter. Lithium was 0.0000000001% of matter. Matter and energy density was 0.9 g/cm^3. Photons interacted with free electrons {coupling of matter and radiation} {Thomson scattering}. Electromagnetic force

16 was dominant over gravity and pressure, so photons were like viscous fluid, allowing universe density fluctuations {density fluctuations}, which persisted. matter clumping beginning Universe -13719930000 About 70,000 years after universe origin, matter became more than radiation. Gravity clumped matter. recombination beginning Universe -13719700000 About 300,000 years after universe origin, temperature was 3000 K. Universe had density 10^-20 g/cm^3 and diameter 10^8 light-years. Because temperature dropped below ionization temperature, atomic nuclei had cooled enough to capture electrons, and neutral hydrogen atoms formed {recombination, cosmology}. Gas pressure was stronger than gravity in dense regions. Universe was no longer hot plasma and no longer opaque to radiation {last scattering surface}. Because ionization stopped, particles no longer absorbed radiation, and photons were no longer in equilibrium with particles, so universe became transparent, as it is now. Cosmic microwave background radiation (CMB) began. CMB was homogeneous to 1 part in 10,000 (but that small irregularity began galactic clusters). darkness beginning Universe -13719000000 About 1,000,000 years after universe origin, background radiation had cooled to below temperature of visible light, and universe became dark, as it is now. photon energy beginning Universe -13620000000 to -12720000000 Before recombination, atom kinetic energy, photon energy, and neutral-hydrogen-atom spin energy {spin temperature} were the same. Kinetic energy caused collisions that transferred energy to and from electron spin. Kinetic-energy exchanges between atoms and free electrons caused photon-energy changes. Photon energy transferred to and from electron spin. After recombination, kinetic energy and spin energy declined faster than CMB photon energy. Continual collisions equalized spin and kinetic energies. About 10^8 years after universe origin, gas was too dilute to have enough collisions to keep spin and kinetic energies equal, and spin energy started to increase as particles absorbed photon energy. At same time, star and/or galaxy radiation started to heat gas and cause higher kinetic energy. About 10^9 years after universe origin, spin and kinetic energies were equal again. Photon energy decreases continuously as universe expands. galaxies beginning Universe -13620000000 About 10^8 years after universe origin, temperature was -170 C. Universe had diameter 3 x 10^9 light-years, 1/30 of now. Universe asymmetries resulted in inhomogeneities that allowed galactic strings, galactic clusters, and galaxies to form. Dwarf galaxies formed by gravity, as hydrogen and helium atoms condensed into clouds. Clouds started to rotate, as they became denser. Colliding galaxies developed central supermassive black holes. As galaxies collided, densest spots became stars, as shock waves concentrated matter. Star gravity further clustered gas. Stars gave off light and heat. Radiation began to ionize surrounding gas. stars beginning

17 Universe -13220000000 About 5 x 10^8 years after universe origin, stars began to form as galaxies collided and became bigger. Exploding stars formed elements heavier than lithium. reionization beginning Universe -12720000000 About 10^9 years after universe origin, all intergalactic gas ionizes. Perhaps, galaxy central black-hole formation caused ionizing radiation. Perhaps, radiation came only from stars.

Milky Way Galaxy galaxy Milky Way Galaxy -1200000000 to -900000000 From 12 billion to 9 billion years ago, Milky Way Galaxy formed, along with other galaxies. star formation peak star Universe -9000000000 About 9 billion years ago, galaxy collisions and star formation maximized. expansion increase energy Universe -5000000000 About 5 billion years ago, dark energy started to increase space expansion, because its density was greater than matter density. Universe diameter was 10^11 light-years. Density was 3 x 10^-30 g/cm^3, with 10^8 photons/nucleon. Background photons had 3 K blackbody background radiation, so temperature was 3 K.

Sun star Solar System -4570000000 About 4.57 billion years ago, sun and planets formed. Galaxy shock waves concentrated matter and encouraged star formation.

Earth formed planet Earth -4570000000 to -4500000000 High-metal-content stars can form planets with air, land, and liquid water. About 4.57 billion years ago, Earth accreted matter from stellar disk. Then radioactivity melted Earth, and Earth formed different-density layers. Atmosphere had mostly carbon dioxide.

Moon formed moon Earth -4500000000 to -4450000000 About 4.5 billion years ago, Moon formed when asteroid or comet twice as wide as Moon hit Earth.

Hadean era Earth

18 -4500000000 to -4000000000 About 4.5 billion years ago, gravitational potential energy to kinetic energy conversion (as iron sank to form Earth's core), meteorite collisions, and radioactive decay (six times more intense than now) melted Earth. Surface was 1300 K. asteroids hit asteroid Earth -4500000000 to -3500000000 About 4.5 billion years ago, asteroids regularly hit Earth. crust formed land Earth -4450000000 to -4400000000 About 4.45 billion years ago, Earth's crust formed, and liquid water appeared. (However, if meteorites were few and atmosphere did not trap much heat, crust appeared after only 10,000,000 years and surface was cool, because Sun was faint.) oceans formed ocean Earth -4450000000 to -4400000000 About 4.45 billion years ago, water in comets and asteroids formed oceans. zircon rock Australia -4300000000 ZrSiO4 [4 is subscript] {zircon, rock} has zirconium, silicon, and oxygen. Zircons do not change in metamorphic processes and can move far from sources. Zircons contain radioactive uranium, which allows determining age. Their oxygen can have different isotopes, depending on formation temperature, with more oxygen-18 at low temperatures and with liquid water (from rain or ocean). Dot-sized zircon crystals are in Jack Hills conglomerate [-3,000,000,000] and Mt. Narryer in west Australia. These zircons had more oxygen-18 than mantle zircons and so formed in water. These zircons also have minerals from formation-site granitic rock, like continental crust. Therefore, these zircons had stayed on surface and never gone inside Earth, implying that Earth had a stable surface by 4.3 billion years ago.

Isua life Isua, Greenland -3800000000 About 3.8 billion years ago, the oldest sedimentary rocks (which only form underwater) formed in southwest Greenland. They have fossil cells.

1000 years from now future Earth 3000 About 1000 years from now, people will occupy all solar-system planets, moons, and space stations and be at nearby stars. The human line can then never end. Transceivers will allow accurate control of distant actions. Space stations and spaceships will link all solar system planets and satellites. Energy production and control will increase greatly. People will know exact conditions for starting and evolving life for all stars, planets, and life forms. Curiosity will be high. There will be no fear of contact. Transceivers will scan universe for signals from all possible life sources outside solar system. Many miniature robot probes will explore all stars within 1000 light-years. Probes will have communication and analyzing powers. They will need no occupants, and light weights will allow speeds of 0.01 c. High quality, large

19 numbers, and multiple controls cause probes never to stop or fail. Places found to have life will have many probes. The advanced economy and energy efficiencies can pay for probes. Individual life span will lengthen to 150 years by organ replacement, cell rejuvenation, genetic alteration and supplementation, drugs, nutrition, exercise and relaxation programs, and mental health care. Control over environment will be better. Childhood will lengthen. Brain will extend by man-machine interfaces, drugs, feedback techniques, and other mental controls. Humans will have consciousness that can inhabit machine, body, or both at once, with many specialized modules. People will be able to consciously move between consciousness types. People will have many activities available. People will have exact mastery of all tasks. People can choose to be perfect in anything. Memory will be easy for all. Language will become perfect. All current knowledge will always be available. Perception techniques will enable perception from smallest to largest and coldest to hottest.

10000 years from now future Earth 12000 About 10000 years from now, many experiments will test social-science and natural-science theories. All knowledge and culture will be available to all people. All people will connect by many communication channels. Cities will have buildings that change color and transparency to save energy. People will have lifetime of 150 years. New people species will develop, for specialized tasks and environments, like under sea or in space. Specialized robotic beings will perform set tasks, repair each other, and plan. Species Homo will be extinct. People will have interconnection with machines, aided by drugs and bionics, making man-machines. Earth will federate all cultural groups (Terran Union), with no states. Individual rights and interests will always prevail over state and society rights. Freedom, cooperation, harmony, and responsibility will be values. There will be congenial environments for all people and person types. Work will have further specialization and labor division. Humans will not get to universe limits, because it is expanding, but they can inhabit nearby regions. However, inhabitants will not be able to communicate efficiently.

1000000 years from now future Earth 1002000 About 10^6 years from now, people will have evolved into many new species. Intelligent computers will work at all levels. Special analyzers will be available for medicine, law, and technology. Giant solar collectors and large-scale hydrogen fusion will give billions of times more energy, with little pollution. Moons and planets will give unlimited raw materials, and planet construction will begin. There will be great wealth for all. Galaxy will have large-scale changes. Giant communications antennas and equipment will be everywhere. People will be able to use very low and very high temperatures. Tectonic activity will become smaller as Earth cools. Mountain building will decrease, Earth will be flatter, Siberia and Alaska will join, Asia and Australia will join, Panama will submerge, ocean will cover current continent edges, and glaciers will return.

10 to the 9 years from now future Universe 1000002000 About 10^9 years from now, growth will eventually slow. Space expansion, cooling, and randomization effects will tend to minimize space curvature and deconcentrate mass and energy. Everything will run best, with no waste or inefficiency. Thought and Mind growth will taper off. Perhaps, thought will control future.

5 x 10 to the 9 years from now future Universe 5000002000 to 6000002000

20 About 5 x 10^9 years from now, Sun will become red giant. Earth will be 700 K.

1 x 10 to the 10 years from now future Universe 15000002000 About 1.5 x 10^10 years from now, Sun will become cool white dwarf star. Earth will freeze.

7 x 10 to the 11 years from now future Universe 700000002000 About 7 x 10^11 years from now, universe will be at Gibbons-Hawking temperature.

2 x 10 to the 12 years from now future Universe 5000000002000 About 2 x 10^12 years from now, only nearby galaxies will be visible.

10 to the 14 years from now future Universe 100000000002000 About 10^14 years from now, no more stars form. Stars will be iron and have no more fuel, because iron cannot fuse, so all stars will cool.

10 to the 15 years from now future Universe 1000000000002000 to 100000000000002000 About 10^15 years from now, no planets will be around stars.

10 to the 18 years from now future Universe 1000000000000002000 About 10^18 years from now, many stars will escape from galaxies, and galaxies will collapse, to leave only small galaxy cores.

10 to the 20 years from now future Universe 100000000000000002000 to 1000000000000000000000000002000 About 10^20 years from now, escaped stars will maintain universe temperature of 3 K to 100 K, until 10^30 years after.

10 to the 30 years from now future Universe 1000000000000000000000000002000 About 10^30 years from now, all galaxies will be in black holes.

10 to the 32 years from now future Universe

21 100000000000000000000000000002000 About 10^32 to 10^33 years from now, proton decay to leptons will finish. Universe will be 10^13 to 10^20 bigger than now, so distance between two free particles will be 10^5 light-years. Universe will be gas of electrons, positrons, photons, neutrinos, and supermassive black holes.

10 to the 65 years from now future Universe 10000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000002000 About 10^65 years from now, matter becomes liquid through quantum tunneling.

10 to the 70 years from now future Universe 1000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000002000 About 10^70 years from now, if radiation dominates at critical density, electrons and protons will be part of atoms as big as universe is now. They will attract each other and annihilate to make photons.

10 to the 85 years from now future Universe 1000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000002000 About 10^85 years from now, electrons and positrons will combine.

10 to the 98 years from now future Universe 100000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000 02000 About 10^98 years from now, largest black holes have evaporated.

10 to the 100 years from now future Universe 100000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000 00002000 About 10^100 years from now, black holes will have all decayed and evaporated, making mostly photons. If radiation dominates universe, it will become anisotropic. If universe closes at maximum expansion, it will have dead stars, black holes, photons, and neutrinos. If universe contracts, it will make more energy, because photons will be blue-shifted instead of red-shifted, and black holes will eat all matter until all things are in one black hole.

SOCI>History>History>Age

Lower Paleolithic or Lower Old Stone Age age Africa -2000000 to -150000 Oldowan, PreChellean, Abbevillian or Chellean, Acheulian, and Mousterian cultures evolved, in that order.

Paleolithic or Old Stone Age age Africa -600000 to -10000 Acheulian and Mousterian cultures existed.

22 Mesolithic or Middle Stone Age age Earth -150000 to -35000 Mongoloid and Caucasian peoples began and then Negroid and Brunet peoples began. Brunets are Iberian or Mediterranean, Hamitic or Berber in Egypt, East Indian, Polynesian, Dravidian in India, and Maori in New Zealand.

Upper Paleolithic or Upper Old Stone Age or Recent Stone Age age Earth -50000 to -10000 Cultures were first Aurignacian, then Solutrean and Gravettian, and then Magdalenian. Homo sapiens dominated Neanderthals, and Neanderthals became extinct. People lived up to forty years. Hunter-gatherers ground and polished stone tools. They used bows and arrows, used spears and spear-throwers, fished with nets with sinkers, fished with bone fishhooks, and hunted with barbed arrowheads. Small flint blades in wood or bone made sickles or knives, to gather wild plants. They chipped long blades from cylindrical stone cores. In Northern Hemisphere, flint burin chisels were for wood or antler/bone carving. They had stone saws, bone needles, and wooden tools. They had earth, stone, mud, reed, bone, skin, and wood tents and houses, some with sunken floors. They had dwellings with kitchen, living, and sleeping rooms. They put wooden houses on stilts in lakes. They had fires and hearths. They used food storage. They had houses and villages, with up to 300 people. They followed herds near ice edge. They had fur clothing from skin strips and used ornaments. They had mattocks, spoons, wheels, and lamps. They tried sympathetic magic and had medicine men. They had religion. They had rituals and ceremonies. They decorated themselves and tools. They carved. They migrated to Australia and America. Cro-Magnon man, Galley hill man, and Swanscombe skull lived in Upper Paleolithic. Galley hill man was short and stocky, with thick skull.

Neolithic or New Stone Age age Africa/Asia/Europe -13000 to -5000 Neolithic peoples had villages, advanced stone tools, and bone and wood tools. Ice ages were over. Burials were not elaborate. Votive offerings started in late Neolithic.

Neolithic or New Stone Age age Greece -6000 to -3000 Neolithic people set stone tools, such as axes and hoes, in hafts. They used ground and polished stone tools, rather than chipped or flaked, such as celt ax heads. They had pottery making, carpentry, and weaving to make fabric. They used copper melting and casting. They had tattoos, jewelry, and personal property. They stored wheat and barley. They had patriarchal society, used circumcision, followed couvade, and used levirate. Neolithic people had mummies, built large stone circles, and started burial mounds [-5000]. Late Neolithic had second burial of bare bones.

Chalcolithic Era or Copper Age age Near East -5000 to -1000 Metal workers hammered copper weapons and tools.

Taurian Age age Earth -4000 to -2000

23 Began.

Bronze Age age Near East -3800 to -1400 Bronze is 90% copper and 10% tin melted together. It was for armor, helmets, shields, and ornaments but not for farm tools. Armies had 3000 to 5000 soldiers, with hardened weapons. It is harder than copper but easier to melt and pour into molds. No bronze was in Americas.

Bronze Age age Thailand -3600 It came from India.

Neolithic age Southeast Asia -3000 It came from India.

Bronze Age age Greece -3000 to -1000 By legend, the first age was the Golden Age, when immortals walked on Earth and no one worked. The second Silver Age was just before recorded history, when there was no war and a goddess ruled Earth. The third Age was the Bronze Age.

Bronze age Vietnam -2000 to -800 Pre Dong Son culture lived near Red, Ma, and Ca Rivers in north Vietnam. Pre Sa Huynh culture lived in south center near Dong Nai River. They used water buffalo, ox, and pig.

Bronze age Britain/Scotland/Ireland -2000 to -700 Celts learned it from continental Europe.

Iron Age age Anatolia -1800 Iron Age began.

Bronze Age age Scandinavia -1600 to -450 Bronze Age people used barley, wheat in primitive form, and domesticated animals.

Iron Age

24 age Mesopotamia -1500 to -600 Hittites began to use iron for tools, weapons, and chariots. Iron is harder than copper or bronze. Iron ore supply was greater than copper or tin supply.

Iron Age of Europe age Europe -500 to 1 It came from Middle East.

Roman Iron Age age Scandinavia 1 to 400 Horse sacrifices replaced bull sacrifices. It used rune writing symbols. It had seasonal ceremonies.

Aquarian Astrological Age or Age of Aquarius age Earth 1 to 2000 In astrology, constellation in which vernal equinox occurs determines age. Currently, Earth is in Age of Pisces. 2600 will start Age of Aquarius.

Dark Ages age Europe 400 to 800 Nomad movements predominated.

Golden Age age China 618 to 907 Tang dynasty had ceramics, porcelain, and sculpture. Printing on paper using moveable wood type began. feudalism age Europe 800 to 1000 Land ownership was hereditary, or high lord granted it in return for loyalty, service, soldiers, and money {feudalism}. Serfs belonged to lord's land. Roman laws and customs helped lead to feudalism. Aliens {clientes} were under patrician's legal protection. People attached themselves to powerful citizens {patrocinium}. People deeded land to patron {precarium}, in return for land use for life. fief age Europe 800 to 1000 Barbarian chiefs gave land {benefice} {fief}| {fee, fief} {feud} {fiefdom} {feuda} or land tenure {enfeoffment} to their favorites, in return for allegiance and military service. As king, Charlemagne established this practice. vassal age Europe

25 800 to 1000 Lords protected lower lords {vassal}|.

Middle Ages age Europe 800 to 1400 After nomadic migrations ceased, Dark Ages ended and stable empires based on heredity and feudal systems developed.

Age of Chivalry age Europe 1200 to 1500 After Gothic era, kings became dominant in Europe. Ideas of womanly beauty and grace, chivalry, and courtly love began with cult of the Virgin and Persian ideas about women. Many noble wives were at home during Crusades, and this code protected them. Nature observation began. Nobles had free time for play and fantasy.

Renaissance age Europe 1400 to 1550 Classical thought and art spread from east. National states rose, along with languages. Protestants broke from Catholic Church, which underwent Counter-Reformation. It emphasized humans {humanism, Renaissance}. What property do all humans have?

Baroque Era age Europe 1550 to 1700 It emphasized human genius and emotion. European countries began exploration and colonialism.

Enlightenment or Age of Reason age Europe 1660 to 1780 Wars between Protestants and Catholics ended. Kings became dominant. It emphasized science and realism. Locke, Bayle, Diderot, Voltaire, d'Alembert, Montesquieu, Wolff, Mendelssohn, Lessing, and Kant were main thinkers. Ethics People are good. Reason is people's unique faculty, allowing thought, action, art, and education. Progress can move toward culture based on reason. People are equal in reason. Tolerance of local differences is virtuous. Atheism or deism is correct. However, no one can reason through everything, correctly or incorrectly, so history and culture supply missing information and wisdom. Perhaps, progress and equality are illusions.

Romantic Era age Europe 1750 to 1830 Era favored democracies, emotion and individualism in art, and feeling for the past.

Industrial Revolution age Europe 1760 to 1820 Industrial Revolution favored democracies, large industries, social reform by government, continuous change, invention, practical applications, goods, Unitarian religion with Puritan ethics, energy, time, hygiene, and comfort.

26

Nationalism age Earth 1850 to 1920 Arts relied on national themes.

Cold War age Europe 1945 to 1991 Russia and USA never fought but increased military strength to counter each other and vied to control other nations.

SOCI>History>History>Battle

Qarqaar battle Assyria -853 Israel and Damascus defeated King Shalmaneser III of Assyria.

Raphia battle Raphia, Mesopotamia -717 Sargon II of New Assyrian Empire defeated Babylon.

Babylon battle Babylonia -689 Sennacherib of New Assyrian Empire destroyed Babylon.

Marathon battle Marathon, Greece -490 Greece defeated Persia.

Salamis sea battle Salamis, Cyprus -480 Greece defeated Persia.

Thermopylae battle Thermopylae, Greece -480 Leonidas, king of Sparta, held pass against much larger Persian army but eventually was overcome.

Aegospotami sea battle Aegospotami, Greece -405 to -404 Sparta eliminated Athens' ships.

27

Leuctra battle Sparta, Greece -371 Other Greek city-states defeated Sparta.

Chaeronea battle Chaeronea, Greece -338 Philip II of Macedon defeated Athens and Thebes.

Granicus battle Granicus, Asia Minor -334 Alexander the Great of Macedonia crossed Dardanelles Strait and defeated Darius III of Persia. He then went to Bythnia and Cilicia.

Issus battle Asia Minor -333 Alexander the Great of Macedonia defeated Darius III of Persia. He then went to the Levant and Syria. He seized Tyre [-332]. Then he took Egypt and founded Alexandria.

Arbela battle Arbela -331 Alexander the Great of Macedonia defeated Darius III of Persia.

Gaugamela battle Fars Region, Iran -331 Alexander the Great went to Mesopotamia and won at Gaugamela to take Persia from Darius III.

Ipsus battle Ipsus, Asia Minor -301 Seleucus I of Seleucid Dynasty in Persia defeated Antigonus I of Macedon.

Greek-Persia Battle battle Persia -281 Seleucus I of Seleucid Dynasty in Persia defeated Lysimachus of Macedon.

Roman Battle battle France -279 Roman Republic under Pyrrhus defeated Gauls.

28

Telamon battle Telamon, Italy -225 In north Italy, Roman Republic defeated Gauls.

Cannae battle Cannae, Italy -216 Carthage under Hannibal defeated Roman Republic.

Metaurus battle Metaurus, Italy -207 Roman Republic defeated relief forces aiding Hannibal.

Zama battle Zama, Tunisia -202 Roman Republic under Scipio Africanus Major defeated Carthage under Hannibal to end Second Punic War. Rome gained south Spain and north Africa.

Cynoscephalae battle Cynoscephalae, Greece -197 In north Greece, Roman Republic defeated Philip V of Macedon.

Arausio battle Arausio, Italy -105 Cimbri German tribe defeated Roman Republic under Quintus Caepio.

Acqua Sextiae battle Acqua Sextiae, Italy -102 Roman Republic under Gaius Marius defeated Teutons.

Vercellac battle Vercellac, Italy -101 Roman Republic under Gaius Marius defeated Cimbri.

Chaeronea battle Chaeronea, Greece -86 Roman Republic under Sulla defeated Greece.

29 Granicus battle Granicus, Asia Minor -73 Roman Republic defeated Pontus.

Pharsala battle Pharsala, Greece -49 to -48 Pompey, for Senate, lost to Julius Caesar, for the people, in Roman Republic civil war, ending republic and starting Roman Empire.

Philippi battle Philippi, Asia Minor -42 Octavian (later Augustus), his general Agrippa, and Roman general and Second Triumvirate member Marcus Antonius (Marc Anthony) defeated republican forces representing Senate and ruled Middle East.

Actium sea battle Actium, Greece -31 Octavian (Augustus) defeated Marc Anthony and Cleopatra.

Teutoburg Forest battle Rhine River 9 German tribes stopped Rome, eliminating three legions, at Rhine River in Germany. Romans put boundary across Europe {limes} at Rhine and Danube Rivers, with roads, camps for legions, and towers. At that time, Rome had 28 infantry legions with 160,000 men and as many men in cavalry and other units.

Jerusalem battle Jerusalem, Palestine 73 Roman Empire destroyed Maccabees, who had fled to Masada.

Edessa battle Edessa, Turkey 260 Persia defeated Rome and took Emperor Valerian prisoner.

Rome battle Rome, Italy 410 Rome fell to Visigoths under Alaric I. Stilicho, a Vandal, led Roman Visigoth, Alan, and Hun army, but someone murdered him before battle.

Troyes or Châlones battle Troyes, France

30 451 Attila the Hun lost to Rome under Aetius, a Visigoth who commanded Visigoths, Franks, Celts, and Burgundians.

Rome battle Rome, Italy 455 Odoacer, king of Vandals, came from Carthage and sacked Rome.

Rome battle Rome, Italy 476 Western Roman Empire ended as Vandals under Odoacer sacked Rome second time and killed the western emperor, Romulus Augustus.

Qadesiyya battle Qadesiyya, Persia 635 Moslem Empire defeated Persia under Yazdegard.

Nahavand battle Nahavand, Persia 642 Moslem Empire defeated Persia under Yazdegard, ending Sassanian Dynasty. Zoroastrians fled Moslems, went to Gujerat Province in India, and became Parsees.

Bukhara battle Bukhara, Afghanistan 713 Omayyad Caliphs took Bukhara.

Tours battle Poitiers, France 732 Charles Martel, king of Franks, defeated Moorish Kingdom.

Talas battle Talas River, Turkestan 751 Arabian Empire defeated Tang Dynasty, in Pamir Mountains.

Roncesvalles battle France/Germany 778 Basques of north Spain defeated Charlemagne.

Fontenoy battle France/Germany

31 843 Eastern Frankish kingdom and Charles the Bold defeated Lothair I.

Hafrs Fjord battle Hafrs Fjord, Norway 872 Harold I won and united small kingdoms, driving losers overseas.

Ethandune battle Ethandune, England 878 Alfred, king of Wessex [871], defeated Vikings. Guthrum, Viking lord, kept England north half {Danelaw}.

Kiev battle Kiev, Ukraine 882 Varangians took Kiev from Khazars.

Baghdad battle Baghdad, Iraq 947 All-e Buyeh of Persian Buyides took Baghdad.

Lechfeld battle Lechfeld, Austria 955 Otto I of Saxony took Austria from Magyars near Augsburg. Bavaria added Austria as Eastern March. Slovakia became part of Hungary [955 to 1918].

Rechnitz battle Germany 955 Otto defeated Slavs.

Balkh battle Balkh, Afghanistan 1037 Seljuk Turks under Toghrol or Tughril defeated Mas'ud of Ghaznavid Dynasty of Persia.

Coimbra battle Coimbra, Spain 1064 Ferdinand I, king of Castile, captured Coimbra from Moors.

Hastings battle England 1066

32 Edward the Confessor died with no heir. He had promised throne to William, Duke of Normandy, but English nobles wanted Harold, Earl of Wessex. William the Conqueror of Normandy defeated Harold of England.

Stamford Bridge battle England 1066 Normans and English defeated Norwegian invasion.

Manzikert battle Manzikert, Asia Minor 1071 Seljuk Turks from Baghdad, under Toghrol, defeated Byzantine Empire and captured emperor.

Rome battle Rome, Italy 1083 Henry IV of Holy Roman Empire took Rome, forcing Pope Gregory VII to flee.

Jerusalem battle Jerusalem, Palestine 1096 to 1097 Peter the Hermit and Crusaders passed through Constantinople and Sultanate of Rum and took Jerusalem from Seljuk Turks.

Jerusalem battle Jerusalem, Palestine 1099 Seljuk Turks lost Jerusalem to Byzantine Emperor Alexius I, Tancred, and Godfrey of Bouillon. Christians set up Kingdom of Jerusalem and founded County of Tripoli around Tripoli, Lebanon, and Principality of Antioch and County of Edessa around Maras, east of Tarsus. Sultanate of Rum still ruled Asia Minor and Turkey. Fatimids ruled undisturbed in Egypt.

Legnano battle Legnano, Italy 1176 Lombard League, for Pope Alexander I, defeated Frederick I of Holy Roman Empire.

Hattim battle Jerusalem, Palestine 1187 Saladin of Saracens defeated Christians and captured Jerusalem, as Second Crusade failed.

Jerusalem battle Jerusalem, Palestine 1192 Saladin of Saracens defended Jerusalem against Richard I of England, Philip II of France, and Third Crusade.

Las Navas de Tolosa

33 battle Las Navas de Tolosa, Spain 1212 Spain and Portugal defeated the Berber Almohades. Only Granada remained Berber.

Beijing battle Beijing, China 1214 Genghis Khan captured Beijing.

Cortenuova battle Cortenuova, Italy 1237 Frederick II of Holy Roman Empire defeated Lombard League. This created Guelph cities and Ghibelline cities, which fought each other. Guelph cities were Bologna, Florence, Genoa, and Naples. Ghibelline cities were Rome, Verona, Milan, Pisa, and Arezzo. Papacy, supported by Guelphs, was against Holy Roman Empire, supported by Ghibellines.

Neva River battle Neva River, Russia 1240 Alexander Nevsky of Russia defeated Sweden.

Algarve battle Algarve, Spain 1249 Alfonso III of Portugal drove Moors from Spain.

Baghdad battle Baghdad, Iraq 1258 Holuga Khan of Mongol Empire took Baghdad, and Maragheh became capital.

Ayn Jalut battle Ayn Jalut, Palestine 1260 Mamelukes stopped Mongol attack on Syria, near Nazareth.

Battle of the Spurs battle France 1302 The count of Hainaut in Flanders defeated Duke of Burgundy.

Bannockburn battle Bannockburn, Scotland 1314 Robert Bruce of Scotland defeated England under Edward II.

34 Sluys battle Sluys, France 1340 England defeated France at sea.

Crècy battle Crecy, France 1346 England, using longbows, defeated France.

Calais battle Calais, France 1347 England defeated France.

Poitiers battle Poitiers, France 1356 Edward the Black Prince, Duke of Cornwall, captured John II of France and gained Bordeaux.

Adrianople battle Adrianople, Greece 1361 Murad I or Amaruth I of Ottoman Turks took Adrianople from Byzantine Empire.

La Rochelle battle France 1369 France defeated England at sea, and England lost Aquitaine.

Roosebeke battle Roosebeke, Belgium 1382 Arteveldes, counts of Hainaut in Flanders, lost to duke of Burgundy.

Kossovo battle Kossovo, Serbia 1389 Christian Serbia lost to Ottoman Turks.

Nikopol battle Nikopol, Bulgaria 1396 Ottoman Empire, which was Moslem, defeated Bulgaria, which was Christian.

Ankara or Angora or Ankyra battle

35 Ankara, Turkey 1402 Tamerlane, Mongol from central Asia, and Timurids defeated Ottoman Empire.

Baghdad battle Baghdad, Iraq 1410 Turkomans took Baghdad and western lands from Timurids.

Agincourt battle Agincourt, France 1415 England, under Henry V, and Burgundian allies defeated France under Louis, Duke of Orleans in Azincourt, north France. English used longbows. Professional soldiers began.

Bursa battle Bursa, Turkey 1423 Tamerlane sacked Bursa, capital of Ottoman Turks.

Orléans battle France 1429 France, led by Joan of Arc, defeated England.

Patay battle France 1429 France, led by Joan of Arc, defeated England.

Kossovo battle Kossovo, Serbia 1448 Byzantine Empire defeated Serbia.

Normandy battle Normandy 1449 France defeated England.

Chatillon battle France 1452 France defeated England to end 100 Years War [1453]. Calais was still English.

Constantinople battle Constantinople, Turkey

36 1453 Ottoman Turks under Mohammed II or Muhammed II or Mehmet II conquered Constantinople, ending Byzantine Empire by defeating Constantine XI. Knowledge of Greek philosophers reached Europe.

Belgrade battle Belgrade, Serbia 1456 John Hunyadi and John Capistran of Hungary defeated Ottoman Empire. John Capistran became a Catholic saint.

Tannenberg battle Poland 1460 Lithuania defeated Teutonic Knights.

Bosworth Field battle England/Wales 1485 Henry VII defeated last Plantagenet king, Richard III, and started Tudor line.

Granada battle Granada, Spain 1492 King Ferdinand V and Queen Isabella I of Spain defeated last Moors.

Taro battle Taro, Italy 1495 Francesco Gonzaga of Italy fought France in Italian Wars.

Goa battle Goa 1510 Portugal took Goa.

Marignano battle Switzerland 1515 Switzerland lost at Marignano and began neutrality policy.

Belgrade battle Belgrade, Serbia 1521 Ottoman Empire took Belgrade from Hungary.

Mohacs battle Mohacs, Hungary 1526

37 Louis II of Hungary lost to Suleiman I the Magnificent of Ottoman Empire.

Shimbra Kure battle Ethiopia 1529 Muslim Ethiopians defeated Christian Ethiopians until 1543, when Portuguese troops defeated Muslim Ethiopians.

Calais battle France 1558 England lost Calais.

Lepanto sea battle Lepanto, Italy 1571 Venice and Spain stopped Ottoman Empire in Mediterranean off west Greece.

Vienna battle Vienna, Austria 1583 Ottoman Empire besieged Vienna and Austria. John III of Poland relieved Vienna but did not take Moldavia or Walachia from Ottoman Empire.

Cadiz sea battle Cadiz, Spain 1587 Francis Drake of England destroyed Spain's fleet.

Spanish Armada sea battle English Channel 1588 Spanish Armada lost to England under Francis Drake.

Sekigahara battle Japan 1601 Hideyoshi, Ieyasu, or Iyeyasu, of Toyotomi clan, defeated other barons and unified nation.

White Mountain battle White Mountain, Bohemia 1620 Frederick the Winter King and Protestant Bohemian princes lost to Spain and Hapsburgs of Holy Roman Empire.

Blenheim battle Blenheim, Germany 1648 John Churchill of England defeated Holy Roman Empire. Blenheim is in west Germany.

38

Drogheda battle Ireland 1651 Oliver Cromwell of England ended ten-year rebellion in Ireland.

Czestochowa battle Czestochowa, Poland 1655 Poland defeated Sweden at Czestochowa monastery.

Boyne battle Boyne, Ireland 1690 England defeated Ireland. England enacted more Penal Laws against Ireland.

Port Royal battle Port Royal, Canada 1710 Britain took Port Royal from France and settled in Acadia (Nova Scotia).

Pondichery battle Pondichery, India 1741 France defeated England.

Plassey battle Plassey, India 1757 Robert Clive of British East India Company defeated France, ending French influence in India. As governor of Bengal, he also got Behar, Calcutta, and Crissa for Britain.

Plains of Abraham battle Canada 1759 Britain under Wolfe defeated France under Montcalm in French and Indian War.

Bunker Hill battle Boston, Massachusetts 1775 Britain defeated USA.

Concord battle Concord, Massachusetts 1775 Britain and USA fought second battle.

39 Fort Ticonderoga battle USA 1775 Britain lost to USA.

Lexington battle Lexington, Massachusetts 1775 Battle between Britain and USA was first Revolutionary-War fighting {shot heard round the world}. When he looked at Old North Church to see the lights, "one if by land, two if by sea", Paul Revere saw one lantern and rode to get colonists ready {Paul Revere's ride}.

Boston battle Boston, Massachusetts 1776.08 Britain failed to stop siege of Boston by USA under Washington and had to leave Boston.

Long Island battle Long Island, New York 1776.08 USA under Washington failed in defense of New York City against British.

Brandywine battle Brandywine, Pennsylvania 1776.09 USA under Washington failed to save Philadelphia from British.

Germantown battle Germantown, Pennsylvania 1776.09 USA under Washington failed to save Philadelphia from British.

Princeton battle Princeton, New Jersey 1776.1225 USA under Washington crossed Delaware River on Christmas to route Hessian (German) mercenaries at night.

Trenton battle Trenton, New Jersey 1776.1225 USA under Washington crossed Delaware River on Christmas to route Hessian (German) mercenaries at night.

Bennington battle Bennington, Vermont 1777 Ethan Allen successfully led Green Mountain Boys of USA against British.

40 Saratoga Springs battle Saratoga, New York 1777 Saratoga Campaign of Britain ended when General Burgoyne surrendered to General Gates of USA at Saratoga Springs.

Vincennes battle Vincennes, Indiana 1779 General Clark defeated British who allied with American natives.

Camden battle Camden, South Carolina 1780 In Carolina campaign, General Cornwallis of Britain took Camden from USA.

Charleston battle Charleston, South Carolina 1780 Carolina campaign of Britain started with General Cornwallis of Britain taking Charleston from USA.

King's Mountain battle King's Mountain, North Carolina 1781 USA defeated Britain.

Yorktown battle Yorktown, Virginia 1781 Yorktown campaign began when Cornwallis of Britain retreated to Yorktown, waiting for more soldiers. France blockaded Chesapeake Bay. USA under Washington marched to Yorktown, where Cornwallis surrendered.

Aboukir sea battle Aboukir, Egypt 1798 France lost to Horatio Nelson and Britain, when French ships tried to go to India.

Battle of the Pyramids battle Egypt 1798 to 1801 France occupied Egypt, but Britain and Ottoman Empire forced France out.

Copenhagen sea battle Copenhagen, Denmark 1801 Horatio Nelson of England defeated Denmark.

41 Marengo battle Marengo, Italy 1801 France under Napoleon defeated Austria.

Austerlitz battle Austerlitz, Austria 1805 France defeated Austria in Napoleonic Wars.

Trafalgar sea battle Trafalgar Cape, Spain 1805 Horatio Nelson of England defeated France.

Friedland battle Friedland, Germany 1806 France defeated Russia in north Germany.

Jena battle Jena, Germany 1806 France defeated Prussia in Napoleonic Wars.

Wagram battle Wagram, Austria 1807 France defeated Austria.

Tippecanoe battle Tippecanoe, Indiana 1811 William Henry Harrison opened Ohio and Indiana to settlers by beating American natives.

Leipzig battle Leipzig, Germany 1814 Allies defeated Napoleon and sent him into exile on island of Elba.

New Orleans battle New Orleans, Louisiana 1815 USA, under Andrew Jackson, defeated Britain in War of 1812.

Waterloo battle

42 Waterloo, Belgium 1815 Napoleon escaped from Elba and rallied France. England under Duke of Wellington defeated Napoleon. Napoleon went into exile on St. Helena Island.

Navarino or Pylos battle Navarino, Greece 1821 Mohammed Ali of Egypt allied with Ottoman Empire and fought Greece and Wahabis of Arabia but lost.

Ayacucho battle Ayacucho, South America 1824 Simon Bolivar led South America to victory over Spain.

Navarino or Pylos battle Navarino, Greece 1827 Greece under president Capo d'Istrai defeated Ottoman Empire in Greek War of Independence and became independent.

Cracow battle Cracow, Poland 1846 Austria took free city of Cracow.

Harpers Ferry battle Harpers Ferry, Maryland 1859 Abolitionist John Brown captured Harpers Ferry arsenal.

Antietam battle Virginia 1862 North defeated South.

New Orleans battle New Orleans, Louisiana 1862 David Farragut defeated Confederate ships to take New Orleans for Union. He then closed off Mobile Bay.

Little Bighorn or Custer's Last Stand or Battle of the Greasy Grass battle South Dakota 1876 George Custer lost to Lakota and its allies under Chief Sitting Bull of the Hunkpapa Lakota.

Rosebud battle

43 Montana 1876 General Crook lost to Teton Sioux.

Aduwa battle Aduwa, Ethiopia 1895 Italy invaded Ethiopia but lost.

Crete battle Crete 1896 Greece fought Ottoman Empire to get Crete but failed.

Marne battle Marne, France 1914 Marshal Foch of France held back Germany.

Tannenberg battle Tannenberg, Poland 1914 Marshall Hindenburg of Germany defeated Russia and occupied Poland. He became commander of all Central Powers forces.

Mexico City battle Mexico City, Mexico 1915 Pancho Villa took Mexico City from Diaz.

Verdun battle Verdun, France 1916 Henri Petain, marshal of France, stopped Germany.

Crimea battle Crimea 1920 Civil war in Russia ended as Reds or Bolsheviks and Red Army under Leon Trotsky defeated Whites or Mensheviks and government.

Fiume battle Fiume, Italy 1921 Italy took Fiume.

Smyrna battle

44 Smyrna, Turkey 1922.06 Kemal Ataturk stopped attacking Greece, captured Smyrna, and deposed Sultan of Ottoman Empire.

Battle of the Atlantic battle USA 1941 USA protected Allied ships from submarines.

Pearl Harbor battle Pearl Harbor, Hawaii 1941.1207 Japan attacked without declaring war. USA declared war on Japan.

El Alamein battle Egypt 1942 Rommel of Germany lost to Field Marshal Montgomery of Britain. Montgomery later commanded in north France.

Singapore battle Singapore 1942 British, French, and Indian soldiers surrendered to Japan.

Coral Sea sea battle Coral Sea 1942.0507 USA defeated Japan.

Midway sea battle Midway Islands 1942.0604 to 1942.0607 USA decisively defeated Japan, as air power crippled Japanese fleet.

Solomon Islands sea battle Solomon Islands 1942.08 USA defeated Japan.

Volvograd battle Caucasia 1943 Germany reached Volvograd and Caucasia.

Marshall Islands sea battle Marshall Islands 1944.02

45 USA defeated Japan.

Iwo Jima battle Iwo Jima 1945.03 USA defeated Japan.

Berlin battle Berlin, Germany 1945.0508 to 1955 World War II ended in Europe as Allies entered Berlin from east and west. Germany had four zones.

Hiroshima battle Hiroshima, Japan 1945.0806 USA dropped atomic bomb.

Nagasaki battle Nagasaki, Japan 1945.0809 USA dropped atomic bomb.

Dien Bien Phu battle Dien Bien Phu, Vietnam 1954 Vietnam defeated France, and Vietnam divided into North Vietnam, which was Communist, and South Vietnam, which was republic.

Saigon battle Saigon, Vietnam 1975.0430 North Vietnam took over South Vietnam.

SOCI>History>History>Culture

Oldowan culture Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania -2000000 to -1500000 In early Lower Paleolithic, Homo habilis chipped sharp flakes from larger stones {stone core}. They were meat eaters and hunter-gatherers.

Abbevillian or Chellean culture Europe -1900000 to -1500000 Abbevillian or Chellean culture first half developed hammerstone technique for making stone tools. Percussion with hammer at edge back pops out semi-cones, leaving jagged edges and concave intersecting surfaces. Top was round and held in power grip.

46 Acheulian culture Africa/Europe -1800000 to -150000 In early Lower Paleolithic, Homo erectus had symmetrical, teardrop-shaped, heavy stone choppers {hand axe} flaked on both sides [-750,000] in a bifacial blade, used for cutting, whittling, scraping, shredding, and butchering bone, antler, meat, hide, wood, and plants.

Chellean culture Europe -1800000 to -150000 In Chellean-culture second half, a new stone-tool-making developed. Toolmaker hit stone against large anvil stone to make bigger tools than before.

Middle Acheulian culture Africa/Europe -800000 to -500000 In Lower Paleolithic, Homo erectus developed cylinder-hammer technique for making stone tools. Wood branches, bones, or weathered stones are softer hammers to spread percussion, to give wide arcs to cones, with less-jagged edges. This technique did not make original edge but finished the blade.

Late Acheulian culture Europe -500000 to -400000 In Lower Paleolithic, Homo erectus invented prepared core technique.

Mousterian culture Europe -150000 to -35000 In Middle Paleolithic, Homo sapiens had flaked and chipped stone tools and knives, used stone hand ax, used bone tools, and used wooden spears. They hafted handles on tools. They did little carving or polishing. Nomads built cooking fires and lived in caves, with few dwellings. They gathered food and hunted animals. They buried the dead and began painting and sculpture.

Châtelperronian culture Europe -50000 Homo neanderthalensis in Upper Paleolithic was similar to Mousterian and Aurignacian cultures of Homo sapiens.

Aurignacian culture Europe -50000 to -30000 In Upper Paleolithic, Homo sapiens tried new stone-tool-making forms. Cro Magnons painted cave walls in France and Spain.

Aborigine culture Australia/New Guinea -40000 to -25000

47 Homo sapiens reached Australia from Southeast Asia by boat. Aborigines (early inhabitants) fished near coasts. Giant animals became extinct: giant kangaroo, marsupial diprotodont, marsupial leopard, giant python, giant lizard, and 400-pound bird. nomads culture Earth -35000 to 500 Nomads depended on families, were herders, and domesticated sheep and dogs. Nomads used barbed harpoons, bows and arrows, fishhooks, fishnets, and fish traps. They used flint master tools, adz, straightening tool, woodworking tools, ice picks, sickles, mortars and pestles, sledges, combs, and needles. They had baskets, leather, paving, and handicrafts. They did not store goods. They had sacrifices but no rituals or burials. They built pyramid mounds. They used swastika symbol for luck [Bronowski, 1974]. hunter-gatherer culture Lesotho/Zambia -34000 Culture began.

Solutrean culture Europe -31000 to -16000 Upper Paleolithic culture was in west Europe.

Nui Do culture Vietnam -30000 to -23000 Homo erectus lived.

Gravettian culture Europe -30000 to -22000 Upper Paleolithic culture was in west Europe.

Pre-Clovis culture Pedra Furada, Brazil -28000 Culture began.

Son Vi culture Vietnam -23000 to -10000 Homo erectus lived in caves in Lang Son and Nghe An provinces.

Gagadju culture Australia -20000 The first people, Nayuhyunggi, lived in the Dreamtime, which had mythical beings who lived deep underground. Paintings are on Ubirr Rock and in caves.

48

Grimaldi culture Greece -20000 to -8300 Upper-Paleolithic Grimaldi man had culture similar to Bushmen, Hottentots, and Aborigines. hunter-gatherer culture Zaire -18000 Culture began.

Kutikina Cave culture Tasmania -18000 to -11000 Culture was in south Tasmania and had stone tools.

Magdalenian culture Europe -18000 to -11000 Upper Paleolithic cave paintings in France and Spain have animals and hands. Perhaps, paintings overcame fear of animals, idealized experience, expressed feeling, or were play.

Pre-Clovis culture Cactus Hill, Virginia -16000 Upper Paleolithic peoples were Amerindian, Polynesian, Scandinavian, or African. They used hearth.

Pre-Clovis culture Topper, South Carolina -16000 to -12000 Upper Paleolithic stone blades and scraping tools were made.

Azilian culture Europe -15000 to -7000 Neolithic culture was in west Europe.

Pre-Clovis culture Bluefish Caves, Yukon -14800 Culture began.

Pre-Clovis culture Alaska -13070 to -12700

49 Mongoloid peoples crossed from Siberia into Alaska over Bering Strait. Sea level was lower during Ice Age, and no glacier was on low-lying Bering Strait. Two glaciers over Canada forced people to travel down valley from Yukon River to United-States region. Perhaps, people traveled along Pacific Coast in small boats from Southeast Asia. Perhaps, people traveled from Iberia across North Atlantic Ocean by boat, taking with them Solutrean technology [- 22000 to -14000]. Perhaps, people traveled from Australia through islands across South Pacific Ocean by boat.

Nile River culture Nile River, Egypt -13000 People settled along Nile River in Egypt, as rain increased as ice age receded.

Clovis culture Monte Verde, Chile -12700 Neolithic campsite in south Chile had 30 people, who left footprints and used stone spearpoints, animal hides, and wooden things.

Clovis culture Los Toldos, Argentina -12600 Culture began.

Tepexpan culture Mexico -12000 to -7000 Neolithic Tepexpan man was in Central Valley of Mexico.

Clovis culture Pachamachay, Peru -11900 Culture began.

Clovis culture Topper, South Carolina -11700 Culture began.

Clovis culture Tibito, Colombia -11600 Culture began.

Clovis culture Lapa Vermelha IV, Brazil -11500 Luzia skull was at Neolithic site.

50

Pre-Clovis culture Walker Road, Alaska -11300 Culture began.

Fukui Cave culture Fukui, Japan -11000 Culture was near Nagasaki.

Pre-Clovis culture Santa Rosa Island, California -11000 Arlington Springs woman was at Neolithic site.

Clovis culture Clovis, New Mexico, USA -11000 to -5000 Neolithic Amerindian peoples used large fluted stone spear points and hunted big game.

Clovis culture Cactus Hill, Virginia -10920 Neolithic Amerindian peoples used side scrapers, stones for woodworking, fluted stone points, and hearths. Forests were pine, not hardwood.

Clovis culture Los Tapiales, Guatemala -10900 Culture began.

Pre-Clovis culture Meadowcroft Rockshelter, Pennsylvania -10900 Neolithic peoples were Amerindian, Polynesian, Scandinavian, or African. They ate deer, rabbit, snake, nuts, berries, fish, and turtles. They had hearths, baskets, nets, wooden tools, and skin or wood boats. They were in southwest Pennsylvania.

Clovis culture Taima-Taima, Brazil -10500 Culture began.

Basque culture Spain -10000

51 Basques have lived in Spain since Stone Age.

Germanic culture Sweden -10000 Neolithic Germanic tribes went to south Sweden.

Hoa Binh/Bac Son culture Vietnam -10000 to -4000 Culture began.

Neolithic or New Stone Age culture Earth -10000 to -3000 Animal carvings and paintings were probably to ensure good hunting and herding. Animals, spirals, triangles, circles, squares, and mazes were in early Neolithic paintings. Artists drew line, dot, and symbol patterns for rain, lightning, and wind, but not for Sun or Moon, in middle Neolithic era. Fertility symbols appeared in late Neolithic.

Neolithic or New Stone Age culture Earth -10000 to -3000 Matriarchal societies had few sexual taboos, did not treat illegitimate children badly, had less emphasis on property, were more vegetarian, and did not have possessive love.

Clovis culture Great Plains -9000 Culture hunted bison.

Ertebolle or Kitchen Midden culture Finland/Sweden -9000 Culture was early Neolithic hunters.

Kongemose culture Denmark -9000 Culture had early Neolithic hunters.

Maglemose culture Norway -9000 Culture was early Neolithic hunters.

Natufian culture Levant

52 -9000 to -8500 Flint sickles cut wild wheat. They cooked bread.

Joman culture Japan -9000 to -300 Small settlements were on coast, at river mouths, or at mountain bottoms. Homes were huts half in ground. Roofs had branches and leaves. They ate shellfish, hunted mammals, and gathered berries and nuts.

Clovis culture Queen Charlotte Islands, British Columbia -8200 Neolithic culture was at Hecate Strait.

Clovis culture Kennewick, Washington -7500 Kennewick man was at Neolithic site.

Mexican Nomads culture Mexico -7000 to -6000 Neolithic people were hunters and food gatherers, including grain.

Neolithic or New Stone Age culture Earth -6000 to -3000 Magician shamans dealt in trances, dead, animal spirits, and making pictures. Shamans were in Scandinavian, Finno- Ugric, and American Indian cultures. Aborigines had magic-power symbols {Tjurunga}. Bushmen believed in the Great Spirit, symbolized by praying mantis.

Halaf culture Mesopotamia -6000 to -5500 Halaf culture precede Ubaid culture.

Neolithic or New Stone Age culture Mesopotamia/China -5500 First chiefdoms began.

Chinese culture Yellow River, China -5500 to -5000 Neolithic culture had first Chinese language written characters. It used agriculture based on millet, which grows well in arid land Later, millet grew in north China. It had jade and woodcarving. Clans kept land and had kinship patterns.

Ubaid

53 culture Mesopotamia -5500 to -4000 Neolithic culture had large settlements, had large temples, had sailboats, used trade, used copper, and fired clay. One settlement was Tell Zeidan, in northern Syria, on the Balikh River, which had irrigation, social classes, and political leaders and traded with far towns. Tepe Gawra was in the north Iraq. Ubaid, Eridu, and Oueli were in the south.

Chonchorros culture Chile -5000 Culture was in north Chile.

Chumash culture California -5000 Culture began.

Cochise culture USA -5000 Culture was in southwest USA.

Sumerian culture Sumer -5000 Sumerian language started.

Linearbandkeramik culture Europe -5000 to -4000 Neolithic farmers used digging sticks and later plows pulled by oxen in central Europe.

Gumelnitsa culture Romania -5000 to -400 Culture began.

Uruk culture Mesopotamia -4000 to -3200 Bronze-Age Uruk, Ur, and Nineveh cities had mud public buildings, priests, writing, agricultural organization, irrigation, pottery, and metalworking.

Caucasian culture Mesopotamia -4000 Neolithic Caucasian peoples from Georgia and Caucasus lived in Fertile Crescent.

54 Neolithic or New Stone Age culture Caribbean Sea -4000 Caribbean islands became populated.

Hoabinhian culture Asia -4000 to -3000 Culture was Neolithic hunter-gatherers in southeast Asia.

Ta-p'en-k'eng culture Formosa -4000 to -3000 Neolithic culture had pottery, hollowed out canoes, and used bark beater to make rope, nets, and cloth.

Neolithic culture Vietnam -4000 to -2000 Culture had stone rings and ceramics.

Semite or Semitic culture Mesopotamia -4000 to -2000 Neolithic Semitic peoples from Arabia occupied central Mesopotamia, at Tigris and Euphrates Rivers, Fertile Crescent [-4000 to -2000] [Durant and Durant, 1967] [Roberts, 1994] [Toynbee, 1961] [Wells, 1920].

Chilca culture Peru -3750 Culture was in Chilca River valley and was maritime.

Haida culture Canada -3500 Culture was on Canada northwest coast.

Semite or Semitic culture Egypt -3500 Neolithic Semitic peoples were in Egypt [-3500].

Naqada culture Hierakonpolis, Egypt -3500 to -3000 Upper Egypt had wall paintings and pottery. Egypt began unification at end of Naqada culture.

Kranzhugel

55 culture Tell Halaf, Syria/Tell Cheura, Syria/Nagar, Syria/Tell Brak, Syria/Tuttul, Syria -3000 to -2500 Bronze-Age Semitic city was near upper Euphrates River and near Khabur River. It had fortifications around city and used sun-dried mud brick and stone terraces for temples.

Persian culture Iran -3000 to -2000 Neolithic culture Indo-European peoples from south Russia entered Iran.

Hittite culture Anatolia -3000 to -1700 Neolithic culture Indo-European peoples from south Russia entered Anatolia [-3000 to -2000]. It occupied area from Black Sea to Syria [-2300 to -1700].

Negroid/Tuareg/Europoid culture Sahara Desert -3000 to -1000 Tuareg were Hamitic, and Europoid were forebears of Berbers. They lived on savanna and used hippopotamus, elephant, cattle, sheep, and goats. They drew cave paintings of daily life. Sahara rivers flow into Lake Chad (Lake Tchad) or Niger River.

Stonehenge megalith Salisbury Plain, England -2800 Megalith was for seasonal festivals.

Achaean culture Greece -2500 Neolithic Indo-European people from Aeolia reached Attica and Peloponnesus, replaced Pelasgoi people, used sheep and chariots, and had patriarchy.

Beaker culture Netherlands/Belgium/France -2500 Culture put drinking cups in warrior graves.

Chilca culture Paloma, Peru -2500 Paloma was port in Chilca River valley.

Middle Joman culture Japan -2500 to -1500

56 Population and production increased at Joman period peak [-9000 to -300].

Afanasievo culture Siberia -2000 Neolithic culture was in south Siberia.

Battle-Ax/Pitted-Ware culture Denmark/Scandinavia -2000 Bronze Age rock carvings were made.

Inuit culture Arctic -2000 Inuits, Arctic Small Tool people, hunted caribou, whale, and seal.

Scythian culture Scythia -2000 Scythians bred horses to invade Near East.

Hebrew culture Canaan/Palestine -1800 to -1200 Hebrew means wanderer. Semitic Hebrews came to Palestine, probably from Ur [-1800]. The legendary Joshua led Israelites into Palestine [-1400]. Traditionally, Hebrews had exodus from Egypt [-1300 to -1200].

Vedic culture Pakistan/India -1700 to -350 Vedas Indo-European Aryan nomads from Iran had horses, chariots, and bronze weapons. They entered through Hindu Kush and moved to Indus and upper Ganges Rivers by -1700. They used wood, not bricks. By -600, there were many kingdoms. They grew rice in Ganges River valley and had coins, elephants, and writing. Aryans had four sacred books {Vedas} [-1500 to -500], which mainly describe public and family sacrifice rituals. Indus religion combined with Vedas in early Hinduism. The three most important Hindu gods are Brahma the creator, Vishnu the preserver, and Shiva the destroyer, who rules over life and death. They used Sanskrit language. Hundreds of castes evolved, in which people worked, married, performed rituals, and ate special foods. Brahmins were priests of Vedic religion. Soldier and farmer castes also existed. Dravidians were all in lowest caste. Hindu gods began. Agni was god of fire. Varuna was god of heaven and justice. Indra was god of war and water. Vishnu was god. People sacrificed to gods. Culture had child marriages and used sutlee.

Lapita culture Polynesia -1600 to 1000 Culture formed pottery. horticultural societies

57 culture Mexico -1500 Culture practiced horticulture.

Polynesian culture Polynesia -1500 to 1000 Australoid and Mongoloid peoples came from southeast Asia and Australia, went to Micronesia [-1500 to 400], and then continued to Polynesia [300]. They built stone temples [1000].

Mitanni kingdom Syria/Mesopotamia -1450 Kingdom resisted Thotmes III of Egypt in east Syria and north Mesopotamia.

Chavin culture Cerro Sechin, Peru -1200 Culture was on Peru central coast.

Achaean/Ionian culture Asia Minor -1200 to -1100 Achaeans went to islands and coast of Asia Minor (Ionia) and became Ionians, who lived south of Aeolians in coastal towns of Ephesus, Miletus, and Didyma, and islands of Chios and Samos.

Dorian culture Greece -1200 to -1100 Indo-Europeans came to Greece and settled in south Peloponnesus (Laconia), Greek islands, and Knossus, Crete.

Nok culture Africa -1200 to -500 Culture used iron and artistic terra-cotta pottery [-900].

Philistine culture Palestine -1175 Indo-Europeans settled in Canaan.

Mesoamerican culture Andes Mountains/Mesoamerica -1000 First chiefdoms began.

Ainu

58 culture Japan -1000 to -300 Ainu came to Japan when Japan connected to Asia, before Jomon period [-10,000 to -300], and lived in north Honshu and south Hokkaido.

Bantu culture Cameroon -1000 to -100 Culture herded sheep and cattle.

Khoisan culture Kalahari Desert -1000 to -100 Culture hunted and did not farm. Bantu-speaking peoples from Cameroon took over [-100].

Olympic Games culture Mount Olympus, Greece -776 quadrennial multi-sport competition {Olympic Games}.

Bushmen ancestors culture Africa -600 to -500 Culture lived in open areas from Sahara to south tip.

Negroid culture Africa -600 to -500 Culture lived in central and western forests of Africa.

Pygmy culture Africa -600 to -500 Culture lived in small south-Africa region.

Altai culture Siberia -500 Altai is in west Siberia.

Seven Wonders of the Ancient World culture Greece/Middle East -500 to 400 Hanging Gardens of Babylon; Colossus of Rhodes; Pyramid of Cheops; Lighthouse at Pharos; Mausoleum of Halicarnassus; Temple of Artemis or Artemision [at Ephesus]; Statue of Zeus [at Olympus, by Phidias] Only Pyramid of Cheops remains. Pharos is near Alexandria.

59 Sarnathian culture Volga River -300 Sarnathians displaced Scythians.

Gaul culture France -300 to -200 Gauls were Celts. Gaul had three parts: Aquitaine in southwest France, Gaul in central France, and Belgica in Belgium.

Silk Road culture China/Europe -100 Road was between China and Europe.

Batavi or Batavians or Batavii culture Belgium/Netherlands -51 Germanic tribe of Chatti lived on Rhine River.

Belgae culture Belgium/Netherlands -51 German and Celt tribes were in northeast Gaul at Rhine River and fought Caesar.

Frisian culture Netherlands/Germany -51 Germanic tribe lived in north Netherlands and Germany.

Bantu culture Africa 1 to 800 Bantu speakers moved from east Nigeria through Congo to south Africa. Zanz (Zanzibar) had gold, iron, and copper. Arabians, Indonesians, and Chinese traded goods and slaves with each other.

Carib culture West Indies 1 to 900 Caribs were cannibals and used Tupi language. Zemis were their spirit powers.

Taino culture West Indies 1 to 900 Farming people from Paraguay traveling Amazon River and coast of Brazil to Venezuela settled West Indies. They used Tupi language. They grew maize, sugar cane, manioc {starch root}, cassava, and sweet potato.

60

Bohemian culture Bohemia 50 to 450 Bohemians were Celts.

Czech culture Bohemia 50 to 450 Czechs were Celts.

Vlach or Walach culture Dacia 100 Walach is Slavic name for southeast-Europe Romance-language peoples, such as Romanians and Dacians.

Khazar culture Caucasia/Volga River/Ukraine/Crimea 100 to 969 Khazars moved to Caucasia [100]. They then settled near Volga River in south Russia [500 to 600]. Khazars took Crimea [600 to 700]. Khazar Empire ended in south Russia, when it lost to Duke of Kiev [969].

Rhenish culture Germany 200 Germanic Rhenish tribe moved inside the limes, pushed by Huns from the Han Empire of Hsing-Nu.

Goth culture Volga River/Germany/Ukraine 200 to 300 Goths were Germanic tribes, supposedly descended from south-Sweden Gotar tribe. Goths settled Volga River and south Russia [200 to 300]. Goths came inside the limes at Danube River in Germany [251]. Ostrogoths or East Goths stayed. Visigoths or West Goths went west to Danube River and into Austria [400]. Romans took some German tribes, such as Goths in north Balkans, into service as foederati [600].

Hun culture Mongolia/China 220 to 581 Culture began when Huns, Mongoloid tribes from north-central Asia, broke though refortified Great Wall of China, overthrew Han Dynasty, and took China, using horse stirrups [220 to 581]. Their era had many small wars and no central administration.

Frank culture Germany 256 to 400 Franks are Celts. Franks came to Gaul and Switzerland inside the limes at Rhine River, as Huns came from east.

Bantu

61 culture Africa 300 to 400 Culture was in southeast Africa.

Hun culture Volga River 300 to 400 Huns settled Volga River and south Russia [300 to 400].

Angle culture Germany 300 to 450 Angles were Germanic tribes that had come to Roman domains in Britain and north Gaul.

Saxon culture Germany/France/Britain 300 to 500 Saxons were Germanic tribes that came to Roman domains [300 to 400]. Saxons entered north Gaul [400 to 500]. Saxons entered Britain [420 to 450].

Slav culture Balkan Peninsula/Greece/Germany 300 to 500 Slavs settled east of Elbe River [300 to 500]. Slavs settled in Balkans [602]. Slavs moved into Greece from area of Poland and Russia [620 to 700]. West Slavs were Moravians, Poles, Czechs, and Slovaks. East Slavs were Great and White Russians. South Slavs were Serbs, Croats, and Bulgars. They attacked Germany and divided it into feudal domains [900 to 962].

Southwest American Indian culture Southwest USA 300 to 500 Culture built large adobe-brick houses, with 200 to 300 rooms, using wooden frames six stories high, near riverbeds. Courtyard had roofed-over circular pit for men's ceremonies to gods.

Nordic culture Scandinavia 350 to 550 People came to Scandinavia.

Hun culture Russia 372 to 376 From central Asia, it invaded Volga River area and Black Sea coast [372]. It invaded lower Danube River area [376]. Invasions caused Goths and other tribes to migrate toward Roman Empire.

Hun culture Hungary

62 372 to 450 Culture occupied Hungary [372 to 450].

Visigoth culture Adrianople, Greece/Rome, Italy 378 Visigoths defeated Romans and killed Emperor Valens [378]. Visigoths under Alaric II lost to Franks [412 to 414]. King Alaric besieged Rome until it gave up [410 to 429]. Visigoths under Euric and Alaric II fought Vandals in Italy. Visigoths moved to south France and defeated Vandals, and then, under Alaric II, pushed them out of Spain [429]. Visigoths took Lusitania (Portugal). Visigoths then merged with Spanish-Roman peoples.

Lombard culture Lombardy/Austria 395 to 500 Lombard Germanic tribe attacked north Italy [395]. Lombards moved into Austria [400 to 500].

Cimmerian culture Europe/Asia Minor 400 Cimmerians lived from east Europe down to Asia Minor.

Avar culture Volga River 400 to 500 Avars settled Volga River and south Russia.

Bavarian culture Austria 400 to 500 Bavarians moved into Austria.

Jute culture Rhine River 400 to 500 Jutes Germanic tribe was in northwest Germany [400 to 500]. Jutes entered Britain [420].

Suebi culture Portugal 400 to 500 Suebi took Lusitania.

Alemanni culture Switzerland 400 to 600 Germanic Alemanni tribe moved into Switzerland.

Burgundii culture

63 Switzerland 400 to 600 Germanic Burgundii tribe moved into Switzerland.

German culture Britain 400 to 600 German tribal immigrations divided Britain into England, Scotland, and Wales. German tribes became monarchies.

Pallava culture India 400 to 825 Pallavas of Conjeeveran flourished.

Alan culture Spain 406 Alans crossed Rhine and moved into Spain.

Suevi culture Spain 406 Suevi crossed Rhine and moved into Spain.

Vandal culture Spain/Africa/Carthage, Tunisia 406 to 439 Vandals, Germanic tribe, crossed Rhine and moved into Spain [406]. After Visigoths pushed them out of Spain, Vandals conquered north Africa [429 to 439]. Under Gaiseric, they took Carthage after moving through Gaul, Spain, and north Africa [439]. They then controlled Mediterranean. Capital was at Carthage.

White Hun or Ephthalite culture Transoxania, Afghanistan/Khurasan, Persia/India 425 Turks or Tibetans, under khan, lived from Oxus River to Mongolia, speaking Turkish language [425]. White Huns took Persia [483]. White Huns took over Gupta Empire [544].

Ostrogoth culture Hungary/Italy 450 to 650 Ostrogoths occupied Hungary [450 to 650]. Theodoric the Great and Ostrogoths took Italy after defeating Odoacer and Vandals [493].

Swede culture Uppsala, Sweden 450 to 1600 Local assemblies {Thing} met from 450 through 16th century.

64 Hun culture Venice, Italy 452 Huns conquered east Italy [452]. Huns then merged with other European peoples.

Magyar culture Caucasia/Hungary/Romania/Moravia/Germany 460 to 962 Magyars were from Ural Mountains and came to Caucasia [460]. Magyar nomads from central Asia, led by Arpad, moved west into Hungary and Romania [895]. Magyars overran Moravian Empire [900 to 962], and attacked Germany and divided it into feudal domains [962].

Finn culture Scandinavia 500 Finns lived in east Scandinavia.

Gotar culture Sweden 500 Germanic tribes came to Sweden in Neolithic times and became Gotar.

Lapp culture Scandinavia 500 Lapps lived in north Scandinavia.

Svear culture Sweden 500 Svear Germanic tribe defeated Gotar tribe in south Sweden.

Thule culture Alaska 500 Thule people moved into Alaska.

West Slav culture Europe 500 Moravian West Slavs settled in Czechoslovakia. Other West Slavs settled in Slovakia and Silesia. West Slavs did not migrate.

Hun culture India 500 to 515 Nomadic central Asian people destroyed Gupta Empire [500 to 515].

65

Polynesian culture Hawaiian Islands/Easter Island 500 to 600 Polynesians came from east Polynesia [500 to 600]. Ships were two hulls bound together. They navigated by observing star movements, wave patterns, and wind changes.

Huari culture Peru 500 to 800 Culture was on Peru north coast, and culture was like that of Tiahuanaco and Pachacamas, ancient religious centers.

Serb culture Balkan Peninsula/Serbia 500 to 900 Serbs settled in Bosnia and Montenegro [500 to 700]. It converted to Eastern Orthodox Church [800 to 900].

Diola culture Africa 500 to 1500 Culture was in west Africa. Causative substance that is eternal and unchanging exists everywhere. Different amounts and modes formed all things, in a hierarchy of being, with different energies and forms.

Dogon culture Africa 500 to 1500 Culture was in west Africa. Dense mass has motions and patterns, making air, fire, water, and earth, and from them come society and mind.

Algonquin culture USA 500 to 1600 Culture was in east USA.

Cherokee culture North Carolina 500 to 1600 Culture was in east USA. Cherokee had an alphabet, built special houses for chiefs and elders, and built small temples for nature gods.

Chippewa culture USA 500 to 1600 Culture was in east USA.

Choctaw culture USA

66 500 to 1600 Culture was in east USA.

Delaware culture USA 500 to 1600 Culture was in east USA.

Huron culture USA 500 to 1600 Culture was in east USA.

Iroquois culture USA 500 to 1600 Culture was in east USA.

Mandan culture USA 500 to 1600 Culture was in east USA.

Miami culture USA 500 to 1600 Culture was in east USA.

Mohawk culture USA 500 to 1600 Culture was in east USA.

Mohegan culture USA 500 to 1600 Culture was in east USA.

Mohican culture USA 500 to 1600 Culture was in east USA.

Natchez culture USA 500 to 1600

67 Culture was in east USA. River mouth had temples for wood and clay images, 3000 people, and 1000 warriors. Castes were chiefs, priests, citizens, second-class citizens, and slaves.

Ojibway culture USA 500 to 1600 Culture was in east USA.

Ottawa culture USA 500 to 1600 Culture was in east USA.

Pacific Northwest Indian culture USA/Canada 500 to 1600 Neolithic culture had no agriculture but had villages. Large villages had chiefs, householders, and slaves. Tribes had twelve villages with large wood houses. Fish, game, berries, and roots were abundant. Fish were for oil. Spruce and cedar tree roots supplied textile fibers. Dugout canoes were 3 meters x 25 meters. Marriages were with affiliated clan. Totems were clan symbols. Myths were about virtues of totem animals: raven, bear-mother, earth frog, eagle, and wolf. Old women were storytellers.

Plains Indian culture USA 500 to 1600 In north-central USA were Apache, Blackfoot, Cheyenne, Comanche, Cree, Creek, Crow, Dakota, Omaha, Pawnee, Shawnee, Shoshoni, Sioux, and Ute. Plains Indians hunted bison and grew beans, squash, and maize in river valleys. Pemmican was lard beaten with berries, packed in tanned leather parfleche pouch. People had wood frame houses covered with earth, with smoke holes in center, up to 20 meters wide or bison-leather teepees.

Powkaton culture USA 500 to 1600 Culture was in east USA.

Pueblo culture Southwest USA 500 to 1600 Culture lived in adobe and wood multistoried houses. Zuni pueblos used dried clay. Navajo pueblo hogans were round dome-like wood frames covered by clay. Hopi built kiva pueblos. Clan-chief councils and discussions governed the pueblo. Pueblo culture grew squash, gourds, maize, and fruit trees, ground corn on flat metates stones, and ate half- wild turkeys. It formed pottery and spun cotton. Men wove blankets.

Bedouin culture Arabia 600 Bedouins were native Semitic nomads.

68

Croatian culture Croatia 600 to 700 Croatians settled Croatia [600 to 700]. They converted to Catholicism [800 to 900].

Polynesian culture Easter Island 600 to 1300 Polynesians settled Easter Island [600 to 1300]. They grew sweet potatoes, taro, bananas, and gourds and had chickens and pigs. They built rectangular platforms {ahu} along coast.

Avar culture Hungary 650 to 800 Avars occupied Hungary.

Bulgar culture Bulgaria 660 to 675 Bulgars were probably Huns. Bulgars took Slavic Thrace and Moesia [660]. Krum was early leader. Bulgars from Volga River and south Russia settled south of Danube River [675].

Polynesian culture Cook Islands/Society Islands 700 to 1300 Polynesians settled Cook Islands [700]. Stone temple complexes {marae} were in Rarotonga, Cook Islands, and Moorea Island, Society Islands [1300].

Basque culture Spain 715 Arabian empire did not take the mountainous north.

Avar culture Bohemia 800 Avars took Bohemia.

East Slav culture Russia 800 East Slavs settled in west Russia.

Pole culture Poland 800 to 900

69 Culture converted to Catholicism.

Slovene culture Slovenia 800 to 900 Culture converted to Catholicism.

Ovambo culture Africa 1000 Culture was in southwest Africa.

Bantu culture South Africa 1000 to 1100 Bantu came from southeast Africa.

Cuman or Polovtsi or Kipchak culture Vladimir, Russia/Walachia 1000 to 1100 From north Russia, they took south Russia. Prince Igor fought against them.

Pecheneg culture Russia 1000 to 1100 From central Asia, they moved into south Russia.

Quimbaya culture Colombia 1000 to 1500 Quimbaya cannibal tribe spoke Chibcha language.

Sinu culture Colombia 1000 to 1500 Sinu cannibal tribe spoke Chibcha language.

Maori culture New Zealand 1000 to 1560 Maori people settled North Island, New Zealand [1000] and settled at river mouths, such as Wairau Bar [1150], in north South Island. It had terraced fortifications {pa, fortification} [1350] and later built fortresses [1550 to 1560].

Yoruba culture Nigeria 1050 to 1400 It has Yoruba language and Orisha religion and is mainly in southwest Nigeria.

70

Polynesian culture Pitcairn Island 1100 to 1200 Polynesians settled Pitcairn Islands [1100 to 1200].

Hawaiian culture Hawaii 1100 to 1500 Culture had valley irrigation and class structure [1250]. Later, it used wet taro [1400 to 1500].

Malinke culture Mali 1200 Malinke were Mande speakers.

Tatar or Tartar culture Russia 1245 to 1255 Culture started when Tatars or Tartars, Mongoloid tribes from east-central Asia and central Siberia, took east Russia and defeated Cumans. They got tribute from west Russian princes and occupied Crimea.

Tongan culture Tonga 1300 to 2000 Polynesians settled by a lagoon in north Tongatapu, the largest island. Tui Tonga dynasty, of Mu'a district in northeast Tongatapu, ruled and built ceremonial center at Mu'a [1400]. It had ditch and bank enclosing platforms with houses for chief families and their servants. Few Polynesian societies had classes. At ceremonies, root-based kava drink caused drowsiness. New dynasty ruled [1500]. Later, Tui Kanokupolu dynasty ruled, as it does now.

Seminole culture Florida 1767 to 1804 Creek and Hitchiti tribes migrated to Florida.

Pacific Northwest Indian culture USA/Canada 1880 Culture built totem poles depicting three generations [1880] and became wealthy from fur trade with Americans.

SOCI>History>History>Dynasty

Hsia or Xia dynasty Yellow River, China -1994 to -1523 Neolithic culture was first legendary dynasty. Shen-nung, legendary king, taught cultivation techniques to humans.

Hyskos or Shepherd Kings

71 dynasty Egypt -1785 to -1554 Iron Age 13th to 17th dynasties were probably Semitic, had iron weapons, and had iron-wheeled chariots. They attacked the pharaoh at Thebes.

Ethiopian dynasty Egypt -712 to -671 Dynasty was the 25th Dynasty of Egypt.

Ethiopian dynasty Egypt -671 Dynasty ended when Assyrians took Lower Egypt.

Saite dynasty Egypt -663 to -593 First Psamtik and then Necho ruled. Sais, Memphis, and Heliopolis were cities.

Nanda dynasty India -600 to -400 Secular kings united north India, formed provinces under strong administration, and disarmed and split subject peoples.

Ch'in or Ts'in dynasty China -356 to -207 Dynasty started when Ch'in tribe took Szechwan. Hsien Yang was capital. They used iron long sword.

Ptolemaic or Macedonian or Lagid or XXXI dynasty Egypt -322 to -30 After Alexander the Great died, Ptolemy I, general of Alexander, got Egypt and then defeated Antigonus I of Macedon in Wars of the Diadochi.

Qin dynasty China -221 Zheng or Cheng, king of Qin, formed China's first united empire.

Han or Early Han [Han, Early] or Former Han [Han, Former] or Western Han [Han, Western] dynasty China -206 to 9 Liu family started Han dynasty. Confucianism became official, and civil service required knowledge of Confucian texts. It standardized Confucian documents [-200] and wrote dictionary and history. It used coins, had census, and

72 registered land for land taxes. District governors had staff and official compounds {yamen}. Great Wall lengthened. Buddhism came to China. Silk Road started [-100].

Ptolemaic or Macedonian or Lagid or XXXI dynasty Egypt -200 to -30 After Ptolemy IV, kingdom declined.

Sunya dynasty India -175 to -125 Brhadratha ended Maurya Dynasty. Pusyamitra took India back to Hinduism.

Maccabees dynasty Judah -168 to -63 Maccabees first ruled Palestine under control of Syria. Judas the Maccabee and his brothers took Judah's capital, Jerusalem [-166], from Syria. They saved and rededicated Temple at Jerusalem.

Han dynasty China/Vietnam -111 to 936 Han dynasty of China conquered and ruled until defeated by Ngo Quyen dynasty of Vietnam.

Maccabees dynasty Israel -63 Dynasty ended when conquered by Rome.

Ptolemaic or Macedonian or Lagid or XXXI dynasty Egypt -31 Dynasty ended when Octavian or Augustus defeated Egypt under Cleopatra and Anthony at Actium and then at Alexandria, destroying library.

Hsin dynasty China 9 to 25 Wang Mang, nephew of the Han empress, usurped emperor [9].

Sassanid or Sassanian dynasty Persia 226 to 640 Dynasty started when Ardashir I revolted against Parthians and reunited Persia. Ctesiphon was capital. Rey and Hamadan were main cities. Sasan and Bahram Gur were famous Sassanid kings. In feudal systems, four classes were under king: priests {Magi} and government officials, warriors, bureaucrats and scholars, and workers. The four provinces, each with governor {marzuban}, were Persia, Transoxania to north, Kushana to northeast, and Gupta Dynasty to east.

73

Gupta dynasty Patna, India/Ganges Valley, India 320 to 544 Gupta Dynasty ruled Magadha and Ganges River valleys. It used decimal system. Vedanta began. It established Hinduism and castes. It built many stone temples. Religious festivals used large wheeled carts {juggernaut cart}. Funerals for husbands also burned their wives {suttee}. Culture had child marriages, rituals, and meditation. Art flourished. Dramas based on epics began. It possibly ended in 467.

Yamato dynasty Japan 400 to 500 Yamato clan, led by Shinto priest-chief, organized Japan. First emperor supposedly descended from sun goddess. All emperors of Japan trace back to that emperor.

Gupta dynasty Patna, India 480 to 530 Huns entered India and caused dynasty to decline.

Sui or Suy dynasty China 581 to 618 Dynasty reunited China. Canal system linked Yangtze, Yellow, and Hangchow Rivers.

Sassanid dynasty Persia 642 Arabian Empire ended it by conquering Iran.

Omayyed or Ummayad dynasty Damascus, Syria 661 to 750 Dynasty of Moslem Empire started when Muawiya assassinated the fourth caliph, Ali, and deposed Hassan and Hussein, sons of Ali [661]. It ended when Abu Muslem of Khorassan revolted against Marwan II, the 14th caliph [750].

Omayyed or Ummayad dynasty Damascus, Syria 750 Dynasty ended when Abbasid leader Abu Muslem of Khorassan revolted against Marwan II, the 14th Omayyed caliph and killed all Omayyeds except Abdu-r-Rahman I.

Abbasid dynasty Baghdad, Iraq 750 to 1258 Dynasty started when Abu Muslem of Khorassan revolted against Marwan II, 14th caliph of Moslem Empire. Abu Muslem named Abu'l-Abbas-as-Saffash first Abbasid caliph. Abu'l-Abbas-as-Saffash descended from Abbas, uncle of

74 Mohammed, and from Ali, son-in-law of Mohammad. Abu Muslem moved capital to Baghdad. Dynasty ended when Hulagu Khan of Mongols overthrew Abbasid Dynasty.

Aghladbid dynasty Tunis, Tunisia 800 to 909 Aghladbid dynasty founded colony in Sicily [827 to 902] and invaded south Italy.

Angkorian dynasty Angkor Wat, Cambodia 802 Jayavarman II, Khmer king, founded it and built large temple complexes.

Taherid dynasty Khorassan, Persia 820 to 875 Dynasty began when Taherids under Taher Zolyaminayn and his sons Talha and Abd Allah revolted against Moslem Empire. Naishapur was capital. They paid tribute to Caliphs at Baghdad.

Taherid dynasty Khorassan, Persia 840 Dynasty featured trial of Afshin.

Saffarid dynasty Sistan, Persia 861 to 902 Dynasty began when Saffarids under Ya'ghub Layce Saffar or the Coppersmith revolted in Sistan and defeated Taherids. Caliph approved Saffar's brother Amir.

Samanid dynasty Bukhara, Afghanistan 864 to 999 Dynasty began when Samanids under the brothers Nasr and Esmail, sons of Saman Khudat, who was under Caliph Mamun's protection, revolted and defeated Saffarids.

Taherid dynasty Khorassan, Persia 875 Dynasty ended when beaten by Saffarids.

Samanid dynasty Bukhara, Afghanistan 880 Samanids controlled from China to Kermanshah. Nasr and Nooh, sons of the brothers Nasr and Esmail, built schools at Naishapur and Bukhara. They also reestablished court of Sassanids.

Guelph

75 dynasty Italy 900 Guelph family rose in importance.

Samanid dynasty Bukhara, Afghanistan 900 to 999 Dynasty had only Afghanistan and northeast Iran.

Saffarid dynasty Sistan, Persia 902 Dynasty ended when Saffar's brother Amir lost to Samanids after he attacked them.

Five Dynasties dynasty China 906 to 960 Five Dynasties followed Tang Dynasty and had disorder.

Ngo Quyen/Dinh dynasty Vietnam 939 to 965 Dynasty forced China out [939] but Dinh dynasty of Vietnam replaced it [965].

Liao dynasty China 947 to 1125 Dynasty was in north China.

Brandenburg dynasty Austria 955 to 1251 House of Brandenburg or Ottonians ruled upper and lower Austria.

Dinh dynasty Vietnam 960 to 980 Dynasty replaced Ngo Huyen dynasty of Vietnam until overcome by Pre Le dynasty of Vietnam.

Ghaznavid dynasty Iran/Afghanistan/India 962 to 1190 Dynasty began when Albtakin gained rule of Ghazneh.

Piast dynasty Poland

76 962 to 1370 Dynasty began in south Poland under first Piast King Boleslaus I.

Fatimid or Fatimite dynasty Egypt 969 Dynasty came from Tunis, conquered Tulunid dynasty, and built Cairo as capital. al-Azhar University began in Cairo.

Pre Le dynasty Vietnam 980 to 1009 Dynasty replaced Dinh dynasty of Vietnam until overcome by Le dynasty of Vietnam. Le Hoan repulsed Sung dynasty of China [981].

Capetian dynasty France 987 to 1328 Dynasty began when Hugh Capet deposed Carolingian line and became king of France. Capetians tried to control nobles and build commerce. France had Aquitaine, Gascony, Burgundy, Catalonia, Languedoc, and Provence.

Ly dynasty Vietnam 1009 to 1225 Dynasty replaced Pre Le dynasty of Vietnam. Ly Thuong Kiet repulsed Sung dynasty of China [1075 to 1077]. It ended when replaced by Tran dynasty of Vietnam.

Piast dynasty Poland 1020 to 1100 Boleslaus III reunited Poland, but his succession law split it again. Casimir II, Piast, ruled Duchy of Cracow after Boleslaus III died. Silesia and Bohemia became part of Poland.

Abbasid dynasty Seville, Spain 1023 to 1091 Dynasty replaced caliph of Cordoba.

Ghaznavid dynasty India 1030 Seljuk Turks reduced it.

Guelph dynasty Bavaria/Saxony/Florence, Italy/Genoa, Italy/Bologna, Italy 1070 to 1180 Guelph family ruled Bavaria and Saxony, struggled against Hohenstaufen emperors, allied with the pope in Lombard League, and controlled cities of Florence, Genoa, and Bologna. Hanover family came from Guelph family.

77

Hohenstaufen dynasty Holy Roman Empire 1079 to 1254 Hohenstaufens and Ghibellines fought Papacy and Guelphs.

Ludovisi dynasty Rome, Italy 1100 to 1200 Ludovisi family ruled Rome.

Savoy dynasty Italy 1100 to 1798 Savoy family ruled Piedmont, Savoy, and Turin.

Kin or Jin dynasty China 1115 to 1234 Wanyan Aguda or Okota of Jurchen or Nuzhen tribe took Khitan, and his successor took K'ai-feng from Sung.

Ch'in or Chin dynasty China 1126 to 1234 Dynasty was in north China.

Ghibelline dynasty Italy 1138 to 1400 Ghibellines, Hohenstaufen faction, controlled Verona, Milan, Pisa, and Romano and struggled against Guelph cities.

Angevin dynasty Europe 1144 to 1486 Angevins ruled several kingdoms. It ruled Hungary from 1308 to 1386.

Almohades dynasty Spain 1145 Berber Almohades invaded Spain.

Ghorid dynasty India 1148 to 1215 Dynasty ruled part of India.

Fujiwara

78 dynasty Japan 1150 Dynasty controlled emperors at Kyoto. However, civil war among Fujiwara, Taira, and Minamoto clans followed.

Zagwe dynasty Ethiopia 1150 to 1160 Dynasty was in Ethiopian highlands.

Rurik dynasty Kiev, Ukraine 1154 Empire of Kiev broke up, but House of Rurik still ruled Kiev.

Plantagenet dynasty England 1154 to 1399 Dynasty was branch of Angevin line and had Henry II, Richard I, John, Henry III, Edward I, Edward II, Edward II, and Richard II.

Ayyubite or Ayyubid or Saracen dynasty Cairo, Egypt 1171 to 1250 Dynasty began when Saladin of Saracens, who were Sunni Moslems, overthrew Fatimite caliph Nureddim. He took Tunisia, Arabia, Yemen, and Syria [1174]. He took Mesopotamia [1185]. He took Palestine and captured Jerusalem [1187], at Battle of Hattim, as Second Crusade failed. He retook Latin states [1189], which First Crusade had established. He defended territory against Third Crusade, but Richard I of England took and held Tyre [1191] and Philip Augustus of France took Acre [1191 to 1192]. Crusaders kept Tyre, Tortosa, Krak des Chevaliers, and Mu'arrat al-Nu'man.

Almohades dynasty Spain 1174 Berber Almohades took over from Berber Almoravids.

Hohenzollern dynasty Germany 1192 Hohenzollern family of Germany divided into Swabian line and Franconian line.

Ghorid dynasty Delhi, India 1192 to 1206 Kutb-ud-din, Afghan general, took Delhi and established Moslem dynasty.

Hohenstaufen dynasty Italy/Sicily

79 1194 to 1266 Holy Roman Empire took south Italy and Sicily and fought the pope.

Piast dynasty Silesia 1200 Silesia divided into areas ruled by various Piasts.

Tui Tonga dynasty Tonga 1200 Dynasty built coral platform for ceremonies.

Barberini dynasty Rome, Italy 1200 to 1300 Barberini family ruled Rome.

Hapsburg dynasty Switzerland 1200 to 1300 Hapsburg counts controlled part of Switzerland.

Savoy dynasty Switzerland 1200 to 1300 Savoy counts controlled part of Switzerland.

Livonian Knights dynasty Estonia 1202 to 1560 Livonian Brothers of the Sword were German. Bishop Albert of Livonia and Pope Innocent III started them [1202]. Lithuanians defeated them at Battle of Schaulen or Saule [1236], and they merged with Teutonic Knights. In Livonian War, Moscow defeated them at Battle of Ergeme [1560].

Tran dynasty Vietnam 1226 to 1400 Dynasty replaced Ly dynasty of Vietnam. Ports were at Hoi Thong and Van Don. Tran Hung Dao and other Tran kings repulsed Mongol Empire of China [1258, 1285, 1288]. It ended when replaced by Ho dynasty of Vietnam.

Nasrid dynasty Granada, Spain 1232 to 1492 Nasrids of Granada ruled last Moslem city in Spain.

Este dynasty

80 Ferrara, Italy/Modena, Italy 1240 to 1597 Este family ruled Guelph cities Ferrara and Modena and built Villa d'Este at Tivoli.

Ayyubite or Ayyubid or Saracen dynasty Egypt 1250 Dynasty ended when Mamelukes took Egypt.

Bahrite dynasty Cairo, Egypt 1250 to 1382 First Mameluke dynasty had Turks and Mongols.

Malatesta dynasty Rimini, Italy 1250 to 1463 The Guelph condottiero Malatesta da Verucchio [1212 to 1312] founded it [1295 to 1312]. Sigismondo Pandolfo Malatesta [1417 to 1468] built Tempio Malatestiano but lost all territory [1463] except Rimini. Cesare Borgia took Rimini [1500]. Rimini became part of Holy See in 1528.

Il-khan dynasty Persia 1256 to 1349 Il-khan were offshoots of Mongol rulers.

Abbasid dynasty Baghdad, Iraq 1258 Dynasty ended when Hulagu Khan of Mongols overthrew it. Abbasids fled to Egypt and took over that caliphate, with Mamelukes.

Lancaster dynasty England 1267 to 1485 It is Plantagenet branch. Edmund, Henry III's son, ruled [1267 to 1296], followed by Henry IV [1399 to 1413], Henry V [1413 to 1422], and Henry VI [1422 to 1461] [1470 to 1471].

Hohenstaufen dynasty Germany/Austria 1268 Someone murdered last Hohenstaufen emperor of Holy Roman Empire.

Bourbon dynasty France 1272 Bourbon family began.

81 Visconti dynasty Milan, Italy 1277 to 1447 Dynasty was Ghibelline.

Hapsburg dynasty Germany/Austria 1282 to 1918 Dynasty ruled Holy Roman Empire and Austria.

Khalji dynasty Delhi, India 1290 to 1320 Dynasty ruled Delhi Sultanate.

Douglas dynasty Scotland 1297 to 1588 Douglas family had older Black branch and younger Red branch.

Arpad dynasty Hungary 1301 Dynasty ended.

Tughlakid dynasty Delhi, India 1320 to 1398 Dynasty ruled Delhi Sultanate under Tughlak.

Valois dynasty France 1328 to 1589 Valois family ruled France directly [1328 to 1498] or collaterally. Valois kings were John II, Charles V, Charles VI, Charles VII, Louis XI, and Charles VIII. Louis XII was of Valois-Orleans line.

Gonzaga dynasty Mantua, Italy 1328 to 1708 Luigi Gonzaga [1267 to 1360] became captain general of Mantua [1328] under Holy Roman Empire. After War of the Spanish Succession [1708], Hapsburg Austria got Mantua and Savoy got Montferrat. Gonzaga Castle is near Mantua.

Piast dynasty Poland 1370 In south Poland, Casimir III the Great was last Piast and consolidated king's power.

82

Ghara-Ghoyunlu dynasty Iran 1378 to 1468 Ghara-Ghoyunlu line ruled northeast Iran.

Burjite dynasty Egypt 1382 to 1517 New line of Mamelukes ended Bahrite Dynasty.

Shan dynasty Burma 1400 Shan chiefs ruled Burma.

Ho dynasty Vietnam 1400 to 1407 Dynasty replaced Tran dynasty of Vietnam. It ended when beaten by Minh dynasty of China.

Valois-Orleans dynasty France 1411 When Charles VI became insane, Louis, Duke of Orleans, caused civil war between south-France Armagnacs and east-France Burgundians. He started Valois-Orleans kings. Burgundians allied with Henry V of England when he invaded and defeated Louis, forcing Treaty of Troyes, which gave Normandy to Henry V.

Sayyid dynasty India 1414 to 1443 Dynasty ruled Delhi Sultanate.

Hohenzollern dynasty Brandenburg 1415 to 1618 Dynasty ruled electorate of Brandenburg.

Savoy dynasty Savoy 1416 to 1946 Savoy family ruled Savoy and parts of France and Italy.

Le dynasty Vietnam 1428 to 1527

83 Under Le Loi, it fought Minh dynasty of China for 10 years, winning under Nguyen Trai. It ended when beaten by Mac Dang Dung.

Medici dynasty Italy 1434 to 1532 Merchants and bankers upheld democracy in Florence and patronized art. They also ruled Siena and Tuscany.

Sforza dynasty Milan, Italy 1450 to 1535 Ludovico Sforza took over Duchy of Milan.

Lodi dynasty India 1451 to 1519 Dynasty ruled Delhi Sultanate.

Borgia dynasty Rome, Italy 1455 to 1572 Borgia family ruled Rome and papacy.

York dynasty England 1461 to 1485 York family ruled Britain.

Agh-Ghoyunlu dynasty Iran 1468 to 1502 Agh-Ghoyunlu line ruled northeast Iran.

Sture dynasty Sweden 1470 to 1520 Sture were regents.

Hosokawa clan ruler Japan 1473 to 1493 Civil war began again in 1493.

Tudor dynasty England 1485 to 1603 Dynasty had Henry VII, Henry VIII, Edward VI, Mary I, and Elizabeth I.

84

Jagiello or Jagello dynasty Poland 1490 to 1526 Dynasty ruled Poland, Lithuania, Bohemia, and Hungary.

Toungoo dynasty Burma 1500 to 1600 Toungoo Dynasty, which was native, took over from Shan chiefs.

Safavid dynasty Iran 1501 to 1722 Dynasty started under Shah Isma'il Safavi.

Valois-Angouleme dynasty France 1515 to 1589 Dynasty started with Francis I, followed by Henry II, Francis II, Charles IX, and Henry III.

Vasa dynasty Sweden 1523 Dynasty had Gustavus I, Eric XIV, Charles IX, Gustavus II, Christina, Charles X, and Charles XI.

Hapsburg dynasty Bohemia 1526 Hapsburg kings of Austria began rule of Bohemia.

Zapolya dynasty Hungary 1526 to 1571 John I Zapolya or John Sigismund [1487 to 1571] was king of Hungary [1526 to 1540]. John II Zapolya or John Sigismund Zapolya was king of Hungary and prince of Transylvania [1540 to 1571].

Mac dynasty Vietnam 1527 to 1788 Mac Dang Dung defeated Le dynasty of Vietnam. Capital was Phu Xuan, now Hue. It ended when beaten by the brothers Nguyen Nhac, Nguyen Lu, and Nguyen Hue. Le Chieu Thong asked Qin dynasty of China for help but Nguyen Hue defeated it [1789] at Thang Long.

Farnese dynasty Rome, Italy/Parma, Italy 1534 to 1731

85 In 1545, it was most powerful.

Hapsburg dynasty Hungary 1541 to 1918 Dynasty began when King Ferdinand I of Austria fought Zapolya family and gained Hungary.

Orange dynasty Netherlands 1544 to 1747 William the Silent of House of Nassau was first Orange king.

Safavid dynasty Iran 1587 to 1628 Shah Abbas I took land from Ottoman Empire and organized state.

Stuart dynasty England 1603 to 1714 Stuarts were James I, Charles I, Charles II, and James II.

Tokugawa Shogunate dynasty Japan 1603 to 1867 Hideyoshi founded dynasty when he defeated other barons. Edo or Yedo (Tokyo) was capital.

Borghese dynasty Rome, Italy 1605 to 1621 Dynasty controlled Papacy and Rome.

Romanov dynasty Russia 1613 to 1917 Dynasty started when nobles elected Michael Romanov Tsar of Russia.

Hohenzollern dynasty Brandenburg 1618 to 1871 Hohenzollern Electors of Brandenburg ruled Prussia.

Barberini dynasty Italy 1620 Barberini family was powerful in Italy.

86 Hapsburg dynasty Bohemia 1627 Holy Roman Empire (Austria) regained control of Bohemia.

Safavid dynasty Iran 1628 Dynasty ended when Mahmud and Afghans defeated them.

Tokugawa Shogunate dynasty Japan 1638 to 1867 Dynasty controlled 1/4 of all land and supervised the rest through lesser rulers {daimyo}. Travel abroad halted, it banned large ships, and trade declined. Agriculture flourished. Towns grew, so Tokyo had 800,000 people by 1700. It persecuted missionaries and Christians, who numbered approximately 500,000.

Schönborn dynasty Germany 1670 to 1756 Schönborn family ruled in Germany and patronized art.

Saxe-Coburg-Gotha dynasty Germany 1672 Saxe-Coburg-Gotha family began. It later ruled Britain [1901 to 1918].

Hanover dynasty Germany 1692 Hanover family, descended from Guelph family, ruled in Germany.

Hanover dynasty Great Britain 1714 to 1837 Hanover kings were George I, George II, George III, George IV, and Victoria.

Afshar dynasty Persia 1736 to 1747 Dynasty started under Nader Afshar or Nader Shah, who defeated Afghans and Ottoman Empire and invaded India, taking Koh-i-noor diamond and Peacock Throne.

Zand dynasty Persia 1750 to 1779 Dynasty started under Karim Khan Zand. Shiraz was capital.

87

Tay Son dynasty Vietnam 1771 to 1788 Nguyen Nhac, Nguyen Lu, and Nguyen Hue brothers fought Mac dynasty and established Tay Son dynasty of Vietnam. It defeated Siam [1785] at Rach Gam Soai Mut. It then defeated Trinh dynasty in Dang Ngoai. Nguyen Hue became king [1788] and defeated Qin dynasty of China [1789].

Qajar dynasty Persia 1779 to 1919 Dynasty started under Agha Mohammad Ghajar.

Tay Son dynasty Vietnam 1788 to 1802 After the brothers Nguyen Nhac, Nguyen Lu, and Nguyen Hue fought Mac dynasty, Nguyen Hue became king [1788]. King renamed capital Hue. He defeated Qin dynasty of China [1789]. It ended when Nguyen Anh and French took Mekong delta.

Qajar dynasty Persia 1813 to 1828 Persia lost Caucasia to Russia.

Hohenzollern dynasty Germany 1871 to 1918 Dynasty led German Empire.

Chakkri dynasty Thailand 1872 to 1932 First Mongkut was king, and then Chulalongkorn followed.

Qajar dynasty Persia 1907 to 1919 England and Russia controlled Qajar Iran.

Windsor dynasty England 1917 to 2003 Family changed from German name Wetlin to Windsor: George V, Edward VIII, George VI, and Elizabeth II.

Qajar dynasty Persia

88 1919 Dynasty ended when Iran became independent.

SOCI>History>History>Era

Azoic era Earth -4400000000 Zircon crystal from west Australia proves that continental crust was there. Granite crust can only form in liquid water. Atmosphere had mostly carbon dioxide.

Azoic era Earth -4050000000 Azoic gneiss rocks, the oldest rocks, formed underground and are now in cliffs along Acasta River in northwest Canada.

Archeozoic or Archean era Earth -3600000000 to -1600000000 After continents began, volcanoes made basalt and andesite rocks. Oceans were warm and had high sedimentation. Era ended with first great catastrophe or revolution, of unknown cause.

Cryptozoic era Earth -3600000000 to -600000000 Rocks are in mountain cores exposed by erosion, high-plateau gorges cut by water, or exposed continent granite.

Pre-Cambrian era Earth -3600000000 to -600000000 In first era of Earth life, single-cell organisms responded to various stimuli and moved. Multicellular organisms began. Animals and plants began.

Pacific Ocean/Atlantic Ocean ocean Earth -3000000000 to -2600000000 Oceans reached current depths and extents, from water brought by comets and asteroids hitting Earth.

Huronic glaciation Earth -2450000000 to 2200000000 Ice covered world as oxygen concentration rose.

Paleoroterozoic era Earth -1800000000 to -1500000000 Columbia or Hudsonland supercontinent melded Laurentia, Baltica, Ukraine, Amazonia, and Australia.

89

Proterozoic catastrophe Earth -1600000000 Asteroid, comet, high volcanism, sea-level change, warming, or cooling caused mass extinction.

Proterozoic era Earth -1600000000 to -600000000 Era had volcanoes, glaciers, rain, erosion, and high sedimentation. Algae, fungi, and marine protozoa began. Amoebas sensed chemicals, temperature, touch, and radiation. Amoebas responded to stimulation by withdrawing or extending pseudopods. They detected stimulus magnitude, summed stimuli over time, and adapted to stimuli. Euglena had eyespot, which detected light, sent signal along membrane, and thereby caused flagellum to move. Era ended with second great catastrophe or revolution, of unknown cause. continents continent Earth -770000000 to -700000000 All continents, Africa, Asia, Australia, Europe, North America, and South America, were together near equator.

Neoproterozoic era Earth -750000000 to -580000000 Four times ice covered Earth for 10 million years, with average temperature of -50 C. Earth interior heat kept sea bottom unfrozen. In each cycle, volcano carbon dioxide increased 1000 times and heated Earth by absorbing sunlight. Land reflected less light from fewer glaciers. Increased moisture trapped more heat. Earth warmed 100 degrees in 1000 years. Average temperature was 50 C, with heavy rains and erosion. Rain took carbon dioxide from air and eroded more, so Earth cooled, making more ice, which cooled it more, so Earth became icy again in 1000 years.

Phanerozoic Eon eon Earth -700000000 to 2000 At current-eon beginning, Asia and Africa collided and all continents came together, to form mountains. glaciation first glaciation Earth -600000000 Ice covered world.

Pre-Cambrian era Earth -600000000 to -545000000 All phyla had begun, but animals had only soft bodies. Vertebrates had not yet started.

Paleozoic Era or Age of Ancient Life era Earth -600000000 to -225000000 Land plants began -600000000. By end, there were insects and reptiles. Era ended with Appalachian Revolution.

90

Gondwana continent Earth -570000000 The four continents were Gondwana in south and North America (Laurentia), Siberia, and north Europe (Baltica) in north.

Cambrian catastrophe Earth -545000000 to -515000000 Asteroid, comet, high volcanism, sea-level change, warming, or cooling caused mass extinction.

Lower Cambrian or Early Cambrian [Cambrian, Early] era Earth -542000000 to -515000000 Life proliferated.

Cambrian era Earth -542000000 to -488000000 Animals and plants filled oceans. Crust folding built mountains. Sea level rose and fell. At end, continental shelf invertebrates increased rapidly, with trilobites dominant. Burgess Shale in British Columbia, Chengjiang in China, and Sirius Passet in Greenland from this period have many fossils. continent rotation continent Earth -540000000 to -520000000 Continents drifted and rotated 90 degrees, causing ten cold and hot cycles, with mass extinctions.

Middle Cambrian era Earth -520000000 to -52000000 Life proliferated.

Upper Cambrian or Late Cambrian [Cambrian, Late] era Earth -505000000 to -488000000 Life proliferated.

Ordovician era Earth -500000000 to -425000000 Vertebrates began as jawless fish appeared. Mountain building was by crust folding. Sea level rose and fell. Plants were on land.

Laurentia/Baltica/Gondwana/Siberia continent Earth

91 -470000000 North America {Laurentia} lay lengthwise along equator. Siberia lay to east, rotated 180 degrees. Australia, India, Africa, South America, and Antarctica lay to east, forming a continent {Gondwana}, with North Africa at South Pole and Australia north of equator. North Europe {Baltica} lay south between Laurentia and Siberia.

Late Ordovician [Ordovician, Late] catastrophe Earth -443000000 60% of marine genera became extinct, possibly as sea level changed widely.

Laurentia/Baltica continent Earth -425000000 Formerly separated by Iapetus Sea, Laurentia and Baltica collided, making Caledonides Mountains. Caledonides Mountains are now in Appalachia, Scotland, and Norway. Hercynian Sea spread over central Europe.

Silurian era Earth -425000000 to -405000000 Mountain building was by crust folding. Sea level rose and fell. Insects began. Bony fish began.

Devonian era Earth -405000000 to -345000000 Great climate changes made trilobites extinct. Lobefin fish began, and later amphibians began. Pine forests began.

European Mountains mountain Earth -400000000 European mountains formed in northwest Europe when Europe and North America collided, while Gondwana and Asia were still separate.

Frasnian-Famennian Event catastrophe Earth -374000000 55% of marine genera became extinct in Late Devonian {Frasnian-Famennian event}, perhaps by global coolness, low sea oxygen, or meteor or comet impact.

Carboniferous era Earth -345000000 to -280000000 Forests were at maximum. Amphibians were dominant. Reptiles began. Crust down-folded. Appalachian Mountains formed in east USA. Cordilleran Mountains formed in Spain, north Africa, Greece, Turkey, India, and Burma.

Pennsylvanian era Earth -326000000 to -286000000 Life proliferated.

92

Appalachian Mountains mountain USA -300000000 Appalachians formed in east USA when Gondwana collided with Europe and North America.

Cordilleran Mountains mountain Europe/Asia -300000000 Cordilleran Mountains formed in Spain, north Africa, Greece, Turkey, India, and Burma.

Permian era Earth -286000000 to -248000000 Permian had glaciation and was cold. Continental shelf invertebrates began to decrease. Mammal-like reptiles began.

Gondwana glaciation Earth -275000000 Gondwana glaciation was greatest.

Permian-Triassic/Permian/Great Dying catastrophe Earth -251000000 Perhaps triggered by asteroid or comet, volcanoes {Siberian Traps} near Tunguska Basin in Siberia caused Permian- Triassic catastrophe. Sea level and climate changed. 84% of marine genera and 95% of marine species died out. 70% of land species became extinct. Perhaps, mountain-sized meteor landed northwest of Australia at Bedout crater, making quartz fractures in multiple directions and making glasses inside crystals. Volcanoes fracture quartz in one direction.

Triassic era Earth -230000000 to -181000000 Erosion was dominant. Continental shelf invertebrates began to increase. Therapsids began.

Mesozoic Era or Age of Reptiles era Earth -225000000 to -70000000 Era was possibly -248000000 to -65000000. Dinosaurs were on land and sea. First dinosaur fossil was in 1824 and first called "dinosaur" in 1842. First birds began. Mammals began. Flat spiral-shelled, octopus-like ammonites were in sea. Gymnosperms rose and fell. First monocotyledon plants appeared. Era ended with Rocky Mountain Revolution.

Pangaea continent Earth -220000000 A large landmass {Pangaea} had center at 0 degrees longitude and 0 degrees latitude, with few species and only shallow waters. It caused great climate changes. Asia with Gondwana joined other three continents and caused Ural Mountains. Africa collided with North America and caused Appalachian Mountains. South America and Yucatan collided with North America and caused Ouachita Mountains of Arkansas and Oklahoma.

93

Late Triassic catastrophe Earth -201000000 High volcanism and widespread warming eliminated 52% of marine genera.

Tethys Sea sea Earth -190000000 Gondwana separated from Pangaea, making Tethys Sea.

Jurassic era Earth -181000000 to -135000000 Mammals began. Dinosaurs were dominant.

Sierra Nevada mountain range Earth -180000000 Sierra Nevada Mountains formed in west USA, and west North America submerged.

Madagascar island Earth -160000000 Island separated from Africa.

Cretaceous era Earth -135000000 to -63000000 Numbers of continental-shelf invertebrates remain constant from now on. Flowering plants began. Alps and Rocky Mountains formed. Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean Sea formed. Surface temperature began to decrease, with great climate changes.

Alps mountain range Europe -130000000 Alps formed in west-central Europe.

Rocky mountain range USA -130000000 Rocky Mountains formed in west USA.

Madagascar island Earth -90000000 Island separated from India.

94

Late Miocene epoch Earth -90000000 to -60000000 Alps, Himalayas, and East African mountains grew. Ocean currents changed. Polar ice caps formed. Monsoons started in Asia. East Africa became dry. Europe became temperate. Forests became grasslands and woodlands [- 66000000].

Mississippi Embayment ocean Louisiana -80000000 After passing over Bermuda hotspot and rising, followed by erosion, land subsided {Mississippi Embayment}, and ocean flowed into gap between Appalachian Mountains and Ouachita Mountains of Arkansas and Oklahoma.

Cenozoic Era or Age of Mammals era Earth -70000000 to 2000 Forests rose and fell. Climate was mostly warm. Mammals became bigger. continents continent Earth -70000000 to 2000 All continents reached current positions.

Cretaceous-Tertiary catastrophe Gulf of Mexico/Earth -65000000 50-kilometer-wide 10-kilometer-deep asteroid hit Earth at 180-kilometer-wide Chicxulub crater off Yucatan Peninsula in Gulf of Mexico, leading to high volcanism and fires across Earth middle. Up to 75% of marine genera died. 75% of animal and plant species ended. 18% of land vertebrates, mostly dinosaurs, became extinct. 240- kilometer-wide circular fault surrounds crater. Chlorine and bromine removed ozone layer. Carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, and methane increased. Toxic minerals entered oceans. Ferns were first to recover, followed by flowering plants that pollinate by wind. Did dinosaurs die by alkaloids in the new flowering plants? Did dinosaurs die from repeated eruptions in the Deccan Traps in India?

Paleocene epoch Earth -63000000 to -58000000 Climate was warm and forested. Prosimians were abundant.

Tertiary era Earth -63000000 to -1000000 Forests flourished but then retracted. Climate was mostly warm. Mammals evolved.

Eocene epoch Earth

95 -58000000 to -36000000 North-America coastal plains submerged. Climate was warm and forested. Modern mammals began. methane explosion catastrophe Earth -55000000 Decaying organic matter formed methane on continental shelves. Water molecules formed lattices around methane molecules, hydrating methane {methane ice}. Sediment forced hydrated methane hundreds of meters below ocean floor. At equator, ocean surface warmed, water evaporated, and top layer became denser and saltier. Perhaps, ocean surface warmed from increased volcanic activity. Dense water sank to bottom and melted methane-hydrate ice near coastlines. Methane gas rose to surface {methane explosion}. Rising methane gas took oxygen gas from water, leaving dead zones. Many foraminifers became extinct, many land species perished, and modern mammals took hold. Methane in atmosphere warmed Earth more, by trapping heat, so methane release continued. More ocean evaporation left land bridges between north continents. Melting methane also destabilized ocean floor, causing landslides, tsunamis, and more methane release. Today, people can use methane deposits for energy.

Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum or PETM epoch Earth -55000000 Atmosphere carbon-dioxide levels doubled or tripled, causing temperatures to rise 10 C for 50,000 to 100,000 years. grasslands grasslands Andes Mountains -32000000 First grasslands {grasslands} formed, replacing forests as Earth cooled and dried.

Miocene epoch Earth -25000000 to -13000000 Volcanoes increased.

Antarctic ice glaciation Antarctica -20000000 Antarctic ice cap formed as climate cooled. Grasslands formed in warmer regions, replacing forests.

Pliocene epoch Earth -13000000 to -1000000 Epoch had many volcanoes and cool climate.

Australia continent Earth -4300000 Australia separated from South America and Antarctica landmass.

Africa continent

96 Africa -4100000 to -1000000 Drought caused African forest to become savanna. African fauna became like today. glaciation continent glaciation Earth -3500000 Continents had ice sheets. glaciation cycles glaciation Earth -2400000 Glacial cycles started.

Isthmus of Panama isthmus Earth -2300000 Ocean current changes led to glaciation, and land bridge formed between South America and Latin America.

Yellowstone catastrophe Wyoming -2100000 Tuff erupted and spread 1000 cubic kilometers of ash.

Matuyama boundary magnetic pole reversal Earth -1770000 Magnetic poles reversed. land bridge region Southwest Asia/Northwest Africa -1700000 to -1650000 Sea level dropped, and land connected Africa and Asia. Lesser apes, elephants, rodents, pigs, and antelopes migrated to Europe and Asia.

Taupo catastrophe New Zealand -1600000 Taupo Volcanic Zone (TVZ) extends from White Island to Ruapehu and includes active cone volcanoes Ruapehu, Tongariro/Ngauruhoe, and White Island and twin calderas Okataina and Taupo.

Yellowstone catastrophe Wyoming -1300000 Tuff erupted and spread 1000 cubic kilometers of ash. glaciation recent glaciation

97 Earth -1000000 More intense glaciation started. Aridity increased. Grasslands spread more.

Pleistocene epoch Earth -1000000 to -11000 Epoch had ice ages.

Quaternary Period era Earth -1000000 to 2000 Era had ice ages.

Long Valley catastrophe California -760000 Bishop tuff erupted and spread 750 cubic-kilometers of ash.

Yellowstone catastrophe Wyoming -640000 Lava Creek tuff erupted and spread 1000 cubic kilometers of ash.

Gunz Glacial Period or Nebraskan Glacial Period era Earth -600000 to -540000 Gunz was first ice age.

Ice Ages era Earth -600000 to -23000 Ice Ages in Europe formed Middle-East and Mediterranean fluvials, with more water and more fertility. Axis-tilt variation, orbit-eccentricity variation, Earth-axis precession, continental-plate movements, and mountain growth caused glaciation. Variations change ocean-current and air-current circulation and cool poles. Ice Ages ended as Wurm glacial period ended. interglacial era Earth -540000 to -480000

Mindel Glacial Period or Kansan Glacial Period era Earth -480000 to -430000 Mindel was second ice age. Glaciers were at greatest extent in -450,000. interglacial era

98 Earth -430000 to -240000

Riss Glacial Period or Illinoian Glacial Period era Earth -240000 to -180000 Riss was third ice age.

Eemian interglacial era Earth -140000 to -120000 Eemian was third and last major interglacial period.

Würm Glacial Period or Wisconsin Glacial Period era Earth -120000 to -23000 Wurm was fourth ice age. Ice was at maximum extent in -55,000.

Mount Toba disaster Sumatra, Indonesia -72000 Mount Toba on Sumatra exploded and ejected 2800 cubic kilometers of ash.

Small Ice Age era Earth -18000 Small Ice Age reached greatest extent.

Bering land bridge land Alaska -13070 to -12700 During an ice age, Bering land bridge existed for last time, allowing further human migration.

Recent epoch Earth -11000 Rainfall decreased.

Younger Dryas era Earth -10900 to -9000 A small ice age began, perhaps after a comet hit North America.

8200 Year Event era Earth -6200 A cold period began 8200 years ago.

99

Mount Etna eruption Sicily -6000 Mount Etna erupted, causing an avalanche, undersea mudslide, and tsunami.

Crater Lake era Oregon -5600 Mt. Mazama erupted and spread 50 cubic-kilometers of ash.

Sahara desert Sahara Desert -3000 to -1000 Desert started to become dry [-3000]. It became dry [-1000].

Medieval Warm Period era Earth 1000 to 1400

Little Ice Age era Earth 1550 to 1850 It followed Medieval Climate Optimum or Medieval Warm Period. High rainfall caused Great Famine in Europe [1315 to 1317]. Glaciers began to increase [1550]. Some years [1650] [1770] [1850] had very low temperatures.

Tunguska event catastrophe Siberia 1908 A 5-meter-diameter asteroid or comet exploded 5 kilometers above Tunguska region of central Siberian forest, flattening 80-mile diameter circle.

SOCI>History>History>Explorers

Eric the Red discoverer Iceland/Greenland, Denmark 970 to 986 Norse navigator colonized Greenland.

Leif Ericson [Ericson, Leif] discoverer Iceland/North America 1000 to 1050 He was from Iceland, was navigator and explorer, and discovered northeast America and called it Vinland. Afterward, other Icelanders visited Baffin, Labrador, and Newfoundland in Canada, up to 1350. He was son of Eric the Red, who had reached Greenland. From Viking settlement in Godthafjord, he landed in Newfoundland.

Marco Polo explorer/historian/biographer

100 Venice, Italy/China 1271 to 1295 Travels of Marco Polo [1295] Marco Polo lived 1251 to 1324. Niccolo and Maffeo Polo, two brothers from Venice, went to China [1271 to 1274] with Niccolo's son Marco, through Palestine, Persia, central Asia, and across Gobi desert in Mongolia. He visited Kublai Khan at Cambuluc [1275]. The Polos returned to Venice [1295].

Bartholomew Diaz [Diaz, Bartholomew] discoverer Portugal/Africa 1488 He lived 1450 to 1500, was from Portugal, explored west coast of Africa, was first to round Cape of Good Hope, and found way to India.

Christopher Columbus [Columbus, Christopher] discoverer Spain/San Salvador, Dominican Republic/Bahamas/Cuba/Hispaniola/Honduras/Nicaragua/Costa Rica/Panama/Columbia 1492 to 1504 He lived 1451 to 1506 and used money from Queen Isabella I and King Ferdinand V of Spain. He rode the Santa Maria, accompanied by the smaller Nina and Pinta, on the first of four voyages to West Indies [1492]. He explored Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Panama, and Columbia [1502 and 1504].

John Cabot [Cabot, John] discoverer England/Canada 1497 He lived 1450 to 1499 and discovered coast of Canada.

Vasco da Gama [Gama, Vasco da] explorer Portugal/South Africa/India 1497 to 1499 He lived 1469 to 1524. From Portugal, he went to Cape of Good Hope, South Africa, and sailed to India. He opened east Africa and India to trade, by force. He captured the gold-trading port of Kilwa in Zimbabwe [1498].

Amerigo Vespucci [Vespucci, Amerigo] discoverer Florence, Italy/Spain/South America 1499 to 1504 New World [1504: forgery]; Four Voyages [1504: forgery] He lived 1454 to 1512, was from Florence, and devised system to find longitude closely. He found South America [1499] for Spain. He voyaged to Americas [1501 to 1504]. He sailed to Plate River in South America [1502]. On returning, he had maps made. German mapmaker Martin Waldseemuller called New World "America" [1507].

Pedro Alvares Cabral [Cabral, Pedro Alvares] discoverer Portugal/Brazil 1500 He lived 1467 to 1520 and took Brazil.

Vasco Nunez de Balboa [Balboa, Vasco Nunez de] explorer Spain/Panama/Pacific Ocean 1513 He lived 1475 to 1519. From Spain, he was first European to see Pacific Ocean at Panama (Darien).

101

Juan Ponce de Léon [Ponce de Léon, Juan] discoverer Spain/Florida/Puerto Rico 1513 He lived 1460 to 1521 and discovered Florida, and later tried to colonize Florida. He also governed Puerto Rico.

Ferdinand Magellan [Magellan, Ferdinand] discoverer Spain/Philippines 1519 to 1522 He lived 1480 to 1521. His ships circumnavigated world and showed Asia and America relation to Europe. Magellan discovered Philippines [1521] and claimed them for Spain. Juan Sebastian Del Cano returned home, but Magellan was slain.

Hernando Cortez [Cortez, Hernando] or Hernan Cortes [Cortes, Hernan] discoverer Spain/Mexico 1521 He lived 1485 to 1547. Coming to Mexico for Spain, people thought he was descendant of the Aztec god Quetzalcoatl. He renounced his allegiance to Spain and defeated Spanish army. He turned to defeated Aztecs, but he lost his powers.

Francisco Pizarro [Pizarro, Francisco] discoverer Spain/Peru 1532 to 1541 He lived 1475 to 1541 and conquered Peru starting at Cajamarca and marching to Cuzco [1533]. He ruled until assassinated.

Jacques Cartier [Cartier, Jacques] explorer France/Canada 1534 He lived 1491 to 1557. From France, he explored and then settled in Canada.

Domingo de Soto [de Soto, Domingo] discoverer Spain/Georgia 1540 He lived 1494 to 1560, was Dominican, explored Georgia, and started Sea Island Missions.

Lopez de Legaspi [Legaspi, Lopez de] discoverer Spain/Philippines 1564 He lived 1502 to 1572 and conquered Philippines.

Alvaro de Mendaña [Mendaña, Alvaro de] explorer Spain/Ellice Islands/Solomon Islands/Marquesas Islands 1567 to 1569 He lived 1541 to 1595. From Spain, he left Callao in Peru, crossed Pacific Ocean, and came back [1567 to 1569]. From Spain, he found Marquesas Islands [1595].

Martin Frobisher [Frobisher, Martin]

102 explorer England/Canada 1576 He lived 1535 to 1594. From England, he tried to find Northwest Passage to China and reached Canadian coast.

Willem Barents [Barents, Willem] discoverer Holland/Canada 1594 He lived 1550 to 1597 and explored northeast coast of America, looking for Northwest Passage.

Henry Hudson [Hudson, Henry] discoverer Holland/England/New York 1607 to 1614 He lived 1565 to 1611 and discovered New York [1607], which was part of Iroquois Confederacy of Native Americans. He claimed Hudson River area for Holland [1611]. He claimed Connecticut for England [1614].

Samuel de Champlain [Champlain, Samuel de] discoverer France/Canada 1608 He lived 1567 to 1635 and founded Quebec, Canada, on St. Lawrence River.

Louis de Buade [Buade, Louis de] or Comte de Frontenac [Frontenac, Comte de] discoverer France/Canada 1608 to 1700 He lived 1620 to 1698 and explored and traded in Canada and west North America.

Louis Joliet [Joliet, Louis] discoverer France/Canada 1608 to 1700 He lived 1645 to 1700 and explored and traded in Canada and west North America.

François Montmorency de Laval [Laval, François Montmorency de] discoverer France/Canada 1608 to 1700 He lived 1623 to 1708 and explored and traded in Canada and west North America.

Jacques Marquette [Marquette, Jacques] discoverer France/Canada 1608 to 1700 He lived 1637 to 1675 and explored and traded in Canada and west North America.

Abel Tasman [Tasman, Abel] discoverer Holland 1642 to 1644 He lived 1603 to 1659 and discovered Tasmania and New Zealand.

Sieur de La Salle [La Salle, Sieur de] or René-Robert Cavelier [Cavelier, René-Robert] discoverer

103 France/Canada 1643 He lived 1643 to 1687 and explored Canada and interior of North America, claimed Mississippi River valley for France, and built forts for trade.

La Verendrye or Pierre Gaultier de Varennes, sieur de la Verendrye [Verendrye, Pierre Gaultier de Varennes, sieur de la] discoverer France/Canada 1708 He lived 1685 to 1749 and explored and traded in Canada and west North America.

Louis Antoine de Bougainville [Bougainville, Louis Antoine de] discoverer France/South Pacific Ocean 1766 to 1769 He lived 1729 to 1811 and explored south Pacific Ocean as he went around world.

James Cook [Cook, James] discoverer England/Hawaii/Australia 1770 He lived 1728 to 1779. While circumnavigating Earth, he discovered Sandwich Islands (Hawaii) [1768] and later claimed east coast of Australia for Britain [1770]. Original inhabitants were Aborigines.

William Clark [Clark, William]/Meriwether Lewis [Lewis, Meriwether] explorer USA 1803 to 1806 Clark lived 1770 to 1838. Lewis lived 1774 to 1809. They organized Lewis and Clark Expedition, started at St. Louis, went up Missouri River, crossed Rocky Mountains, and traveled to Columbia River mouth. Sacajawea of Lemhi Shoshone accompanied them.

Mungo Park [Park, Mungo] explorer England/Africa/Nigeria 1805 He lived 1771 to 1806 and reached upper Niger River.

Antarctica Russian explorer discoverer Russia/Antarctica 1821 Russian ship discovered Antarctica.

John Lort Stokes [Stokes, John Lort] discoverer England/Australia/Tasmania 1838 to 1842 He lived 1812 to 1885. From England, he went to Tasmania, Gulf of Carpentaria, Adelaide, and Port Darwin.

David Livingstone [Livingstone, David] discoverer Scotland/Africa/Tanzania 1841 to 1873

104 He lived 1813 to 1873 and explored south Africa [1841], crossed Kalahari Desert, explored Zambesi River, reached Luanda on Atlantic [1854], searched for source of Nile [1866], got to Lake Tanganyika, saw Victoria Falls, and went down upper Congo. USA journalist Henry Stanley found him [1871] and said, "Dr. Livingstone, I presume." He died in Africa.

James Clark Ross [Ross, James Clark] discoverer England/Antarctica/Arctic 1842 He lived 1800 to 1862.

Henry Stanley [Stanley, Henry] discoverer England/Africa 1871 He lived 1841 to 1904 and found Dr. Livingstone. Later, he helped Belgium rule Congo and Britain rule other African lands.

Roald Amundsen [Amundsen, Roald] discoverer Norway/Arctic/Antarctic 1906 to 1926 He lived 1872 to 1928 and sailed Northwest Passage [1906]. He lost race to North Pole [1909]. He found South Pole [1911]. He flew over North Pole [1926].

Robert E. Peary [Peary, Robert E.] discoverer USA/Arctic 1909 He lived 1856 to 1920 and discovered North Pole and north Greenland.

Richard Byrd [Byrd, Richard] discoverer USA/Arctic 1925 He lived 1888 to 1957 and explored North Pole.

Apollo astronauts explorer USA/Moon 1968 Apollo spacecraft orbited Moon.

Neil Armstrong [Armstrong, Neil] explorer USA/Moon 1969 He lived 1930 to ? and was first person to step on Moon.

SOCI>History>History>Invention bifacial blade inventor Africa/Europe -1800000 to -150000

105 In early Lower Paleolithic, Homo erectus had symmetrical, teardrop-shaped, heavy stone hand axe flaked on both sides {bifacial blade}, used for cutting, whittling, scraping, shredding, and butchering bone, antler, meat, hide, wood, and plants. cylinder-hammer technique inventor Africa/Europe -800000 to -500000 In Lower Paleolithic, Homo erectus developed new technique {cylinder-hammer technique} for making stone tools. Wood branches, bones, or weathered stones can make soft hammers to spread percussion to give wide arcs to cones, to make less-jagged edges. This technique did not make original edge but finished the blade. prepared core technique inventor Atapuerca, Spain/Nice, France/Ibernia/Italy/Mauer, Germany/Africa/China -800000 to -200000 Homo heidelbergensis invented tools chipped from shaped stone cores {prepared core technique} {tortoise core technique}. Toolmakers hit large stones with sharp blows to crack off finished tools. burin inventor Northern Hemisphere -50000 burin [-50000 to -10000] Flint chisels {burin} were for wood or antler/bone carving. drum inventor Earth -30000 drum [-30000] Musical instruments {drum} can have skin stretched over gourd or hollow wood. Before, people used wood blocks. flute of bone inventor Earth -30000 bone flute [-30000] Hollow bones {flute, music} had drilled holes at right places. basket weaving inventor Earth -13000 basket weaving [-13000] People wove reeds and leaves {basket weaving}. animal domestication inventor Asia/Europe -10000 to -2500 animal domestication [-10000 to -2500] Before domestication, people had pets. Perhaps, bird domestication {animal domestication} began by imprinting. Perhaps, cow domestication began by imprinting. Perhaps, domestication began by propinquity at water holes. Perhaps, domestication began for warmth, in North Africa only. Perhaps, domestication began by taking in scavenger pups.

106 Perhaps, domestication began by taming certain nomadic animals, such as reindeer, goats, and sheep using salt from urine to attract them. Dogs were first domesticated animals. People ate domesticated reindeer, sheep, goats, and fowl. People ate cows, pigs, and oxen by late Neolithic. Later, people used horse, ass, and onager for riding, pulling loads, and carrying loads. Totem animals typically are not domesticated animals. cloth weaving inventor Earth -9000 cloth weaving [-9000] Fiber sewing began {cloth weaving}, with no looms. howe inventor Europe/Near East -3800 to -1400 howe [-3800 to -1400]; cairn [-3800 to -1400] Burials with barrow or cairn for one person or flat-topped mound {howe} for more than one person began, with coffins, cremation, and house of the dead. Ships associate with burial and dead. grave inventor Greece/Italy/Asia Minor/Egypt -3000 to -2000 grave [-3000 to -2000] Stone graves {grave} with passageways, for up to 100 people, were above ground. After first burial was a second bone burial. Later tombs, for 20 to 60 people, were below ground. tin smelting inventor Anatolia/Mesopotamia/Afghanistan -1500 to -1000 tin smelting [-1500 to -1000] White tin and gray tin have low melting points {tin smelting}.

Phoenicians inventor Lebanon/Cyprus/Yugoslavia -1000 copper mining [-1000] Phoenicians built copper mines {copper mining}, with sixty-foot long shafts underground.

SOCI>History>History>Invention>Africa grindstone inventor Africa -300000 grindstone [-300000] Two flat-sided stones {grindstone} show characteristic marks. pigment invented inventor Africa -300000

107 pigment [-300000] African Middle Stone Age used colored minerals {pigment}. stone point invented inventor Africa -250000 stone point [-250000] Flint or chert was struck to make sliver {stone point}. shellfish Africa inventor Africa -140000 shellfish gathering [-140000] fresh and salt water clams {shellfish gathering}. trading invented inventor Africa -140000 trading [-140000] Home erectus traders carried native products to far places {trading}. fishing Africa inventor Africa -130000 fishing [-130000] People used fish hooks and line. barb on stone point inventor Africa -80000 barb on stone point [-80000] Toolmaker struck flint or chert to make sliver and then worked side {barb point}. bead inventor Africa -75000 bead [-75000] Pebbles {bead} can have a drilled hole. microlith inventor Africa -75000 microlith [-75000] 3-centimeter chipped flint or chert stone tool {microlith}. bone tool inventor South Africa -70000

108 bone tool [-70000] First Homo sapiens used tools {bone tool}. jewelry inventor Africa -50000 jewelry [-50000: ostrich egg shell and bead jewelry] Egg shells and beads were strung {jewelry}. stone tool Africa inventor Africa -50000 stone tool [-50000] Stone tools {stone tool} had standard shapes. spear inventor Africa -45000 to -35000 spear [-45000 to -35000] Throwing sticks {spear} began, and spear throwers began later [-15000]. counting device inventor South Africa/Swaziland -35000 counting device [-35000] Baboon fibula has 29 notches {counting device}. quartz decoration inventor Zaire -33000 quartz [-33000] Small tools had quartz decorations. rock painting Namibia inventor Apollo, Namibia -25500 to -23500 rock painting [-24000] Apollo-cave rock paintings show rituals. Wonderwerk Cave [-8000] is in north Cape Province, South Africa. terracotta figures inventor Algeria -13000 terra-cotta figures [-13000] Red clay can dry in sun {terracotta}. rock painting N Africa inventor North Africa -8000

109 rock painting [-8000] Tassili-n-Ajjer in Algeria and Fezzan in Libya have petroglyphs {rock painting}. Neolithic paintings are in Morocco. fishing Sahara inventor Sahara, North Africa -7000 fishing [-7000] People used fish hooks and line. pottery Egypt inventor Nile River, Egypt -7000 pottery [-7000] People hand-made vessels {pottery} from river clay, with no wheel. weaving invented inventor Nile River, Egypt -7000 weaving [-7000] People wove reeds and fibers but used no looms. donkey domestication inventor Nile River, Egypt -6000 to -4000 donkey domesticated [-6000 to -4000] Donkey is cross between horse and mule. guinea hen domestication inventor Sahel, Africa -5000 guinea hen domestication [-5000] Bird domestication {guinea hen, domestication} began. rice Africa inventor Sahel, Africa -5000 rice cultivation [-5000] As desert dried, Middle Niger floodplain became good for plants {rice, cultivation}. Jenne-jeno in Mali is there. sorghum cultivation inventor Sahel, Africa -5000 sorghum cultivation [-5000] Grain domestication {sorghum, cultivation} began. copper Egypt inventor Nile River, Egypt -5000 to -4000

110 copper chunks used [-5000 to -4000]; copper hammering [-4000] Metal workers hammered natural copper {copper, hammering}, with no ore smelting or metal melting. pottery Nubia inventor Nubia -4500 pottery [-4500] Pottery used river clay but no wheel. pottery Ghana inventor Ghana -4000 pottery [-4000] Pottery used river clay but no wheel. sail inventor Nile River, Egypt -4000 sail [-4000] Fixed cloths {sail} helped boats go up Nile River. silver hammering inventor Nile River, Egypt -4000 silver hammering [-4000] natural silver {silver, hammering} with no smelting. rope inventor Nile River, Egypt -4000 to -3500 rope [-4000] Fibers can twist or braid {rope}. cattle domestication inventor Sahara, Africa -4000 to -2000 cattle domestication [-4000 to -2000] Sahara had wet climate with wide grasslands for cattle {cattle}. palm oil inventor Africa -3000 palm oil extraction [-3000] People extracted oil {palm oil} from palm trees in central west Africa. teff inventor Ethiopia -3000 to -800

111 teff cultivation [-3000 to -800] Millet-like grain {teff} is native to Ethiopia and has small round gray grains. coffee bean inventor Ethiopia -3000 to 1400 coffee bean use [-3000] Plants can have beans {coffee bean} and be native to Ethiopia. Trade began [1300 to 1400]. Yemen was major producer [1400 to 1600]. yam West Africa inventor West Africa -1200 yam cultivation [-1200] Plants {yam, cultivation} can be native to, and first farmed, in central west Africa. copper mining Katanga inventor Katanga/Mauritania/Senegal -600 to -500 copper mining and smelting [-600 to -500] Countries still have great copper deposits {copper, mining and smelting}. iron Nigeria inventor Nigeria -500 to -400 iron [-500 to -400] Iron smelters {iron, smelting} were maguzawa or fire magicians. Iron was main factor in Dahomey, Benin, and Yoruba kingdoms, especially at Ife and Oyo. copper Mauritania inventor Mauritania -400 copper smelting [-400]; copper arrowheads [-400] Mauritania was in west Sahara {copper, smelting}. iron East Africa inventor East Africa 400 iron smelting [400] Iron smelting came from Congo.

SOCI>History>History>Invention>America cemetery inventor Arkansas -7500 cemetery [-7500] Early Archaic Dalton culture had burial places {cemetery}.

112 maize from teosinte inventor Mexico -5000 maize [-5000: developed from teosinte] Corn {maize, corn} became more edible. bean Mexico inventor Mexico City, Mexico -3500 bean cultivation [-3500] Kidney or pinto beans {bean, cultivation} farmed. guinea pig domestication inventor Andes Mountains -3500 guinea pig domestication [-3500] Rodents {guinea pig, domestication} can be native to South America. llama domestication inventor Andes Mountains -3500 llama domestication [-3500] Goat-like animals {llama, domestication} can be native to Andes. manioc cultivation inventor Andes Mountains -3500 manioc cultivation [-3500] Plants {manioc, cultivation} can be native to South America. pumpkin cultivation inventor Mexico City, Mexico -3500 pumpkin cultivation [-3500] Plants {pumpkin, cultivation} can be native to Mexico. squash Mexico inventor Mexico City, Mexico -3500 squash cultivation [-3500] Plants {squash, cultivation} can be native to Mexico. turkey domestication inventor Mexico City, Mexico -3500 turkey domestication [-3500] Birds {turkey, domestication} can be native to Americas.

113 corn Mexico inventor Mexico City, Mexico -3500 to -3000 corn cultivation [-3500] Native corn {corn, cultivation} grew in Valley of Tehuacán in south Puebla and north Oaxaca. cotton Peru inventor Peru -3500 to -2000 cotton cultivation [-3500 to -2000] Plants {cotton, cultivation} can grow on coast. corn Central America inventor Central America -2500 corn cultivation [-2500] Corn cultivation came from Mexico. goosefoot inventor USA -2500 goosefoot cultivation [-2500] Genus Chenopodium {goosefoot} has herbs like wild spinach. sunflower cultivation inventor USA -2500 sunflower cultivation [-2500] Plants {sunflower, cultivation} can be native to USA. potato Peru inventor Peru -2500 to -2000 potato cultivation [-2500 to -2000] Plants {potato, cultivation} can be native to Peru. corn South America inventor South America -2100 corn cultivation [-2100] Corn grew in Andes. bean Peru inventor Peru -2000 bean cultivation [-2000] Lima beans farmed.

114 fired clay inventor Peru -2000 fired clay [-2000] Towns, temples, and tombs used baked clay {fired clay} bricks. maize modern inventor Mexico -2000 modern maize [-2000] Corn became easily edible. quinoa seeds inventor Peru -2000 quinoa cultivation [-2000] Plants {quinoa} can be native to Peru and have edible seeds. squash Peru inventor Peru -2000 squash cultivation [-2000] Squash came from Mexico. tecoatl inventor Puebla, Mexico -800 to 1500 In south Mexico, Tehuacán Valley, 1200 kilometers of canals were dug that became coated with travertine from calcite-soaked water and today look like stone snakes {tecoatl}. Small terraces layered sloped ground. It rains only six months and is dry six months. Purrón Dam was near Puebla [-750 to 1150]. glyph writing Zapotec inventor Mexico -600 glyph writing [-600] Zapotec culture was in south Mexico {glyph writing}. woodworking tool inventor Canada/Alaska -450 woodworking tool [-450] Totem carving began {woodworking tool}. hogan inventor Southwest USA 500 to 1600 Navajo pueblos were round, dome-like wood frames {hogan}| covered by clay.

115 kiva inventor Southwest USA 500 to 1600 kiva pueblo [500 to 1600] Hopi pueblo {kiva} built. metates inventor Southwest USA 500 to 1600 Pueblo culture ground corn on flat stones {metates}. parfleche inventor USA 500 to 1600 tanned leather pouch {parfleche}. pemmican invented inventor USA 500 to 1600 lard beaten with berries. tipi inventor USA 500 to 1600 Bison leather covered conical wood frames {teepee} {tipi}|. pueblo inventor Canyon de Chelly, Arizona 700 to 1100 Dwellings {pueblo}| had interconnecting mud-brick rooms in layers.

Benjamin Franklin [Franklin, Benjamin] inventor/statesman USA 1732 to 1790 Poor Richard's Almanac [1732 to 1757: maxims and practical advice]; lightning rod [1752]; Franklin stove [1757]; bifocals [1760]; Autobiography [1790] He lived 1706 to 1790 and helped found University of Pennsylvania [1751]. He found that lightning is electric, using kite and key [1752].

Kentucky rifle inventor Lancaster, Pennsylvania 1740 to 1750 Kentucky rifle or long rifle [1740 to 1750] German gunsmiths invented it. Rifles {Kentucky rifle} can have barrels longer than one meter.

Eli Whitney [Whitney, Eli] inventor Europe/USA

116 1794 to 1798 cotton gin [1794]; interchangeable parts [1798: for muskets] He lived 1765 to 1825 {cotton gin}. Honoré Blanc used interchangeable parts for muskets in France [1785].

Robert Fulton [Fulton, Robert] inventor USA 1807 steamboat [1807] He lived 1765 to 1815 {steamboat}. fertilizer inventor South America 1820 to 1830 fertilizer [1820 to 1830] South America shipped nitrate fertilizer {fertilizer} to Europe.

Abbot, Downing Company inventor Concord, New Hampshire 1827 Concord coach [1827] Overland Stage Company used western version [1862] {Concord coach}.

American ax inventor USA 1830 to 1850 American ax [1830 to 1850] single-bit felling ax {American ax}. gutta-percha inventor USA 1830 to 1850 gutta-percha used [1830 to 1850] Latex {gutta-percha} can be polyterpene or isoprene polymer. Caoutchouc is elastic, and gutta-percha is not elastic. trotting wagon inventor USA 1830 to 1850 trotting wagon [1830 to 1850] Wagons {trotting wagon} can be two-wheeled bench seats, for pleasure driving.

Cyrus McCormick [McCormick, Cyrus] inventor USA 1831 to 1938 reaper for wheat harvesting [1831]; combine for grain harvesting [1838] He lived 1809 to 1884.

Samuel Morse [Morse, Samuel] inventor USA

117 1835 to 1840 telegraph [1835 to 1837]; Morse code [1840] He lived 1791 to 1919.

John Deere [Deere, John] inventor USA 1837 steel plow [1837] He lived 1804 to 1886 {steel plow}.

Charles Goodyear [Goodyear, Charles] inventor USA 1844 rubber vulcanization [1844] He lived 1800 to 1860 {rubber vulcanization}. He did not found or run Goodyear Rubber Company. Mesoamericans vulcanized rubber [-1600].

Elias Howe [Howe, Elias] inventor USA 1846 lock stitch sewing machine [1846] He lived 1819 to 1867 {lock stitch sewing machine}.

Elisha Graves Otis [Otis, Elisha Graves] inventor USA 1846 to 1852 railway safety brake [1846 to 1852]; elevator brake [1852] He lived 1811 to 1861 {railway safety brake}.

George Henry Corliss [Corliss, George Henry] inventor USA 1848 steam valve gear [1848] He lived 1817 to 1888 {steam valve gear}.

Donald McKay [McKay, Donald] inventor Canada/USA 1855 clipper ship [1855] He lived 1810 to 1880 {clipper ship}.

Joseph Fawkes [Fawkes, Joseph] inventor USA 1858 steam plow [1858] He lived 1804 to 1886 {steam plow}. petroleum USA inventor

118 Pennsylvania 1859 petroleum [1859] Oil {petroleum} was near surface in Pennsylvania.

Christopher Sholes [Sholes, Christopher]/S. W. Soule [Soule, S. W.]/G. Glidden [Glidden, G.] inventor USA 1868 typewriter [1868] He lived 1819 to 1890.

Thomas Alva Edison [Edison, Thomas Alva] inventor USA 1869 to 1910 stock ticker tape [1869]; automatic telegraph [1872]; phonograph [1877]; carbon button microphone [1878]; incandescent light bulb [1879]; electric dynamo [1879]; electrical distribution system [1880]; experimental electric railroad [1880]; Edison effect [1883]; silent movies [1893]; projector [1896]; storage battery [1900 to 1910] He lived 1847 to 1931, found Edison effect [1883], and invented light bulb {light bulb}, movies, phonograph, and electric generator {electric dynamo}. He projected kinetoscopes onto screens and showed vaudeville acts [1896].

John Wesley Hyatt [Hyatt, John Wesley] inventor USA 1872 celluloid plastic [1872] He lived 1837 to 1920 {celluloid plastic}.

Alexander Graham Bell [Bell, Alexander Graham] inventor USA 1876 to 1901 telephone [1876]; audiometer [1879]; photophone [1880]; metal locator [1881]; wax cylinders for recording [1886]; tetrahedral kite [1901] He lived 1847 to 1922. time zone inventor USA 1883 to 1884 time zone [1883 to 1884] Time zones {time zone} became international [1884].

William Stanley, Jr. [Stanley, Jr., William] inventor USA 1886 transformer [1886] He lived 1858 to 1916.

Charles Proteus Steinmetz [Steinmetz, Charles Proteus] inventor USA 1891 alternating current [1891]; Law of Hysteresis or Steinmetz's Law [1891]

119 He lived 1865 to 1923. welding invented inventor USA 1893 welding [1900] Thermite welding {welding, thermite} uses acetylene. Oxyfuel welding began at same time.

Frederick Winslow Taylor [Taylor, Frederick Winslow] engineer/inventor USA 1899 Taylor-White process [1899: heat-treated steel tools, with Maunsel White] He lived 1856 to 1915 {Taylor-White process}.

Wilbur Wright [Wright, Wilbur]/Orville Wright [Wright, Orville] inventor Kitty Hawk, North Carolina 1903 controlled powered airplane flight [1903] Wilbur lived 1867 to 1912 {controlled powered airplane flight}. Orville lived 1871 to 1948.

Henry Ford [Ford, Henry] inventor USA 1906 to 1913 assembly line [1906 to 1913]; standardized parts [1913]; mass production [1913] He lived 1863 to 1947, built automobiles, opposed unions, and started Ford Foundation.

Elmer Ambrose Sperry [Sperry, Elmer Ambrose] inventor USA 1908 gyroscopic compass [1908] He lived 1860 to 1930 and invented gyroscopic compass. tractor inventor USA 1910 tractor with engine [1910] Farm vehicles {tractor} developed from automobiles.

Robert H. Goddard [Goddard, Robert H.] inventor USA 1926 liquid fuel rocket [1926] He lived 1882 to 1945 {liquid fuel rocket}.

Warren Marrison [Marrison, Warren] inventor Canada/USA 1927 quartz clock [1927]

120 He lived 1896 to 1980.

Howard Aiken [Aiken, Howard] inventor USA 1944 Mark I digital computer [1944] He lived 1900 to 1973.

John V. Atanasoff [Atanasoff, John V.]/John Mauchly [Mauchly, John]/J. Presper Eckert [Eckert, J. Presper] inventor USA 1944 ENIAC digital computer [1944] Atanasoff lived 1904 to 1995. Mauchly lived 1907 to 1980. Eckert lived 1919 to 1995.

John von Neumann [Neumann, John von] inventor Hungary/USA 1932 to 1946 EDVAC electronic digital computer design [1946] He lived 1903 to 1957. He showed that entanglement and non-locality do not send information faster than light speed [1932].

Harold Lyons [Lyons, Harold] inventor USA 1948 atomic clock [1948] He lived 1913 to ?.

An Wang [Wang, An] inventor USA 1948 magnetic core memory [1948] He lived 1920 to 1990. Jay Forrester also developed magnetic core memory [1951].

J. Presper Eckert [Eckert, J. Presper]/John Mauchly [Mauchly, John] inventor USA 1951 UNIVAC magnetic tape computer [1951] Eckert lived 1919 to 1995 {magnetic tape computer}. Mauchly lived 1907 to 1980.

John Bardeen [Bardeen, John]/Walter Brattain [Brattain, Walter]/William Shockley [Shockley, William] inventor USA 1955 transistor [1955] Bardeen lived 1908 to 1991. Brattain lived 1902 to 1987. Shockley lived 1910 to 1989.

Edsger W. Dijkstra [Dijkstra, Edsger W.] inventor USA 1955 to 1965

121 multiprocessing and multiprogramming computer [1955 to 1961]; structured programming [1965]; top-down design [1965] He lived 1930 to 2002.

Jean Hoerni [Hoerni, Jean] inventor USA 1957 semiconductor planar technology [1957] He lived 1924 to ? and used masking {photomask} to add and etch layers for silicon wafers {planar technology}.

Explorer satellite inventor USA 1958 Explorer satellite [1958] Satellite detected Van Allen radiation belts.

Jack Kilby [Kilby, Jack]/Robert Noyce [Noyce, Robert] inventor USA 1958 to 1959 integrated circuit [1958 to 1959] Kilby lived 1923 to 2005. Noyce lived 1927 to 1990. transistor for computer inventor USA 1959 transistor in computer [1959] Transistors {transistor, computer} replaced vacuum tubes.

Vanguard I satellite USA 1959 Satellite had solar cells.

Telstar communications satellite USA 1962 Satellites {communications satellite} can allow picture transmission around world.

Donald Davies [Davies, Donald]/Paul Baran [Baran, Paul]/Leonard Kleinrock [Kleinrock, Leonard] inventor England/USA 1964 to 1967 packet switching [1964 to 1967] Davies lived 1924 to 2000.

Edward Feigenbaum [Feigenbaum, Edward]/Robert K. Lindsay [Lindsay, Robert K.] inventor Stanford, California 1965 DENDRAL expert system [1965: for molecules]

122 Feigenbaum lived 1936 to ?.

Michael Flynn [Flynn, Michael] inventor USA 1966 parallel processing [1966] Algorithm instruction and data-input stream can be simultaneous. SISD is Single Instruction stream, Single Data stream. SIMD is Single Instruction, Multiple Data. MIMD is Multiple Instruction, Multiple Data. SPMD is Single Program, Multiple Data.

IBM Corporation inventor USA 1967 computer data communications system or Binary Synchronous Communication [1967] input and output devices {computer data communications system}.

E. F. Codd [Codd, E. F.] or Ted Codd [Codd, Ted] inventor USA 1970 relational database [1970] He lived 1923 to 2003. very large-scale integrated circuit inventor USA 1972 very large-scale integrated circuit or VLSI [1972] transistors on boards {very large-scale integrated circuit} (VLSI). space shuttle inventor USA 1977 space shuttle [1977: reusable] Spacecraft {space shuttle} can fly to orbit and return, with three people.

Marvin H. Caruthers [Caruthers, Marvin H.] inventor USA 1986 solid phase phosphoramidite chemistry [1986] He invented method to synthesize DNA {solid phase phosphoramidite chemistry}, using DNA on polystyrene beads exposed to acid. Overlapping matching-end oligos can allow longer sequences. Process can make oligos up to 100 bases.

SOCI>History>History>Invention>Asia rock engraving inventor Australia -40000 rock engraving [-40000] Engravings {rock engraving} are in Olary region, south Australia.

123 waisted ax inventor New Guinea -38000 waisted ax [-38000] Axes {waisted ax} can look like heavy hoes. stone ax grinding inventor Australia -28000 stone ax grinding [-28000] Stone axes {stone ax grinding} were ground flat in north Australia. cremation invented inventor Australia -24000 cremation [-24000] People burned dead bodies and kept ashes. rock painting Australia inventor Australia -17000 rock painting [-17000] Rock painting is in Kimberley in northwest Australia. pottery Japan inventor Japan -14000 pottery of fired clay [-14000] Potters hand-formed and baked pottery. millet Asia inventor Asia -13000 to -10000 millet cultivation [-13000 to -10000] Agriculture {millet, cultivation} began in southeast Asia. rice Asia inventor Asia -13000 to -10000 rice cultivation [-13000 to -10000] Agriculture began in southeast Asia. dog China inventor China -10000 dog domestication [-10000] Animals {dog, domestication} had domestication, but no breeding.

124 pottery China inventor China -10000 pottery of fired clay [-10000] Potters hand-formed and baked pottery {pottery of fired clay}. mud-brick inventor Asia -8000 mud-brick [-8000] Dried clay {mud-brick} buildings were in west Asia. pig China inventor Yellow River, China -8000 to -6000 pig domestication [-8000 to -6000] Animals {pig, domestication} can be native to China. silk from silkworms inventor China -7500 silk from silkworms [-7500] Silkworms make silk. banana cultivation inventor New Guinea -7000 banana cultivation [-7000] Plants {banana, cultivation} can be native to New Guinea. eggplant cultivation inventor Indus River -7000 eggplant cultivation [-7000] Plants {eggplant, cultivation} can be native to India. humped cattle inventor Indus River -7000 humped cattle domestication [-7000] Cattle {humped cattle} can be native to India. pottery southeast Asia inventor Asia -7000 pottery of fired clay [-7000] Southeast Asia had pottery and pottery decoration.

125 sesame Indus inventor Indus River -7000 sesame cultivation [-7000] Plants {sesame, cultivation} can be native to India. sugar cane cultivation inventor New Guinea -7000 sugar cane cultivation [-7000] Plants {sugar cane, cultivation} can be native to New Guinea. cow India inventor India -6000 cow domestication [-6000] Animals {cow, domestication} can be native to India. millet China inventor Yellow River, China -6000 millet [-6000] Millet came from southeast Asia. jade trading inventor Yellow River, China/Siberia -5000 jade trading [-5000] Yellow River settlements imported jade from Siberia {jade trading}. rice China inventor Yangtze River, China -5000 rice [-5000] Rice came from southeast Asia. copper Thailand inventor Thailand -4000 copper smelting [-4000] Smelting separated copper from ore. water buffalo domesticat inventor Southeast Asia -4000 water buffalo domestication [-4000] Buffalo {water buffalo, domestication} can be native to Southeast Asia.

126 plow China inventor China -3000 plow [-3000] Perhaps, plow came from India. pig Indochina inventor Indochina -2900 pig domesticated [-2900] Pig came from China. silk cloth inventor China -2540 silk cloth [-2540] Silk threads became cloth {silk cloth}. camel Afghanistan inventor Afghanistan -2500 camel domestication [-2500] Animals {camel, domestication} can be native to Afghanistan. elephant Dravidian inventor Indus River -2500 elephant domestication [-2500] Animals {elephant domestication} can be native to India. stone tool ground inventor Southeast Asia -2000 stone tool with ground edge [-2000] Hard stones {stone tool with ground edge} like flint and chert can scratch softer stones. sutlee inventor Pakistan/India -1700 to -350 Husband's funeral pyre also burned widow {sutlee}. bronze China inventor China -1500 bronze [-1500] Copper and tin smelting to make bronze began.

127 iron plow share inventor India -1400 iron plow share [-1400] Wooden plows {iron plow share} had an iron share and cutter. logogram invented inventor China -1300 logogram writing [-1300] Pictorial writing began. fortified cities inventor Southeast Asia -1000 fortified city [-1000] Cities {fortified city} had walls and towers. spice inventor India -1000 spice [-1000] Spices {spice} are native to India. steel India inventor India -1000 steel [-1000] Iron mixed with carbon at high heat can make steel. Steel is stronger and rusts less than iron. iron China inventor China -500 iron casting [-500]; iron forging [-500] Cast-iron sickles began {iron casting}. poultice invented inventor China -500 poultice [-500] Mold from soybean curds covered boils. cotton India inventor India -450 cotton cultivation [-450] Cotton is native to India.

128 rudder at stern inventor China 25 to 220 stern rudder for ships [25 to 220] Rear had hinged wood board {rudder, invented}. breast harness inventor China 25 to 220 breast harness for horses for pulling loads [25 to 220] Leather apparatus {breast harness} was over horse head. caliper invented inventor China 25 to 220 decimal caliper [25 to 220] Hinged points can be for measuring. magnetic compass China inventor China 25 to 220 magnetic compass for temple construction [25 to 220] A magnetized needle {magnetic compass} can balance on a point. crossbow inventor China 25 to 220 crossbow with bronze lock [25 to 220] Horizontal bows {crossbow} can have locking mechanisms. glaze invented inventor China 25 to 220 colored glazes [25 to 220] Ceramics had baked glossy colors {glaze, ceramic}. map inventor China 25 to 220 map with grid [25 to 220] Maps {map with grid} showed longitude and latitude. insecticide invented inventor China 100 insecticide [100: dried chrysanthemum powder] Chrysanthemums repel insects.

129 Cai Lun or Ts'ai Lun inventor China 105 paper [105] He lived 50 to 121.

Zhang Heng [Heng, Zhang] inventor China 120 seismograph [120] He lived 78 to 139. stirrup Huns inventor Mongolia/China 220 stirrup for horses [220] Footrests {stirrup} hang from saddle and can direct and speed horse. zero symbol inventor India 500 zero symbol [500] Decimal system added null digit symbol {zero symbol}. decimal system inventor India 595 decimal system [595] ten-digit positional notation {decimal system}.

Grand Canal inventor China 605 to 610 Grand Canal [605 to 610: links Yangtze River with Chang'an River] Sui dynasty built it. paper money inventor China 650 paper money [650] China printed money {paper money}. porcelain inventor Kaingsi, China 700 porcelain [700] kaolin baked at high temperature {porcelain}.

130 printing began inventor China 700 printing [700] Carved wood block had applied ink {printing}. gunpowder invented inventor China 700 to 800 gunpowder [700 to 800: sulfur, charcoal, and saltpeter or potassium nitrate] Guns used powder. mechanical clock inventor Kaifeng, China 1090 mechanical clock driven by water [1090] Kaifeng was capital {mechanical clock}. card inventor China 1120 card with painting [1120] Court played card game.

Yongle Dadian encyclopedia China 1403 to 1409 encyclopedia [1403 to 1409] Encyclopedia had 20,000 chapters. toothbrush inventor China 1498 toothbrush [1498] bristle brush {toothbrush}.

SOCI>History>History>Invention>Asia>Middle East wild grain grew inventor Sea of Galilee, Palestine -17000 wild grain [-17000] Wheat precursors {wild grain} grew like grass. pottery Mesopotamia inventor Mesopotamia -10000 pottery [-10000]

131 Potters hand-formed and sun-dried pottery. wild grain gathering inventor Asia Minor -9500 wild grain gathering [-9500] Wheat precursors grew like grass {wild grain gathering}. copper bead inventor Iraq -9000 copper bead [-9000] Natural copper {copper bead} needed no smelting. sea trading inventor Asia Minor -9000 to -4500 sea trading [-9000] Phoenicians traveled Mediterranean Sea {sea trading}. barley Near East inventor Near East -8500 barley cultivation [-8500] Barley is native to Near East. dog Mesopotamia inventor Mesopotamia -8500 dog domestication [-8500] Dog domestication did not include breeding. olive Near East inventor Near East -8500 olive cultivation [-8500] Olive is native to Middle East. pea cultivation inventor Near East -8500 pea cultivation [-8500] Plants {pea, cultivation} can be native to Middle East. farming Near East inventor Near East -8500 to -6000 farming [-8500 to -6000]

132 Agriculture began in Fertile Crescent from Nile River mouth to Caspian Sea. Wild barley, emmer wheat, and grasses grew on lightly wooded hills. goat Iraq inventor Iraq -8500 to -6000 goat herding [-8500 to -6000] Animals {goat, herding} can be native to Iraq. sheep herding inventor Iraq -8500 to -6000 sheep herding [-8500 to -6000] Animals {sheep, herding} can be native to Iraq. fertility cult inventor Mesopotamia -8300 to -6000 fertility cult [-8300 to -6000] male and female gods {fertility cult}. grain grinding inventor Mesopotamia -8300 to -6000 grain grinding [-8300 to -6000] People gathered, threshed, and hand ground precursors to wheat {grain grinding}. grain storage inventor Mesopotamia -8300 to -6000 grain storage [-8300 to -6000] People stored precursors to wheat and kept them dry {grain storage}. bread invented inventor Levant -8000 bread [-8000] Natufian culture baked unleavened bread {bread}. chickpea inventor Turkey -8000 chickpea cultivation [-8000] Plants {chickpea} can be native to Turkey. copper natural inventor Near East -8000

133 copper use [-8000] Natural copper needs no smelting {copper, use}. mead invented inventor Near East -8000 mead [-8000: first fermented beverage, from honey] Honey fermented naturally. pig Mesopotamia inventor Mesopotamia -8000 pig domestication [-8000] Pig is native to Mesopotamia. flax Arabia inventor Arabia/Armenia -7000 flax cultivation [-7000] Plants {flax, cultivation} grew near Red Sea and Black Sea. copper Anatolia inventor Anatolia -7000 to -6000 copper hammering [-7000] Copper hammering spread to Cyprus and Aegean Sea. farming Egypt inventor Egypt/Levant -7000 to -3000 farming [-7000 to -3000] Planting and cultivating went from Near East to Nile Valley and west Europe. Wheat, barley, pea, and lentil farms {farming, beginning} were in cleared areas. boat inventor Near East -6000 boat [-6000] wood planks with sealant {boat}. cat domestication inventor Egypt -6000 cat domestication [-6000] Animals {cat domestication} had domestication, but no breeding. chufa inventor Egypt

134 -6000 chufa cultivation [-6000] Sedges {chufa} can have small edible tubers and be native to Egypt. cow Mesopotamia inventor Mesopotamia -6000 cow domestication [-6000] Cows are native to Mesopotamia. irrigation invented inventor Sumer -6000 field irrigation [-6000] River water ran in channels to fields. sycamore fig inventor Egypt -6000 sycamore fig cultivation [-6000] Plants {sycamore fig} can be native to Egypt. barley Egypt inventor Egypt -5000 barley cultivation [-5000] Barley came from Middle East. copper Sumer inventor Persia/Afghanistan/Sumer -5000 copper annealing [-5000]; copper hammering [-5000]; copper smelting [-5000] Melting copper ore extracts copper, and melting and cooling copper strengthens it {copper, annealing}. wheat Egypt inventor Egypt -5000 wheat development [-5000] Plants {wheat, development} developed from wheat precursors. gold jewelry inventor Egypt -4300 gold jewelry [-4300] Hammered gold can make jewelry {gold jewelry} or money. calendar Egypt inventor Egypt

135 -4241 calendar [-4241] Egyptian solar calendar {calendar, Egypt} had 12 months of thirty days, with five extra days. 10-day periods had constellations {decan}. 12 decans were in the sky at Nile-River annual flooding, marking 12 hours {temporal hour}. opium invented inventor Sumer -4000 opium production [-4000] Poppies are native to Sumer {opium production}. fig cultivation inventor Near East -3800 to -3400 fig cultivation [-3800 to -3400] Plants {fig cultivation} can be native to Middle East. reflex bow inventor Near East -3800 to -3400 reflex bow [-3800 to -3400] Curved bows {reflex bow} began. sundial invented inventor Near East -3800 to -3400 sundial [-3800 to -3400] Pointer shadow shows time of day. walled town inventor Near East -3800 to -3400 walled town [-3800 to -3400] Towns {walled town} became fortified with walls. wax seal inventor Near East -3800 to -3400 wax seal [-3800 to -3400] People folded documents and sealed them with wax {wax seal}. nickel-iron inventor Egypt -3500 nickel-iron [-3500: from meteorites] Meteorite smelting can make alloy {nickel-iron}.

Botai culture inventor

136 Kazakhstan -3500 horse domestication [-3500] Botai domesticated and rode horses {horse domestication}. wheel inventor Turkey -3400 wheel [-3400] Black-Sea area had potter's wheels {wheel}, solid three-plank wood wheels, and axles. hieroglyphics invented inventor Egypt -3200 to -3100 hieroglyphics [-3200 to -3100] Picture writing began. bronze Sumer inventor Sumer -3100 bronze [-3100] Bronze has copper and tin. alcohol invented inventor Sumer -3000 alcohol [-3000] People can make drinks {alcohol, invented} from fermented barley. apple inventor Sumer -3000 apple cultivation [-3000] Plants {apple, cultivation} can be native to Sumer. arch invented inventor Near East -3000 arch [-3000] Rounded parts {arch} can curve from column to keystone. ass domestication inventor Egypt -3000 ass domestication [-3000] Animals {ass, domestication} can carry loads. barley Sumer inventor

137 Sumer -3000 barley cultivation [-3000] Alcohol can come from fermented barley. candle invented inventor Egypt -3000 candle [-3000] Reeds soaked in tallow {rushlight} can burn at tip. Later, Romans used wicks rolled in tallow and possibly beeswax {candle} [-3000]. date cultivation inventor Sumer -3000 date cultivation [-3000] Plants {date, cultivation} can be native to Sumer. flax Sumer inventor Sumer -3000 flax [-3000] Plants {flax, Sumer} can be native to Sumer. grape Sumer inventor Sumer -3000 grape cultivation [-3000] Plants {grape, cultivation} can be native to Sumer. millet Sumer inventor Sumer -3000 millet cultivation [-3000] Millet is native to Sumer. onager inventor Near East/Asia -3000 onager domestication [-3000: wild ass used as draft animal] Asia had draft-animal domestication {onager}, but Americas had no such domestication. ox domestication inventor Near East/Asia -3000 ox domestication [-3000: used as draft animal] Asia had draft-animal domestication {ox domestication}, but Americas had no such domestication. papyrus

138 inventor Egypt -3000 papyrus [-3000] Paper {papyrus}| can use stripped and crossed reeds and have sheets pasted at edges to make scrolls. plow Egypt inventor Egypt -3000 plow [-3000] Crook plow developed from hoe. Spade plow developed from digging stick. Men plowed, but women used hoe or digging stick. Early sub-Saharan Africa and New World had no plows. Plows improve soil fertility by bringing up buried nutrients, and they control weeds. People, oxen, horses, or cattle can pull plows. Animals produce manure to make ground more fertile. plow Mesopotamia inventor Mesopotamia -3000 plow [-3000] Wooden plows, pulled through ground, broke soil surface, so seeds went underground. plum Sumer inventor Sumer -3000 plum cultivation [-3000] Plants {plum, cultivation} can be native to Sumer. sesame Sumer inventor Sumer -3000 sesame cultivation [-3000] Sesame is native to Sumer. wheat Sumer inventor Sumer -3000 wheat cultivation [-3000] Wheat came from Egypt. glass invented inventor Sumer/Egypt -3000 to -2500 glass [-3000 to -2500] People used natural glass pieces, with no sand melting. stone temple inventor Malta -3000 to -2500 stone temple [-3000 to -2500]

139 Groups built houses {stone temple} of worship to local gods. bronze Egypt inventor Egypt -2500 bronze [-2500] Bronze has copper and tin. iron smelting Egypt inventor Egypt -2500 iron smelting [-2500] Iron smelting began. post-and-lintel inventor Egypt -2500 post-and-lintel architecture [-2500] two vertical supports and horizontal beam {post-and-lintel}. square-rigged sail inventor Egypt -2500 square-rigged sail [-2500] Square sails {square-rigged sail} turned on mast. wine invented inventor Egypt -2350 wine [-2350] Wine can come from fermented fruit. mummification inventor Egypt -2300 mummification [-2300: embalming] Life after death needed a body, so embalming began {mummification}. metal alloy inventor Near East -2000 metal alloy [-2000] Bronze and brass {metal alloy} began. metal annealing inventor Near East -2000 metal annealing [-2000]

140 Metal heating and cooling {metal annealing} strengthens it. metal casting inventor Near East -2000 metal casting [-2000] Melted iron hardened in sand molds {metal casting}. metal joining inventor Near East -2000 metal joining [-2000] Melted metals can stick together {metal joining}. smelting metal inventor Near East -2000 smelting metal [-2000] Heating metal ore {smelting metal} can extract metal. work hardening inventor Near East -2000 work hardening [-2000] Pounding metal {work hardening} can make it stronger. petroleum Mesopotamia inventor Mesopotamia -2000 petroleum from rock asphalt [-2000] Heating surface asphalt can remove petroleum. pictogram invented inventor Sumer -2000 pictogram [-2000] Pictograms pressed into clay with reed showed human processions, heroes fighting two beasts, and war. silver money inventor Cappadocia -2000 silver ingots for money [-2000] Precious metal was in coins {silver ingots for money}. chariot invented inventor Scythia -1800 chariot [-1800]

141 two wheels and horses pull it. iron Assyria inventor Assyria -1800 iron from ore [-1800] Strong metal {iron from ore} came from Egypt. beer invented inventor Sumer -1750 beer [-1750] Beer can come from fermented barley. brass invented inventor Near East -1500 brass [-1500] Alloys {brass} can have copper and zinc. coin Sumer inventor Sumer -1500 coin [-1500] Metal coins had images. glass bowl inventor Sumer -1500 glass bowl [-1500] Melted sand cooled to glass {glass bowl}. irrigation by water wheel inventor Sumer -1500 irrigation using water wheels and pulleys [-1500] People and animals turned wheels to move water. merchant travel inventor Sumer -1500 merchant travel [-1500] Traders went all over Middle East {merchant travel}. mercury inventor Egypt -1500 mercury [-1500]

142 Cinnabar can separate into mercury {mercury} and sulfur by heating. pewter invented inventor Near East -1500 pewter [-1500] Pewter is tin with some lead. solder invented inventor Near East -1500 solder [-1500] Tin and lead {solder} melts easily and can join metal pieces. spinning invented inventor Sumer -1500 spinning [-1500] Twisted plant fibers {spinning} can make string. sulfur purified inventor Egypt -1500 sulfur [-1500] Cinnabar can separate into mercury and sulfur by heating. aqueduct Egypt inventor Egypt -1500 to -1300 aqueduct [-1500 to -1300] Aqueduct carried water to palace. shadoof inventor Egypt -1500 to -1300 shadoof [-1500 to -1300: raises water to higher level] Aqueducts {shadoof} were for irrigation. alphabet Phoenicia inventor Phoenicia -1400 to -1000 alphabet [-1400 to -1000] Letters {alphabet, Phoenicia} can be sounds, with no pictures. canal inventor Egypt -1300 canal [-1300]

143 A waterway {canal} went from Nile River to Arabian Gulf. ship inventor Egypt/Mediterranean Sea -1300 ship [-1300: much larger than boats] Large boats {ship} began. camel Arabia inventor Arabia -1200 camel domestication [-1200] Camel is native to Arabia. linear measurement inventor Assyria -1200 measurement [-1200] Linear measurements {linear measurement} began. positional notation began inventor Assyria -1200 mathematics [-1200] Assyria used base-60 number system and positional notation. Arithmetic included multiplication and division. Fractions and ratios included common denominator. They found squares, cubes, and square roots. steel Near East inventor Near East -1200 steel [-1200: iron heated very hot with charcoal] Iron mixed with carbon at high heat can make steel. Steel is stronger and rusts less than iron. ships sealed decks inventor Phoenicia -1000 ships with sealed decks [-1000] Ships {ships with sealed decks} had wood planks with sealant. dye inventor Egypt -1000 dye from plant [-1000] Water or alcohol can extract plant pigments {dye from plant}. enamel inventor Egypt -1000

144 enamel [-1000] Oil with pigment {enamel, oil} can bake on surfaces. glass tinting inventor Egypt -1000 glass tinting [-1000] Melted glass can have pigment {glass tinting}. gold fusion inventor Egypt -1000 gold fusion [-1000] Gold can mix with other metals {gold fusion}. oil extraction inventor Egypt -1000 oil extraction from plant [-1000] Squeezing or heating plants can extract oil {oil extraction from plant}. astronomy Babylonia inventor Babylonia -1000 to -700 astronomy [-1000 to -700] They knew Sun, moon, and planet paths and predicted lunar eclipses. triangle and circle inventor Babylonia -1000 to -700 triangle and circle geometry [-1000 to -700]; geometry Babylonians studied triangle geometry and gave circle 360 degrees {triangle and circle geometry}. mathematics tables inventor Babylonia -1000 to -700 mathematics tables [-1000 to -700] Babylonians calculated mathematics tables {mathematics tables} for arithmetic. sixty-minute hour inventor Babylonia -1000 to -700 sixty-minute hour [-1000 to -700] Babylonia divided day into time units {sixty-minute hour}. azimuth invented inventor Assyria -700

145 azimuth [-700] Assyrians used mathematical astronomy to measure azimuth. calendar Assyria inventor Assyria -700 calendar [-700] Lunar calendar {calendar, Assyria} had 12 months. iron tools inventor Egypt -700 iron tools and weapons Iron tools {iron tools} began. coin Phoenicia inventor Phoenicia -700 to -600 coin [-700 to -600] Metal discs {coin} had images. cheese inventor Near East -600 cheese [-600] Domesticated cows, sheep, and goats make milk that can ferment {cheese}. wine from grapes inventor Egypt -400 to -300 grape wine [-400 to -300] Wine can come from fermented grapes. silk Byzantium smuggler Byzantium 552 to 553 silkworm smuggling [552 to 553] Monks smuggled silkworms to Constantinople from China {silkworm smuggling}.

Callinicus of Heliopolis or Kallinikos inventor/architect Syria/Constantinople, Byzantium 673 Greek fire [673] Byzantine army used flammable liquid {Greek fire}, first in battle of Cyzicus [673] during reign of Constantine Pogonatus [648 to 685]. perfume inventor Baghdad, Iraq

146 800 perfume [800] Pressed roses form perfume {perfume}. soap Iraq inventor Baghdad, Iraq 800 soap [800] Soap is animal fat mixed with lye. sugar Iraq inventor Baghdad, Iraq 900 sugar refining [900] Processing plants can extract sugar with water {sugar refining}.

SOCI>History>History>Invention>Europe hammerstone technique inventor Europe -1900000 to -1500000 In first half of Abbevillian or Chellean culture, new stone-tool-making technique {hammerstone technique} developed. Percussion with hammer at edge back pops out semi-cones, leaving jagged edges and concave intersecting surfaces. Top was round and held in power grip. anvil technique inventor Europe -1800000 to -150000 In second half of Chellean culture, new stone-tool-making technique {anvil technique} developed. Toolmaker hit stone against large anvil stone to make bigger tools than before. hafting inventor Europe -150000 to -35000 In Middle Paleolithic, Homo sapiens added tool handles {hafting}|. burial began inventor Europe -85000 burial [-85000] Burials began, perhaps from belief in life after death. permanent house inventor Europe -24000 permanent house with clay roof [-24000] Houses {permanent house} used baked clay. boomerang

147 inventor Poland -21000 ivory boomerang [-21000] Thrown curved sticks {boomerang} can return. hut with mammoth bone roof inventor Russia -16000 to -10000 hut with mammoth bone roof [-16000 to -10000] Huts {hut with mammoth-bone roof} with mammoth bone roofs were especially in west Russia. obsidian tools inventor Greece -11000 obsidian tools [-11000] Obsidian was in caves. shellfish Europe inventor Europe -8000 shellfish gathering [-8000] They gathered shellfish with nets. oats cultivation inventor Europe -6000 to -3500 oats cultivation [-6000 to -3500] Plants {oats, cultivation} can be native to Europe. poppy cultivation inventor Europe -6000 to -3500 poppy cultivation [-6000 to -3500] Plants {poppy, cultivation} can be native to Europe. celt inventor Greece -6000 to -3000 Neolithic people used ground and polished stone tools, rather than chipped or flaked, such as ax heads {celt}. couvade inventor Greece -6000 to -3000 Neolithic father went to bed at time of childbirth {couvade}. levirate inventor Greece

148 -6000 to -3000 Neolithic widows sometimes married brother of dead husband {levirate}. town France inventor France -5000 town [-5000] Farms began in south France. tumulus inventor Russia -5000 to -3000 kurg or tumulus [-5000 to -3000] burial mounds {kurg} {tumulus}. megalith Goseck inventor Goseck, Germany -4900 megalith [-4900] A 75-meter circle had circular mound, ditch, and two wooden fences. Fence gates pointed toward sunrise and sunset at winter solstice. It also had a north gate. copper smelting Vinca inventor Yugoslavia -4500 copper smelting [-4500] Vinca culture was in Copper Age, which came from Middle East. barrow inventor Wiltshire, England -4000 barrow graves [-4000]; West Kennet barrow [-4000: 100 meters long] Collective graves were long chambers covered with earth to form mounds {barrow}|. Round barrows were for chief, ancestor worship, magic, and offerings for afterlife. First English towns began. passage grave France inventor Carnac, France -4000 passage grave [-4000] Community burials were in northwest France. town England inventor England -4000 town [-4000] Farms {town} began in south England. dolmen inventor

149 Italy/Greece/Spain/Asia Minor -4000 to -3000 dolmen [-4000 to -3000] Stone graves {dolmen}| for one or several persons were above ground, with no entrance. Stone chests were for small graves. passage grave Europe inventor Europe -3300 to -3000 passage grave [-3300 to -3000] Community burial tombs {passage grave} used large stones: Newgrange in Ireland [-3200], Maes Howe in Orkney, Scotland [-3300 to -3000], Jordhoj in Denmark [-3350], Los Millares in Spain [-3300 to -3000], and Mane Karnaplaye in France [-3500 to -3300]. barley Europe inventor Europe -2500 barley cultivation [-2500] Plants {barley cultivation} came from Middle East. wheat Europe inventor Europe -2500 wheat cultivation [-2500] Plants {wheat cultivation} came from Middle East. bronze England inventor England -2000 to -500 bronze [-2000 to -500] Bronze came from Middle East.

Phaistos Disk inventor Crete -1700 Phaistos Disk [-1700] Scribes pressed symbols into clay, on both sides, using 45 printing blocks, and then baked the clay.

Nebra disk inventor Nebra, Germany -1600 Nebra disk [-1600: bronze astronomical instrument with gold leaf] Two opposing arcs depict sunrise and sunset positions from winter to summer solstice. It has crescent moon, full moon, and Pleiades. olive Crete inventor Crete -1600 olive cultivation [-1600]

150 Plants {olive, cultivation} can be native to Crete. amber inventor Baltic Sea -1000 amber [-1000] fossil tree resin {amber, discovered}. iron Greece inventor Greece/Italy -1000 iron casting [-1000] Iron came from Middle East. iron Austria inventor Hallstatt, Austria -900 iron swords and harnesses [-900] Strong metal {iron} came from Middle East. salt mining inventor Hallstatt, Austria -900 salt mining [-900] People used salt for curing and flavor {salt mining}.

Greek alphabet began inventor Greece -725 Greek alphabet [-725] similar to Phoenician. aqueduct Greece inventor Athens, Greece -400 aqueduct [-400] Aqueduct carried water to Athens. dam invented inventor Greece -400 dam [-400] Earth, wood, or stone can block river. crop rotation Greece inventor Greece -250 crop rotation [-250]

151 Different plant types can grow successively. harbor inventor Rome, Italy -100 harbor [-100] Concrete docks {harbor} began.

Antikythera mechanism inventor Greece -87 Antikythera mechanism [-87] A 19-year astronomical calendar has bronze gears and a differential turntable. aqueduct Rome inventor Rome, Italy -31 to 476 aqueduct [-31 to 476] Aqueduct carried water to Rome. bath inventor Rome, Italy -31 to 476 bath [-31 to 476] Public baths {bath} began. concrete invented inventor Rome, Italy -31 to 476 concrete [-31 to 476] Concrete is sand and pebbles in cement. crane lever invented inventor Rome, Italy -31 to 476 crane [-31 to 476] lever {crane, invented}. central heating inventor Rome, Italy -31 to 476 central heating [-31 to 476] Heating {central heating} used ducts. plumbing began inventor Rome, Italy -31 to 476 plumbing [-31 to 476]

152 Pipes led to houses with water and from houses to sewer system {plumbing}. tackle inventor Rome, Italy -31 to 476 tackle [-31 to 476] Pulleys {tackle, construction} aided construction. water mill Rome inventor Rome, Italy -31 to 476 water mill [-31 to 476] Vertical wheels with slats can turn in rivers, and water-mill rotating force can grind grain or cut wood. windlass invented inventor Rome, Italy -31 to 476 windlass [-31 to 476] Crank can turn horizontal cylinder to wind cable or rope and lift something. glass window Rome inventor Rome, Italy 1 glass window [1] Melted sand becomes transparent or translucent. road tunnel inventor Rome, Italy 1 road tunnel [1] Arches allowed tunnels {road tunnel}. motte-and-bailey castle inventor Europe 700 to 1600 motte-and-bailey castle [700 to 1600] Timber castles {motte-and-bailey castle} had an earth mound with a wooden tower and walled enclosure. crop rotation Europe inventor Europe 900 to 1000 crop rotation [900 to 1000] Rotating crops {crop rotation} allowed oxen to plough whole field, in northwest Europe. stirrups Europe inventor Europe 900 to 1000 stirrups [900 to 1000]

153 Armored knights rode horses with saddles and foot holders {stirrups}. water mill Europe inventor Europe 900 to 1000 water mill [900 to 1000] Vertical wheels {water mill} with slats turn in rivers, and rotating force can grind grain or cut wood. wheeled plow inventor Europe 900 to 1000 wheeled plow [900 to 1000] Wheeled plows {wheeled plow}, pulled by oxen, dug in north-plains sticky and heavy soil. harness inventor Europe 1000 harness [1000] Horses replaced oxen, as harnesses {harness} improved. whipple-tree inventor Europe 1000 whipple-tree [1000] Horses replaced oxen because new devices {whipple-tree} harnessed horses. cotton paper inventor Europe 1200 cotton paper [1200] Cotton fibers can be cut, bleached, and pressed dry {cotton paper}. linen paper inventor Europe 1200 linen paper [1200] Flax fibers must be cut, bleached, and pressed dry {linen paper}. fulling inventor Europe 1200 to 1300 fulling [1200 to 1300] cleaning and thickening cloth {fulling}. water wheel inventor Europe 1200 to 1300 water wheel [1200 to 1300]

154 Water mills {water wheel} ground corn, blew bellows for forges, cleaned and thickened cloth, moved hammers, and cut wood. windmill invented inventor Europe 1200 to 1300 windmill [1200 to 1300] Windmills ground corn. navigation chart inventor Europe 1270 navigation chart [1270] Explorers mapped coastlines {navigation chart}. verge and foliot inventor Bedfordshire, England 1283 mechanical clock with verge and foliot escapement [1283] First escapement {verge and foliot escapement} and mechanical clock began. spectacles inventor Italy 1290 spectacles [1290] Lens grinding {spectacles} began just before. astronomical clock inventor Strasbourg, France 1352 to 1354 astronomical clock [1352 to 1354] Clocks {astronomical clock} had ornamental figures.

Johannes Gutenberg [Gutenberg, Johannes] inventor Germany 1456 movable type [1456] He lived 1398 to 1468 and printed Mazarin Bible or Gutenberg Bible [1456], using transferable letters {movable type} on printing presses.

Peter Henlein [Henlein, Peter] inventor Nuremberg, Germany 1510 spring-powered clock [1510] He lived 1480 to 1542 {spring-powered clock}.

Jacob the Czech of Prague inventor Prague, Czech Republic

155 1525 fusee [1525] Conical devices {fusee} can keep constant tension in clock springs.

Chrétien Herlin [Herlin, Chrétien]/Conrad Dasypodius [Dasypodius, Conrad] inventor Strasbourg, France 1547 to 1574 astronomical clock [1547 to 1574: clock with escapement and moving figures] Dasypodius lived 1532 to 1604. graphite inventor England 1564 graphite discovered [1564] Carbon particles {graphite} can be fine and smooth. pencil invented inventor England 1564 graphite pencil or black lead pencil [1564] Writing utensils {pencil, graphite} had graphite mixed with clay.

Cornelius Corneliszoon [Corneliszoon, Cornelius] inventor Netherlands 1580 to 1600 sawmill [1580 to 1600]; pitman [1580 to 1600] He lived 1550 to 1600 and invented pitman to convert rotary motion into back-and-forth motion.

William Lee [Lee, William] inventor England 1589 knitting machine [1589] He lived 1550 to 1610 {knitting machine}.

Denis Papin [Papin, Denis] inventor London, England 1680 to 1707 steam pressure cooker [1680: with safety valve]; steam piston engine [1690]; New Method of Obtaining Very Great Moving Powers at Small Cost [1690]; New Art of Pumping Water by using Steam [1707] He lived 1647 to 1712 {steam pressure cooker}.

Thomas Savery [Savery, Thomas] inventor England 1698 steam engine [1698] He lived 1650 to 1715. canal lock inventor

156 Europe 1700 canal lock [1700] If two waterways are at different heights, enclosed structures {canal lock} can fill or empty, to transfer boats. ship design inventor Europe 1700 ship design [1700] Ships {ship design} became more seaworthy.

Norfolk crop rotation inventor England 1700 to 1800 Norfolk crop rotation [1700 to 1800] Crop rotation {Norfolk crop rotation} can plant different foods on different fields each year, to preserve soil.

Jethro Tull [Tull, Jethro] inventor England 1701 horse-drawn hoe with seed drill [1701] He lived 1674 to 1741 {hoe with seed drill}.

Abraham Darby [Darby, Abraham] inventor England 1708 to 1709 iron smelting with coke [1708 to 1709] He lived 1677 to 1717 {iron smelting with coke}. Previously, smelting used charcoal.

Thomas Newcomen [Newcomen, Thomas] inventor England 1712 steam engine [1712] He lived 1663 to 1729.

George Graham [Graham, George] inventor England 1715 deadbeat escapement for clocks [1715] He lived 1674 to 1751 {deadbeat escapement}.

Charles Townshend, 2nd Viscount [Townshend, 2nd Viscount, Charles] inventor England 1730 to 1738 crop rotation [1730 to 1738] He lived 1674 to 1738. Crop rotation rotated clover, wheat, turnips, and barley.

John Kay [Kay, John] inventor

157 England 1733 flying shuttle [1733: for looms] He lived 1704 to 1780 {flying shuttle}.

John Harrison [Harrison, John] inventor England 1737 to 1761 marine chronometer to determine longitude at sea [1737 to 1761] He lived 1693 to 1776 {marine chronometer}. sugar beet sugar inventor Prussia 1747 sugar beet sugar [1747] Sugar beets {sugar beet, sugar} were cheaper and replaced honey for sweetening.

James Brindley [Brindley, James] inventor England 1752 to 1758 water wheel [1752]; flint mill [1756]; steam-engine boiler [1758] He lived 1716 to 1772.

Jedediah Strutt [Strutt, Jedediah] inventor England 1758 rib knit knitting machine [1758] He lived 1726 to 1797 {rib knit knitting machine}.

Robert Bakewell [Bakewell, Robert] inventor England 1760 to 1790 selective animal breeding [1760 to 1790] He lived 1725 to 1795. veterinary school Lyon, France 1762 veterinary school [1762] First animal-care school {veterinary school} began.

James Hargreaves [Hargreaves, James] inventor England 1764 spinning jenny [1764] He lived 1720 to 1778. Spinning jenny spun four threads simultaneously, and spun 120 threads soon after.

James Watt [Watt, James] inventor

158 Scotland 1765 governor [1765] He lived 1736 to 1819. Devices {governor, engine} can regulate steam-engine rotation velocity [1765]. Steam engines pumped water out of mines and increased coal production greatly.

Richard Arkwright [Arkwright, Richard] inventor England 1769 water frame [1769] He lived 1732 to 1792 and owned large cotton mills with spinning and weaving machines. Machines {water frame} spun pure cotton, with no added flax.

Samuel Crompton [Crompton, Samuel] inventor England 1775 spinning mule [1775] He lived 1753 to 1827. Machines {spinning mule} had a spinning-jenny moving carriage and water-frame rollers, to spin fine threads. blast furnace inventor Birmingham, England 1776 blast furnace using steam power [1776] Furnaces {blast furnace} can smelt iron and make steel.

Abraham Darby III [Darby III, Abraham] inventor England 1779 Iron Bridge Coalbrookdale [1779: cast iron bridge] He lived 1750 to 1791 {iron bridge}.

Edmund Cartwright [Cartwright, Edmund] inventor England 1779 to 1785 yeast treatment for putrid fever [1779]; power loom for weaving [1785] He lived 1743 to 1823 {power loom}.

Marquis Claude de Jouffroy d'Abbans [d'Abbans, Marquis Claude de Jouffroy] inventor France 1783 steamboat [1783] He lived 1751 to 1832.

Henry Cort [Cort, Henry] or Great Finer inventor England 1783 puddling [1783]; rolling [1783]

159 He lived 1740 to 1800. Processes {puddling} can convert brittle pig iron to wrought iron, which is more malleable for shaping {rolling}.

Joseph Michel Montgolfier [Montgolfier, Joseph Michel]/Jacques Étienne Montgolfier [Montgolfier, Jacques Étienne] inventor Paris, France 1783 hot air balloon [1783] Joseph lived 1740 to 1810 {hot air balloon}. Jacques lived 1745 to 1799. plowshare invented inventor England 1785 plowshare of cast iron [1785] Share and cutter were cast iron {plowshare, cast iron}.

John Wilkinson [Wilkinson, John] inventor England 1787 iron boat [1787] He lived 1728 to 1808 {iron boat}.

Henry Maudslay [Maudslay, Henry] inventor England 1797 lathe for metal [1797] He lived 1771 to 1831 {lathe for metal}.

Charles Newbold [Newbold, Charles] inventor USA 1797 iron plow [1797] He lived 1764 to 1835 {iron plow}.

Decroix inventor France 1798 circular loom [1798] Looms {circular loom} can weave socks and shirts with no seams.

Richard Trevithick [Trevithick, Richard] inventor England 1802 to 1812 high-pressure steam engine carriage [1802]; locomotive [1804]; steam threshing machine [1812] He lived 1771 to 1833 {high-pressure steam engine}.

Joseph Marie Jacquard [Jacquard, Joseph Marie] inventor France

160 1804 Jacquard loom [1804] He lived 1752 to 1834. Power looms {Jacquard loom} had punched cards to make cloth designs.

Matthew Murray [Murray, Matthew] inventor Leeds, England 1804 steam locomotive on timber rails [1804] He lived 1765 to 1826 {steam locomotive}.

Alexander Forsyth [Forsyth, Alexander] inventor Scotland 1805 percussion lock [1805: shooter poured potassium chlorate in bottle into flash pan] He lived 1768 to 1843 {percussion lock}. tin can inventor France 1810 tin can [1810] Sealed metal can store food.

Johannes Samuel Pauly [Pauly, Johannes Samuel] inventor Switzerland 1810 to 1820 bullet [1810 to 1820: cartridge has brass head with explosive primer] He lived 1766 to 1820 {bullet}. Pin-fire cartridges, with pins, began in France [1830 to 1840]. Center-fire cartridges [1860 to 1870] had pin in gun.

Joshua Shaw [Shaw, Joshua] inventor/painter England/USA 1816 percussion cap [1816: steel nipple replaced flash pan and held copper caps] He lived 1776 to 1860 {percussion cap}.

Charles Babbage [Babbage, Charles] mathematician/inventor London, England 1816 to 1833 difference engine designed to compute tables [1816]; Analytical Engine Drawings [1833]; ophthalmoscope; railway cowcatcher He lived 1792 to 1871 {analytical engine}.

George Stephenson [Stephenson, George] inventor England 1829 miner's safety lamp [1815]; steam locomotive [1829] He lived 1781 to 1848. bedstead

161 inventor England 1830 bedstead [1830] bed frame {bedstead}. glass window Europe inventor Europe 1830 glass window [1830] Melted sand becomes transparent or translucent {glass window}. soap Europe inventor Europe 1830 soap [1830] Animal or vegetable fat mixes with lye. underwear inventor England 1830 underwear [1830] Underclothes {underwear} can be less bulky than clothes layers.

Jordan Mott [Mott, Jordan] inventor England 1833 coal stove [1833] He lived 1768 to 1840 {coal stove}.

William Augustus Taylor [Taylor, William Augustus] inventor England 1833 balloon frame for house using 2x4 boards and nails [1833] He lived 1818 to 1886 {balloon frame for house}.

Isaac Pitman [Pitman, Isaac] inventor England 1837 phonographic shorthand [1837] He lived 1813 to 1897 {phonographic shorthand}.

Matthew Townsend [Townsend, Matthew] inventor England 1847 to 1856 latch needle for knitting [1847 to 1856] He lived 1817 to ?. Knitting needles {latch needle} can open and close.

Henry Bessemer [Bessemer, Henry]

162 inventor England 1856 open-hearth process [1856] He lived 1813 to 1898 and invented cheaper steel manufacturing process {open-hearth process}.

Werner Siemens [Siemens, Werner] inventor Germany 1860 to 1870 electric dynamo [1860 to 1870] He lived 1816 to 1892.

Alexander Parkes [Parkes, Alexander] inventor England 1861 nitrocellulose plastic [1861] He lived 1813 to 1890 {nitrocellulose plastic}.

Alfred Nobel [Nobel, Alfred] inventor Sweden 1866 dynamite [1866] He lived 1801 to 1872. His trust provided for Nobel Prizes [1901].

Nikolaus Otto [Otto, Nikolaus] or Nicholas Otto [Otto, Nicholas] inventor Germany 1866 to 1867 internal combustion engine using Otto cycle [1866 to 1867] He lived 1832 to 1891. refrigerated ship inventor Australia/United Kingdom 1882 refrigerated ship for food transport [1882] Refrigeration began just before {refrigerated ship}.

Gottfried Daimler [Daimler, Gottfried] inventor Germany 1885 motorcycle [1885] He lived 1834 to 1900 {motorcycle}.

Karl Friedrich Benz [Benz, Karl Friedrich] inventor Germany 1885 to 1896 automobile [1885 to 1896] He lived 1844 to 1929.

Nicola Tesla [Tesla, Nicola]

163 inventor Italy 1887 magnetic coil [1887]; rotating magnetic field [1887] He lived 1856 to 1943 {magnetic coil}.

Rudolf Diesel [Diesel, Rudolf] inventor Germany 1892 diesel engine [1892] He lived 1858 to 1913.

Nobel Prize prize Norway/Sweden 1901 to 2003 Alfred Nobel financed scientific prizes for living people. sewage treatment inventor Manchester, England 1914 sewage treatment with bacteria [1914] Treating sewage {sewage treatment} began.

John Baird [Baird, John] inventor Scotland 1926 to 1932 mechanical television [1926]; mechanical color television [1932] He lived 1888 to 1946.

V-2 rocket England/Belgium 1944 Rocket bombed London and Antwerp from Germany. satellite Sputnik I inventor Russia 1957 Sputnik I satellite [1957] Satellite orbited Earth and then burned up. Sputnik means traveler. spacecraft Sputnik II inventor Russia 1958 Sputnik II spacecraft [1958: carried dog and did not return to Earth] Craft {spacecraft} orbited Earth.

Moon landing rocket Russia

164 1959 Moon landing [1959] Luna 2 crashlanded on Moon {Moon landing}.

Moon orbit rocket Russia 1959 Moon orbit [1959] Luna 3 recorded Moon far side {Moon orbit}.

Tim Berners-Lee [Berners-Lee, Tim] inventor Switzerland 1989 to 1990 World Wide Web [1989]; Hypertext Markup Language or HTML [1990] He lived 1955 to ?.

SOCI>History>History>Leaders

Abraham patriarch Palestine -1500 to -1200 The Bible tells that he started Judaism.

Lycurgus founder/lawgiver Sparta, Greece -885 to -825 Rhetras or Constitution of Sparta [-825: harsh and strict law] He lived -885 and -825, reformed constitution to create the harsh Spartan way, and founded military oligarchy with harsh laws.

Ezekiel priest Chaldea -592 Ezekiel [-592] The Bible says that he saw wheel in the air and was prophet.

Hanno admiral Carthage, Tunisia -580 to -550 He sailed along West African coast from Carthage. He founded settlement in Morocco [-550].

Pisistratus tyrant Athens, Greece -561 to -527 He lived -600 to -527. He seized power after unrest caused by nobles dissatisfied with Solon's laws [-561]. He ruled during prosperity and decreased upper-class power.

Hipparchus/Hippias tyrant

165 Athens, Greece -527 to -510 Hippias lived -551 to -490. Hipparchus lived -550 to -514. Sons of Pisistratus, first Hipparchus then Hippias, brought prosperity and decreased upper-class power. Revolt deposed Hippias [-510].

Cleisthenes archon Greece -508 to -507 He lived -570 to -507. He became archon [-508], stabilized reforms of Solon, and added democratic reforms. He allowed more citizens to vote and reduced clan power. Ekklesia had power to decide major issues. Boule performed detailed government work. Major offices had elections. Lower offices rotated annually, chosen by lot. Officials were accountable for acts.

Isagoras archon Athens, Greece -508 to -507 He was rival archon to Cleisthenes.

Sun Tzu general Suzhou, China -500 Art of War [-500] He lived -544 to -496.

Coriolanus leader Rome, Italy -491 Senate expelled him from Rome for offering to feed the people if Senate ended office of tribune [-491]. He joined Volscians and was about to sack Rome when his wife's tears stopped him. Volscians then killed him.

Pericles statesman/general Athens, Greece -466 to -448 Pericles' Funeral Oration [-429] He lived -495 to -429, built Acropolis, fostered Delian League, and negotiated peace with Persia. Art, literature, and democracy flourished. Athens needed to import corn and exported wine, oil, and pottery. Plague and Peloponnesian War caused his downfall [-448]. Athens had 25% slaves.

Cincinnatus dictator Rome, Italy -460 to -439 He lived -519 to -430, was consul [-460], and was dictator [-458] [-439]. Senate appointed him dictator [-458]. He defeated enemy for Roman Republic and then went back to his farm.

Dionysius the Elder tyrant Syracuse, Sicily -406 to -367 He lived -432 to -367 and fought Italian cities and Carthage. He encouraged arts.

166 Lysander admiral Sparta -405 He lived ? to -395, led Heraclidae, and defeated Athens at Aegospotami [-405].

Damocles courtier Syracuse, Sicily -400 Damocles, at banquet in his honor, had sword suspended over his head by hair by order of Dionysius, tyrant of Syracuse.

Appius Claudius Caecus [Caecus, Appius Claudius] leader Rome, Italy -312 to -285 legis actiones or Legal Actions [-300] He lived -340 to -273, was censor [-312 to -308], was consul [307] [296], and was dictator [-292] [-285]. He illegally remained in office as censor five years. With his power to fill vacancies in Senate, he appointed plebians to Senate. He also allowed plebians to be priests. He reapportioned tribes to give plebians control of Tribal Assembly. His clerk published the legis actiones law methods. He built Appian Way and main Roman aqueduct.

Hasdrubal general Carthage, Tunisia -226 to -221 He lived -260 to -207, was son-in-law of Hamilcar Barca, founded city of New Carthage in Spain [-226], and governed Spain [-228 to -221], but later someone killed him.

Hannibal general Carthage, Tunisia -218 to -200 He lived -247 to -182 and led Carthage army in Second Punic War. He ruled in Carthage after the peace.

Fabius the Cunctator or Fabius the Delayer consul Rome, Italy -217 He lived -275 to -203. As Roman Republic fought against Hannibal in Second Punic War, he did not commit to battle, and Rome replaced him before Rome's defeat at Cannae.

Scipio Africanus Major consul Rome, Italy -209 to -202 He lived -236 to -183. Roman Republic conquered Spain and defeated Hannibal of Carthage at Battle of Zama [- 202]. He tried to prevent revenge on Hannibal, but Cato the Elder rigged trial against Scipio.

Scipio Africanus Minor or Scipio Africanus the Younger consul Rome, Italy -146 to -121 He lived -185 to -129. Roman Republic fought Third Punic War and sacked Carthage. He quelled rebellion in Spain. He tried to nullify the Gracchi's reforms.

167

Caius Gracchus [Gracchus, Caius]/Tiberius Gracchus [Gracchus, Tiberius]/Gracchi tribune Rome, Italy -133 to -121 Caius lived -154 to -121. Tiberius lived -163 to -133. The Gracchi of Roman Republic were sons of Cornelia. Tiberius Gracchus passed Sempronian law, which redistributed public lands to more people. Someone murdered him in riot over his renomination. Caius Gracchus then started social reforms and blocked Senate and consuls. Someone murdered him in riots protesting intent of Senate to repeal his measures. They redistributed land and had other land reforms. State began to feed the poor. State did not enforce army service until man was 17 years old. Equites and patricians were judges.

Gaius Marius [Marius, Gaius] tribune Rome, Italy -100 He lived -155 to -86 and tried more reform.

Cornelius Sulla [Sulla, Cornelius] general Rome, Italy -88 to -81 Leges Corneliae [-88 to -81] He lived -138 to -78. As ex-consul, he took Rome [-88], passed new laws (Leges Corneliae) to block reforms, and increased Senate to 600 members [-81].

Pompey the Great consul Rome, Italy -76 to -48 He lived -106 to -48. Roman Republic conquered Spain. Senate and equite knights stopped revolt of Spartacus [-61]. Pompey cleared Mediterranean Sea of pirates, defeated Pontus, formed First Triumvirate [-60], and led Senate against Caesar, who defeated him at Pharsala during civil war. Senate passed agrarian laws that kept land from plebians.

Julius Caesar consul/historian/biographer Rome, Italy -59 to -44 Gallic Wars [-45] He lived -100 to -44. Julius Caesar became consul [-59]. He conquered Gaul [-58 to -50]. He defied Senate's order to disband army and crossed Rubicon River [-49], starting civil war [-49 to -45]. He marched to Rome. He then defeated Pompey in Pharsala, Greece [-48]. He went to Greece and met Cleopatra. He went to Pontus and defeated Egypt, where he said "I came, I saw, I conquered." After he won the civil war, he became dictator of Rome, organized Roman Empire, ended anarchy, started social reforms, and began Julian calendar. Marcus Brutus assassinated him on March 15 {Ides of March} [-44], followed by more civil war. He limited number of lawyers {jurisconsult} allowed to give opinions and gave them imperial authority. Only emperor set new laws. The people disliked his new laws {Julian law}. Men had to marry if younger than 60. Women had to marry if younger than 50. People that had children had reduced taxes and got jobs. Adultery was punishable. Weddings had to be modest. Extravagance was bad. His great-nephew Octavian later became Caesar Augustus (Augustus Caesar).

Marcus Tullius Cicero [Cicero, Marcus Tullius] or Tully consul Rome, Italy -50 Tuscany Disputations [-50]

168 He lived -106 to -43. Through alliance with Pompey, as consul he destroyed Catiline conspiracy against Roman Republic. Philosophy is about soul {cultura animi}.

Lepidus patrician Rome, Italy -43 to -36 He lived ? to -19, was praetor [-49], was consul [-46], and was Triumvirate member [-43 to -36].

Tacfarinas general Maghreb/Numidia 17 to 24 He led Berber tribal revolt in Maghreb (Numidia) against Rome [17 to 24].

Strabo historian/geographer/philosopher Greece 18 Geography [18] He lived -63 to 24.

Pontius Pilate governor Judea 26 to 36 He lived ? to 36 and was Roman Judea governor [26 to 36]. A Jewish sect {Zealot} wanted a nation. Jews in Syria and Palestine were against each other, their neighbors, and Rome. According to the Bible, he had Jesus arrested, condemned, and crucified [29].

Lucius Seneca the Younger [Seneca the Younger, Lucius] leader/playwright Rome, Italy 40 to 62 Agamemnon [40 to 60: tragic play]; Oedipus [40 to 60: tragic play]; Phaedra [40 to 60: tragic play]; Thyestes [40 to 60: tragic play]; Moral Letters to Lucilius [40 to 60: essays on ethics]; Natural Questions [40 to 60: essays]; Dialogues [40 to 60: essays on anger, providence, impassivity, and soul]; On the elements [40 to 60: essay]; Medea [41: tragic play] He lived -2 to 65 and ruled Roman Empire while tutoring emperor Nero [54 to 62]. His father was Seneca the elder [-60 to 37].

Anthony saint Egypt 100 to 300 He lived 251 to 356 and was Roman Catholic saint.

George saint England 303 Golden Legend He lived 280 to 303 and was Catholic patron saint of England and of soldiers. By legend, he slew a dragon.

Gildo prince

169 North Africa 375 to 398 As Berber prince and general, he first helped Romans defeat his brother Firmus [375] but then rebelled against Roman emperor Honorius [386 to 398].

Mazdak leader Persia 494 to 524 He lived ? to 524 or 528 and advocated class equality and sharing of all goods, including wives. His sect [494 to 524] was Gnostic.

Rurik leader Russia 860 to 879 He lived 830 to 879. Swedish Viking traders under Rurik built settlements at Novgorod and Kiev [860 to 879]. He attacked Byzantine Empire [860] in Rus'-Byzantine War. He started Rurik Dynasty that ruled Russia [862 to 1054].

Oleg leader Russia 879 to 913 He lived 850 to 913, followed Rurik, and united Viking Russian settlements by capturing Kiev [882].

Ubaydullah leader Tunisia/Africa 909 to 934 He founded Fatimid dynasty in Tunisia [909]. He conquered from Morocco to edge of Egypt [914].

Gawhar general Egypt 969 He invaded Egypt [969]. The Fatimid ruler al-Muiz built Cairo as Fatimid Empire capital.

Vladimir I prince/duke Kiev, Ukraine 978 to 1015 He lived 950 to 1015, was Oleg's grandson, and became Grand Prince of Kiev [978 to 1015]. He chose Eastern Orthodox Church and Byzantine Christianity over Islam as official religion [989] and so is saint.

Yaroslav the Wise prince Kiev, Russia 1019 to 1054 He lived 978 to 1054. As ruler of Kiev [1019 to 1054], he united Russian principalities.

Lady Godiva [Godiva, Lady] or Godgyfu or Godgifu activist Coventry, England 1040 She rode through Coventry naked to get her husband Leofric to lower taxes. "Peeping Tom" looked.

170 Robert Guiscard [Guiscard, Robert] leader Albania 1059 to 1085 Robert Guiscard lived 1016 to 1085 and controlled Albania as Duke of Apulia and Calabria. Illyria and Epirus were in Albania mountain regions.

Rodrigo Diaz de Bivar [Bivar, Rodrigo Diaz de] or El Cid Campeador or Lord Champion [Champion, Lord] or Ruy Díaz de Vivar [Vivar, Ruy Díaz de] warrior Castile 1065 to 1099 He lived 1043 to 1099. He served under Alfonso VI until 1081, when he sided with Muslims. Later, he captured Valencia from Muslims. Cid is same as Arabic "sayyid", "seid", or "lord". Campeador means "champion".

Hassan Sabbah [Sabbah, Hassan] or Old Man of the Mountain leader Iran 1090 Batinis or Ismaili sect believed that Imam Jaffar's sons were the only true Imams. Imam Jaffar's first son was Ismail. Hassan's followers were the Assassins.

Taira no Kiyomori [Kiyomori, Taira no] leader Japan 1153 to 1181 He lived 1118 to 1181, led Taira clan [1153 to 1181], and defeated Fujiwara clan, but Taira lost to Minamoto clan at Battle of Dan No Ura [1185].

Thomas à Becket [Becket, Thomas à] archbishop Canterbury, England 1162 to 1170 He lived 1118 to 1170 and was Archbishop of Canterbury [1162 to 1170]. He opposed Henry II on jurisdiction over clergy and refused to ratify Constitutions of Clarendon [1164], which gave more power to king's courts. He fled to Europe. On his return, someone murdered him in Canterbury Cathedral by order of King Henry II. Reactions to his death caused Henry II to rescind Constitutions of Clarendon.

Yoritomo or Minamoto Yoritomo [Yoritomo, Minamoto] or Minamoto no Yoritomo [Yoritomo, Minamoto no] shogun Japan 1185 to 1192 He lived 1147 to 1199, led Minamoto clan, and established military government in emperor's name at Kamakura [1185]. He won the long civil war and became first shogun [1192], by emperor's decree. He set up feudal system.

Stephen Langton [Langton, Stephen] archbishop Canterbury, England 1215 He lived 1155 to 1228 and led baron and prelate revolt against King John [1215], as Archbishop of Canterbury [1207 to 1228].

Firoz Shah [Firoz, Shah] or Shah Firoz sultan India 1351 to 1388

171 He lived 1310 to 1388 and ruled Tughluq Empire [1351 to 1388].

Yi Song-gye or T'aejo general Korea 1354 to 1358 He lived 1335 to 1408, revolted against Mongols, and returned Korea to Koryo dynasty of China [1354]. He ended Koryo dynasty [1392] and founded Yi dynasty or Choson dynasty [1392 to 1910]. Capital was at Kyon-Song (Seoul).

Zheng He admiral China 1405 to 1433 He lived 1371 to 1433, was Chinese Muslim, and voyaged seven times to west to collect tribute for Ming dynasty. He traded gold, porcelain, silks, and spices. He reached Africa.

John Huss [Huss, John] or Jan Hus [Hus, Jan] religious reformer Bohemia 1415 He lived 1369 to 1415. He burned at stake.

Joan of Arc or Jeanne d'Arc [d'Arc, Jeanne] or Maid of Orleans leader France 1428 to 1431 She lived 1412 to 1431 and was farmer's daughter. At age 16, she said saints told her to lead France against England to help the Dauphin. She persuaded the Dauphin, Charles VII, heir to throne, to give her troops, and she relieved besieged city of Orléans [1429] and defeated England at Patay [1429]. She helped crown Charles VII king at Rheims. She tried to regain Paris [1430], but Duke of Burgundy captured her at Compiegne and sold her to Duke of Bedford, regent of England. English tried her for heresy and burned her at stake in Rouen on May 30, 1431. She became saint [1920].

Scanderbeg or Iskander Bey or George Castriota [Castriota, George] prince Albania 1443 to 1468 He lived 1403 to 1468. Venice supported him.

Ashikaga Yoshimasa [Yoshimasa, Ashikaga] shogun Kyoto, Japan 1449 to 1490 He lived 1436 to 1490. Hosokawa and Yamana clans fought to choose new shogun [1443 to 1467]. This ended Muromachi Era [1333 to 1467]. He built Silver Pavilion or Ginkakuji temple [1489].

Girolamo Savonarola [Savonarola, Girolamo] religious reformer Florence, Italy 1498 He lived 1452 to 1498. He burned at stake.

Cesare Borgia [Borgia, Cesare] cardinal Rome, Italy 1502

172 He lived 1476 to 1507. He lured his enemies to castle and had them strangled.

Lucrezia Borgia [Borgia, Lucrezia] duchess Ferrara, Italy 1505 She lived 1480 to 1519 and had brilliant court.

Bishops of Cetinje bishop Montenegro 1516 to 1851 Bishops of Cetinje ruled Montenegro [1516 to 1851].

Claude de Lorraine [Lorraine, Claude de] duke Guise, France 1520 to 1550 He lived 1496 to 1550 and was first Duke of Guise [1520 to 1550], branching from House of Lorraine. Second Duke of Guise [1550 to 1588] controlled King Francis II of France, suppressed Protestant Huguenots, and provoked Wars of Religion [1562] by opposing Catherine de' Medici's tolerance. He helped plan St. Bartholomew's Day massacre of Protestants in Paris. He formed Catholic League [1576] and revolted against Henry III [1588].

Suleiman I or Suleiman the Magnificent or Suleiman the Lawgiver or Sulayman the Magnificent sultan Istanbul, Turkey 1520 to 1566 He lived 1494 to 1566. As Sultan of Ottoman Empire [1520 to 1566], he conquered Belgrade, Rhodes, Hungary at Mohacs, Persia, Arabian coast, and Mediterranean Sea under Admiral Barbarossa. He lost siege of Vienna, failed to take Malta and Tunis, and did not defeat Spain or Venice at sea. He allied with France against Austria [1536], reformed government, and favored arts.

Diego Ribeiro [Ribeiro, Diego] mapmaker Spain 1525 He lived ? to 1533 and charted Pacific Ocean.

Ivan IV or Ivan the Terrible grand duke/tsar Moscow, Russia 1533 to 1584 He lived 1530 to 1584 and was three years old when he became grand duke [1533]. Later, he began rule himself [1547 to 1584]. He took European Russia and Siberia, conquering Tatars under Yermak [1582]. He lost Poland and Sweden. He put down nobles, created army corps to put down rebellion, and became insane.

Francis Xavier [Xavier, Francis] missionary Japan 1539 to 1551 He lived 1506 to 1552 and was Roman Catholic saint and missionary [1539 to 1551].

William the Silent or William of Orange stadholder Netherlands 1555 to 1584

173 He lived 1533 to 1584. As prince of Orange, Spain appointed him stadholder of Holland [1555]. Later, he supported the Gueux, who were Dutch and Flemish nobles opposed to intervention from Spain, and fought Spain. After deposing Philip II of Spain, he ruled United Provinces [1579 to 1584] and founded Dutch Republic. Someone assassinated him before struggles with Spain ended.

Catherine de' Medici regent France 1560 She lived 1519 to 1589. Catherine de' Medici, queen to Henry II, was regent for Charles IX of France [1560]. She persecuted Protestants.

Filippo Neri [Neri, Filippo] saint Rome, Italy 1560 to 1580 He lived 1515 to 1595 and became Roman Catholic saint.

Theresa of Avila saint Rome, Italy 1560 to 1580 She lived 1515 to 1582 and became Roman Catholic saint.

John Hawkins [Hawkins, John] slaver West Africa 1562 He lived 1532 to 1595. From England, he took slaves from West Africa to Americas.

Martin Alfonso de Sousa [Alfonso de Sousa, Martin] governor Brazil 1567 He lived 1500 to 1564 and founded Sao Paolo. Portugal ousted France from Rio de Janiero [1567].

Francis Drake [Drake, Francis] captain England 1577 to 1588 He lived 1540 to 1596 and sailed around world [1577 to 1580]. He pirated ships from Spain and helped defeat Ireland. He destroyed fleet of Spain at Cadiz [1587] and helped defeat Spanish Armada [1588].

John of the Cross saint/poet Rome, Italy 1580 to 1590 He lived 1542 to 1591 and became Roman Catholic saint and mystic.

Walter Raleigh [Raleigh, Walter] colonist/poet England 1585 to 1599 Nymph's Reply to the Shepherd [1599: poem]

174 He lived 1552 to 1618 and started Roanoke Colony on North Carolina Outer Banks, but it died out [1585 to 1597]. He introduced tobacco and potatoes to Europe. He was rival to Earl of Essex for Elizabeth's hand. James I became king and imprisoned him in Tower of London.

Virginia Dare [Dare, Virginia] colonist Roanoke Colony, Virginia 1587 She lived 1587 to ? and was first child born in USA of parents from England.

Earl of Essex or Robert Devereux [Devereux, Robert] earl England 1590 He lived 1566 to 1601. After being her favorite, Queen Elizabeth I arrested and executed him for marrying secretly and for failing to put down rebellion in Ireland.

Tokugawa Hideyoshi [Hideyoshi, Tokugawa] or Tokugawa Ieyasu [Ieyasu, Tokugawa] or Tokugawa Iyeyasu [Iyeyasu, Tokugawa] shogun Japan 1592 to 1616 He lived 1543 to 1616 and invaded Korea [1592], trying to take China. He founded Tokugawa Shogunate [1603 to 1867] when he defeated other barons [1603]. He allowed no one to change occupation, stabilized existing classes, and took all swords away from classes. He encouraged foreign trade and tolerated missionaries at first.

Madame de Mornay [Mornay, Madame de] or Charlotte Arbaleste de la Borde [Arbaleste de la Borde, Charlotte] salon Paris, France 1600 Memoirs [1600] She lived 1548 to 1606 and was wife of Philippe de Mornay.

Pocahontas princess Jamestown, Virginia 1607 She lived 1595 to 1617. Chief's daughter saved John Smith of Jamestown Colony from death. She later married an Englishman and went to England.

John Winthrop [Winthrop, John] governor Massachusetts 1620 He lived 1588 to 1649. First Puritan governor worked closely with church.

Vincent de Paul saint Rome, Italy 1620 to 1640 He lived 1581 to 1660 and became Roman Catholic saint.

Richelieu or Armand Jean du Plessis [Plessis, Armand Jean du] cardinal/prime minister/composer/lyricist Paris, France

175 1622 to 1641 Prosperity of the Arms of France [1641: masque] He lived 1585 to 1642 and became cardinal [1622] then prime minister [1624]. With Louis XIII, he founded absolute monarchy, put down Huguenots, controlled nobles, helped Protestants in Thirty Years War, founded French Academy, and depleted treasury. He controlled Anne of Austria, consort of Louis XIII.

Roger Williams [Williams, Roger] leader Boston, Massachusetts/Providence, Rhode Island 1635 to 1636 He lived 1603 to 1683 and claimed that American Indians owned Puritan lands. He stood trial at General Court in Boston [1635] but escaped to Rhode Island [1636].

Thomas Hooker [Hooker, Thomas] leader Hartford, Connecticut 1636 Fundamental Orders He lived 1586 to 1647, left Puritans in Massachusetts, and moved near Hartford, Connecticut [1636]. He wrote one of the first constitutions [1639], which required magistrate elections. Freemen controlled General Court.

Ann Hutchinson [Hutchinson, Ann] leader Massachusetts 1637 She lived 1591 to 1643. The state banished her after her trial [1637] on charges of altering religious concepts.

Jules Mazarin [Mazarin, Jules] or Giulio Raimondo Mazzarino [Mazzarino, Giulio Raimondo] minister France 1642 He lived 1602 to 1661. Under Louis XIII and then Louis XIV, he dictated Peace of Westphalia, but his strong power and France's weak finances resulted in revolt of Fronde nobles and Parliament of Paris. He ended revolt of Fronde [1653]. He got Peace of the Pyrenees with Spain [1659]. He controlled the regent Anne of Austria.

John Endicott [Endicott, John] governor Massachusetts 1646 He lived 1588 to 1665 and succeeded Winthrop as Massachusetts Bay Colony governor.

Oliver Cromwell prime minister England 1649 After Charles I died, Oliver Cromwell led Commonwealth.

Jean-Baptiste Colbert [Colbert, Jean-Baptiste] minister Paris, France 1661 to 1677 Memorandum on Trade [1664]; Criminal Code [1670]; Maritime Code [1672]; Commercial Code [1677] He lived 1619 to 1683 and appointed council to codify laws. Under Louis XIV, he opposed Fourquet, who had become wealthy by mismanaging Treasury. He espoused the policy of protecting industry by tariffs and subsidies, regulating prices, making roads and canals, and colonizing {mercantilism, Colbert}.

176 Increase Mather [Mather, Increase] preacher Massachusetts 1664 to 1692 He lived 1639 to 1723. As Puritan, he supported Massachusetts Bay Colony theocracy, supported education, and led Salem witch trials [1692]. His son was Cotton Mather, who lived 1663 to 1728.

Henry Morgan [Morgan, Henry] pirate Barbados 1666 He lived 1635 to 1688. English pirate took Spanish ships.

Gobind Singh leader India 1690 He lived 1666 to 1708 and was tenth and last Sikh guru. He changed Sikhs to Hindu practices, urging them to follow the Guru Granth Sahib scripture. He emphasized militarism, started a brotherhood {khalsa}, and gained land.

William Kidd [Kidd, William] pirate Scotland 1696 He lived 1645 to 1701 and pirated Spanish ships.

André de Fleury [Fleury, André de] cardinal/prime minister France 1726 He lived 1653 to 1743, controlled Louis XIV [1726], corrected finances, and had to wage War of the Polish Succession and War of the Austrian Succession.

John Peter Zenger [Zenger, John Peter] writer Germany/USA 1735 He lived 1697 to 1746. He wrote against the governor in his New York Weekly Journal and went to jail. His lawyer, Andrew Hamilton, asked the jury to consider the fact that the libel was true, which it was, so they acquitted him [1735]. Ever since then, truth has been defense against libel.

Horace Walpole [Walpole, Horace] prime minister England 1742 He lived 1717 to 1797. Criticism of War of the Austrian Succession by William Pitt caused him to lose prime ministership [1742].

Madame Pompadour [Pompadour, Madame] or Jeanne Antoinette Poisson [Poisson, Jeanne Antoinette] mistress France 1745 to 1764 She lived 1721 to 1764 and was mistress of Louis XV of France until she died. Her influence allied France with Austria in Thirty Years War. She patronized arts.

House of Orange

177 stadholder Holland 1747 House of Orange became permanent stadholder.

Giacomo Casanova [Casanova, Giacomo] lover Italy/Bohemia 1755 Memoirs He lived 1725 to 1798 and was adventurer and famous lover.

William Pitt the Elder [Pitt, William the Elder] prime minister England 1757 to 1761 He lived 1708 to 1778 and became Prime Minister by his stand against Seven Years War [1757 to 1761]. He defeated France in India and Canada. He wanted to concede everything to the American colonies to keep them. His love of Constitution's rights made him the Great Commoner.

Madame du Barry [du Barry, Madame] or Comtesse du Barry [du Barry, Comtesse] or Marie-Jeanne Bécu [Bécu, Marie-Jeanne] mistress France 1764 She lived 1743 to 1793 and was last mistress of Louis XV.

Warren Hastings [Hastings, Warren] governor India 1773 to 1787 He lived 1732 to 1818. Appointed by Britain as governor-general [1773 to 1785], he reformed law and finances. Parliament impeached him [1787].

Samuel Adams [Adams, Samuel] leader USA 1774 He lived 1722 to 1803 and persuaded Massachusetts Assembly to invite other colonies to send delegates to First Continental Congress.

Daniel Boone [Boone, Daniel] pioneer Kentucky 1775 He lived 1734 to 1820.

George Washington [Washington, George] general/president USA 1775 to 1797 He lived 1732 to 1799. Second Continental Congress appointed him commander-in-chief [1775]. As first president [1989 to 1797], he approved Alexander Hamilton's finance plans and pursued conservative policies, leaning toward Federalists.

Nathan Hale [Hale, Nathan]

178 spy USA 1776 He lived 1755 to 1776. Britain hanged officer of USA as spy [1776]. He said, "I regret that I have but one life to lose for my country."

Henry Lee [Lee, Henry] or Light Horse Harry general USA 1776 He lived 1756 to 1818 and was father of Robert E. Lee.

Betsy Ross [Ross, Betsy] seamstress USA 1776 She lived 1752 to 1836 and supposedly sewed first USA flag.

Marquis de Lafayette [Lafayette, Marquis de] or Marie-Joseph-Paul-Roch-Yves-Gilbert du Motier [Motier, Marie-Joseph-Paul-Roch-Yves-Gilbert du] general France 1777 to 1983 He lived 1757 to 1834 and helped USA in Revolutionary War.

John Paul Jones [Jones, John Paul] admiral USA 1778 He lived 1747 to 1792.

Benedict Arnold [Arnold, Benedict] traitor USA 1780 He lived 1741 to 1801, was general, and betrayed USA plans to British in American Revolution.

Stephen Decatur [Decatur, Stephen] captain USA 1780 He lived 1779 to 1820 and captained warship.

Casimir Pulaski [Pulaski, Casimir] soldier Poland 1780 He lived 1747 to 1779.

Grigori Alexandrovich Potemkin [Potemkin, Grigori Alexandrovich] governor Crimea 1783 He lived 1739 to 1791, annexed Crimea for Russia [1783], and advised Catherine II of Russia. He set up model villages {Potemkin village} as Catherine toured south Russia.

179 William Pitt the Younger [Pitt the Younger, William] prime minister London, England 1783 to 1801 Catholic Emancipation Bill [1783 to 1801] He lived 1759 to 1806. As prime minister under George III [1783 to 1801], he held general elections, cut debt through taxation, and led reforms in Parliament. He reformed India and Canada administrations. Wars with France caused financial crisis. He achieved union with Ireland but resigned when King George III vetoed his Catholic Emancipation Bill.

Alexander Hamilton [Hamilton, Alexander] treasurer USA 1789 to 1791 Federalist Papers [1787 to 1788] He lived 1755 to 1804. As first Treasury secretary, he established USA treasury system and Bank of the USA. He favored centralized and strong Federal government and favored Britain in foreign policy.

President of USA president USA 1789 to 2007 Washington. John Adams. Jefferson. Madison. Monroe. John Quincy Adams. Jackson. Van Buren. Harrison. Tyler. Polk. Taylor. Fillmore. Pierce. Buchanan. Lincoln. Johnson. Grant. Hayes. Garfield. Arthur. Cleveland. Harrison. McKinley. Theodore Roosevelt. Taft. Wilson. Harding. Coolidge. Hoover. Franklin Roosevelt. Truman. Eisenhower. Kennedy. Johnson. Nixon. Ford. Carter. Reagan. George H. W. Bush. Clinton. George W. Bush.

Jean Paul Marat [Marat, Jean Paul] journalist France 1792 He lived 1743 to 1793 and led Cordeliers in National Convention against Girondists during French Revolution. Other revolutionaries stabbed him in his bath [1792].

Maximilian Robespierre [Robespierre, Maximilian] leader France 1792 to 1794 He lived 1758 to 1794. Elected to National Convention, he led Jacobin radicals and put down Girondists. As Committee of Public Safety member, he started Reign of Terror and eliminated his rivals. The Convention resisted and beheaded him [1974].

Thaddeus Kosciusko [Kosciusko, Thaddeus] general Poland 1794 He lived 1746 to 1817 and rebelled against Russia and Prussia. Before, he had fought in American Revolution.

Napoleon or Napoleon Bonaparte general/emperor/lawgiver France 1794 to 1815 Code Napoleon or Napoleonic Code [1801 to 1804: basis of European private law]; Code of Civil Procedure [1807]; Commercial Code [1808]; Code of Criminal Procedure [1811]; Penal Code [1811] He lived 1769 to 1821, defeated the noble's Vendemaire Revolt against Directory, and gained fame. In French Revolutionary Wars, he took Milan [1796], Venice [1797], and Austria [1801]. He became emperor [1804] and

180 defeated Austria [1805] and Prussia [1806]. He became king of Italy [1807]. As emperor, he lost to united Europe [1814] and again at Waterloo [1815].

John Adams [Adams, John] president USA 1797 to 1801 Federalist Papers [1787 to 1788] He lived 1735 to 1826. Second president prevented war with France. His wife was Abigail Adams.

Charles de Talleyrand-Perigord [Talleyrand-Perigord, Charles de] foreign minister France 1797 to 1807 He lived 1754 to 1838 and served as foreign minister under Directory and Napoleon.

John Jacob Astor [Astor, John Jacob] merchant Germany/USA 1800 He lived 1763 to 1848 and became wealthy fur merchant.

Beau Brummel [Brummel, Beau] dandy England 1800 He lived 1778 to 1840.

Thomas Jefferson [Jefferson, Thomas] president USA 1801 to 1809 Declaration of Independence He lived 1743 to 1826. Before becoming third president, he drafted Declaration of Independence [1776] and, in Virginia, abolished entail and primogeniture, enacted religious freedom, and started public schools and University of Virginia. He helped plan Washington, District of Columbia, and drafted Kentucky Resolution on states' rights. He bought Louisiana Purchase of all middle USA [1803] and sent Lewis and Clark Expedition to explore it [1803]. He tried to enforce Embargo Act [1807], which tried to block trade with France and England to force free trade. Politics He believed in free public education, self-sufficiency, and consent of the governed in renewable social contract. The greatest possible freedom is best, with minimal state. Independent farmers are a democracy foundation.

Aaron Burr [Burr, Aaron] vice-president USA 1804 He lived 1756 to 1836 and killed Alexander Hamilton in a duel. His plan to colonize southwest USA led to trial for treason.

Johnny Appleseed [Appleseed, Johnny] or John Chapman [Chapman, John] wanderer Midwest USA 1805 He lived 1774 to 1847 and began planting apple trees in midwest USA.

Nathan Mayer Rothschild [Rothschild, Nathan Mayer]

181 banker Frankfurt, Germany 1805 to 1850 He lived 1777 to 1836 and started London bank [1805]. Later, firm opened banks in London, Vienna, Paris, and Naples. Banks loaned to countries and influenced policy.

James Madison [Madison, James] president USA 1809 to 1817 He lived 1751 to 1836. Fourth president fought War of 1812. His wife was Dolly Madison.

Furst von Metternich [Metternich, Furst von] minister Austria 1809 to 1848 He lived 1773 to 1859, married Marie Louise to Napoleon, and allied with France [1809]. He joined Allies [1813]. He dominated German Confederation and Congress of Vienna [1815]. He led Holy Alliance and Quadruple Alliance to maintain peace and order and set political boundaries. Holy Alliance had Austria, Russia, and Prussia. Revolution of 1848 ousted him.

Mikhail Illarionovich Kutuzov [Kutuzov, Mikhail Illarionovich] general Russia 1812 to 1813 He lived 1745 to 1813, fought Turkey [1770 to 1774], and defeated Napoleon.

Jean Lafitte [Lafitte, Jean] pirate New Orleans, Louisiana 1812 to 1815 He lived 1780 to 1826, was pirate of France against Spain, and helped USA in War of 1812.

James Monroe [Monroe, James] president USA 1817 to 1821 He lived 1758 to 1831. Fifth president resolved boundary with Canada, got Florida, settled Liberia with former slaves, presided over Missouri Compromise, and formulated Monroe Doctrine, ending European influence in Americas.

John Quincy Adams [Adams, John Quincy] president USA 1825 to 1829 He lived 1767 to 1848. Sixth president opposed slavery and developed Monroe Doctrine.

Davy Crockett [Crockett, Davy] pioneer/frontiersman USA 1827 He lived 1786 to 1836.

Andrew Jackson [Jackson, Andrew] president USA 1829 to 1837

182 He lived 1767 to 1845. Seventh president had Kitchen Cabinet of advisors. He started spoils system and emphasized Democratic Party. He antagonized Calhoun and Clay. He fought Bank of the USA, leading to requirement that only hard currency can buy public land. He ended National Bank and caused Panic of 1837.

Juan Manuel de Rosas [Rosas, Juan Manuel de] dictator Argentina 1829 to 1852 He lived 1793 to 1877.

William Lloyd Garrison [Garrison, William Lloyd] editor USA 1831 to 1861 He lived 1838 to 1909. Abolitionist opposed violence and Civil War [1861].

Karl von Clausewitz [Clausewitz, Karl von] general Prussia 1832 On War [1832] He lived 1780 to 1831 and advocated total war.

Antonio Santa Anna [Santa Anna, Antonio] president Mexico 1833 to 1855 He lived 1794 to 1876, failed to end revolution in Texas, defeated France, and failed in Mexican War. Juarez exiled him.

Daniel Dunglas Home [Home, Daniel Dunglas] spiritualist medium Britain 1833 to 1886 Incidents of My Life [1863 to 1872] He lived 1833 to 1886.

Stephen Austin [Austin, Stephen] leader Texas 1836 He lived 1793 to 1836. Texas formed Republic of Texas and revolted against Mexico but lost.

Sam Houston [Houston, Sam] president Texas 1836 to 1861 He lived 1793 to 1863, was president of Texas Republic [1836 to 1844], and was governor of State of Texas afterward. As governor of Texas, he refused to secede from Union. Other leaders removed him from office [1861].

Horace Mann [Mann, Horace] educator Massachusetts 1837 He lived 1796 to 1859.

183 Martin Van Buren [Van Buren, Martin] president USA 1837 to 1841 He lived 1782 to 1862. Eighth president was follower of Jackson, but Panic of 1837 caused his unpopularity. He advocated Treasury system independent of banks.

William Henry Harrison [Harrison, William Henry] president USA 1841 He lived 1773 to 1841. Ninth president died soon.

John Tyler [Tyler, John] president USA 1841 to 1845 He lived 1790 to 1862. Tenth president became president when Harrison died. He was Whig but vetoed Whig bank acts. He annexed Texas.

Johan Wilhelm Snellman [Snellman, Johan Wilhelm] statesman Finland 1842 to 1845 He lived 1806 to 1881 and was leader and Hegelian philosopher.

Kit Carson [Carson, Kit] scout West USA 1845 He lived 1809 to 1868 and fought against American natives.

Sarah Margaret Fuller [Fuller, Sarah Margaret] feminist USA 1845 She lived 1810 to 1850.

James K. Polk [Polk, James K.] president USA 1845 to 1849 He lived 1795 to 1849, was follower of Andrew Jackson, reduced tariffs, directed Mexican War [1845 to 1848], annexed Texas [1845], settled trouble over Oregon Territory [1846], and got California, Nevada, Utah, and Arizona land [1848]. Treasury system became independent of banks.

Stephen A. Douglas [Douglas, Stephen A.] senator USA 1847 to 1858 He lived 1813 to 1861 and debated Lincoln [1858]. He advocated Squatter Sovereignty, permitting slavery in territories and allowing state applying for statehood to vote to be slave or free. At Freeport [1860], he said that territories can exclude slavery by voting, lost southern-Democrat support, and lost presidential race against Lincoln.

Elizabeth Stanton [Stanton, Elizabeth] feminist

184 USA 1848 She lived 1815 to 1902 and worked for women's rights.

Martin Van Buren [Van Buren, Martin] candidate USA 1848.11 He lived 1782 to 1862 and ran for president as Free-Soil Party candidate.

Zachary Taylor [Taylor, Zachary] president USA 1849 to 1850 He lived 1784 to 1850. Before 1849, 12th president fought American Indians and fought in Mexican War.

Millard Fillmore [Fillmore, Millard] president USA 1850 to 1857 He lived 1800 to 1874. 13th president tried to implement Fugitive Slave act, avoided foreign affairs, and tried to advance Whig party. Later, he was Know-Nothing Party candidate.

Matthew Perry [Perry, Matthew] commodore Japan 1853 to 1854 He lived 1794 to 1858. Japan granted trade concessions to USA. He opened Japan to outside commerce and shipping, soon followed by trade agreements with other nations.

Franklin Pierce [Pierce, Franklin] president USA 1853 to 1857 He lived 1804 to 1869. 14th president got Gadsen Purchase [1853] from Mexico in south Arizona. Sectionalism increased with Kansas-Nebraska Bill [1854]. The squatter controversy resulted in bloodshed.

Bartolome Mitre [Mitre, Bartolome] leader Argentina 1853 to 1870 He lived 1821 to 1906, changed constitution [1853], became president [1862 to 1870], and began reforms.

Florence Nightingale [Nightingale, Florence] nurse Crimea 1854 She lived 1820 to 1910 and founded hospitals in Crimean War, bettered soldier lives, and reformed nurse training to emphasize cleanliness, knowledge, and organization.

James Buchanan [Buchanan, James] president USA 1857 He lived 1791 to 1868. 15th president dealt with slavery issues.

185 Benito Juarez [Juarez, Benito] president Mexico 1858 to 1871 He lived 1806 to 1872, led War of Reform, opposed Santa Anna, and resisted attempt of Maximilian to set up French Empire, He led after Emperor Maximilian was overthrown [1867] and changed constitution. He put down rebellion by Diaz [1871].

Giuseppe Garibaldi [Garibaldi, Giuseppe] leader Italy 1860 He lived 1807 to 1882 and unified Italy under his 1000 armed citizen followers {red shirts} by defeating Naples and Sicily [1860]. He gave his conquests to King Victor Emmanuel II.

Adolf Krupp [Krupp, Adolf] manufacturer Germany 1860 He lived 1812 to 1887 and started munitions factory.

Boss Tweed or William M. Tweed [Tweed, William M.] leader New York, New York 1860 to 1870 He lived 1823 to 1878, controlled Tammany Hall as Democrat, and accumulated a fortune by graft.

Thomas Jackson [Jackson, Thomas] or Stonewall Jackson [Jackson, Stonewall] general Virginia 1861 to 1863 He lived 1824 to 1863 and tied first Battle of Bull Run, won Shenandoah Valley Campaign, won second Battle of Bull Run, and died at Chancellorsville.

Jefferson Davis [Davis, Jefferson] president South USA 1861 to 1865 He lived 1808 to 1889 and led Confederate States of America.

Abraham Lincoln [Lincoln, Abraham] president/essayist/orator USA 1861 to 1865 Emancipation Proclamation [1863]; Gettysburg Address [1864: oration]; Second Inaugural Address [1865: oration] He lived 1809 to 1865. 16th-president election started Civil War. South believed it needed slaves to produce cotton, which it exported for profit. He had trouble with divided cabinet, discontent over war, bad generals, and abolitionists. John Wilkes Booth assassinated Abraham Lincoln at Ford's Theater in Washington. Emancipation Proclamation [1863] freed 4,000,000 slaves, mostly on cotton plantations. This act diminished states' rights.

Pierre Beauregard [Beauregard, Pierre] general South USA 1862 He lived 1818 to 1893 and was Confederate general.

186

Ulysses S. Grant [Grant, Ulysses S.] general USA 1862 to 1865 He lived 1822 to 1885. After he fought at Shiloh in Virginia, Vicksburg in Mississippi, and Chattanooga, Tennessee, he led Wilderness Campaign for the North, which led to Lee's surrender at Appomattox Courthouse in Virginia [1865].

Robert E. Lee [Lee, Robert E.] general South USA 1862 to 1865 He lived 1807 to 1872. Confederate general stopped march on Richmond in Seven Days battles, won second Battle of Bull Run, fought to standstill at Antietam while trying to invade North, won at Fredericksburg, won at Chancellorsville, lost at Gettysburg, fought Grant in Wilderness Campaign, endured siege at Petersburg, and surrendered at Appomattox Courthouse [1865].

Otto von Bismarck [Bismarck, Otto von] or Iron Chancellor premier Prussia 1862 to 1890 He lived 1815 to 1898 and was first chancellor. He started Austro-Prussian War [1866]. He organized Germany under Prussia as North German Confederation. He started Franco-Prussian War [1869]. He created German Empire under King William I. He passed social security and labor laws to block more socialism. Kaiser Wilhelm II dismissed him [1890].

John Graham Chambers [Chambers, John Graham] boxer England 1865 He lived 1843 to 1883 and invented Marquis of Queensberry rules for boxing [1865], published [1867].

Andrew Johnson [Johnson, Andrew] president USA 1865 to 1869 He lived 1808 to 1875. 17th president became president after Booth assassinated Lincoln. He proposed mild Reconstruction for South, encouraged Seward to purchase Alaska from Russia [1867], and barely escaped impeachment for trying to remove Stanton, Secretary of War, who was a radical Republican.

Jesse James [James, Jesse] outlaw West USA 1866 He lived 1847 to 1882.

Thaddeus Stevens [Stevens, Thaddeus] senator USA 1867 He lived 1792 to 1868, was Senator, and wanted to punish South.

Charles Sumner [Sumner, Charles] senator USA 1867

187 He lived 1811 to 1874, was Senator from Massachusetts, and wanted to punish South.

Cornelius Vanderbilt [Vanderbilt, Cornelius] businessman New York 1867 He lived 1873 to 1942 and started New York Central railroad and shipping lines.

Benjamin Disraeli [Disraeli, Benjamin] prime minister England 1867 to 1880 He lived 1804 to 1881, was Conservative {Tory}, and passed Reform Bill, widening right to vote to workingmen. He annexed Fiji Islands, Transvaal, and Cyprus. He fought Afghanistan and Zulu tribe in Africa. He bought control of Suez Canal. He reduced Russian power in Balkans at Congress of Berlin. In 1874, he became Prime Minister again.

William E. Gladstone [Gladstone, William E.] prime minister England 1868 to 1894 He lived 1809 to 1898. Liberal passed Irish Land Act, enacted civil-service reform, started ballot vote, ended sale of army commissions, reformed Parliament, and started public education. His career ended when he advocated Home Rule for Ireland.

Ulysses S. Grant [Grant, Ulysses S.] president USA 1869 to 1877 He lived 1822 to 1885. 18th president allowed passage of harsh Reconstruction Act for South. He allowed legal tender notes {greenback money} to stay in circulation after Panic of 1873, though gold and silver reserves backing the money were low. He associated with dishonest politicians. His secretary of state was Hamilton Fish.

Thomas Nast [Nast, Thomas] cartoonist New York, New York 1870 He lived 1840 to 1902 and caricatured Boss Tweed and Tammany Hall. He used donkey for Democrats and elephant for Republicans.

Booker T. Washington [Washington, Booker T.] founder/historian/biographer USA 1870 to 1901 Up from Slavery [1901: autobiography] He lived 1856 to 1915 and started Tuskegee Institute.

Phineas T. Barnum [Barnum, Phineas T.] showman USA 1871 He lived 1810 to 1891 and owned circus called "The Greatest Show on Earth". He organized American Museum of freaks.

Rutherford B. Hayes [Hayes, Rutherford B.] president USA

188 1873 to 1877 He lived 1822 to 1893 and was the 19th president.

Calamity Jane or Martha Jane Canary-Burke [Canary-Burke, Martha Jane] frontierswoman South Dakota 1875 She lived 1852 to 1903.

James Hickok [Hickok, James] or Wild Bill Hickok [Hickok, Wild Bill] marshal/scout Kansas 1876 He lived 1837 to 1876.

Tewfik Pasha pasha Egypt 1876 to 1892 He lived 1852 to 1892 and reformed law and education. He lost some of Sudan to Britain.

Porfirio Diaz [Diaz, Porfirio] president Mexico 1876 to 1911 He lived 1830 to 1915 and increased foreign investment, but it only helped the wealthy. His term ended with revolution.

Crazy Horse/Dull Knife surrender Red Cloud Agency, South Dakota 1877 Crazy Horse lived 1840 to 1877 and was Oglala Lakota chief. Dull Knife lived 1810 to 1883 and was Northern Cheyenne chief.

James A. Garfield [Garfield, James A.] president USA 1877 to 1881 He lived 1831 to 1881. 20th president opposed boss and Senator Roscoe Conkling and prosecuted frauds involving mail routes {star route, Garfield}.

Julio Roca [Roca, Julio] leader Argentina 1879 He lived 1843 to 1914 and defeated South American natives, opened south Argentina, set up federal system, and settled boundary with Chile.

Black Hand party Sicily 1880 Group terrorized Sicily.

Chester A. Arthur [Arthur, Chester A.]

189 president USA 1881 to 1885 He lived 1830 to 1886. 21st president passed Civil Service Act.

Samuel Gompers [Gompers, Samuel] founder USA 1881 to 1924 He lived 1850 to 1924 and founded and led American Federation of Labor (AFL), which was against socialism and profit sharing.

Thomas Masaryk [Masaryk, Thomas] president Prague, Czech Republic 1881 to 1937 Suicide [1881]; Foundations of Concrete Logic [1885]; Social Question [1898]; Spirit of Russia [1913] He lived 1850 to 1937. He helped found Czechoslovakia [1918] and had problems with extremists.

William F. Cody [Cody, William F.] or Buffalo Bill showman/scout USA 1883 He lived 1845 to 1917.

Woodrow Wilson [Wilson, Woodrow] college professor/president USA 1884 to 1921 Congressional Government [1884]; Fourteen Points [1918] He lived 1856 to 1924. 28th president [1913 to 1921] started New Freedom reforms. He sent Marines to Vera Cruz, Mexico [1914]. He occupied Haiti and Santo Domingo [1914 to 1916]. He passed Farm Loan Act [1916]. He set up Federal Reserve. USA became a creditor nation, as Allies paid in gold, sold their assets, and bought goods from USA. He entered World War I [1917] after earlier neutrality. He presented 14 points for peace at Paris Peace Conference [1919]. Republicans under Lodge blocked USA entry into League of Nations [1920]. His health broke while campaigning [1920] and he died [1921].

Grover Cleveland [Cleveland, Grover] president USA 1885 to 1889 He lived 1837 to 1908 and was 22nd president.

José Rizal [Rizal, José] leader Philippines 1886 He lived 1861 to 1896 and led independence from Spain movement.

Adolph Strasser [Strasser, Adolph] leader USA 1886 He lived 1844 to 1939. American Federation of Labor (AFL) formed.

Benjamin Harrison [Harrison, Benjamin]

190 president USA 1889 to 1893 He lived 1833 to 1901, was 23rd president, was under control of Republicans in Senate, approved McKinley Tariff Act for high tariffs, and held first Pan-American Conference.

Joseph Chamberlain [Chamberlain, Joseph] mayor Birmingham, England 1890 He lived 1836 to 1914 and had city develop water supply and public transportation.

Karl Lueger [Lueger, Karl] mayor Vienna, Austria 1890 He lived 1844 to 1910 and had city develop water supply and public transportation.

Andrew Carnegie [Carnegie, Andrew] businessman Scotland/USA 1891 He lived 1835 to 1919, was steel manufacturer and philanthropist, and built 2800 libraries and Carnegie Hall in New York City.

Susan B. Anthony [Anthony, Susan B.] feminist USA 1892 She lived 1820 to 1906 and worked for women's rights.

John D. Rockefeller [Rockefeller, John D.] businessman USA 1892 He lived 1839 to 1915, headed Standard Oil Company, and started Rockefeller Foundation.

Grover Cleveland [Cleveland, Grover] president USA 1893 to 1897 He lived 1837 to 1908, was 24th president upheld the gold standard, broke Pullman strike with army [1894], forced Venezuela boundary dispute to arbitration, and wanted low tariffs but got high tariffs from Congress.

Arthur Evans [Evans, Arthur] scientist England 1894 He lived 1851 to 1941. He discovered Minoan palace at Knossos [1894] and restored it somewhat.

Alfred Dreyfus [Dreyfus, Alfred] trial France 1894 to 1906 He lived 1859 to 1935 and was French army officer. He had a German and Jewish background, so a faction accused him of treason for passing secret documents, and a court convicted him [1894] {Dreyfus Affair}. His brother reopened

191 case [1897], which split France for nine years into military, royalist, Catholic, republican, socialist, and anti-cleric factions. The state cleared him later [1906]. Dreyfus Affair spurred church and state separation.

William Jennings Bryan [Bryan, William Jennings] populist USA 1896 He lived 1860 to 1925 and gave the "Cross of Gold" speech in defense of free silver coinage. Later, he defended religious fundamentalism in Scopes "monkey trial".

Fanny Farmer [Farmer, Fanny] cook USA 1896 She lived 1857 to 1915 and wrote first household cookbook [1896].

William McKinley [McKinley, William] president USA 1897 to 1901 He lived 1843 to 1901. 25th president insisted on the gold standard and worked for business interests with Mark Hanna, Republican leader. After USS Maine sank in Havana, Cuba [1898], he instigated Spanish-American War, though Spain wanted to avoid war. Spanish fleet lost at Manila Bay and later near Cuba. He obtained Hawaii. He started Open Door Policy in China, allowing no foreign intervention, just trading. Currency Act [1900] ensured the gold standard. Someone assassinated him.

Theodor Herzl [Herzl, Theodor] founder Austria 1898 He lived 1860 to 1904 and started Zionist Movement to create Jewish state in Palestine.

Jane Addams [Addams, Jane] social worker Chicago, Illinois 1899 She lived 1860 to 1935 and founded Hull House, settlement house.

Alfred von Schlieffen [Schlieffen, Alfred von] field marshal Germany 1899 He lived 1833 to 1912. He formulated a military plan (Schlieffen Plan) to go through Belgium to Paris and defeat France in 42 days.

Harry Houdini [Houdini, Harry] magician/escape artist USA 1899 to 1926 He lived 1874 to 1926.

Thomas Lipton [Lipton, Thomas] businessman Scotland/England 1900 He lived 1850 to 1931 and was tea merchant and started America's Cup sailboat racing.

192

Carry Nation [Nation, Carry] temperance worker USA 1900 She lived 1846 to 1911 and used hatchet to destroy saloons.

Billy Sunday [Sunday, Billy] preacher USA 1900 to 1920 He lived 1862 to 1935.

Mohandas Gandhi [Gandhi, Mohandas] or Mahatma Gandhi [Gandhi, Mahatma] leader India 1900 to 1948 He lived 1869 to 1948 and led India nationalist movement. He was pacifist, followed strict abstinence, and used passive resistance and hunger strikes. He first used non-violence {satyagraha} in South Africa to protest racism. He used same practices in India against class system and colonialism. He advocated home industries and end to untouchable class. Ethics People should not hurt other living things. Persuasion, self-control, and self-denial are good, but the process requires zeal for truth.

John Pierpont Morgan [Morgan, John Pierpont] financier USA 1901 He lived 1837 to 1913 and financed railroads and U.S. Steel.

Theodore Roosevelt [Roosevelt, Theodore] president USA 1901 to 1905 He lived 1858 to 1919. He led invading horsemen {Rough Riders} in Spanish-American War in Cuba [1898]. The 26th president split big businesses with Sherman Anti-Trust Act. He encouraged conservation. He established Roosevelt corollary to Monroe Doctrine and used money and threats in Latin America, especially at Santo Domingo in Caribbean. He kept Open Door policy in China and mediated Russo-Japanese War. He founded Bull Moose Party.

Robert LaFollette [LaFollette, Robert] senator Wisconsin 1902 to 1924 He lived 1855 to 1925 and was Progressive governor and senator from Wisconsin. His program was Wisconsin Idea. He led Progressive Party in 1924.

Sun Yat-sen president China 1905 to 1919 He lived 1866 to 1925 and founded Kuomintang [1905]. After defeating Ch'ing Dynasty, he became president [1911]. He left the government of warlords in north China [1919] and went south, where he organized Kuomintang. He split with Communists [1927].

Kemal Ataturk [Ataturk, Kemal]

193 leader Istanbul, Turkey 1908 to 1938 He lived 1881 to 1938 and led Young Turks who restored constitution to Ottoman Empire [1908]. He was general in World War I and then organized Nationalist Party. He defeated invasion by Greece at Smyrna [1922], abolished sultanate [1922], and founded Turkey [1922]. He obtained peace at Lausanne Conference [1923] and then westernized Turkey.

Coco Chanel [Chanel, Coco] or Gabrielle Chanel [Chanel, Gabrielle] businesswoman France 1908 to 1970 She lived 1883 to 1971 and created perfumes.

William Howard Taft [Taft, William Howard] president USA 1909 to 1913 He lived 1857 to 1930. 27th president broke up trusts, intervened in South America at Nicaragua, had high tariffs, favored some businesses, and started income tax, postal savings system, and parcel post. He later was USA Supreme Court Chief Justice.

Vladimir Ilyich Lenin [Lenin, Vladimir Ilyich] founder Russia 1909 to 1924 Materialism and Empirio-Criticism [1909]; Philosophical Notebooks [1929] He lived 1870 to 1924. He led Russian Revolution [1917] and Bolshevik party. He fought Mensheviks in civil war [1917 to 1919]. He started Soviet Union or Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. He founded Comintern or Third International [1919], to spread Marxism by uniting all Communist countries. He tried New Economic Policy [1922], allowing private enterprise to save economy. Politics Leninism was the idea that imperialism preceded capitalism downfall, and a strong Communist Party must guide the proletariat.

Robert Baden-Powell [Baden-Powell, Robert] founder England 1910 He lived 1857 to 1941 and started Boy Scouts.

Francisco Villa [Villa, Francisco] or Pancho Villa [Villa, Pancho] revolutionary Mexico 1910 to 1915 He lived 1878 to 1923, helped Madero in Mexican Revolution, controlled north Mexico with Emil Zapata, and took Mexico City [1915]. Later, he raided USA border.

Grigori Rasputin [Rasputin, Grigori] politician Russia 1911 to 1916 He lived 1872 to 1916 and controlled family of Czar Nicholas II through mysticism and supposed healing power.

Enver Pasha dictator

194 Turkey 1913 He lived 1881 to 1922 and led Young Turks.

Georges Clemenceau [Clemenceau, Georges] premier France 1914 He lived 1841 to 1929 and allied with Czech, Russia, and China. Ferdinand Foch was marshal of France.

Paul von Hindenburg [Hindenburg, Paul von] field marshal Germany 1914.06 to 1918 He lived 1847 to 1934 and was German field marshal in World War I.

David Lloyd George [Lloyd George, David] prime minister England 1916 to 1922 He lived 1863 to 1945 and ended veto power of House of Lords during social insurance issue [1910]. He opposed imperialism. He participated in Paris Peace Conference [1919].

Winston Churchill [Churchill, Winston] lord admiral/prime minister/historian England 1916 to 1950 Second World War [1948 to 1954]; History of the English Speaking Peoples [1956 to 1958] He lived 1874 to 1965. The government dismissed him after failure in Dardanelles campaign [1916]. He formed Atlantic Charter with Franklin Roosevelt of USA, defining United Nations. He was at conferences of Casablanca, Quebec, Cairo, Yalta, Tehran, and Potsdam [1940 to 1946].

Ferdinand Foch [Foch, Ferdinand] marshal France 1918 He lived 1851 to 1929, was Allied supreme commander in World War I, and planned Grand Offensive with Haig [1918].

Edvard Benes [Benes, Edvard] founder Czech Republic/Slovakia 1918 to 1948 He lived 1884 to 1948, helped found Czechoslovakia [1918], was president [1935 to 1948], and had problems with extremists.

William Du Bois [Du Bois, William] writer USA 1920 He lived 1868 to 1963 and was radical editor, educator, and writer.

Reza Khan or Reza Pahlavi or Reza Shah premier Iran 1921

195 He lived 1878 to 1944 and staged coup [1921] to become shah.

Warren G. Harding [Harding, Warren G.] president USA 1921 to 1925 He lived 1865 to 1923. 29th president promised normalcy. He sponsored Washington Naval Conference, limiting ships and protecting China. Teapot Dome Scandal and other scandals happened in his term but he died.

Mao Tse-Tung founder China 1921 to 1975 He lived 1893 to 1976, founded Communist Party (CCP) [1921], and allied with nationalists. He then lost cities to Kuomintang nationalists [1927]. He directed civil war in rural south China. He ruled Kiangsi province [1930 to 1934]. He led Long March [1934] from Kiangsi through mountains to Shensi in north. He forced Nationalists to flee to Formosa Island (Taiwan) and became People's Republic of China chairman [1949], with government in Beijing. 1,000,000 died. Chou En-lai was Premier. He started Great Leap Forward [1958]. He started Cultural Revolution [1965].

Benito Mussolini [Mussolini, Benito] premier Italy 1922 to 1943 He lived 1883 to 1945 and became Fascist premier by coup d'état [1922]. Italy had high inflation and high unemployment. Fascists terrorized communists and democrats and advocated authoritarianism. He marched nationalist war veterans on Rome during strikes and unrest. He slowly became dictator and suspended legislature [1925]. He formed corporate state and combined employers and employees into guilds controlled by government. He signed Lateran Treaty with the pope. He was victorious in Ethiopia and Albania and allied with Germany in World War II. Allies invaded Italy [1943]. Partisans shot him [1945].

Calvin Coolidge [Coolidge, Calvin] president USA 1923 to 1927 He lived 1872 to 1933. 30th president was taciturn, honest, and simple. He preferred laissez-faire economy and small government.

Primo de Rivera [Rivera, Primo de] dictator Spain 1923 to 1930 He lived 1903 and 1936 and became dictator with king's complicity.

Plutarco Calles [Calles, Plutarco] president Mexico 1924 to 1928 He lived 1877 to 1945 and first was reformer but then conservative.

Joseph Stalin [Stalin, Joseph] dictator Russia 1924 to 1953 He lived 1879 to 1953 and got rid of Leon Trotsky [1927]. Trotsky wanted pure worldwide communism and fled to Mexico. He started Five Year Plans to industrialize nation and collectivize farms [1927]. He purged enemies in 1930's.

196 Germany attacked Russia [1941]. He met with Allied leaders at Tehran, Yalta, and Potsdam. Molotov was Premier. Beria was secret-police chief.

J. Edgar Hoover [Hoover, J. Edgar] director USA 1924 to 1972 He lived 1924 to 1972 and was first director of Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI). He meddled in politics and investigated suspected communists and leftists.

Paul von Hindenburg [Hindenburg, Paul von] president Germany 1925 to 1934 He lived 1847 to 1934. Junkers or wealthy industrialists controlled Weimar Republic. Stresemann was foreign minister. Economy had recovered from World War I. At end, Hindenburg appointed Adolf Hitler as chancellor.

Jozef Pilsudski [Pilsudski, Jozef] dictator Poland 1926 He lived 1867 to 1935.

Antonio Oscar de Fragoso Carmona [Carmona, Antonio Oscar de Fragoso] general/dictator Portugal 1926 to 1951 He lived 1869 to 1951.

Charles Lindbergh [Lindbergh, Charles] pilot USA 1927 He lived 1902 to 1974 and first flew alone across Atlantic Ocean nonstop.

Antonio de Oliveira Salazar [Salazar, Antonio de Oliveira] dictator Portugal 1928 to 1968 He lived 1889 to 1974 and controlled Portugal [1932 to 1968].

Herbert Hoover [Hoover, Herbert] president USA 1929 to 1933 He lived 1874 to 1964 and was Secretary of Commerce in 1920's. Great Depression started after 31st-president election. He tried to balance budget, defended the gold standard, urged public works, provided loans, handled veterans march on Washington, held ineffective disarmament talks, and had bank crisis [1932]. His Treasury Secretary was Andrew Mellon.

Eamon De Valera [De Valera, Eamon] or Edward George de Valera [Valera, Edward George de] president Ireland 1932 He lived 1882 to 1975. Civil war ended in south Ireland. Sinn Fein or Irish Republican Army became outlaws.

197 Hermann Goering [Goering, Hermann] leader Germany 1932 to 1945 He lived 1893 to 1946, was Nazi president of Reichstag [1932], founded Gestapo secret police [1935], and controlled economy. He planned German air war for World War II.

Joseph Goebbels [Goebbels, Joseph] propagandist Germany 1933 to 1945 He lived 1897 to 1945.

Adolf Hitler [Hitler, Adolf] or Der Führer chancellor Germany 1933 to 1945 He lived 1889 to 1945 and was National Socialist (Nazi). Hindenburg named him chancellor [1932]. He gained absolute power by outlawing Communists after blaming them for setting fire to Reichstag legislature [1934]. He rearmed Germany and allied with Italy [1936]. Munich Pact gave Germany Czechoslovakia [1937]. He set up totalitarian state that emphasized anti-Semitism. Concentration camps killed five million people. He started World War II [1939] with blitzkrieg through Poland, Belgium, and France. He lost Battle of Britain in air [1940]. He bogged down in Russia [1941]. He committed suicide [1945] in Berlin.

Franklin Delano Roosevelt [Roosevelt, Franklin Delano] president USA 1933 to 1945 New Deal [1933] He lived 1882 to 1945. Before 1933, the 32nd president recovered from polio and became governor of New York. In 1933, he declared bank holiday, set up many public agencies to hire unemployed and use natural resources, and began New Deal policies with many new laws. He had Brain Trust of economic advisors: Henry Wallace, Harry Hopkins, and Henry Morgenthau. He tried to reorganize Supreme Court [1937]. He set up Lend-Lease plan to supply Britain [1940]. He attended Allied conferences. He declared four human rights or Four Freedoms [1941]: freedom of expression and religion and freedom from want and fear. His wife was the humanitarian Eleanor Roosevelt.

Everett Dirksen [Dirksen, Everett] senator USA 1933 to 1969 He lived 1896 to 1969 and was moderate Republican leader.

Muhammad Ali Jinnah [Jinnah, Muhammad Ali] leader India 1934 He lived 1876 to 1948 and led Moslem League.

Lazaro Cardenas [Cardenas, Lazaro] president Mexico 1934 to 1940 He lived 1895 to 1970 and started widespread reforms [1934 to 1940].

Fiorello La Guardia [La Guardia, Fiorello]

198 mayor New York, New York 1934 to 1945 He lived 1882 to 1947 and led Fusion party {reform party}.

John L. Lewis [Lewis, John L.] founder USA 1935 He lived 1880 to 1969, was United Mine Workers of America president [1920 to 1960], and started Congress of Industrial Organizations [1935] (CIO).

Manuel Luis Quezon [Quezon, Manuel Luis] president Philippines 1935 He lived 1878 to 1944. Philippines became commonwealth under USA.

Al Smith [Smith, Al] candidate USA 1936 He lived 1873 to 1944 and was Republican presidential candidate.

Ioannis Metazas [Metazas, Ioannis] dictator Greece 1936 to 1939 He lived 1871 to 1941.

Francisco Franco [Franco, Francisco] dictator Spain 1936 to 1975 He lived 1892 to 1975 and abolished all parties except Falange fascist party. He declared monarchy, with himself as head of state [1947].

Bernard Baruch [Baruch, Bernard] advisor USA 1937 He lived 1870 to 1965 and advised Roosevelt.

Amelia Earhart [Earhart, Amelia] pilot USA 1937 She lived 1897 to 1937 and disappeared in Pacific Ocean on her around-the-world trip in a two-passenger airplane.

Joachim von Ribbentrop [Ribbentrop, Joachim von] general Germany 1940 He lived 1893 to 1946.

Wendell Wilkie [Wilkie, Wendell]

199 candidate USA 1940 He lived 1892 to 1944. Republican candidate for president campaigned for peace.

Ion Antonescu [Antonescu, Ion] dictator Romania 1940 to 1946 He lived 1882 to 1946, took over Romania with Iron Guard's help, and fought Russia.

Tojo premier Japan 1941 to 1945 He lived 1884 to 1948 and started war with USA [1942].

Douglas MacArthur [MacArthur, Douglas] general Pacific Ocean 1942 to 1952 He lived 1880 to 1964 and commanded all Far East forces for USA in World War II. He led Japan occupation [1945 to 1952].

Dwight David Eisenhower [Eisenhower, Dwight David] general USA 1943 He lived 1890 to 1969 and led Allies in North Africa in World War II. Allies appointed him Supreme Commander in Europe [1944].

Eddie Rickenbacker [Rickenbacker, Eddie] pilot USA 1943 He lived 1890 to 1973.

Harry S. Truman [Truman, Harry S.] president USA 1945 to 1953 He lived 1884 to 1972. 33rd president became president when Roosevelt died in office. He went to Potsdam Conference [1945], which divided Germany into four sectors and authorized war trials. He authorized the hydrogen bomb [1945]. He stated Truman Doctrine [1947] to financially aid Greece and Turkey, which communism threatened, and to provide support for all peoples threatened by communism. He presided over Marshall Plan [1947] to rebuild Europe. He tried to enact Fair Deal of price controls and civil rights. He finalized North Atlantic Treaty [1948]. He sent troops to Korea [1950]. He dismissed General MacArthur [1952]. He pressured steel industry.

J. Paul Getty [Getty, J. Paul] businessman USA 1945 to 1960 He lived 1892 to 1976 and was in oil business.

Achmad Sukarno [Sukarno, Achmad] president

200 Indonesia 1945 to 1966 He lived 1901 to 1970.

Josip Broz Tito [Tito, Josip Broz] premier Yugoslavia 1945 to 1970 He lived 1892 to 1980, deposed king, and defeated Mikhailovich in Yugoslav civil war between two Nazi resistors. Yugoslavia became Communist but was independent of Russia.

Trygve Lie [Lie, Trygve] secretary-general New York, New York 1946 to 1953 He lived 1896 to 1968 and was United Nations Secretary-General.

Juan Peron [Peron, Juan] dictator Argentina 1946 to 1955 He lived 1895 to 1974.

George C. Marshall [Marshall, George C.] secretary of state USA 1947 He lived 1880 to 1959 and developed Marshall Plan or European Recovery Program, which integrated all aid to Europe. He was Army chief of staff in World War II.

Robert Taft [Taft, Robert] senator Ohio 1947 He lived 1889 to 1953. Taft-Hartley law [1947] was about labor.

Joe McCarthy [McCarthy, Joe] senator USA 1947 to 1954 He lived 1909 to 1957, investigated Communist party, and labeled many liberals traitors. Army-McCarthy hearings exposed his methods and led to his defeat [1954].

Jawaharal Nehru [Nehru, Jawaharal] prime minister India 1947 to 1964 He lived 1889 to 1964. After British left India, he led Congress Party, favored industrialization and socialism, fought Pakistan for Kashmir, fought Portugal for Goa, and fought China over border.

Chang Kai-Shek [Kai-Shek, Chang] president Taiwan 1948 to 1975 He lived 1887 to 1975 and led Republic of China.

201 Aly Khan or Ali Solomone Khan prince Pakistan 1949 to 1960 He lived 1911 to 1960 and was famous lover and celebrity, married to Rita Hayworth.

Konrad Adenauer [Adenauer, Konrad] chancellor Germany 1949 to 1963 He lived 1876 to 1967 and led Christian Democrats, centrist party of West Germany. Opposition was Social Democrats, socialist party.

David Ben Gurion [Ben Gurion, David] premier Israel 1949 to 1963 He lived 1886 to 1973 and led Labor party.

Ralph Bunche [Bunche, Ralph] diplomat USA 1950 He lived 1904 to 1971 and worked at United Nations.

Mohammed Mossadegh [Mossadegh, Mohammed] premier Iran 1951 He lived 1882 to 1967. With Communist Tudeh party, he deposed king [1951].

John Foster Dulles [Dulles, John Foster] secretary of state USA 1953 to 1961 He lived 1888 to 1959 and advocated alliances against Communists and supported superior nuclear forces.

Dwight David Eisenhower [Eisenhower, Dwight David] president USA 1953 to 1961 He lived 1890 to 1969. 34th president got truce in Korea, set Eisenhower Doctrine for Middle East defense against Communism, and sent troops to desegregate schools in Little Rock, Arkansas.

Dag Hammerskjöld [Hammerskjöld, Dag] secretary-general New York, New York 1953 to 1961 He lived 1905 to 1961 and was United Nations Secretary-General. He tried to make his office stronger through personal action, especially in Congo, where he died in plane crash.

Nikita Khrushchev [Khrushchev, Nikita] dictator Russia 1953 to 1964

202 He lived 1894 to 1971 and was member of Politburo [1939], became first secretary when Stalin died [1953], denounced Stalin [1956], and became Premier [1958]. His policy was "peaceful coexistence".

Hyman Rickover [Rickover, Hyman] admiral Poland/USA 1954 He lived 1985 to 1987.

Getulio Vargas [Vargas, Getulio] president Brazil 1954 He lived 1882 to 1954. After ruling [1930 to 1954], power struggle began, he lost, and military took over.

George Meany [Meany, George] president USA 1955 He lived 1894 to 1980 and led AFL-CIO.

Imre Nagy [Nagy, Imre] premier Hungary 1955 He lived 1896 to 1958 and liberalized Communism in Hungary. Russia removed him.

Walter Reuther [Reuther, Walter] labor leader USA 1955 He lived 1907 to 1970 and led AFL/CIO.

Martin Luther King, Jr. [King, Jr., Martin Luther] civil rights leader USA 1955 to 1968 He lived 1929 to 1968 and led Southern Christian Leadership Organization and used passive resistance and boycotts to force desegregation.

Gamal Abdel Nasser [Nasser, Gamal Abdel] president Egypt 1956 to 1969 He lived 1918 to 1970 and started coup that deposed King Farouk I. He nationalized Suez Canal and started land reform. France, Britain, and Israel tried to take Suez Canal [1956] but failed.

Fidel Castro [Castro, Fidel] premier Cuba 1959 He lived 1926 to ?. The 26th of July revolutionary movement overthrew Juan Bautista, and Cuba became Communist.

Che Guevara [Guevara, Che] general

203 Cuba 1959 He lived 1928 to 1967.

James Hoffa [Hoffa, James] labor leader USA 1960 He lived 1913 to 1975 and led Teamster's Union.

Yuri Gagarin [Gagarin, Yuri] pilot Russia 1961 He lived 1934 to 1968 and was first person to orbit Earth, once, in spacecraft and return.

Alan Shepard [Shepard, Alan] pilot USA 1961 He lived 1923 to 1998 and was first American in space.

John F. Kennedy [Kennedy, John F.] president USA 1961 to 1963 Profiles in Courage He lived 1917 to 1963. 35th president tried to start New Frontier and Peace Corps, supported Bay of Pigs invasion of Cuba by insurgents, won Cuban missile crisis, got nuclear test ban treaty, and Oswald assassinated him.

U Thant [Thant, U] secretary-general United Nations 1961 to 1969 He lived 1909 to 1974 and was United Nations Secretary-General. He dealt with Netherlands New Guinea independence, trouble over Cuba, and Congo reunification.

Lyndon B. Johnson [Johnson, Lyndon B.] president USA 1963 to 1969 He lived 1908 to 1973. 36th president led nation into Vietnam War and Great Society.

Golda Meir [Meir, Golda] premier Israel 1963 to 1973 She lived 1898 to 1978.

Barry Goldwater [Goldwater, Barry] candidate USA 1964 He lived 1909 to 1998 and was conservative Republican presidential candidate.

Aleksei Kosygin [Kosygin, Aleksei]

204 premier Russia 1964 He lived 1904 to 1980 and led USSR.

Leonid Brezhnev [Brezhnev, Leonid] dictator Russia 1964 to 1982 He lived 1906 to 1982 and led USSR. He became Communist Party first secretary after he took power from Krushchev.

Alexei Leonov [Leonov, Alexei] pilot Russia 1965 He lived 1934 to ? and first walked in space.

Indira Gandhi [Gandhi, Indira] prime minister India 1966 She lived 1917 to 1984.

Richard M. Nixon [Nixon, Richard M.] president USA 1969 to 1974 He lived 1913 to 1994. 37th president opened China [1972], ended Vietnam War [1973], and fought inflation. Watergate scandal forced him to resign [1974].

Kurt Waldheim [Waldheim, Kurt] secretary-general New York, New York 1969 to 1977 He lived 1918 to ? and was United Nations Secretary-General. He was from Austria.

Constantine Karamanlis [Karamanlis, Constantine] ruler Greece 1973 He lived 1907 to 1998 and led after military-junta failed.

Juan Peron [Peron, Juan] leader Argentina 1973 He lived 1895 to 1974 and led after military junta failed.

Augusto Pinochet [Pinochet, Augusto] dictator Chile 1973 to 1990 He lived 1915 to 2006 and used army to take rule from elected socialist president Salvador Allende and had many people killed.

205 Gerald Ford [Ford, Gerald] president USA 1974 to 1977 He lived 1913 to 2006. 38th president pardoned Richard Nixon.

Deng Xiaoping [Xiaoping, Deng] premier China 1976 to 1989 He lived 1904 to 1997. After Mao died, China increased economic growth under Deng Xiaoping.

James E. Carter [Carter, James E.] president USA 1977 to 1981 He lived 1924 to ?. 39th president fought inflation and slow growth. Iran took Americans hostage in Tehran until day after he left office.

Lech Walesa [Walesa, Lech] union leader Gdansk, Poland 1980 to 1980.12 He lived 1943 to ?. Shipyard workers strike led to Solidarity trade union, with repression in December.

Ronald Reagan [Reagan, Ronald] president USA 1981 to 1989 He lived 1911 to 2004. 40th president enacted large tax cuts, caused government debt, and built up military.

Russian leaders leader Russia 1982 to 1985 Leonid Brezhnev died, and Russia had old caretaker leaders.

Mikhail Gorbachev [Gorbachev, Mikhail] general secretary Russia 1985 to 1991 He lived 1931 to ? and stressed glasnost (openness) and perestroika (reorganization).

Lech Walesa [Walesa, Lech] union leader Gdansk, Poland 1989 He lived 1943 to ?. Elections became open to all parties, including Solidarity union. Solidarity won election and formed coalition.

George H. W. Bush [Bush, George H. W.] president USA 1989 to 1993 He lived 1924 to ?. 41st president fought war with Iraq over Kuwait occupation [1991]. Economy was bad.

206 Vaclav Havel [Havel, Vaclav] president Czech Republic/Slovakia 1989 to 2000 He lived 1936 to ? and became president of independent Czechoslovakia [1989].

William Clinton [Clinton, William] or Bill Clinton [Clinton, Bill] president USA 1993 to 2001 He lived 1946 to ?. 42nd president got balanced budget agreement. He escaped impeachment for sexual affair coverup [1998]. He passed NAFTA trade agreement for Mexico and USA. He got Palestine and Israel to agree on peace and Palestinian state. He presided over prosperity.

George W. Bush [Bush, George W.] president USA 2001 to 2009 He lived 1946 to ?. 43rd president attacked Afghanistan [2001] and Iraq [2003] and tried to end worldwide terrorism by force and monetary measures. He lowered taxes and increased debt. Economy was bad.

Barack Obama [Obama, Barack] president USA 2009 He lived 1961 to ?. 44th president tried to stimulate economy and bailout big businesses.

SOCI>History>History>Life organic molecules life Earth -4300000000 to -3850000000 Organic molecules formed in seas. one-celled organisms life Earth -3850000000 to -3300000000 Life began as non-photosynthetic one-celled bacteria-like organisms. methanogens life Earth -3700000000 to -2800000000 Methane archaebacteria began. stromatolite life Africa/Australia -3500000000 to -2200000000 Ancient-rock calcium-carbonate or silica-sediment layers {stromatolite} contain blue-green-algae cyanobacteria secretions. photosynthesis life

207 Earth -3400000000 Photosynthetic bacteria used bacteriochlorophyll to absorb near-infrared light to make sulfur or sulfate molecules. oxygen-producing bacteria life Earth -3000000000 Photosynthetic bacteria oxygen production became significant. photosynthesis life Earth -2700000000 to -2200000000 Photosynthetic organisms became abundant, enabled energy storage, added oxygen to atmosphere, and removed carbon dioxide from atmosphere. cyanobacteria life Earth -2300000000 Cyanobacteria blue-green algae formed abundant oxygen. eukaryotes life Earth -2150000000 to -1400000000 Eukaryotes began. metazoa life Earth -1200000000 Multicellular organisms appeared. yeast and mold ancestor life Earth -900000000

Vendian life Earth -700000000 to -600000000 Metazoa flourished, as air oxygen concentration became high enough. Worms, jellyfish, mollusks, and other invertebrates began. insect and mammal ancestor life Earth -600000000

Ediacara or Edicarian life Earth -600000000 to -550000000

208 Worms up to one meter long and flatworms like planaria and tapeworms appeared, as air oxygen concentration became high enough. bilateral symmetry life Earth -590000000 Organisms with front and back, and right and left, began. Body parts came in pairs. prechordates life Earth -570000000 to -500000000 Prechordates began.

Burgess Shale life Canadian Rockies, Canada -530000000 Sediments trapped multicellular animals from many phyla. chordates life Earth -530000000 Pikaia gracilens was first chordate, with segmented notochord and zigzag muscle bands.

Roundish Flat Worm life Earth -530000000 Roundish Flat Worm (Bilateria) had bilateral symmetry and was vertebrate and arthropod ancestor. shelled animals life Earth -510000000 Hard-shelled animals began. moss life Earth -475000000 From green algae came moss. liverwort life Earth -475000000 From green algae came liverworts. vertebrates/jawless fish life Earth -470000000 Jawless fish were first vertebrates.

209 jawed fish life Earth -450000000 Head bones evolved to make muscled and bony jaw. vascular plants life Earth -423000000 Vascular plants began. bony fish life Earth -420000000 Bony fish have mouth at front end, fin rays that attach to muscles, and skin scales. lobefin fish life Earth -400000000 Rhipidistians had internal nares to lungs and had fins at ends of stumps, which allowed them to push onto shore. fresh-water lobefin fish life Earth -380000000 Lobefin fish had adults that survived in fresh water and on land, had rear lobefins, and had lungs.

Tiktaalik roseae life Ellesmere Island, Canada -375000000 It had fish jaw, fins, and scales, but tetrapod skull, neck, ribs, and pectoral fins, with thin arm, wrist, and hand bones. amphibians life Earth -370000000 to -360000000 Amphibians evolved from Rhipidistians. stem reptiles/anapsids life Earth -340000000 to -280000000 Earliest reptiles were 20 centimeters long. First anapsid was cotylosaur. bird and mammal ancestor life Earth -300000000 Bird and mammal ancestors separated. sphenodons

210 life Earth -300000000 Sphenodons were diapsids, were one meter long, had large beak-like snout, had spine down back, had third eye, and had nictating membranes over regular eyes. diapsids/synapsids life Earth -300000000 Diapsid reptiles evolved from anapsids. Synapsids evolved from diapsids. pelycosaurs life Earth -300000000 to -230000000 Mammal-like synapsid finback synapsids were 60 centimeters long, had canine teeth, and chewed using jaw and jaw muscles different than anapsids and diapsids. archosaurs life Earth -270000000 Archosaurs were diapsid sphenodons and had two large back limbs, two small front limbs, long tail, and teeth in sockets. thecodonts life Earth -260000000 to -220000000 Thecodonts were archosaurs, had insulation, and had reptilian teeth. nautilus life Earth -250000000 Nautilus lived.

Pristerognathids life Earth -248000000 Pristerognathid reptiles evolved from pelycosaurs, weighed 50 kilograms, were fast trotters, and were endotherms. dinosaurs life Earth -240000000 Dinosaurs were mostly diapsids and began in middle Triassic. therapsids life Earth -240000000 to -181000000 Therapsids descended from pristerognathids and were warm-blooded. They had larynx.

211 cynodonts life Earth -240000000 to -230000000 Cynodonts evolved from therapsids, were dog-sized, had dentary bone, had big canine teeth, had hard palate, had turbinals, and were nocturnal. dicynodonts life Earth -240000000 to -230000000 Dicynodonts began from separate therapsid branch and were herbivores.

Chiniquodontids or Probainognathians life Earth -230000000 Cynodonts acquired meat-eating teeth.

Rhynchosaurs life Earth -230000000 Small reptiles acquired beaks. traversodontids life Earth -230000000 Leopard-sized cynodont plant-eaters had incisors and cheek teeth. prosauropods life Earth -230000000 to -190000000 Small brachiosaur-like reptiles began. mammals/monotremes life Earth -220000000 to -70000000 Monotremes evolved from juvenile cynodonts by pedomorphism, are small, have mammary glands, are warm- blooded, have red blood cells, have diaphragm, have bony palate, have voluntary muscle, and have neocortex. birds life Earth -220000000 to 120000000 Early birds were warm-blooded and had feathers.

Tribosphenida life Earth -167000000 to -142000000 Tribosphenida had tribosphenic molars.

212 Archaeopteryx bird life Earth -150000000 to -140000000 Archaeopteryx was first bird but did not fly.

Repenomamus mammal China -130000000 13-kilogram one-meter mammals lived on ground in Miocene: Repenomamus giganticus and Repenomamus robustus. army ants life Gondwana -100000000 Ant subfamily Dorylinae evolved in mid-Cretaceous.

Theria/marsupials life Earth -100000000 Theria marsupials developed from monotremes.

Eutheria life Earth -90000000 Eutheria placental mammals developed from Theria. primitive insectivores life Earth -80000000 Primitive insectivores evolved from placental mammals, looked like tree shrews, had forward vision, and had grasping hand. grass life Earth -71000000 to -55000000 Grasses began 55 to 71 million years ago. primates/prosimians life Earth -70000000 to -30000000 First primates developed from primitive insectivores and were like galagos, lorises, and lemurs. monkeys life South America/Central America/Africa -55000000 to -50000000 Monkeys evolved from prosimians and were like New World monkeys: marmosets, tamarins, squirrel monkeys, and spider monkeys.

213 caviomorph rodents life Africa/South America -55000000 to -25000000 Capybara and chincilla ancestors {caviomorph rodents} {rodent, caviomorph} came from Africa to South America on floating vegetation.

New World monkeys life Africa/South America -55000000 to -25000000 New World monkeys came from Africa to South America on floating vegetation.

Parapithecus life Africa -35000000 to -25000000 Parapithecus was ancestor of Old World monkeys.

Old World monkeys life Africa -34000000 to -25000000 Old World monkeys differentiated from New World monkeys in Oligocene epoch. Old World monkeys are like macaque, baboon, and mandrill. carnivores life Earth -30000000 Carnivores began. lemurs life Earth -30000000 Lemurs began.

Proconsul life Africa/Kenya -22000000 to -17000000 Proconsul, a lesser ape, was ancestor of all hominids. pongids life Africa -22000000 to -14000000 Pongid lesser apes separated from Old World monkeys.

Ramapithecus life Kenya -18000000 to -12000000 Lesser ape had flat teeth, ate fruit, was arboreal, had sexual dimorphism, and had flat face.

214

Griphopithecus life Germany/Turkey -16500000 Lesser ape had long and strong jaws with large incisor teeth, flat-sided canine teeth, flat premolars, and flat molars.

Heliopithecus/Afropithecus life Arabia -16000000 Great ape had teeth enamel and ate nuts and husked foods. great apes life Europe/Asia -16000000 to -13500000 Great apes evolved from Proconsul-like lesser apes.

Sivapithecus life Southeast Asia/Turkey/Pakistan/India/Nepal/China -16000000 to -7000000 A great ape {Sivapithecus} was orangutan ancestor (Pongo pygmaeus). By Late Miocene, Sivapithecus lived only in tropical Southeast Asia. It had long and strong jaws with large incisor teeth, flat-sided canine teeth, flat premolars, and flat molars. It had short snout. It had grasping hands and feet and extendable elbow for hanging and swinging in trees. It ate ripe fruit and grew slowly. Related species were Gigantopithecus in India and Lufengpithecus in southeast Asia.

Dryopithecus life Europe/Spain/Hungary/Georgia/Africa -14000000 to -7000000 A great ape {Dryopithecus} {Ouranopithecus} was ancestor of African great apes. Dryopithecus had long and strong jaws with large incisor teeth, flat-sided canine teeth, flat premolars, and flat molars. It had grasping hands and feet and extendable elbow for hanging and swinging in trees. It ate ripe fruit and grew slowly. It had face that tilted down {klinorhynchy, great ape}, unlike up {airorhynchy, great ape} as in orangutans, gibbons, and siamangs. It also had larger lower face, lower and larger skull, and flatter nose than orangutans. By Late Miocene, Dryopithecus lived only in tropical Africa. Related species are Griphopithecus in Germany and Turkey, Ankarapithecus in Turkey, Ouranopithecus in Greece, Oreopithecus in Italy, and Heliopithecus in Arabia. anthropoid apes life Africa/Asia -13500000 to -9000000 Anthropoid apes, such as gorillas and chimpanzees, differentiated from early apes in hands, feet, arms, and legs.

Pan life Asia -9000000 to -7000000 Genus Pan split from gorillas and was like chimpanzee and bonobo.

Oreopithecus life

215 Italy/Tuscany -7000000 Great ape ate leaves and had grasping hands and feet. hominin life Asia -7000000 to -5000000 Hominins differentiated from Pan.

Sahelanthropus tchadensis/Toumai hominin Toros-Menalia, Djurab Desert, Chad -6900000 to -6600000 Hominin had small canine teeth, snouty face, large neck, sloping forehead, and small brain, with 2.3 encephalization quotient [found by Michael Brunet]. It came from common primate ancestor and was ancestor of Ardipithecus kadabba.

Orrorin tugenensis hominin Tugen Hills, Kenya -6000000 hominin.

Ardipithecus kadabba or Ardipithecus ramidus kadabba hominin Middle Awash, Ethiopia -5800000 to -5300000 Hominin came from Sahelanthropus tchadensis and was ancestor of Ardipithecus ramidus. Ardi means fundamental. Kadabba means beginning family ancestor.

Ardipithecus ramidus hominin Aramis, Ethiopia -4500000 to -4300000 Hominin lived in woods and walked upright [found by Tim White]. It was in Afar Region. Hominin came from Ardipithecus kadabba and was ancestor of Australopithecus anamensis. Ardi means fundamental. Ramidus means root.

Australopithecus anamensis hominin Kanapoi, Kenya/Allia Bay, Kenya -4300000 to -3900000 Hominin lived in bushland and walked upright. It came from Ardipithecus ramidus and was ancestor of Australopithecus afarensis and Australopithecus africanus.

Australopithecus hominin Africa -4300000 to -1400000 Varied and separated habitats isolated four hominin species: Australopithecus afarensis, gracile Australopithecus africanus, robust Australopithecus robustus, and robust Australopithecus boisei. bipedalism life Africa -3700000 to -1500000

216 Walking upright {bipedalism}| involves push with toes, swing, heel strike, and stance. It causes inline walking. Extended knee joint locks knee for upright standing. Bipedalism is efficient walking and allows carrying and using hand tools. It preceded tool use and meat eating by one million years and so preceded hunting or scavenging.

Laetolil footprints hominin Laetolil, Tanzania -3600000 to -28000 Australopithecus afarensis left footprints [found by Mary Leakey].

C4 metabolic pathway plants life Turkana Basin, Kenya -3500000 to -3200000 Bushy grasslands and grassy woodlands use a metabolic pathway {C4 metabolic pathway} {four-carbon metabolic pathway}. Bushes, trees, and shrubs use a metabolic pathway {three-carbon metabolic pathway}. Bushy grasslands and grassy woodlands replaced bushes, trees, and shrubs.

Kenyanthropus or Kenyanthropus platyops hominin Turkana Basin, Kenya -3500000 to -3200000 Kenyanthropus platyops had flat face, small teeth, and head crest.

Australopithecus bahrelghazali hominin Bahr el Ghazal, Chad -3500000 to -3000000 hominin.

Australopithecus afarensis hominin Hadar, Ethiopia/Great Rift Valley, Lake Rudolph/Omo River, Ethiopia -3400000 to -3000000 Gracile Australopithecus afarensis came from Australopithecus anamensis.

Selam/Lucy's baby hominin Dikika, Ethiopia -3300000 Australopithecus afarensis three-year old female lived in Afar region. It still has shoulder blades and hyoid bone. Semicircular canals are like apes and A. africanus. Shoulder socket is like apes. Hyoid is like apes.

Lucy hominin Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania -3200000 Australopithecus afarensis lived in East Africa [found by Leakey].

Taung child hominin Transvaal -3000000 Taung child was Australopithecus africanus.

Australopithecus africanus

217 hominin Africa -3000000 to -2300000 Gracile Australopithecus africanus [first found in 1924] was at Swartkrans, Makapansgat, Olduvai, and Lake Rudolph. It came from Australopithecus anamensis.

Paranthropus hominin South Africa -2600000 to -1600000 Paranthropus aethiopicus, Paranthropus crassidens, Paranthropus robustus, and Paranthropus boisei were robust australopithecines.

Australopithecus garhi hominin Ethiopia -2500000 Hominin came from Australopithecus afarensis and was ancestor of Homo habilus.

Australopithecus hominin Sterkfontein, South Africa -2500000 hominin.

Black Skull or Paranthropus aethiopicus or Australopithecus aethiopicus hominin Kenya -2500000 to -2200000 Paranthropus aethiopicus or Australopithecus aethiopicus was robust australopithecine.

Homo habilis hominin Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania -2500000 to -1200000 Homo habilis split from Australopithecus to make genus Homo and formed Lower Paleolithic Oldowan Culture. Louis Leakey found Homo habilis.

Australopithecus boisei or Paranthropus boisei hominin Africa -2300000 to -1300000 Australopithecus boisei or Paranthropus boisei was not on human line, was robust, and lived in east Africa.

Australopithecus robustus or Paranthropus robustus hominin Africa -2200000 to -1400000 Australopithecus robustus or Paranthropus robustus was not on human line and came from Australopithecus africanus.

Homo rudolfensis or Kenyanthropus rudolfensis hominin Lake Rudolph, Africa -2100000 to -1900000 Homo rudolfensis or Kenyanthropus rudolfensis was like Homo habilis.

218

Homo erectus hominin Riwat, Pakistan -2000000 hominin.

Australopithecus hominin Swartkrans, South Africa -2000000 to -1500000 hominin.

Homo erectus hominin Swartkrans, South Africa -1500000 hominin.

Homo ergaster hominin Tanzania/Transvaal/Ethiopia/Algeria/Morocco/Lake Turkana, Kenya -1900000 to -1600000 Homo ergaster was early African Homo erectus and was first hominin with human body form. It came from Homo habilis. Homo ergaster reached Dmanisi, Georgia [-1700000].

Homo erectus hominin Africa -1900000 to -25000 Homo erectus was 1.65 meters tall and came from Homo habilis. Ternifine had Homo erectus mauritanicus. Broken Hill, Rhodesia had Rhodesia man. Choskoutieh, China had Sinanthropus, Homo erectus pekinensis, or Peking man [-500000]. Lantian, China, had Homo erectus lantianensis. Longgupo, China, had Homo erectus [-1900000]. Donggutuo, China, had Homo erectus [-1000000]. Gongwangling, China, had Homo erectus [-1100000]. Java, Indonesia had Homo erectus [-1800000 to -25000]. Orce, Spain had Homo erectus [-1000000]. Ngandong, Indonesia had Homo erectus soleensis or Java man [-500000]. Trinil, Indonesia had Pithecanthropus or Homo erectus. 'Ubeidiya, Israel, had Homo erectus [-1500000 to -1000000]. Olduvai had Homo erectus.

Java man hominin Trinil, Java/Solo River, Java -1800000 to -1000000 Homo ergaster or Homo erectus reached Java.

Homo georgicus hominin Dmanisi, Georgia -1750000 Homo erectus, Homo ergaster, Homo georgicus, and Homo habilis had Oldowan culture.

Zinjanthropus hominin Africa -1750000 Zinjanthropus was Homo erectus, used stone tools and clubs, was vegetarian, and had small brain.

219

Nariokoyome boy hominin Japan -1600000 He was Homo erectus and was up to six feet tall. He had domed thick skull, smaller jaw, and bare skin. He used stone tools, ate meat, and had longer development.

Homo erectus hominin Olorgesallie, Kenya -970000 to -900000 Humans came from Java and had stone tools.

Homo antecessor hominin Gran Dolina Cave, Spain -800000 Homo antecessor was in north Spain.

Homo heidelbergensis hominin Atapuerca, Spain/Nice, France/Ibernia/Italy/Mauer, Germany/Africa/China -800000 to -200000 Homo heidelbergensis is Archaic Homo sapiens and came from Home erectus. Atapuerca, Spain, had Homo [- 780000]. Ceprano, Italy, had Homo [-800000].

Homo neanderthalensis hominin Europe -230000 to -26000 Neanderthals evolved from non-human hominin line between -500000 and -700000. Heidelberg man, Solo man, and Rhodesia man were Neanderthal. Solo man was ancestor of Australian aborigines. Homo neanderthalensis was at Swanscombe, Europe; Neander Valley, near Düsseldorf, Germany [found 1856]; La-Chapelle-aux-Saints, France [1895], called "Old Man"; Steinheim, Europe; and Carmel, Israel. By -200,000, Neanderthals were in China.

Homo sapiens species Omo, Ethiopia -195000 Richard Leakey excavated Qafzeh and Skhul caves in Kibish rock formation beside Omo River and found Omo I and Omo II skeletons.

Homo sapiens life Africa -170000 to -152000 Homo sapiens came from Homo erectus. Homo sapiens lived in Africa and west Asia [-100000]: Eritrea [-125000]; Congo [-90000]; Blombos Cave, South Africa [-70000]; Klasies River mouth, South Africa [-70000]; Omo-Kibish, Ethiopia; and Mount Carmel and Qafzeh, north Israel [-95000]. Liujiang, China, had Homo sapiens [-67000]. Lake Muno, Australia, had Homo sapiens [-60000 to -40000]. Niah, Borneo, had Homo sapiens [-40000]. Perhaps, Homo sapiens migrated from Africa at -81000 or -50000. If -81000, they went across Red Sea to Yemen, then India, then Australia [-72000], and then Europe [-44000]. If -50000, they went to the Levant, then Europe [- 44000].

Homo sapiens idaltu

220 life Herto, Ethiopia/Middle Awash, Ethiopia -160000 Homo sapiens idaltu had heavy browridge and round cranium [found by Tim D. White].

Homo sapiens hominin Oafzeh, Israel/Skûl, Israel -120000 to -80000 hominin.

Homo floresiensis hominin Flores, Indonesia -95000 to -11000 Humans {Homo floresiensis} were one meter tall and lived in Liang Bua cave [-16000]. It came from Homo erectus and became extinct. Flores islanders speak of "grandmother who eats everything" {ebu gogo}. Sumatra islanders speak of similar thing {orang pendek}.

South Asian/North Asian/Caucasoid race Asia -85000 to -55000 South Asian peoples diverged from North Asian and Caucasoid peoples.

Southeast Asian languages language Earth -60000 to -40000 Southeast Asian and Eurasian languages diverged.

South Asian/Australian/New Guinean race Asia -60000 to -35000 New Guinean peoples diverged from South Asian peoples.

North Asian/Caucasoid race Asia -60000 to -35000 North Asian peoples diverged from Caucasoid peoples.

Cro-Magnon hominin Europe -38000 to -30000 Perhaps, Homo sapiens Cro-Magnon man is ancestor of Basques of Spain and France and/or South-Africa bushmen.

Amerindian/North East Asian race Asia -35000 Amerindian peoples diverged from North East Asian peoples.

Pacific Islands/South East Asian

221 race Asia -35000 Pacific Island peoples diverged from South East Asian peoples.

Neanderthal life Zafarraya, Spain -32000 to -28000 Culture began.

Neanderthal life Vindija, Croatia -28000 Culture began.

Amerindian race North America -26000 to -21000 People with type O blood migrated to North America. wooly mammoth or mammoth extinction Earth -20000 Humans did. mastodon extinction Earth -20000 Humans did. saber-tooth tiger extinction Earth -20000 Humans did.

Amerindian race Earth -11200 to -10700 People with type A blood migrated across ice-free land bridge between Siberia and Alaska at Bering Straits and went to all Americas. wheat life Near East -10000 to -8000 wheat After last Ice Age, hybrid wheat evolved in Near East. Hybrid wheat crossed with goat grass to produce Emmer wheat. Emmer wheat crossed with goat grass to produce bread wheat [-8000]. People, such as Natufian culture, helped crosses by harvesting wild wheat with flint sickles.

222

Austronesian race Australia/Indonesia/Polynesia -1600 to 1000 Southeast Asian peoples migrated east from Taiwan to Philippine islands [-3000], Java [-2000], Solomon Islands [- 1600], Samoa [-1200], Marquesas [1], Hawaii [500], Easter Island [500], Pitcairn Island [1000], New Zealand [1000], and Madagascar [500]. smallpox disease Egypt -1157 Variola virus, orthopoxvirus, causes it. The Ramses V mummy has skin lesions. mumps disease Earth -400 Epidemic began. leprosy or Hansen's disease disease Earth -200 Mycobacterium leprae bacteria cause it. It affects hand and feet skin and nerves. It is curable. If untreated, it deforms and cripples people. bubonic plague or plague disease Rome, Italy 166 to 167 One quarter of people in Roman Empire died. bubonic plague or plague disease Rome, Italy 590 Tiber flood [589] preceded plague [590] during time of Pope Gregory the Great.

Black Death or plague or Great Plague epidemic China 1333 Bubonic plague killed thousands and went to Russia and Scandinavia.

Black Death or plague or Great Plague plague India/China/Europe 1347 to 1390 Bubonic plague began in Himalaya foothills in India [1280 to 1300] and spread along trade routes. It reached China [1333] and Byzantine Empire [1347] {Great Dying}, until it reached most of Europe [1351] {Great Plague} {Black Death}, where it killed one-third of people. Labor shortages led to lower food production, peasant revolts, many land exchanges, and feudalism breakdown, as workers demanded pay.

Black Death or plague or Great Plague

223 epidemic Europe 1720 Last bubonic-plague epidemic began in west Europe. polio disease Earth 1840 First polio epidemic began. influenza epidemic Europe 1919 Influenza killed 5,000,000 to 10,000,000 people.

Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome or AIDS disease Earth 1959 Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) damages immune system. Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome or acquired immunodeficiency is last stage.

SOCI>History>History>Migration

Homo erectus migration Flores, Indonesia -840000 Humans came from Java and had stone tools.

Homo erectus migration Earth -840000 to -420000 Homo erectus migrated out of Africa to Europe and Asia.

Homo erectus migration Africa/Asia/Europe -500000 to -250000 Homo erectus migrated to Java, China, south Africa, and England.

Homo sapiens migration Earth -150000 to -80000 Homo sapiens moved out of Africa.

Homo sapiens sapiens migration Africa/Near East -100000 to -60000 Humans migrated from east Africa to northwest Africa, south Africa, Near East, and southeast Asia.

224 Homo sapiens migration Asia -60000 to -50000 Humans migrated from southeast Asia to north China, Japan, Pacific Ocean islands, Russia, southwest Asia, Australia, and New Zealand.

Homo sapiens migration Europe -50000 Homo sapiens went to south Europe.

Homo sapiens migration Caucasia -50000 to -35000 Humans migrated from Caucasia in southwest Asia to Europe and east Russia.

Homo sapiens migration Borneo -38000 Humans lived in limestone caves in north Borneo.

Homo sapiens migration Europe -35000 Homo sapiens came to central Europe.

Homo sapiens migration Asia -35000 to -15000 Humans migrated from northwest Asia to Alaska, North America, and then South America.

Homo sapiens migration Alaska/Asia -30000 Homo sapiens entered Alaska.

Homo sapiens migration Siberia -20000 Homo sapiens entered Siberia.

Homo sapiens migration Chile -11000 Began.

Homo sapiens

225 migration Mediterranean Sea -8500 to -4000 Mediterranean islands became populated.

Arctic Circle migration Arctic Circle -2000 Arctic Circle became populated.

Southeast Asians migration Polynesia/Micronesia -1200 to 1000 Polynesia and Micronesia became populated.

Semites migration Eritrea/Ethiopia -500 Semitic people from south Arabia migrated to Eritrea and Ethiopia and traded ivory, spices, and incense.

Celts or Kelts migration Faeroe Islands 800 Faeroe Islands became populated.

Viking migration Iceland 874 Iceland became populated.

Cook Islanders migration South Island, New Zealand 900 Ancestors of Maoris reached New Zealand.

Viking migration Greenland, Denmark 986 to 1500 Greenland became populated [986], but Norse people died out by 1500.

Aborigine migration New Zealand 1000 New Zealand became populated.

Huguenots migration France

226 1685 200,000 people had to leave France.

Trail of Tears migration USA 1835 Cherokee received $5 million and moved to Oklahoma.

Gold Rush migration Sutter's Creek, California 1849 to 1850 Sutter's Creek is in east-central California. 300,000 people came.

Gold Rush migration Klondike River, Alaska 1896 During international economic depression, several thousand people came. Gold Rush towns were Dawson City and Skagway. Klondike River is in Yukon Territory.

SOCI>History>History>Nation

Caroline Islands nation Portugal/Caroline Islands/Palau Islands 1525 Caroline Islands are northeast of New Guinea.

Hawaii kingdom Hawaiian Islands 1795 to 1894 British helped Kamehameha the Great [1795 to 1810]. Kingdom revised constitution four times, finally limiting king's power to ceremony [1887]. Republic of Hawaii formed [1894]. steamship trade USA/Europe 1893 Steamships became more than half of all ships.

Hawaii colony Asia 1898 USA colonized it.

League of Nations league Europe 1920 to 1933 England, France, Italy, and Japan controlled it. USA did not join. Germany and Russia joined later. Germany resigned in 1933, as did Japan and Italy later.

227 League of Nations assembly Geneva, Switzerland 1924 League of Nations Assembly ordered Council to appoint committee to codify international law, resulting in three conventions, but nations did not ratify any.

League of Nations league Russia 1934 Russia joined.

Quebec Conference conference Canada 1943 to 1944 USA, Canada, and United Kingdom planned World War II strategy [1943]. USA and United Kingdom signed Morgenthau plan, which planned how to occupy Germany and end Ruhr and Saar heavy industries.

United Nations league New York, New York 1945 United Nations began, with 51 charter members. It now has over 190. It has headquarters in New York City. It has Security Council of six rotating members and five permanent members: United States, Russia, Britain, France, and China. It has General Assembly of all nations, each with one representative. Secretariat is administration. Secretary- Generals have been Trvgye Lie, Dag Hammersköld, U Thant, Kurt Waldheim, Juan Cuellar, Butros Ghali, and Kofi Annan. Main agencies are International Court of Justice, United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), Agricultural Organization (FAO), International Labor Organization (ILO), and World Health Organization (WHO).

North Atlantic Treaty Organization or NATO league USA/Europe 1948 NATO began with USA, Canada, Britain, France, Norway, Denmark, Belgium, Netherlands, and Italy.

NATO league Europe 1949 Portugal, Netherlands, and Belgium joined.

SOCI>History>History>Nation>Africa

Kushite civilization Nubia -1500 to -900 Egypt ruled.

Ethiopia kingdom Ethiopia

228 -1000 to 1930 Traditionally, a son of Solomon and the Queen of Sheba founded it. Hamitic highland people used Amharic language.

Cush or Kush or Kushite kingdom Nubia/Egypt/Sudan -900 to -300 Egyptian culture reached Kushites, Hamitic people in south Egypt and north Sudan. They learned Assyrian iron smelting. First, Napata in Sudan was capital, below Fourth Cataract of Nile. Kushites fought Egypt [-770 to -716]. Kushites moved south [-716 to -671]. New center was Meroë, which had iron ore and timber. Nation ended when defeated by Ethiopians [-300].

Carthage colony Carthage, Tunisia -814 Phoenician traders from Tyre founded a colony. It became independent from Phoenicia [-600]. It sent ships on expeditions.

Hausa or Hausaland region Nigeria -800 to 200 Hausa (Hausaland) was a fertile region on lower Niger River and had trade and industry.

Nubia kingdom Egypt -730 Nubians and Kushites took Egypt.

Carthage expedition Carthage, Tunisia -600 Nation explored West Africa by sea and possibly circumnavigated Africa.

Hamite or Hamitic civilization Egypt/Ethiopia -600 to -500 Hamitic tribes live in west and south Ethiopia and north Kenya. Hamitic languages are in Sahara, Egypt, Ethiopia, and Somalia.

Meroë kingdom Sudan -600 to -300 Hamitic people were Nubians. Meroë was capital, below Fourth Cataract of Nile. Kushites traded east, south, and west from Meroë, Sudan. It modified Egyptian hieroglyphics.

Nok civilization Nigeria -600 to 300

229 Nok people formed arrowheads, knives, spearheads, ax, and hoe blades. They wore beads for jewelry. Axes had wooden handles. They had iron mines.

Carthage city-state Carthage, Tunisia -480 to -146 Nation started as city-state under oligarchy on Bay of Tunis and expanded through exploration and trade. Romans destroyed Carthage to end third Punic War [-146].

Ethiopia kingdom Ethiopia -300 Nation took Kingdom of Kush.

Aksum kingdom Eritrea/Ethiopia 100 Aksum was capital in Eritrea and north Ethiopia.

Nubia kingdom Ethiopia/Khartoum, Sudan 250 to 1366 Nation started when Nobatae settled near first cataract of Nile River and founded strong kingdom. It used iron. It became Christian [500 to 600]. It ended when it fell to Muslims.

Ethiopia kingdom Ethiopia 300 to 400 Ethiopia held Arabian coast. It became Coptic Christian. Arabia at that time had irrigated land, not desert.

Ghana kingdom Ghana 300 to 800 Berber kingdom got gold from Ashanti and Senegal and had salt, slaves, and trade with Near East.

Madagascar island Madagascar 300 to 800 Nation became populated.

Aksum kingdom Ethiopia/Eritrea 330 to 340 Bishop Frumentius converted it to Christianity.

Aksum kingdom Sudan

230 350 Nation probably defeated Kushites at Meroë.

Aksum empire East Africa 400 to 600 Christianity became majority in Aksum Empire in northeast Africa.

Azanian kingdom Rhodesia 400 to 800 Nation had mines, canals, and wells.

Ethiopia kingdom Arabia 500 to 600 Ethiopia held Arabian coast, but Arabian interior was now desert.

Nubia kingdom Ethiopia/Khartoum, Sudan 500 to 600 Nation became Christian.

Ghana kingdom West Africa 500 to 1200 Nation was between Upper Niger and Senegal Rivers in West Africa. It mined gold in valleys. Capital was at Kumbi Saleh. It had Mande speakers.

Nubian civilization Sudan 550 to 600 In northeast Africa, they become Christian.

Ethiopia kingdom Ethiopia 800 to 950 Nation was Christian and replaced Aksum.

Ghana kingdom Ghana 800 to 1100 Nation ran from Atlantic Ocean to upper Niger River, got gold from Ashanti and Senegal, had salt, used slaves, and traded with Near East. Arab slavers took slaves [800].

Zimbabwe kingdom Zambesi River

231 800 to 1700 Nation had mines, canals, wells, and gold. Great Zimbabwe had stone buildings from 8th to 17th century.

Zimbabwe kingdom Zimbabwe 900 to 1600 In Zimbabwe plateau between Zambezi and Limpopo Rivers in south Africa, it mined gold [900]. Gold and copper went to Asia from Sofala on Africa east coast [1200]. It built large stone enclosures {mazimbabwe}. Great Zimbabwe was biggest [1450], had walls and tower, and was religious, political, and trading center.

Igbo-Ukwu civilization Igbo-Ukwu, Nigeria 950 to 1050 Nation was in east Nigeria. Igbo-Ukwu had bronze bowls cast by "lost wax" method. It elected ruler, judge, or army commander.

Guere/Krahn/We/Wobe civilization Ivory Coast 1000 They are native peoples of Ivory Coast and Liberia. Guere live in midwest Ivory Coast. Wobe live nearby. We live in southwest Ivory Coast. Krahn live in Liberia.

Hausa civilization Nigeria 1000 Nation was in north Nigeria.

Gao kingdom West Africa 1000 to 1100 Nation had gold trade.

Takrur kingdom West Africa 1000 to 1100 Nation had gold trade.

Timbuktu or Tombouctou nation Timbuktu, Mali 1000 to 1896 It started on trans-Saharan caravan route [1000] and is in north Mali. It has Djingareyber, Sankore, and Sidi Yahya mosques. It belonged to Mali Empire and Songhai Empire [1330 to 1645]. Cheikhou Amadou conquered it [1845]. It became French colony [1896].

Almoravid kingdom Morocco/Algeria/Spain/Ghana 1050 to 1146

232 Berber Muslims from west Sahara took Morocco, Algeria, and part of Spain. Capital was at Marrakech [1062]. Abu Bakr invaded Ghana and took capital Kumbi [1076]. His cousin Yusuf ibn Tashfin took North Africa and part of Spain [1100], defeating Christians.

Almoravid caliphate Spain 1086 Berber Almoravids helped Abbasid Dynasty stop Christians but then took all Spain.

Almoravid kingdom Ghana 1100 Nation ended Ghana Empire in West Africa.

Ghana kingdom Ghana 1100 to 1200 Islamic kingdom, ruled by dynasty from Maghreb, got gold from Ashanti and Senegal, had salt, had slaves, and traded with Near East.

Almohad kingdom Morocco/Spain/Algeria/Tripoli 1120 to 1212 Berber Muslims, under Ibn Tumart, opposed Almoravids. Abd-al-Mumin, caliph, took Marrakech [1147] and conquered Algeria, Tripoli, and part of Spain [1163]. It lost Spain to Alfonso VIII at Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa [1212].

Ethiopia kingdom Ethiopia 1200 to 1300 New dynasty unified Ethiopia.

Ghana empire Ghana 1235 First Susa and then Keita took it.

Mali Empire or Manding Empire or Manden Kurufa kingdom Mali 1235 to 1645 Islamic kingdom ruled over Senegal, had gold, defeated Ghana, and traded with Near East. Mandinka lived there.

Ankole or Nkole kingdom Uganda 1300 to 1901 Nkole, one of Uganda's four ancient kingdoms, is in southwest Uganda, west of Lake Edward. At beginning, Buganda or Ganda kingdom and Bunyoro were also strong. It became part of Uganda [1901].

233 Buganda or Baganda or Ganda kingdom Uganda 1300 to 1901 It is one of Uganda's four ancient kingdoms, is in south Uganda, and includes Kampala. Toro, Ankole, and Bunyoro are other kingdoms.

Nubia kingdom Ethiopia/Khartoum, Sudan 1366 Nation ended when it fell to Moslem invaders.

Engaruka civilization Engaruka River, Tanzania 1400 Farmers were in north Tanzania, 160 km west of Mt. Kilimanjaro, on steep slopes. They built drystone platforms to level land and terraced hillsides for crop irrigation.

Songhai civilization Mali 1420 to 1450 From Gao region of West Africa, it raided Mali Empire.

Kilwa civilization East Africa 1430 Sultans built on Africa east coast.

Songhai kingdom Nigeria 1450 to 1550 Nation defeated Kingdom of Mali in Senegal.

Congo River nation Portugal/Congo River 1482 Portugal explored Congo River.

Kongo kingdom Congo 1491 Kongo king became Christian under Portugal.

Hausa region West Africa 1500 to 1600 Nation traded.

234 Mozambique colony Mozambique 1505 to 1507 Portuguese explorers captured Sofala on Africa east coast and founded Mozambique.

West Africa slave trading law West Africa 1530 Portugal started sending slaves to Americas.

Ethiopia nation Portugal/Ethiopia 1543 Portugal defeated Muslims.

Kanem-Bornu kingdom West Africa 1570 to 1610 Nation was in west-central Africa, allied with Ottoman Empire, and had guns, military training, and camel troops.

Angola nation Portugal/Angola 1575 to 1700 Portugal tried to colonize Angola, causing war.

Morocco kingdom West Africa 1590 to 1591 Nation ended Songhai Empire.

Guinea colony Guinea 1598 Netherlands started trading post in West Africa.

Ibo kingdom Africa 1600 Nation had council of elders. People had personal gods. Other gods were spirits of important ancestors, earth goddess, thunderbolt god, rain god, and sky god. Chukwu was chief god and was beyond physical world. Ibo used skin pattern painting and played gong, pottery drum, and wood drum.

Merina or Andriana-Merina/Maroserana kingdom Madagascar 1600 to 1896 It was on Madagascar central plateau. Perhaps, they came from Indonesia and Malaysia. Madagascar became French colony [1896]. Maroserana was in southwest, and Sakalava dynasties come from them.

235

Benin kingdom Nigeria 1600 to 1897 Portugal discovered Benin [1600] and exchanged metal and weapons for slaves and ivory. Benin grew African rice, African yam, oil palm, and kola nut. Oba was king and god and still is a religious figure in some parts of Nigeria. After Benin ambushed British forces, Britain retaliated, ending kingdom [1897].

Ethiopia kingdom Ethiopia 1650 It expelled foreigners.

Ashanti or Asante civilization Ghana 1650 to 1850 Ashanti traded gold, ivory, and slaves in central Ghana. It is matrilineal tribe, largest in Ghana.

South Africa colony South Africa 1652 Dutch East India Company colonized South Africa.

Algeria colony French West Africa 1800 to 1900 France colonized French West Africa and Algeria.

Anglo-Egyptian Sudan colony Africa 1800 to 1900 Britain colonized it.

Basutoland colony Africa 1800 to 1900 Britain colonized it.

Bechuanaland colony Africa 1800 to 1900 Britain colonized it.

British East Africa colony Africa 1800 to 1900 Britain colonized it.

236

British Somaliland colony Africa 1800 to 1900 Britain colonized it.

Chad colony French West Africa 1800 to 1900 France colonized it.

Dahomey colony French West Africa 1800 to 1900 France colonized it.

French Equatorial Africa colony Africa 1800 to 1900 France colonized it.

French Guinea colony French West Africa 1800 to 1900 France colonized it.

French Somaliland colony Africa 1800 to 1900 France colonized it.

Gambia colony French West Africa 1800 to 1900 France colonized it.

Gold Coast colony Africa 1800 to 1900 Britain colonized it.

Ifni colony Africa 1800 to 1900 Spain colonized it.

Ivory Coast

237 colony French West Africa 1800 to 1900 France colonized it.

Madagascar colony Africa 1800 to 1900 France colonized it.

Mauritania colony French West Africa 1800 to 1900 France colonized it.

Morocco colony French West Africa 1800 to 1900 France colonized it.

Niger colony French West Africa 1800 to 1900 France colonized it.

Nigeria colony Africa 1800 to 1900 Britain colonized it.

Orange Free State colony Africa 1800 to 1900 Britain colonized it.

Northern and Southern Rhodesia [Rhodesia, Northern and Southern] colony Africa 1800 to 1900 Britain colonized it.

Rio de Oro colony Africa 1800 to 1900 Spain colonized it.

Sierra Leone colony Africa

238 1800 to 1900 Britain colonized it.

Spanish Morocco colony Africa 1800 to 1900 Spain colonized it.

Swaziland colony Africa 1800 to 1900 Britain colonized it.

Union of South Africa colony Africa 1800 to 1900 Britain colonized it.

Zulu kingdom Africa 1807 Nation was in southeast Africa.

South Africa colony South Africa 1815 Britain annexed south Africa and Cape of Good Hope.

Liberia state Liberia 1822 Freed USA slaves founded it.

Boer Republic state South Africa 1835 10,000 Dutch settlers {Boers} migrated north and founded a state in Transvaal, north of Vaal River.

South Africa colony South Africa 1841 to 1900 Britain took over South Africa from Netherlands. Dutch Boer settlers went north to found Transvaal and Orange Free State. British settlers followed them to get diamonds and gold.

Liberia republic Liberia 1847

239 Liberia became independent.

Cameroon colony Africa 1850 to 1900 Germany colonized it.

German East Africa colony Africa 1850 to 1900 Germany colonized it.

German Southwest Africa colony Africa 1850 to 1900 Germany colonized it.

Italian Somaliland/Eritrea colony Africa 1850 to 1900 Italy colonized it.

Nyasaland colony Africa 1850 to 1900 Germany colonized it.

South Africa colony South Africa 1850 to 1900 Britain warred with Zulu people.

South Africa colony South Africa 1850 to 1900 People discovered gold in Rand River in Transvaal and diamonds in Orange River.

Togoland colony Africa 1850 to 1900 Germany colonized it.

Tripoli/Cyrenaica colony Libya 1850 to 1900 Italy colonized it.

240 Ethiopia kingdom Ethiopia 1896 Ethiopia defeated Italy invasion.

Abyssinia republic Ethiopia 1900 Nation became independent of Italy.

Angola colony Africa 1900 Portugal colonized it.

Belgian Congo colony Africa 1900 Belgium colonized it and claimed nearby regions.

Lesotho kingdom Africa 1900 Nation was in south Africa.

Mozambique colony Africa 1900 Portugal colonized it.

Portuguese Guinea colony Africa 1900 Portugal colonized it.

Swazi kingdom Africa 1900 Nation was in south Africa.

Algeria state Africa 1912 Nation became independent of France.

Angola state

241 Africa 1912 Nation became independent of Portugal.

Congo Republic state Congo Republic 1912 Nation became independent of Belgium.

Ethiopia state Ethiopia 1912 Nation became independent of Italy after war.

French Equatorial Africa state Africa 1912 Nation became independent of France.

Liberia state Africa 1912 Nation stayed independent.

Rhodesia commonwealth Zimbabwe 1912 Nation became British Commonwealth. England still held central and south Africa.

Ethiopia independence Ethiopia 1941 Allies liberated Ethiopia from Italy.

Algeria revolution Algeria 1954 to 1962 Revolt in Algeria began against France. 1,000,000 French people lived in Algeria. Algeria became independent [1962].

Morocco independence Morocco 1956 Nation became independent of France, as France left.

Tunisia independence Tunisia

242 1956 Nation became independent of France, as France left.

Ghana independence Ghana 1957 Nation became independent of Britain.

Spanish Morocco independence Morocco 1958 Spain left.

Congo Republic independence Congo Republic 1960 Nation became independent of Belgium. Katanga province, where minerals are, revolted.

South Africa state South Africa 1960 Nation withdrew from British Commonwealth and controlled Southwest Africa.

South Africa republic South Africa 1961 It began race segregation {apartheid, South Africa}.

Southern Rhodesia independence Rhodesia 1965 Nation became independent of Britain.

Angola independence Angola 1974 Nation became independent of Portugal.

Ethiopia state Ethiopia 1974 Nation became Communist when Marxists deposed Haile Selassie.

Mozambique independence Mozambique 1974 Nation became independent of Portugal.

243

Zimbabwe independence Zimbabwe 1980 Rhodesia became independent of Britain and renamed itself.

Sudan theocracy Sudan 1989 Islamic party took over Sudan.

Algeria coup Algeria 1990 Islamic party won election, but army took over.

SOCI>History>History>Nation>America

Preclassic civilization Mexico -2000 to -200 Neolithic culture built Cuicuilco Pyramid near Mexico City -2000. Wood frame houses used wattle and daub. Civilization used adobe bricks and formed coiled pottery. Civilization had fertility figures.

Olmec civilization San Lorenzo, Mexico -1500 It built gravel platforms.

Lower Preclassic civilization Mexico -1350 to -900 It was at El Arbolillo, Tlatilco, and Zacatenco in Valley of Mexico. Middle Preclassic [-900 to -500] was at same places.

Olmec civilization Mexico -1250 to -400 Planned cities were at San Lorenzo Tenochtitlan, La Venta, and Tres Zapotes. Large earth pyramids were for ceremonies. They used slash-and-burn farming. They used decimal system for numbers and had calendar. The feathered serpent and were-jaguar were gods. They had burial rites. Art works were Wrestler sculpture, large stone heads, and jade carvings.

Olmec civilization La Venta, Mexico -1200 to -325 Nation was on Gulf of Mexico. Ceremonial centers had public buildings, houses, and shops. It had salt, fishers, farmers, traders, and skilled artists.

244

Olmec civilization San Lorenzo Tenochtitlán, Mexico -1150 to -900 It is in Veracruz.

Olmec civilization Cuicuilco, Mexico -1000 Cuicuilco was west of San Lorenzo.

Tatonac civilization Veracruz, Jalapa, Mexico -1000 to 1 Niche or Tajin pyramid has 365 steps. Tatonac civilization used cocoa, tropical fruits, woven and dyed cotton, and picture writing. Civilization has same gods as Aztecs but with different names. Papantla dancers are from there.

Paracas Cavernas civilization Paracas Peninsula, Peru -900 Chavin de Huantar in highlands was ceremonial center. It had woven cloth, organized religion, and commerce.

Cupisnique city-state Peru -900 to -800 Nation was on Peru north coast.

Olmec civilization Mexico -900 to -500 Nation reached to El Salvador by -800. La Venta was main city. It used hieroglyphs. It religion influenced later Zapotecs.

First Monte Alban civilization Monte Alba, Mexico -900 to -300 Nation was in south Mexico.

Chavin civilization Chavin de Huantar, Peru -850 to -300 Stone temple with U shape has rooms connected by stairs or ramps. Central room has a large stone human body, with cat face, called Lanzon or Smiling God. It was in Peruvian Andes.

Middle Preclassic civilization Mexico -800 to -500

245 It was at El Arbolillo, Tlatilco, and Zacatenco in Valley of Mexico. Early Preclassic [-1350 to -900] was at same places.

Oaxaca civilization Monte Albán, Mexico -550 Oaxaca was in southeast Mexico.

Upper Preclassic civilization Mexico -500 to -200 It has Teotihuacan, La Venta, and Middle Tres Zapotes.

Adena civilization Ohio -500 to 1 Nation grew corn, beans, gourds, and sunflowers. It built large earthen mounds as communal graves that contained copper bracelets, carved stone tablets, and tobacco pipes.

Paracas civilization Paracas Peninsula, Peru -500 to 200 Nation cultivated corn, beans, peanuts, sweet potatoes, and yucca. It had embroidery and woven cloth, with more than 100 colors. It had mummification and burial rituals.

Olmec civilization Mexico -400 Nation ended in southeast Mexico when replaced by Toltecs.

Zapotec civilization Mexico -350 to 1500 Los Danzantes or Dancing Men [-350 to 1500: stone reliefs] Nation was in northwest Mexico.

Moche civilization Peru -300 Nation was on Peru north coast.

Second Monte Alban civilization Monte Albán, Mexico -300 to -100 Monte Albán is in Oaxaca State in southeast Mexico.

Teotihuacan civilization

246 Teotihuacan, Mexico -300 to -100 Nation was in Valley of Mexico.

Hopewell civilization Mississippi River -300 to 700 The later burial mound period began on upper Mississippi River. It used Adena customs, buried dead, grew corn, and had organized government with hereditary rulers.

Mayan civilization Mexico -300 to 1500 Nation sacrificed prisoners and built pyramids. It grew corn, beans, and chili peppers.

Hopewell/Adema civilization Mississippi River/Ohio River -200 to 400 Nation had coiled pottery, used raw copper, smoked tobacco, put buildings on serpent shaped mounds, and had castes.

Nasca or Naxca civilization Peru -200 to 600 On high plateau in Peru south coast, it wove tapestries, aligned stones with stars, and carved stone animal figures [- 200]. It carved lines and patterns in desert [50]. Tiahuanaco defeated it.

Teotihuacan civilization Mexico City, Mexico -200 to 1000 Nation spread to Xochicalco. Pyramids of Sun and Moon were to the chief god Quetzalcoatl, the plumed serpent. It built Temple of Wind and Rain and Street of the Dead. Rain god was Chalchiuhtlcue.

Zapotec civilization Mexico -150 to 1500 Art emphasized the rain god, a plumed serpent.

Anasazi civilization Canyon de Chelly, Arizona -100 Nation began.

Mochica Confederation state Peru -100 to 700 On Peru north coast, it had textiles, loincloths, tunics, and bronze war axes on thongs.

247 Mayan civilization El Mirador, Guatemala 1 El Mirador in north Guatemala was at height.

Teotihuacan civilization Teotihuacan, Mexico 1 Population was more than 40,000 people.

Tiahuanaco civilization Peru/Bolivia 1 to 700 Gateway of the Sun [1 to 700: about sun god and stars] Nation settled in Altiplano tableland, 4000 meters high, and near Lake Titicaca. Art used angles and squares on pottery, textiles, and stones, in epigonal style.

Zapotec civilization Mexico 1 to 1300 Nation faded into Old Mayan Empire and Toltecs. Mitla was religious center near Monte Alba. Jaguar was an Olmec god before and was chief Zapotec god.

Hopewell civilization Mississippi River 100 Nation was on upper Mississippi River.

Moche civilization Sipan, Peru 100 Huaca del Sol [100: adobe brick temple] Nation was on Peru coast. It had canals for irrigation and guano for fertilizer. It built pyramid-like structures {huaca}. Largest was Huaca del Sol, at Sipan on coast. They used clay molds.

Mogollon civilization New Mexico 100 Houses were half underground, with stone and mud roofs. It had painted pottery, especially on Mimbres River in New Mexico.

Oaxaca civilization Monte Albán, Mexico 100 to 200 Oaxaca was at greatest extent.

Teotihuacan civilization

248 Mexico City, Mexico 200 Nation had more than 1,000,000 people.

Tiahuanaco civilization Tiahuanaco, Bolivia 200 to 375 Nation was near Lake Titicaca.

Casa Grande civilization Arizona/Chihuahua, Mexico 200 to 1450 Hohokam culture expanded to Snaketown, Casa Grande, Red Mountain, and Pueblo de los Muertos [550 to 900].

Hohokam civilization Snaketown, Arizona 200 to 1450 Hohokam culture expanded to Snaketown, Casa Grande, Red Mountain, and Pueblo de los Muertos [550 to 900].

Mayan civilization Mexico/Guatemala 200 to 1500 Temple towns had courtyards and stelae.

Teotihuacan civilization Mexico 250 to 650 Over 100,000 people lived on Mexico central plateau. It had painted walls, and temples had gold. It grew corn and beans.

Early Classic Mayan civilization Mexico/Guatemala 292 to 593 It was at Copan and traded with Teotihuacan.

Mayan civilization Yucatan Peninsula/Guatemala/Honduras 317 to 987 Theocracy confederated [250] Peten, Tikal, Copan, Uaxactun, Quirigua, Bonampak, Palenque, Comacalco, and Yaxchilan. 2,000,000 Mayans are alive today. Bonampak had murals. Picture writing used syllabary of 700 symbols on bark paper. Mayans used zero, decimal numbering, sacred calendar, solar calendar, time measurement, and astronomical predictions. Wood frame houses had cane walls, clay plaster, and thatched roofs. Special architecture style {Chenes} {well style} was in lowlands. Classic Mayan buildings used another style {Puuc} {hill style}. Mayans built massive pyramids. Mayans grew maize and traded with Kaminaljuya and Teotihuacan in rubber, cocoa, vanilla, parrots, macaws, and quetzal bird feathers. Kukulcan was god of Venus as Evening Star and later became the plumed serpent and Quetzalcoatl. Choc was rain god. Kinich Ahau was sun god.

249 Mayan civilization Tikal, Guatemala 360 to 378 Jaguar Claw I or Chak Toh Ich'ak I, ninth ruler, founded dynasty [360 to 378]. Tikal is in El Peten.

Tiahuanaco civilization Peru/Bolivia 400 Nation invaded neighbors.

Zapotec state Mexico 400 Capital was Monte Alban, in south Mexico.

Hopewell civilization Mississippi River 500 to 650 Nation built burial mounds, formed pottery, used iron weapons, and was in upper Mississippi River.

Mississippian civilization Mississippi River 500 to 1250 Nation started in Middle Woodland Period [500 to 600] and flourished by 900.

Third Monte Alban civilization Monte Alba, Mexico 550 to 650 It was Zapotec civilization capital in Oaxaca. It was next-to-last stage.

Mixtec or Cloud People civilization Monte Alba, Mexico 550 to 850 Nation is near Oaxaca. Toltecs influenced it.

Toltec civilization Mexico 550 to 1224 Nation started when Toltecs came from north and took Teotihuacan. Teotihuacan, Tollan or Tula, and Cholula were cities. Tula had giant Atlantes sculptures. Toltec civilization had pyramids, irrigation systems, forced labor, and slaves. It depended on Olmec culture. It had astronomy, used maguey plant juice, and had butterfly emblems. It had human sacrifice and sun worship. Quetzalcoatl was chief god. Chac Mool was divine messenger between man and sun god, and his statue was recumbent figure with offering bowl on stomach.

Teotihuacan civilization Mexico 600

250 Teotihuacan was at height. It built Pyramids of the Sun and Moon, to the chief god Quetzalcoatl, the plumed serpent.

Mississippian civilization Mississippi River 600 to 800 Nation continued in Late Woodland Period.

Huari civilization Peru 600 to 900 More than 100,000 people lived in Huari City [800 to 900].

Tiahuanaco or Tiwanaku civilization Tiahuanaco, Bolivia 600 to 900 It was Pre-Inca Civilization capital and is south of Lake Titicaca in Andes. It has Gateway of the Sun archway, with Inca sun god Viracocha.

Teotihuacan civilization Teotihuacan, Mexico 650 to 800 Nation was trade center.

Fourth Monte Alban civilization Monte Alba, Mexico 650 to 850 It was Zapotec civilization capital in Oaxaca. Fourth Monte Alban was last stage.

Easter Islander civilization Easter Island 700 Nation built stone ceremonial platforms.

Great Fire fire Teotihuacan, Mexico 700 Teotihuacan burned, and all people left.

Mississippian civilization Mississippi River 700 Nation built flat-topped mounds as platforms for temples.

Tiahuanaco civilization Peru/Bolivia 700 Nation ended by raids from Amazon region, war with Huari, and pestilence.

251

Toltec civilization Mexico 700 Teotihuacan burned.

Pueblo civilization Arizona 700 to 900 Nation was in east Arizona and built houses above ground.

Anasazi civilization Canyon de Chelly, Arizona 700 to 1100 Pueblos had interconnecting mud-brick rooms in layers. Cliff dwellings were at Mesa Verde, Chaco Canyon, and Canyon de Chelly. Corn and other crops grew on cliff tops, using irrigation. It formed pottery and turquoise jewelry. It had men's clubhouses and plazas. It used bow and arrow, basket weaving, and flutes. It grew beans and had dogs. Anasazi means "ancient ones". By 1400, it became Hopi, Zuni, and Rio Grande Indians.

Second Toltec civilization Mexico 790 to 990 The first military state king was Quetzalcoatl I, who died at Tollan or Place of Reeds [790]. Tollen or Tula (Hidalgo), near Mexico City, was capital and had Temple of Mother Earth. Cholula was ritual center in central Mexico and has world's largest pyramid. The god Tezcatlipoka took Earth out of primeval waters. Sun god was patron of warriors. Quetzalcoatl was spirit of the planet Venus and god of winds, the breath of life. Ometecuhtli was male and female creative powers, was above gods, had fire symbol, and had no temples, because it was not in the material world.

Mayan civilization Tikal, Guatemala/Honduras/Yucatan Peninsula 800 Tikal had 40,000 people.

Xochicalco Conference conference Xochicalco, Mexico 800 Teotihuacan, Maya, and other cultures gathered.

Hohokam civilization Snaketown, Arizona 800 to 1400 Nation was in south Arizona in Gila River valley. Hohokam means "those who have vanished". It invented etching with acid, and it etched shells from American west coast.

Mayan civilization Mexico 850

252 Mayan civilization abandoned cities in south Mexico lowlands and ended.

Toltec civilization Mexico 850 Teotihuacan had 75,000 to 125,000 people at empire height.

Huari empire Peru 890 Nation faded.

Chichimeca civilization Tula, Mexico 900 Nation started after Toltecs left. It built Tenayuca pyramid.

Huastec civilization Mexico 900 Nation was in northeast Mexico, influenced Toltecs and Mexicans, and carved life-size statues.

Mayan civilization Mexico 900 to 1000 Toltecs ended Mayan civilization in north Mexico.

Toltec civilization Hidalgo, Mexico 900 to 1000 Tollan or Tula (Hidalgo) became capital.

Pueblo civilization New Mexico/Arizona 900 to 1100 Nation built circular rooms with wall benches.

Hohokam civilization Arizona/New Mexico 900 to 1150 Nation built platform mounds.

Cahokin civilization Missouri/Illinois 900 to 1250 Nation built layered burial mounds, built wood structures for solstices and equinoxes, used copper, had central organization, had stratified society, and was near St. Louis.

253

Tairona state Colombia 900 to 1400 Nation had paved streets, grew cotton and cocoa, and traded on Colombia north coast.

Pueblo civilization Chaco Canyon, New Mexico 919 to 1130 Nation was at Pueblo Bonito in Chaco Canyon.

Canyon de Chelly cliff dwelling Canyon de Chelly, Arizona 950 Nation had Pueblo culture.

Second Toltec civilization Teotihuacan, Mexico 950 to 990 The ninth high chief, Topiltzin Quetzalcoatl, ruled area as wide as later Aztec Empire.

Second Toltec civilization Tollan, Mexico 980 to 990 Nation ended when nobles attacked Tollan and ninth chief's son, and civil war followed.

Classic Mayan civilization Yucatan Peninsula/Guatemala/Honduras 987 Nation ended when Toltecs conquered it. 100,000 people lived nearby.

New Mayan Empire civilization Mexico 987 to 1697 Nation began when Itza clan of Toltecs conquered Mayans and built at Chichen. Pyramid was for Kukulean, Toltec leader. Cities were Mayapan, Uxmal, Chichen Itza, Labna, Kabah, Tulum, and Sayil.

Teotihuacan civilization Mexico City, Mexico 1000 Nation ended when beaten by Niune culture from south.

Mixtec or Cloud People civilization Mexico 1000 to 1100 Mixtecs, under Eight Deer Ocelot Claw of Tilantongo, took Lycoba or Mitla from Zapotecs.

254 Pueblo civilization Southwest USA 1000 to 1300 Nation lived in caves and mesas, for protection against buffalo-hunting tribes, during droughts in southwest USA.

Chimu civilization Peru 1000 to 1470 Nation started when Chief Naymlap landed using balsa rafts [1000]. Chan Chan, near Trujillo, was capital. Paramonga, north of Lima, was capital. It had metal work, roads, irrigation, large stepped pyramids, and stepped mud- brick fortresses. It was on Peru north coast.

Muisca civilization Bogota, Colombia 1000 to 1500 The best young man became chief and had to jump into lake covered with gold dust, creating legend of El Dorado. They spoke Chibcha language.

Inca civilization Altiplano, Peru 1000 to 1517 Nation began as tribe. Machu Picchu was first capital. Leader title was Sapa Inca or Only Inca. The creator god Viracocha had only one temple, because he was in all hearts and minds, as leader.

Mayan civilization Mayapan, Mexico 1007 to 1300 Kukulkán founded it [1007]. It was leading city after Chichén Itzá faded. It is in Yucatán peninsula.

Chimor civilization Chan Chan, Peru 1100 Chimor culture was on Peru northwest coast. Perhaps, it descended from earlier Moche people. It had irrigated farmland, but rain ruined the fields. Chimu conquered neighbors and built roads.

Inca civilization Altiplano, Peru 1100 Third generation Inca took Apurimac River valley. Chanca confederation killed Vahuarhuaccac, the leader. After Vahuarhuaccac, nobles selected Viracocha to be king. He defeated Chanca and unified conquered lands. He built food and clothing storehouses for use by army. He built storehouses for sun god, in case of catastrophe. One-third of production went to sun god, one-third to army and state, and one-third was for farmer. Towns had different clothes, had sundials, and had uncultivated areas to breed llamas and keep wild quanaco. Slopes had terraces for growing pumpkin, beans, and maize. Irrigation diverted mountain streams. They conscripted soldiers for up to five years. Army constructed buildings and carried supplies. Only Inca were commanders.

Easter Islander civilization

255 Easter Island 1100 to 1200 First statues were on previously built platforms.

Hopewell civilization USA 1150 Nation ended.

Chichimeca civilization Mexico 1170 to 1200 From north desert, it took Toltec capital at Tula.

Toltec civilization Mexico 1180 Nation lost of Chichen Itza.

Mississippian civilization Mississippi River 1190 Nation ended.

Inca civilization Altiplano, Peru 1200 Cuzco became capital.

Cliff Canyon civilization Cliff Canyon, Colorado 1200 to 1250 Apartment blocks and circular kivas were at Cliff Canyon and Fewkes Canyon.

Tepaneca civilization Colhuacan, Mexico 1200 to 1324 Nation ended in central Mexico when beaten by Aztecs.

Aztec civilization Tenochtitlan, Mexico 1200 to 1500 Aztecs settled on two marshy islands in south Lake Texoco in Valley of Mexico [1200 to 1300]. They floated large baskets of earth into marshland to make raised fields {chinampas} and planted trees there. They built Tenochtitlan on an island [1320 to 1330], with four quarters, one for each family group. First ruler was Tenoch [1330 to 1370]. Tenochitlan slowly grew to 250,000 people.

Mayan

256 civilization Mexico 1224 Nation began when Mayans revolted from Toltecs. Cities were Mayapan, Chichen, and Uxmal. It had merchants and long dugout canoes.

Toltec civilization Teotihuacan, Mexico 1224 Nation ended when Tepaneca defeated it.

Easter Islander civilization Easter Island 1300 to 1500 It built large stone statues. One platform was 45 meters wide and had fifteen statues. It built village of oval stone houses.

Aztec Empire or Mexica civilization Mexico 1325 to 1520 Aztecs from north replaced Toltec civilization. Tenochtitlan was capital, near Mexico City, on a now dry island in Lake Texcoco. Water supply was at Chapultepec, five miles away. On the migration, main priest was Tenoch. They were to settle where they saw an eagle on a cactus eating a serpent. Eagle was symbol of Huitzilopochtli, the war god. Uetlatoani or Great Speaker was a priest-astrologer, led warriors, spoke for all, and set all laws. Tlaloc Tlamacazqui or High Priest of Rains led ceremonies and consulted war god's oracle. Warrior class had rituals and human sacrifice. They removed hearts from living people and burned them. A Supreme Justice led courts. A Lord of the Market Place controlled commerce. Aztecs had pictographs, calendar, caste system, universal education, cotton, and obsidian but no iron. Aztecs built temple to the Aztec war god Huitzilopochtli at Tenochtitlan [1455]. In 1473, Tenochtitlan expanded to include Tlateloco.

Mixtec or Cloud People civilization Oaxaca, Mexico 1350 Codex Vindobonensis Mexicanus [painted deer skin book] It was in Oaxaca Valley.

Aztec Empire or Mexica civilization Tenochtitlan, Mexico 1400 The 6th chief allied with two other Lake Texcoco cities.

Pueblo civilization Arizona 1400 Nation left northern dwellings and built large towns.

Aztec civilization

257 Mexico 1426 to 1440 Triple Alliance was Tenochtitlan, Texcoco, and Tlacopan.

Aztec Empire or Mexica civilization Tenochtitlan, Mexico 1429 Moctocuzomatzia Illhuicamina I defeated other lake cities.

Inca civilization Machu Picchu, Peru 1450 Nation was on ridge above Urubamba River.

Cara civilization Quito, Ecuador 1450 to 1500 Chief Scyri fought Inca.

Inca civilization Altiplano, Peru 1460 to 1500 Nation took Paramonga, and Chimu surrendered. Topa Inca Yupanqui ruled after conquest of Chimu. He tried to subdue Calchaqui in Chile and sailed out to Taumotu or Marquessas Islands. Empire came to include parts of Chile, Bolivia, and Ecuador. It had nobles, provincial governors, and officials. It controlled town building, natural resources, art, and pottery.

Aztec Empire or Mexica civilization Tenochtitlan, Mexico 1480 to 1489 Tizoc led and built pyramid [1489].

Inca civilization Altiplano, Peru 1493 Huyna Capac or Huayna Capac defeated Cara, codified laws, and led empire at greatest extent. Cuzco was capital. Inca Empire went from north Ecuador to south Chile and was 3000 km long and 800 km wide with three north-south roads. Incas called empire Tahuantinsuyu (Place of the Four Directions or center of Earth). It built roads with suspension bridges and rest houses for runners. It used only barter. People had to stay in their villages. Ten households were unit. The state owned everything except houses and personal items and was responsible for personal welfare. Taxes were labor, and state required labor in mines or on roads. Rope {quipu} color was for subject, rope knots were for numerals, and rope positions were for decimal positions. Inca had storehouses, irrigation, gold mines, silver mines, and massive structures in mountains. They had llamas, wild quanaco, pumpkin, beans, and maize. They had weaving, fertilizer, bronze hoes, cut stone with no mortar, surgery, pottery wheel for rulers only, and lathe for rulers only.

Zapotec civilization

258 Mexico 1500 Nation spread to Isthmus of Tehuantepec, invaded central Mexico, and contacted Aztecs.

Inca civilization Altiplano, Peru 1500 to 1532 Atahuallpa, son of the Cara chief's daughter, organized Cara and imprisoned Inca leader Huascar, Huayna Capac's son. slave trading law Brazil 1500 to 1600 Slaves from Africa worked in Brazil. Few slaves were in Central America and South America. slave trading law Caribbean Sea 1500 to 1600 Slaves from Africa worked on sugar plantations and in Spanish households in Caribbean Sea islands.

Panama colony Panama 1508 Spanish colony started.

Mexico colony Mexico 1519 Spain under Cortes conquered Aztec Empire under Moctezuma II.

Aztec Empire or Mexica civilization Mexico 1520 Moctezuma II or Montezuma was last emperor and lost to Spain under Cortes. 1,000,000 people were in Tenochtitlan [1520].

Inca civilization Altiplano, Peru 1532 Spanish under Pizarro landed and captured Atahuallpa of Cara in trap at Cajamarca, to start end of Inca Empire.

Sao Vicente city Brazil 1532 Portugal settled it [1532]. Island is on south São Paulo coast, beside Santos.

Mexico kingdom

259 Mexico 1535 to 1811 Viceroy of Spain began rule of Mexico. Two notable viceroys were Zumarraga and Luis de Valasco.

California colony California/Spain 1540 to 1550 Spain explored it.

Inca civilization Peru 1553 Nation ended when conquered by Pizarro of Spain.

St. Augustine state St. Augustine, Florida 1565 Spain settled St. Augustine.

Roanoke Colony colony Outer Banks, North Carolina 1585 to 1597 Sir Walter Raleigh started it, but it died out.

Jamestown Colony colony Jamestown, Virginia 1607 John Smith was army captain.

Plymouth Colony colony Massachusetts 1608 to 1620 Nation started when the ship Mayflower landed on Plymouth Rock. William Bradford was first governor. John Alden married Priscilla Mullens, and Miles Standish loved her, too. slave trading law USA 1619 to 1780 Traders imported slaves for tobacco plantations in Virginia. Later, they imported slaves for cotton and rice plantations in Carolinas. Slave traders took 100,000 slaves a year from Africa.

Dutch Guiana or New Netherlands nation Dutch Guiana or New Netherlands 1621 Dutch West Indies Company founded New Netherlands.

Virginia Colony colony

260 Virginia 1624 Virginia became colony of Britain.

New Amsterdam colony New York, New York 1625 Dutch West Indies Company of Holland purchased New Amsterdam (New York City) from American natives for $24 in beads.

Massachusetts Bay colony Boston, Massachusetts/Salem, Massachusetts 1626 Nation was colony of England. Later, John Winthrop, Cotton Mather, and Increase Mather lead theocracy. Later, Salem had witch trials.

Maryland colony Maryland 1631 to 1689 Maryland was under the Calverts as English colony.

Connecticut colony Connecticut 1633 Plymouth Colony settled Connecticut and built trading posts.

Massachusetts Bay colony Massachusetts 1635 Church attendance became compulsory. All paid tax for ministers.

Providence colony Providence, Rhode Island 1636 Roger Williams founded Providence as separate entity from Massachusetts Bay Colony. All people are equal before the law, and people can change government at any time.

Providence colony Providence, Rhode Island 1640 People had religious freedom. Arbitration settled disputes.

Massachusetts Bay colony Boston, Massachusetts/Salem, Massachusetts 1640 to 1700 John Winthrop, Cotton Mather, and Increase Mather led theocracy.

Massachusetts Bay

261 colony Massachusetts 1646 Cambridge Platform maintained Puritan control of Massachusetts Bay Colony and prohibited religious freedom.

Hudson Bay Company company Canada 1650 to 1700 Nation trapped animals for furs.

North Carolina colony North Carolina 1653 Virginia settlers came to North Carolina.

New Netherlands colony Brazil 1654 Holland left northeast Brazil.

Massachusetts Bay colony Massachusetts 1660 England regained control of Massachusetts Bay Colony and ended many Puritan restrictions.

Connecticut colony Connecticut 1662 Connecticut became chartered colony of England.

Rhode Island colony Portsmouth, Rhode Island 1663 Rhode Island Colony charter granted religious freedom. Hutchinson and Puritan exiles fled to Rhode Island from Massachusetts.

New York city New York, New York 1664 Britain took New York City from Peter Stuyvesant of Dutch West Indies Company.

South Carolina colony South Carolina 1680 Settlers came to Charleston, South Carolina.

Pennsylvania colony

262 Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 1681 William Penn started colony for Quakers and treated American natives with respect.

Pennsylvania state Delaware 1682 Pennsylvania added Delaware.

Massachusetts Bay colony Massachusetts 1684 England put New England under one governor. It revoked Massachusetts Bay Colony charter.

Massachusetts Bay colony Massachusetts 1691 Massachusetts got new charter from England, with many regulations, and again became separate from rest of New England. Only property owners voted.

Salem Witch trial Salem, Massachusetts 1692 Salem witch trials tried women that had supposedly gotten magic powers from devil.

American colonies colony USA/Canada 1700 400,000 Europeans were in colonies. 5000 people were in French Canada.

Iroquois Confederation state USA 1700 to 1800 Nation began when Hiawatha united six main American Indian tribes in northeast USA. Iroquois lived in lodges or wigwams and had villages with palisades on river bluffs. They had organized hunting and fishing and used traps. They used maize, apple orchards, and sugar maple syrup. They tanned leather by smoking shaved skin, rubbing it with ash, lime, and fat and then scraping and smoking it again. They kept record of 400 years of history. Wampum was tubular beads threaded on belts, to commemorate events. Keepers of the Wampum recited stories. Iroquois Indians shaved hair into a broad line {Mohawk haircut}.

Georgia colony Georgia 1733 Oglethorpe from England settled at Savannah.

Stamp Act law England/USA 1750

263 Law passed by English Parliament imposed duties on English imports in American colonies.

Tea law England/USA 1750 Law passed by English Parliament gave tea monopoly to East India Company in American colonies.

Nova Scotia province Nova Scotia 1755 Britain exiled French from Nova Scotia, Canada. Some French went to Louisiana and became Cajuns.

Stamp Act law England/USA 1765 Stamp Act passed by English Parliament required stamp and tax on many items in American colonies. Virginia House of Burgesses and Stamp Act Congress in Massachusetts condemned act as taxation without representation. Later, Parliament repealed Stamp Act as unenforceable.

Quebec Act law England/Massachusetts 1773 Quebec Act passed by English Parliament reduced freedom in Massachusetts.

Canada nation USA/Canada 1775 Wanting to stay under the English king, United Empire Loyalists went from USA to Canada during American Revolution.

Valley Forge encampment Valley Forge, New York 1777 Washington and USA army wintered at Valley Forge.

Chateau Clique government Canada 1781 to 1848 Chateau Clique ruled south Canada.

Family Compact government Canada 1781 to 1848 Family Compact ruled north Canada.

Spanish America Declaration of Independence independence South America

264 1808 Spanish America under Simon Bolivar and San Martin declared independence from Spain. slave trading law USA 1808.0101 Slave importation stopped.

Argentina state South America 1810 to 1853 Nation became independent but stayed confederated with Spain until 1853.

Paraguay state South America 1811 Nation became independent.

Chile state South America 1818 Nation became independent of Spain.

Florida state Florida 1819 USA bought it from Spain.

Mexico Independence independence Mexico 1821 Mexico became independent of Spain.

Peru state South America 1821 Nation became independent of Spain.

Brazil state South America 1822 to 1889 Nation became independent empire, free from Portugal [1822]. Nation became republic in 1889.

Guiana state South America 1824 Nation had British, Dutch, and French colonies.

265

Latin America kingdom South America 1824 British Honduras, Jamaica, Trinidad, and West Indies belonged to Britain.

Bolivia state South America 1825 Nation became independent of Spain.

Central American Federation federation Central America 1825 to 1838 It included Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Honduras, El Salvador, and Guatemala and ended in civil war.

Spanish American congress Panama 1826 Simon Bolivar held meeting to unite Spanish America but it failed.

Uruguay state South America 1828 Nation became independent of Spain.

Ecuador state South America 1830 Nation became independent of Spain.

Venezuela state South America 1830 Nation became independent of Spain.

Colombia state South America 1831 Nation became independent of Spain [1831] and received name later [1861].

Costa Rica state South America 1838 Nation became independent of Spain.

El Salvador

266 state South America 1838 Nation became independent of Spain.

Honduras state South America 1838 Nation became independent of Spain.

Nicaragua state South America 1838 Nation became independent of Spain [1838] and obtained Mosquito Coast [1860].

Reform Party party Canada 1848 Reform Party removed Family Compact in north Canada and Chateau Clique in south Canada.

Quebec Conference conference Quebec, Canada 1864 Quebec Conference [1864] led to confederation [1867].

North America Act law Canada/England 1867 English law formed Dominion of Canada. Provinces were Quebec, Ontario, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Yukon Territory, and Northwest Territory. Canada had 3,000,000 people.

Canada commonwealth Canada 1869 Nation acquired Rupert's Land from Britain's Hudson Bay Company.

Canada commonwealth Canada 1870 Manitoba province joined Canada.

Canada commonwealth Canada 1871 British Columbia province joined Canada.

Canada commonwealth

267 Canada 1873 Prince Edward Island province joined Canada.

USA Centennial Exposition exposition Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 1876 It showcased nation for Europeans.

Haymarket Square riot Chicago, Illinois 1886 It was labor riot.

Brazil republic Brazil 1888 Slavery ended.

First Pan American Conference conference Washington, DC 1889 to 1890 It established Pan-American Union, originated Pan-American railway, and encouraged arbitration treaties.

Pan-American Union league Americas 1890 to 1948 First Pan-American Conference started it [1890], and it reorganized as Organization of American States [1948].

Pullman strike USA 1894 A labor strike against railroad companies was violent. The lawyer Clarence Darrow defended union leader Eugene Debs.

Drago Doctrine law Argentina 1902 Act, by Julio Roca of Argentina, allowed no foreign intervention in South America.

Panama state Panama 1903 Nation became independent of Spain.

Canada commonwealth Canada

268 1905 Saskatchewan and Alberta provinces joined Canada.

Panama Canal Zone canal Panama 1914 USA built and operated canal and controlled region.

Mexico constitution Mexico 1917 Nation nationalized all resources.

Boston police strike strike Boston, Massachusetts 1919 to 1927 Calvin Coolidge put down police strike using militia.

Great Depression recession USA 1929 to 1938 After good years [1925 to 1928], New York stock market crashed [1929]. In 1930 and 1931, banks recalled loans, and investment stopped.

Tennessee Valley Authority or TVA utility USA 1933 Nation built dams and electric power plants.

Canada state Canada 1949 Newfoundland province joined Canada.

Guatemala revolution Guatemala 1954 USA helped suppress communist takeover.

Surinam independence Surinam 1954 Nation became independent of Netherlands.

Dominican Republic state Dominican Republic/USA 1961

269 USA ended dictatorship.

Argentina coup Argentina 1962 Military junta ruled after coup.

Cuban Missile Crisis crisis Cuba 1962 Russia withdrew missiles from Cuba after confrontation with USA at United Nations.

March on Washington for Civil Rights march Washington, DC 1963 It featured the "I Have a Dream" speech by Martin Luther King, Jr.

Organization for African Unity or OAU league Africa 1963 to 2002 It was at Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. African Union replaced it [2002].

Dominican Republic state Dominican Republic/USA 1965 USA helped military government.

SOCI>History>History>Nation>Asia

Harappa Ravi Phase civilization Ambala, India -3300 to -2800 Neolithic culture was near Ravi River in south Punjab in northwest India, 400 miles up Indus River from Mohenjo- Daro. It formed terracotta, used pictographs, herded, and grew wheat, barley, legumes, and sesame.

Lothal civilization Pakistan -3000 to -1750 Neolithic culture was 400 miles south of Mohenjo-Daro and had docks and canals.

Mohenjo-Daro or Indus civilization Indus River -3000 to -1750 Neolithic culture probably started when Dravidians entered Indus River valley. Mohenjo-Daro had 30,000 people in four square miles, with sewers, irrigation from river, and wide streets in grid. It rained in summer but not winter. Civilization had baked, not just sun-dried, brick houses, granaries, and public baths but no temples or palaces. It used potter's wheels and had cotton spinning and weaving. It used pictograph writing on seals. Civilization influenced Sind, Punjab, and Gujurat.

270 Shiva was god of creation. His consort was Parvathi.

Harappa Kot Dijian Phase civilization Ambala, India -2800 to -2600 Neolithic culture had textiles, boats, ox carts, cubic weights, and religious symbols. Early Indus script was on square clay seals or tags {bullae}. To make glazed pottery, steatite heated in kilns turned into cristobalite, enstatite, and alumina. Ground quartz, ash, and copper-oxide or azurite coating can fuse to surface to make faience.

Harappa Harappa Phase civilization Ambala, India -2600 to -1700 Neolithic culture had 30,000 to 80,000 people on 150 hectares, with well water, sewage system, walled streets, and multistory houses. It had no army. It traded with Afghanistan and Central Asia. Religion had Shiva-like god, mother-goddess, Nandi-like bull figure, and unicorn. Indus script had 400 symbols. Soapstone {steatite} inscriptions used stone drills of hard quartz, sillimanite, mullite from kilns, hematite, and titanium oxide. Glass beads began [-1700]. Civilization ended when Ghaggar-Hakra River (Saraswati River) shifted course and dried out.

Harappa Painted Gray Ware Phase civilization Ambala, India -2600 to -1700 Neolithic culture had glass bottles and iron items.

Indus River Valley or Indus Valley civilization Indus River/Pakistan/India -2600 to -1700 Farmers from Pakistan settled by river. Writing began. City houses were in grid. Major towns among 1500 towns were Mohenjo Daro (Mound of the Dead), Harappa, Rakhigarhi, Dholavira, Kot Diji, Ganweriwala, Chanhu Daro, Shahr-i-Sokhta, and Lothal. They did not make large stone monuments but had local marketplaces and religious festivals {sang, festival}. They did not bury the dead with luxury goods. The language is undeciphered. Earthquakes and floods weakened it [-1700]. Later, Kassite people from northwest invaded [-1500], and cities decayed.

Shang or Yin dynasty China/Korea -1766 to -1027 Anyang was capital. Panlung, Chengchow, Honan, Hupeh, and Shantung were fortified cities. King owned all land, and leading clans were king's vassals. It had professional soldiers, chariots, coins, slaves, burials, sacrifices, rituals, astronomy, and scribes. Writing calligraphy used 5000 pictograph characters, each representing one syllable. Ancestor worship began. Appointed people read oracles {shih}, turtle shells or bones inscribed with writing and then cracked by heated pins. Art had cast bronze statues and ceramics. They believed that the god of heaven anointed the king. Perhaps, Shang and Olmec cultures met, because icons and architecture are similar.

Mohenjo-Daro or Indus civilization Indus River -1750 Nation ended when river dried up or shifted by erosion or climate change.

271

Shang civilization Yellow River, China -1500 to -1045 Nation used bronze for sacred vessels, chariots, and weapons. It ended when Zhou attacked [-1045].

Zhou or Chou dynasty Yellow River, China -1045 to -256 Zhou kings replaced Shang. By tradition, Zhou period was happy period. They had to move capital [-771]. States along Yellow River were T'si, Ts'in, and Ch'u. Wang Ch'eng was capital. It built earth-walled cities of nine square kilometers.

Shang or Yin dynasty China/Korea -1027 Nation ended when defeated by Chou or Zhou tribe from northwest China.

Latest Jomon or Final Jomon civilization Japan -1000 to -300 It had rice in Kyushu.

Brahmana civilization India -800 to -600 It is period in Vedic Sanskrit period or Vedic Age. Periods are Vedic period, Grhya period, and Puranic period. Grhya period has Grhya Sutras.

Zhou kingdom China -771 Capital moved east to near Luoyang in Honan or Hunan province.

China kingdom China -771 to -481 Regional kings declared independence from Zhou.

Spring and Autumn Period kingdom China -722 to -481 Spring and Autumn Annals [-600: possibly by Confucius, about Zhou Dynasty in Lu -722 to -481] Kingdoms warred, and nobility weakened, resulting in more literacy and freedom of thought. Warring States Period followed.

Warring States state

272 China -481 to -221 Seven kingdoms fought.

Dong Son culture Vietnam -400 to -1 Dong Son iron culture lived in north center along Red River. It had bronze drums.

Champa kingdom Vietnam -400 to 192 Cham culture lived in south center near Danang between Thua Thien and Dong Nai Rivers, used agate and jasper, and had Hindu influences.

Oc Eo culture Vietnam -400 to -1 Oc Eo culture was in south.

Maurya kingdom Punjab/Afghanistan -322 to -184 Chandragupta defeated Nanda Dynasty of Magadha Kingdom and forced remains of Alexander the Great's army out of India and Afghanistan. He subjugated Punjab and Kabul Valley. His minister was Canakya Kautilya. His capital was Pataliputra, Patna, or Patma. Indo-European Aryan arts flourished.

Yayoi civilization Yayoi, Japan -300 Merchants and settlers from Asia reached of Kyrushu Island in west Japan and spread to near Tokyo. It brought bronze and iron metal tools, weapons, and vessels.

Van Lang civilization Vietnam -300 to -200 Hung Vuong kings ruled north of Giang River to current China-Vietnam border.

Bactria kingdom Oxus River -280 Greek soldiers set up kingdom.

Age of Confusion state China -256 to -221 It existed from end of Chou dynasty until Ch'in dynasty unified China.

273 Au Lac civilization Vietnam -250 to -179 An Duong Vuong founded it, in north center. It built Co Loa citadel. It ended when Nan Yue under emperor Zhao Juo defeated it.

Vietnam colony Vietnam/China -189 to 939 China ruled Vietnam.

Maurya kingdom Punjab/Afghanistan -184 to -175 Brhadratha ended dynasty by assassination and started Sunya Dynasty.

Nan Yue kingdom Vietnam -179 to -111 Emperor Zhao Juo took Au Lac. It ended when Han dynasty of China conquered.

Kushana or Kushan or Kusana or Indo-Scythian kingdom Mathura, India -125 to 236 Buddhist tribe of Yueh-Chi, who had left China because Huns defeated Sunyas, entered India from China and Central Asia and conquered down to Benares, India. Gandhara School of art flourished. Jaina and Buddhist art was at Mathura. Nation revived [78 to 123].

Indus civilization India -100 Bactrians, descendants of Alexander the Great's army, entered Indus River valley. Parthians and Scythians followed later.

Southeast Asian empire Asia 1 City-states and empires began.

Fu Nan culture Vietnam 1 to 300 Fu Nan culture was in south in Mekong Delta and had Hindu and Buddhist influences.

Later Han [Han, Later] or Eastern Han or Han kingdom China 25 to 220

274 Nation defeated Thai Kingdom in Mekong River Valley. Annam became vassals, and Hsing-Nu (Huns) moved north of Gobi Desert. Capital moved eastward from Chang'an to Luoyang. Guan Yu and two other Peach Garden Comrades tried to save dynasty [200]. It used paper, stern rudder for ships, breast harness for horses for pulling loads, crossbow with bronze lock, colored glazes, magnetic compass for temple construction, maps with grids, decimal calipers, and earthquake recorders. Dynasty ended after civil war.

Yellow Turban sect China 184 to 205 Nation rebelled against Han dynasty.

Chola kingdom India 190 Nation was Hindu and was near Tanjore in south India.

Wei kingdom China 220 to 265 Nation was one of the Three Kingdoms. Hua Tuo was legendary doctor.

Three Kingdoms kingdom China 220 to 280 It came after Han Dynasty and had Wei [220 to 265], Shu [221 to 263], and Wu [222 to 280] kingdoms. It ended when Wei dynasty began. It is part of Six Dynasties period.

Shu kingdom China 221 to 263 Nation was one of the Three Kingdoms.

Wu kingdom China 222 to 280 Nation was one of the Three Kingdoms.

Western Ch'in or Western Chin or Jin dynasty China 265 to 316 Nation began after the three Wei, Shu, and Wu kingdoms fell. Buddhism increased.

Sixteen Kingdoms or Shiliuguo kingdom China 304 to 439 They started at end of Jin Dynasty. Liu Yuan the Hun began Han kingdom [304] in north China. Five Barbarian Peoples were Di, Jie, Qiang, Xianbei, and Xiongnu and were in north China.

275 Western Ch'in or Western Chin or Jin dynasty China 316 Nation ended in anarchy.

Eastern Ch'in or Eastern Chin kingdom China 317 to 420 It was one of Six Dynasties and was the first Southern Dynasty.

Northern Wei or Tuoba Wei or Yuan Wei kingdom China 386 to 581 It unified north China [440]. Xiaowen moved capital from Pingcheng or Shanxi to Luoyang [494]. It lost to Yang Chien, who founded Sui dynasty. north-south division kingdom China 386 to 589 Northern Dynasties and Southern Dynasties [420 to 589] came after Sixteen Kingdoms and before Sui Dynasty.

Liu Sung or Southern Song kingdom China 420 to 479 It was one of Southern Dynasties.

Southern Ch'i or Nan Ch'i kingdom China 479 to 502 It was one of Six Dynasties then one of Southern Dynasties. Hsiao Yen of Southern Ch'i dynasty [464 to 549] took Nanking [501] started Liang Dynasty [502].

Liang kingdom China 502 to 557 Wu, Xiao Yan, Shuda, or Lian'er founded Liang Dynasty of Southern Dynasties. Jianwen and Yuzhang were later emperors.

Eastern Wei kingdom China 534 to 550 Northern Wei, Eastern Wei, Western Wei, Northern Qi, and Northern Zhou were part of Northern Dynasty [386 to 581]. Toba Wei or Northern Wei dynasty [386 to 534] split into Eastern Wei [534 to 550] and Western Wei.

Western Wei kingdom China 535 to 557

276 Yuwen Tai killed Northern Wei emperor, but then Northern Zhou took throne.

Japan civilization Japan 538 to 800 Buddhist monks from China led Japanese court to adopt Buddhism as official religion. Slavery ended, universities started, and civil service began.

Northern Ch'i kingdom China 550 to 577 Wen Hsuan Ti founded it. Capital was Yeh.

Caluyka civilization India 550 to 753 Caluykas flourished.

Khmer kingdom Cambodia/Laos 550 to 1450 Nation fought Siamese and other neighbor kingdoms. Angkor Thom was capital. Angkor Wat was temple, influenced by Hinduism. Khmer Empire capital had two million people when it fell to attackers.

Northern Chou or Pei Chou kingdom China 557 to 581 It unified north China but lost to Yang Chien, who founded Sui dynasty.

Southern Ch'en or Nan Ch'en kingdom China 557 to 589 It was one of Six Dynasties and then Southern Dynasties, until Sui dynasty defeated it [589].

Indonesian Native Empires empire Indonesia 600 to 700 Hinduism and Buddhism flourished.

Tibet kingdom Tibet 600 to 700 Nation became independent kingdom.

Tang or T'ang dynasty China/Korea/Turkestan 618 to 907

277 Capital was at Ch'ang-an, in Shensi province in west China, with 2,000,000 people. Canton and Peking also had 2,000,000 people. Taitsung was main city. Korea was subject to China. Tang dynasty revived Confucianism and reformed civil service. China banned all religions except Confucianism in 9th century, destroyed all monasteries, and taxed monks and nuns. Small land available for peasants and more landless peasants caused peasant rebellions and military rebellions. Paper money and printing began. Pottery glazes had several colors. Poetry flowered. Imperial Academy of Letters started at Ch'ang-an [754].

Tang or T'ang dynasty China 626 Tang court became Buddhist.

Taika reforms Japan 646 to 784 Taika political and social reforms made government like that of China.

Rajput kingdom India 700 Rajputs, part of warrior caste, ruled northwest India.

Tang or T'ang dynasty Ch'ang-an, China 756 It defeated a rebellion.

Heian kingdom Japan 794 to 1185 Nation had increased independence from China.

Burma kingdom Burma 800 to 900 Settlers from Tibet came to Burma.

Tang or T'ang dynasty China/Korea/Turkestan 800 to 900 Nation started to decay. samurai warrior Japan 800 to 1200

278 Warrior-class swordsmen and mounted archers {samurai}| helped local governments. However, they began to control provinces [1000]. Minamoto and Taira were the most-powerful samurai families. Minamoto Yoritomo became shogun [1192].

Chola kingdom India 880 to 1180 Cholas were a southeast-India Hindu people. They conquered south India, Sri Lanka, and up to Ganges River. They used coins, had guilds, and allowed village assemblies.

Ten Kingdoms/Five Dynasties kingdom China 907 to 960 It started after Tang dynasty. Min was one kingdom. Sung dynasty ruled after.

Northern Han dynasty China 951 to 979 Nation was one of the Ten Kingdoms.

Sung dynasty China 960 to 1126 The general Taizu became first Sung emperor. Dynasty extended from Great Wall to Hainan and traded with India and Persia along improved roads. Canton and Fuchow ports started. Dynasty had printing from wood blocks and started printing from movable type. It used boat stern posts, had gunpowder, had water-driven spinning machines, and produced iron. New rice type, allowing two crops a year, grew in hills after watering in spring.

Sung dynasty China 1126 Nation ended when Mongols overthrew it. Southern Sung Dynasty controlled south China.

Southern Sung dynasty China 1127 to 1279 Nation was in south China.

Chola kingdom India 1180 to 1200 Nation ended.

Kamakura empire Kamakura, Japan 1185 to 1333

279 Nation began when Minamoto Yorimoto of Minamoto clan defeated Tiara clan. He was first shogun and ruled from army camp {bakufu}. Nobles ruled and emperor had little central authority. Samurai warriors became important. Offices became hereditary.

Thailand kingdom Ayutthaya, Thailand 1200 to 1300 Thailand expelled native Khmers from Indochina.

Mongol Empire empire Mongolia 1206 to 1368 Nation started when Jenghiz Khan or Genghis Khan, Mongol-confederacy leader, conquered Mongolia. He took most of north China [1215]. Population was 120,000,000 people in 1200, but 30,000,000 died in the conquest. He took Turkestan, Transoxania, Persia, Afghanistan, and southeast Europe [1224]. Karakorum was first capital. Cambulac was later capital. It had Buddhism, learning, art, and coal burning. Authorities did not allow Chinese to marry Mongols, learn Mongol language, or have weapons. Mongols were from Mongolia and Manchuria. Mongols had sky god.

Delhi Sultanate or Slave Sultanate sultanate Delhi, India 1206 to 1526 Nation began when Ghorids appointed Turkish slave, Qutb al-Din Aybak, after Turks conquered down to Ganges River. Slave Kings ruled until 1287.

Mongol empire China 1211 Mongols, from central Asia, invaded China.

Mongol empire China 1215 Mongols took Beijing.

Mongol empire Iran 1219 Mongol invasions of Iran began.

Mongol empire Afghanistan/Iraq 1224 Mongols defeated Persia Kharazm-shahs, who were under Sultan Mohammad's protection, and ruled from Oxus River to Euphrates River.

Mongol empire China

280 1234 Mongols defeated Chin in north China.

Mongol Empire empire Mongolia 1236 to 1255 Batu Khan took Kiev in Russia [1236] and then Moravia, Hungary, and Poland [1255].

Mongol empire Hungary 1241 Mongols took Hungary.

Mongol empire Tibet 1250 Nation overran Tibet.

Mongol empire Korea 1250 to 1354 Nation took Korea from China.

Mongol Empire empire Iraq 1255 Nation defeated Seljuk Turks and Abassid caliphs at Baghdad, killing last Abassid caliph and establishing Empire of the Il-Khans.

Golden Horde or Khanate of the Golden Horde [Golden Horde, Khanate of the] empire Russia/Hungary/Poland 1255 to 1405 Nation started when Batu Khan, Genghis Khan's grandson, and Tatars took Russia, Poland, and Hungary. Sarai was capital, near Volvograd. Sultaniyeh was in Persia [1304]. It was tributary to Mongols.

Mongol Empire empire Mongolia 1274 to 1292 Kublai Khan or Kubilai Khan defeated Sung Dynasty of China and took south China but not southeast Asia, though he occupied it temporarily. He attacked Japan twice [1274] [1281], but typhoons {kamikaze} wrecked each of his fleets in Japanese bays. He attacked Indonesia [1292].

Golden Horde or Khanate of the Golden Horde [Golden Horde, Khanate of the] empire China 1279 Nation helped Batu Khan's brother Kublai Khan overthrow Sung Dynasty in south China.

Yuan

281 dynasty China 1279 to 1368 Nation started when Kublai Khan, Mongol emperor, defeated Southern Sung Dynasty. It had postal system, roads, canals, and trade. Civil service exams stopped until 1315.

Mongol empire Burma 1287 Kublai Khan took Burma.

Golden Horde or Khanate of the Golden Horde [Golden Horde, Khanate of the] empire Russia/Hungary/Poland 1300 Oljeitu Khan ruled.

Golden Horde or Khanate of the Golden Horde [Golden Horde, Khanate of the] empire Russia/Hungary/Poland 1314 Nation became Moslem.

Delhi Sultanate or Slave Sultanate sultanate Delhi, India 1320 to 1412 Tughlak started Tughlakid rule. Tamerlane defeated Tughlakids [1398].

Vijayanagar kingdom India 1336 to 1550 Five Hindu brothers founded nation. Oldest was Harihara I. Vijayanagar was capital.

Ayutha or Siam kingdom Thailand 1350 to 1950 Nation was in south, grew to lowlands, and became Siam.

Mongol Empire empire Mongolia 1356 to 1368 Nation ended when member of Red Turbans secret society, Chu Yan-chang, took Nanking [1356] and Peking [1368]. Mongols preceded Ming Dynasty.

Ming dynasty China 1366 to 1644 Nation started with Chu Yuanchang, former Buddhist monk, who defeated Mongols [1368]. It ruled from Korea to Burma and discouraged trade and interactions with foreigners. It fired porcelain. 160,000,000 people were in China.

282 Yuan dynasty China 1368 Nation ended when beaten by Timurids in south China.

Golden Horde or Khanate of the Golden Horde [Golden Horde, Khanate of the] empire Russia/Hungary/Poland 1380 to 1405 War with Grand Duke of Moscow weakened it.

Ming dynasty China 1400 to 1500 Admiral Cheng Ho sailed to other lands.

Golden Horde or Khanate of the Golden Horde [Golden Horde, Khanate of the] empire Crimea/Hungary/Poland/Siberia 1405 Nation split into Khanates of Astrakhan, Kazan, Crimea, and Sibir or Tartary or Siberia.

Ming dynasty China 1420 to 1421 Capital moved from Nanjing to Beijing.

Thailand kingdom Cambodia 1430 to 1450 Nation ended Khmer Empire in southeast Asia and sacked Angkor Wat [1431].

China eunuchs party China 1433 Eunuchs lost political fight to nobles. Boats were 100 meters long. However, it then forbid long voyages, shipbuilding, and ships.

Ming dynasty Jingdezhen, China 1460 It exported Ming porcelain.

Ming dynasty China 1488 Nation rebuilt Great Wall.

Ming

283 dynasty China 1500 European colonies were at Macao and Canton.

Uzbek civilization Asia 1512 Uzbeks defeated Timurids.

Ming dynasty China 1520 Ships did not go out of coastal areas, and people did not travel abroad.

Delhi Sultanate or Slave Sultanate sultanate Delhi, India 1526 Nation ended when Mogul Dynasty took over Delhi Sultanate.

New Guinea nation Portugal/New Guinea/Papua New Guinea 1526 Don Jorge de Meneses of Portugal discovered it.

Mogul or Moghul empire India 1526 to 1857 Nation started when Baber or Babar, Moslem descended from Timur, took north India from Afghanistan.

Mogul or Moghul empire India 1530 to 1555 Humayun, Baber's son, fled but returned [1555].

Japan nation Portugal/Japan 1543 Portugal discovered Japan and brought guns.

Ming dynasty China 1544 Mongols attacked Peking.

Macao colony Macao, China

284 1557 Portugal settled at Macao.

Ming dynasty China 1580 China expelled Japan from Korea.

Burma kingdom Burma 1590 to 1605 Nation split into small kingdoms.

Korea kingdom Korea 1592 to 1598 Nation defeated invasions from Japan.

Philippines nation Philippines 1600 to 1700 As Spanish Empire waned, Catholic priests gained power.

Mogul or Moghul empire India 1605 to 1658 Shah Jehan or Shah Jahan took south India, built Taj Mahal, and expanded Agra and Delhi. He failed to push Persians out of Kandahar.

Australia continent Australia 1616 Dutch explored it.

Indonesia republic Indonesia 1623 Dutch East India Company defeated Britain and controlled Indonesia.

Ming dynasty China 1627 It annexed Korea.

Ming dynasty China 1635

285 It took Inner Mongolia.

Mogul or Moghul empire India 1639 to 1700 British colonies started at Madras, Bombay, and Calcutta. French colonies were at Pondicherry and Chandernagore. Ceylon and East Indies were Dutch.

Indonesia colony Indonesia 1640 Portugal lost Indonesia to rebellions as Dutch East India Company helped push Portugal out of Indonesia.

Ming dynasty China 1644 Dynasty ended when Manchu peoples started Ch'ing Dynasty.

Manchu or Ching or Ch'ing kingdom China 1644 to 1912 North China (Manchuria) Manchu people took Shensi province [1644], Fukien province [1646], and Miao [1650].

Mogul or Moghul empire India 1658 to 1707 Aurungzebe or Aurangzeb ruled and tried to ban Hinduism.

Manchu or Ching or Ch'ing dynasty China 1662 to 1724 K'ang-hsi ruled. He took Annam [1666], Szechuan [1678], Yunnan [1681], Formosa [1683], Mongolia [1696], Outer Mongolia [1697], Tibet [1720], and Sinkiang [1724]. Enameling began.

Mogul or Moghul empire India 1674 Maharattas became independent, under Shivagi, and allied with sultans of Deccan against Moguls.

Mogul or Moghul empire India 1707 Jahangir shared rule with British East India Company.

Manchu or Ching or Ch'ing dynasty China 1734

286 It took Lli region in west around Lake Baikal.

Manchu or Ching or Ch'ing dynasty China 1736 to 1796 Ch'ien Lung controlled north to Amur River and south to Indochina. He won Lli region in west around Lake Baikal [1761], Burma [1769], and Nepal and Tibet [1792].

India state India 1751 France defeated England and held Madras, Carnatic, and Deccan.

Mogul or Moghul empire India 1756 to 1767 Robert Clive took Madras [1761], Northern Circars [1766], Calcutta and Bengal [1759] at Battle of Chinsura, and Bihar [1757] at Battle of Plassy and Battle of Buxar [1764].

Mogul or Moghul empire India 1772 to 1785 Warren Hastings of England took Oudh [1801] from Mogul Empire.

Mogul or Moghul empire India 1784 to 1857 Moguls ruled India under system of Dual Control. East India Company ruled British north-central India {Raj} under governors appointed by England.

Mogul or Moghul empire India 1786 to 1793 Cornwallis took Ceylon [1789], Salem [1792], and Malabar [1792] from Mogul Empire.

Australia people Australia 1788 England began to send prisoners to Australia.

Indonesia republic Indonesia 1798 Holland ruled Indonesia directly when Dutch East India Company ended.

Mogul or Moghul empire India

287 1798 to 1805 Wellesley took Fravancore [1795], Mysore [1799], Carnatic, Upper Doab [1803], Lower Doab [1801], Rohil Khand [1801], Hyderabad or Nizam's Dominions [1800], Rajputana, Jaipur, and Lucknow. Wellesley fought Battle of Argaon [1803] and Battle of Assaye [1803]. Maratha Confederacy held Gaikwar, Peishwa, Khandesh, Holkar, Orissa, and Chota Nagpur.

Ceylon colony Asia 1800 to 1900 Britain colonized it.

East Timor colony Asia 1800 to 1900 Portugal colonized it.

Goa colony Asia 1800 to 1900 Portugal colonized it.

Hong Kong colony Asia 1800 to 1900 Britain colonized it.

Macao colony Asia 1800 to 1900 Portugal colonized it.

Singapore colony Asia 1800 to 1900 Britain colonized it.

Thailand kingdom Thailand 1800 to 1900 Nation became independent but lost Cambodia and Laos.

Indonesia state Indonesia 1811 Britain took Indonesia from Holland.

Mogul or Moghul empire

288 India 1813 East India Company lost trade monopoly in north-central India.

Mogul or Moghul empire India 1813 Missionaries first came to north-central India.

Indonesia colony Indonesia 1815 Netherlands regained Indonesia from Britain.

Mahratta kingdom India 1818 Mahrattas lost to Britain.

Tahiti kingdom Polynesia 1822 to 1842 It included Tahiti, Moorea, Meetia and Tetiaroa. It was French protectorate [1842 to 1880].

Australia state Australia 1829 Britain got all of Australia.

New Zealand colony New Zealand 1840 Treaty between Maori and Britain began New Zealand colony. Sheep wool was main export. Later, meat and milk were exports.

Australia colony Australia 1850 Nation became self-governed.

Mogul or Moghul empire India 1850 Population was 200,000,000, with 70% Hindu, 20% Muslim, and the rest Buddhist or Christian.

Manchu or Ching or Ch'ing dynasty China

289 1851 to 1864 Taiping rebelled. 20,000,000 died as British General Gordon led Chinese soldiers against rebels.

Burma colony Asia 1852 to 1886 Britain colonized it in 1852 and 1886.

Mogul or Moghul empire India 1853 Nation built first railroad in India.

Manchu or Ching or Ch'ing dynasty China 1856 to 1858 Second Anglo-Chinese War ended with Treaty of Tientsin.

Andaman Islands colony Burma 1857 Britain colonized it.

Mogul or Moghul empire India 1857 Saying grease on new cartridges used animal fat, Bengal soldiers revolted against the British. This preceded revolts elsewhere {Indian Mutiny}. British suppressed revolts and deposed Mogul emperor. British government appointed viceroy, and East India Company no longer ruled.

Vietnam state Vietnam 1857 to 1954 France began to conquer all of Vietnam and succeeded by 1890. Phan Boi Chau led Dong Du revolt. Phan Chu Trinh and Dong Kinh Nghia Thuc were intellectual leaders. Nguyen Thai Hoc led revolt. Nguyen Ai Quoc (Ho Chi Minh) started Indochinese Party [1930]. He led August 1945 Revolution, which proclaimed republic September 2, 1945. In 1946, France invaded, but later it lost at Dien Bien Phu [1954].

Manchu or Ching or Ch'ing dynasty China 1858 to 1860 Russia took back area around Lake Baikal [1858] and Amur and Ussuri [1860].

Cochin-China colony Asia 1859 France colonized it.

290 Manchu or Ching or Ch'ing dynasty China 1859 to 1860 Third Anglo-Chinese War ended with French and British in control in Peking.

Cambodia colony Asia 1863 France colonized it.

Indochina kingdom Indochina 1863 to 1893 France took it.

Australia people Australia 1867 Prisoners no longer went to Australia. Australia had 1,000,000 people.

Nicobar Islands colony Burma 1869 Britain colonized it.

Australia state Australia 1870 British soldiers were withdrawn.

Malaya colony Asia 1874 to 1914 Britain colonized it in 1874, 1886, and 1914.

North Borneo colony Asia 1881 Britain colonized it.

Tonkin colony Asia 1884 France colonized it.

National Congress party

291 India 1885 Nation wanted India to become dominion.

French Indochina colony Asia 1887 France colonized it.

Sarawak colony Sarawak 1888 Britain colonized it.

Guam colony Asia 1890 to 1900 USA colonized it.

Samoa colony Asia 1890 to 1900 USA colonized it.

Formosa/Pescadores Islands colony Asia 1895 Japan colonized it.

Kwang-Chow-Wan colony Asia 1898 France colonized it.

Caroline Islands/Palau Islands colony Asia 1899 Germany colonized it.

Philippines colony Asia 1899 USA colonized it.

Manchu or Ching or Ch'ing dynasty China 1900

292 Britain took Burma.

Manchu or Ching or Ch'ing dynasty China 1900 France took Annam.

Manchu or Ching or Ch'ing dynasty China 1900 Russia took back Manchuria by 1900.

Australia independence Australia 1901 Nation gained independence from England and formed federation.

Australia/New Guinea commonwealth Australia/New Guinea 1905 Australia got New Guinea (Papua).

Manchu or Ching or Ch'ing dynasty China 1905 Kuomintang, KMT, or National Peoples Party began.

Moslem League party India 1906 All-India Moslem League started with Aga Khan as leader.

New Zealand independence New Zealand/England 1907 Nation gained independence from England.

Manchu or Ching or Ch'ing dynasty China 1911 Nation ended when revolution overthrew last emperor, Pu Yi.

China republic China 1912 Nation formed under Sun-Yat-Sen when emperor abdicated.

293 Tibet nation Tibet/China 1912 to 1949 Nation became independent of China.

Twenty-one Demands ultimatum China 1915 Japan had Twenty-one Demands on China.

National Congress party India 1917 Gandhi and his supporters forced moderates out of National Congress party in India and started to work for full independence from Britain.

May 4th Movement boycott China 1919 Nation boycotted Japanese goods.

National Congress party India 1919 Gandhi and National Congress party began passive resistance.

Mongolia independence Mongolia 1924 to 1946 Mongolian People's Republic started [1924] with Sino-Soviet treaty. China proclaimed Mongolia independent [1946].

China republic Nanking, China 1928 Kuomintang set up government under Chang Kai-Shek after expelling Communists, who retreated north under Mao Tse-Tung and Chu Teh.

Thailand constitution Thailand 1932 Nation became democracy but was still ruled by Chakkri Dynasty.

Burma independence Burma 1937 Nation became independent of Britain.

294

Thailand state Thailand 1938 Nation became dictatorship when military junta deposed king in coup.

Moslem League party India 1940 Moslem League stated that it wanted Moslem state.

North Vietnam state Vietnam 1945 Ho Chi Minh established North Vietnam and started war with France, which ended in 1954.

Vietnam independence Vietnam 1945 Nation became free of France.

Korea partition Korea 1945 to 1948 Nation had Russian and USA zones. Russian zone became Communist North Korea [1948], and USA zone became democratic South Korea.

Indonesia republic Indonesia 1945 to 1949 Nationalists fought Netherlands and formed republic, which included Sumatra, Java, and Madura.

Philippines independence Philippines 1946 Nation became independent of USA. Ferdinand Marcos became president later.

Japan occupation Japan 1946 to 1951 Douglas MacArthur of USA ruled it.

India independence India 1947 Nation became independent of Britain and included mostly Hindu areas.

295 Pakistan state Pakistan 1947 Moslem state began. West Pakistan was in northwest India. East Pakistan was in east India.

Burma republic Burma 1948 Nation became republic.

Sri Lanka independence Ceylon 1948 Nation became republic.

Indonesia independence Indonesia 1949 Netherlands ended war against Indonesia republic.

Republic of China occupation Taiwan 1949 Nationalists under Chang Kai-Shek took over Formosa.

Tibet occupation Tibet 1949 to 1951 China took Tibet.

Burma republic Burma 1950 Karen native peoples revolted, followed by a military coup.

Japan kingdom Japan 1951 Nation became constitutional monarchy and signed peace treaty. Admiral Ridgway occupied it. Liberal Democratic Party emphasized trade.

Cambodia independence Cambodia 1953 It became independent of France.

Laos

296 independence Laos 1954 It became independent of France.

Netherlands West Indies independence Netherlands West Indies 1954 Nation became independent of Netherlands.

Indonesia nationalization law Indonesia 1956 Indonesia nationalized all Netherlands property, but economy faded.

Pakistan republic Pakistan 1956 It became republic but still was in British Commonwealth of Nations. Before, it was dominion.

Malaysia independence Malaysia 1957 Nation became independent of Britain.

Great Leap Forward law China 1958 to 1960 China collectivized all agriculture, but floods caused Great Leap Forward to fail [1960].

Singapore independence Singapore 1959 It became self-governing.

Geneva Conference conference Laos 1961 Conference diminished struggle of North Vietnam for control of Laos.

New Guinea independence New Guinea 1962 It became independent of Netherlands. Name became Papua New Guinea [1972 to 1975].

Singapore independence Singapore

297 1965 It became independent of Britain.

Cultural Revolution law China 1965 to 1969 Revolution followed Mao's ideas about philosophy, art, society, and revolution, led by Red Guards. Army restored order [1969]. 500,000 people died.

Bangladesh independence Bangladesh 1971 East Pakistan broke from West Pakistan and renamed itself.

Vietnam state Vietnam 1973 to 1975 USA withdrew after signing Paris Agreements. Victory of Ho Chi Minh Campaign took Saigon [1975].

East Timor Annexation annexation East Timor 1976 Indonesia annexed East Timor.

SOCI>History>History>Nation>Asia>Middle East

Ur civilization Ur, Iraq -3500 Bronze Age city-states had mud public buildings, priests, writing, agricultural organization, irrigation, pottery, and metalworking.

Hamite or Hamitic culture Egypt -3500 to -2000 Neolithic Semitic peoples lived there, followed by Hamitic peoples from northeast and north Africa.

Sumerian civilization Sumer -3360 to -2350 Copper Age culture began when Eridu, Kish, Lagash, Uruk or Erech, and Ur city-states, each having tens of thousands of people, united. Earthen banks, ditches, and canals drained water from marshes. Houses had reed and mud platforms. Sun-dried mud bricks built fortified cities. It had government, contracts for marriages, divorce by men or women, slaves, and trade to get copper and tin. Men shaved. People wore jewelry and furry skirts. People acquired status. Advisers memorized and copied knowledge. Cylinder seals recorded transactions.

Egyptian civilization Nile River, Egypt

298 -3100 Nile is 1000 kilometers long and six to twenty kilometers wide and has regular flooding. Copper Age culture had papyrus boats, flax textiles, plowing, raking, manuring, stone masonry, and copper hammering.

First Dynasty kingdom Egypt -3100 to -2884 Old Kingdom dynasty included Menes.

Phoenician civilization Cornwall -3000 Bronze Age culture reached west coast of England for tin trade. England is Tin Isles.

Semitic civilization Byblos, Lebanon/Ugarit, Syria -3000 to -2500 Ugarit is now Ras Shamra, Syria.

Sumerian civilization Kish, Mesopotamia -3000 to -2500 Bronze Age culture was east of Babylon.

Sumerian civilization Umma, Mesopotamia -3000 to -2500 Bronze Age culture was east of Kish.

Sumerian civilization Abu Salabikh, Mesopotamia -3000 to -2500 Bronze Age culture was southeast of Kish.

Sumerian civilization Lagash, Iraq -3000 to -2500 Bronze Age culture was southeast of Umma in south Mesopotamia.

Semitic civilization Mari, Syria -3000 to -2400 Bronze Age culture was near upper Euphrates River on trade route from Damascus to Babylon.

Second Kingdom kingdom Egypt -2884 to -2686

299 Perhaps, 2nd Dynasty was from -2884 to -2664.

Sumer kingdom Sumer -2800 Earliest dynasty began.

Semitic civilization Nabada, Syria/Tell Beydar, Syria -2800 to -2350 Bronze Age Kranzhugel culture was near Khabur River and had fortifications around city, 600-meter-diameter wall with four gates and 300-meter-diameter wall. It used Sumerian script and Old-Semitic language.

Old Kingdom or Upper Kingdom civilization Egypt -2664 to -2155 In 3rd to 8th dynasties, Memphis was capital in Upper Egypt. Heliopolis was near Memphis. Saqqara was in Upper Egypt, just south of Memphis. Hermopolis was much farther south, followed by Tel-el-Amarna. Thebes was much farther south. Abu Simbel was far south. Nubia is to west of Abu Simbel. Kush is to east of Abu Simbel. Dams and canals regulated Nile River. Upper class women wore nice clothes, had jewelry, had hairstyles, used cosmetics, were independent, and had good treatment as wives and mothers. Of two thousand gods, Horus was kings' god.

Ebla civilization Ebla, Syria -2600 to -2300 Bronze Age culture was south of Aleppo, had 250,000 non-Semitic people, and used cuneiform writing with Semitic language. Bronze Age culture used city planning. It traded with Mediterranean. King Ibrium was most-famous king.

Egyptian civilization Egypt -2500 Cheops founded IV Dynasty. Other pharaohs built rest of pyramids and Sphinx.

Sumerian civilization Sumer -2350 Nation ended when conquered by Sargon of Akkad.

Akkadian or Old Assyrian empire Akkad -2350 to -2150 Nation began with Sargon I, as Semitic peoples conquered Sumer city-states in south Mesopotamia. 5000 professional soldiers used overlapping shields in front of protruding spears. Bows had horn and wood layers. Kings and priests separated. Kings built palaces, commissioned art about war victories, and spread Semitic and Sumerian ideas.

Ebla

300 civilization Ebla, Syria -2300 Nation ended when conquered by King Naram-Sin of Akkad.

First Intermediate civilization Egypt -2154 to -2052 In 9th to 11th dynasties, Thebes was capital. It settled Kush. It conquered Nubia for gold. Nubia is between first and third cataracts of Nile. Copper came from Sinai.

Akkadian or Old Assyrian empire Akkad -2150 Nation ended when Sargon I's grandson lost to Gutians from mountains.

Amorite/Gutian civilization Mesopotamia -2150 to -2050 Semitic Amorites from Assyria and Caucasian Gutians ended Akkad Dynasty.

Middle Kingdom civilization Egypt -2052 to -1786 In 12th Dynasty, Thebes was capital. Tombs in rock cliffs included King Tutankhamen.

Amorite/Gutian civilization Mesopotamia -2050 Kings of Ur defeated Amorites and Gutians.

Third Dynasty of Ur or Sumer and Akkad kingdom Ur, Iraq -2050 to -2000 Nation began when Akkadian kings of Ur conquered Gutians. It ruled area from Susa on lower Tigris, beside Elam, to Byblos in Lebanon. It built large ziggurats.

Middle Kingdom civilization Egypt -2000 Nation reached height.

Third Dynasty of Ur or Sumer and Akkad kingdom Ur, Iraq -2000 Nation ended when conquered by Elam.

Hittite

301 civilization Turkey/Syria/Babylon/Egypt -2000 to -1200 Nation settled in Turkey with capital at Hattushash. First king, Hattusilas I, invaded Syria. Second king, Mursilis I, destroyed Babylon [-1595] but someone killed him, and Hittites left Babylon. Suppiluliumas [-1380], king of Hittites, invaded Syria and controlled to Canaan, Palestine. It ended when Aegean Sea peoples attacked from Asia Minor.

Hittite civilization Anatolia -1800 to -1200 Iron-Age culture federated Cappadocia cities and had iron, horses, cavalry, cuneiform writing, and legal system.

First Babylonian empire Babylonia -1792 to -1590 Iron-Age culture began when Hammurabi conquered Assyria Amorites and united Sumer and Akkad. It ruled Nineveh and Nimrod on Tigris River, Mari on upper Euphrates River, and cities on Euphrates River up to Aleppo, Syria. It was 700 miles long and 100 miles wide. It had commerce, learning, cuneiform writing, and monumental buildings. The goddess Ishtar was like the goddess Astarte. Bel-Marduk was chief god. People were gods' slaves.

Elam or Susiama state Persia -1750 to -645 Nation started by revolt against Babylon. Susa, north of Persian Gulf, was capital.

Kassite civilization Mesopotamia -1700 to -1500 Nation took horses from pastures north and east of Fertile Crescent, to pull two-wheel chariots with driver and bowman.

Mitanni kingdom Urkesh, Syria -1600 to -1400 Hurrian culture from east Anatolia settled near Khabur River.

First Babylonian empire Babylonia -1590 Nation ended when reduced by Hittites and Kassites.

Hittite civilization Asia Minor/Syria -1590 Nation conquered Babylon.

Kassite civilization

302 Babylonia -1590 Kassites from Zagros Mountains in Iran took Babylonia.

New Kingdom civilization Egypt -1554 to -1075 In 18th to 20th dynasties, Thebes was capital. Abu-Simbel had temples and statues. School for scribes taught honesty, respect for authority, discipline, application to study, and hieroglyphics. Food was emmer wheat, barley, and vegetables. Common people used hieratic alphabet.

Kassite civilization Pakistan -1500 Kassites took west Indus civilization, which had had floods and earthquakes.

Phoenician civilization Syria/Lebanon/Israel -1500 People lived on east Mediterranean coast, grew cedar wood, corn, and olives and produced oil, wine, and cloth, which they traded with Crete, Egypt, Cyprus, and Troy. It built Tyre and Sidon. Phoenicia had purple cloth, and Phoenicia is Greek for "purple".

Hittite civilization Asia Minor/Syria -1400 to -1350 Nation controlled from Levant to Persian Gulf.

Mitanni kingdom Mesopotamia -1372 to -1340 Hittites drove Mitanni from west of Euphrates River.

Mitanni kingdom Mesopotamia -1340 Nation ended when Hittites took whole kingdom.

Hittite civilization Asia Minor/Syria -1290 to 1250 Nation conquered south to Egypt, fighting Ramses II.

Phoenician civilization Lebanon -1250 to -331

303 Byblos, Baalbek or Heliopolis, Tyre, and Sidon were cities. Trade was among city-states around Mediterranean Sea to Atlantic Ocean. They built ships, worked glass and metal, and wove and dyed cloth. Alphabet was basis for Greek and Roman alphabets. Bel or Ba'al is Semitic Sun God. El is chief god.

Elam or Susiama state Persia -1200 Nation peaked in west Iran.

Hittite civilization Asia Minor/Syria -1200 Nation ended when Thracians, Phrygians from Thrace, and Assyrians broke it up.

Phrygian state Phrygia -1200 to -700 Gordion was capital.

Old Assyrian kingdom Assyria -1102 to -1000 Nation began when Tiglath Pileser I conquered most of Asia Minor. Nineveh was capital. Ashur was city. Hierapolis was religious center on Euphrates River.

Phoenician civilization Utica, Italy -1100 Phoenicians colonized Italy.

Lower Egypt pharaoh Egypt -1085 to -945 Lower Egypt was separate from Upper Egypt.

Israel kingdom Israel -1012 to 73 Nation began when King Saul conquered Canaan and King David defeated Philistines and others. Jerusalem was capital. King Solomon followed David and built Temple in Jerusalem. Hebrews became monotheistic and began to worship only their tribal god Yahweh. Other religions allowed worship of tribal god and other regional gods. Yahweh was creator god, and people were highest creation. People can know good and evil and must have will to follow the law of Yahweh.

Phoenician civilization Spain -1000 Phoenicians colonized Spain.

304

Theban kingdom Thebes, Egypt -1000 Priest-kings at Thebes became independent of pharaohs.

Old Assyrian kingdom Assyria -1000 to -900 Nation ended by defeat by Babylon.

Sheba kingdom Arabia -1000 to 500 Sabeans in south Arabia started it. It was wealthy and colonized Ethiopia.

Ma'in kingdom Arabia -1000 to 525 Nation was in north Arabia.

Judah kingdom Judaea -935 to -725 Kingdom of Judah, the Benjamin and Judah tribes in south at Jerusalem, fought Kingdom of Israel, the ten other tribes in north at Samaria.

Hebrew kingdom Canaan -926 Hebrew kingdom split into ten tribes of Israel in north at Samaria and Benjamin and Judah tribes in Judah in south near Jerusalem.

Israel kingdom Samaria -926 Ten tribes of Israel split from the Benjamin and Judah tribes, who stayed in Judah in south near Jerusalem.

Assyria kingdom Assyria -911 to -612 Adadnirari II founded it. Main rulers were Sargon II, his son Sennacherib, his son Esarhaddon, and his son Ashurbanipal. Esarhaddon had Sennacherib killed. It controlled trade routes, built palaces, and set stone tablets. Medes and Babylonians conquered it [-612].

Phoenician civilization Cyprus

305 -900 to -800 Phoenicians colonized Cyprus.

Phoenician civilization Carthage, Tunisia -900 to -800 Phoenicians colonized north Africa.

Phoenician civilization Cadiz, Spain -900 to -800 Phoenicians colonized Straits of Gibraltar.

New Assyrian empire Mesopotamia -860 to -612 Nation began when Ashurnasirpal III conquered to Mediterranean, using iron weapons, conscripted soldiers, artillery, and cavalry with armor. Calah or Nimrud was capital on upper Tigris River. Khorsabad was capital. Nineveh was capital. Harran in Assyria was another city. It used Aramaic language. Main god was Assur.

Phrygian state Phrygia -800 Nation reached height.

Mede or Median civilization Media -800 to -600 Indo-Europeans moved into west and northwest Iran.

Phoenician civilization Lebanon -800 to -600 Nation had twenty-five colonies around Mediterranean.

Israel kingdom Samaria -722 Nation ended when Assyrians destroyed Samaria and deported all Hebrews, resulting in dispersal of tribes {ten lost tribes of Israel} {lost tribes of Israel}. However, Assyrians did not take Judah.

Phrygian kingdom Phrygia -700 Nation ended when conquered by Lydia.

New Assyrian empire

306 Egypt -690 Assyrians conquered Egypt.

Lydia kingdom Lydia -687 to -540 Gyges founded it. Sardis was capital. Gordium was city. It was first nation to use coins [-640].

Assyrian civilization Egypt -671 Assyrians took Egypt.

Elam or Susiama state Persia -645 Nation ended in west Iran when conquered by Assurbanipal.

Scythian civilization Crimea -640 to -322 Nation started when warrior horsemen and nomads from central Asia invaded New Assyrian Empire and took Palestine. Later, it fought Medes. It ended when it lost to Darius of Persia.

New Assyrian empire Mesopotamia -625 to -620 Babylon, Chaldeans, Medes, and Egypt revolted.

Chaldean or Second Babylonian empire Babylonia -625 to -538 Nation began with Babylonian revolt from New Assyrian Empire. It combined astronomy and mathematics. It ended when defeated by Cyrus the Great of Persia.

Babylonia kingdom Babylonia -612 Babylonians and Medes took the Assyrian capital, Nineveh.

New Assyrian empire Mesopotamia -612 Nation ended when Medes destroyed Nineveh.

Mede or Median empire

307 Iran -612 to -538 In northwest Iran, Arbaces defeated Assyrians at Nineveh. Hamadana, then Ecbatana, then Nineveh became capital. It used astronomy and magic. His successors fought against Babylonia to south, Scythians to north, and Lydians to west. It ended when Cyrus the Great of Persia defeated it.

Phoenician civilization Lebanon -600 Assyrians conquered Sidon and Tyre, so only Phoenician colonies remained.

Fars kingdom Persia -600 to -550 Indo-Europeans moved to south of Iran, to Tigris River, and into Elam.

Babylonian Captivity empire Jerusalem, Palestine -587 Nebuchadnezzar II of Babylon destroyed Jerusalem and deported all people to Babylon {Babylonian Captivity}.

Magi civilization Persia -549 to -331 Tribe of Medean priests became Persian Empire priests.

Persian empire Fars Region, Iran -549 to -331 Nation began when Cyrus the Great conquered Media [-549], Lydia, Babylon, and Egypt [-525] and founded Achaemenid Dynasty. Persepolis or Takht-e-Jamshid, Susa or Shush, Lorestan, Passargadae, and Ecbatana were capitals. Persia used Assyrian-government structure, with independent satrapies under governor. It built road from Fars to Aegean Sea and other roads. Aramaic was language. Persia had iron ore and hilly pastures for many horses. Babylonian and Egyptian arts influenced Persian arts.

Lydia kingdom Lydia -540 Nation ended when beaten by Cyrus the Great of Persia.

Chaldean or Second Babylonian empire Babylonia -538 Nation ended when defeated by Cyrus the Great of Persia.

Mede or Median empire Media -538

308 Nation ended when defeated by Cyrus the Great of Persia.

Phoenician civilization Lebanon -400 Persians and Greeks ended Phoenician control of east Mediterranean.

Persian empire Fars Region, Iran -331 Nation ended when Alexander the Great of Macedonia defeated Darius III at Gaugamela.

Phoenician civilization Lebanon -331 Nation ended when conquered by Alexander the Great.

Seleucid dynasty Bablyon -323 to -63 After Alexander the Great died, Seleucus I, general of Alexander, took Babylon and eastern lands conquered by Alexander the Great. He took Anatolia and north Syria at Battle of Ipsus [-301] against Antigonus I of Macedon and later defeated Lysimachus of Macedon. He conquered to Indus River. Greek became language of Near East. 200,000 people were in Antioch, Syria. 200,000 people were in Seleucia, new capital near Babylon.

Scythian kingdom Crimea -322 Nation ended after being conquered by Alexander the Great.

Parthian or Arsacid kingdom Parthia -250 to 224 Nation began when Pars under Arsaces revolted against Seleucids. Parthians were Indo-Europeans descended from Scythians.

Seleucid dynasty Babylon -246 to -241 Seleucus II lost to Ptolemy III of Egypt in Third Syrian War.

Seleucid kingdom Babylon/Anatolia/Syria -223 to -187 Antiochus III the Great [-223 to -187] lost Battle of Raphia [-217], won Battle of Panium [-198] to control Coele- Syria (Beqaa Valley of Lebanon), lost Battle of Thermopylae [-191], lost Battle of Magnesia [-190], and ceded much in Treaty of Apamea [-188] with Rome. Galatia, Bithynia, Paphlagonia, Pontus, Cappadocia, Armenia, Media, Mardia, and Parthia became separate regions.

309

Galatian civilization Turkey -200 Celts migrated to Turkey.

Seleucid dynasty Babylon -175 to -164 Antiochus IV went to Egypt, but Roman threats forced him to withdraw. Maccabees revolted in Judea.

Judaea kingdom Judaea -143 to -60 Nation became independent under Jewish rule. Jews had developed synagogues for reading and teaching law. Jews developed the idea of Day of Judgment and salvation.

Judaea kingdom Judaea -60 to -14 Rome took Judaea and set up overseer. Jews spread over Mediterranean in the Diaspora.

Parthian or Arsacid empire Parthia -55 Parthians defeated Romans. Parthians approached on horseback, then turned around, and then shot arrow {Parthian shot}|. Parthian horsemen and horses had chain-mail armor.

Parthian or Arsacid kingdom Parthia -50 Nation extended into India.

Parthian or Arsacid kingdom Persia -38 to 225 Nation lost to Rome and started decline.

Israel kingdom Palestine 73 Nation ended when Rome destroyed Jerusalem.

Judaea people Judaea 135 Hadrian ordered all Jews out of Judaea.

310

Parthian or Arsacid kingdom Persia 224 to 225 Nation ended when Ardashir I or Artaxerxes of Fars revolted, killed last Parthian king, and founded Sassanian Empire.

Byzantine empire Constantinople, Turkey/Greece/Asia Minor/Balkan Peninsula 395 to 1453 Roman Empire divided into east and west for last time after Theodosius the Great's death, when he gave half to his two sons, followed by religious struggles over doctrine.

Byzantine empire Constantinople, Turkey 426 Law of Citations, of Theodosius II and Valentian III, allowed citations only from five famous jurists: Julian, Gaius, Papinian, Paul, and Ulpian.

Sheba kingdom Arabia 500 Nation ended in south Arabia when conquered by Ethiopia.

Byzantine empire Italy 533 Belisarius, Byzantine general, controlled east and south Italy after defeating Vandals, who then merged into population.

Byzantine empire Constantinople, Turkey 552 Justinian I of Byzantine Empire defeated Ostrogoths.

Moslem Empire or Arabian Empire empire Arabia/Syria/Iraq/Egypt 632 to 1517 Nation started when Abu Bakr led theocracy as caliph and conquered all Arabia in two years [634]. He then attacked Damascus and Sassanids in Persia.

Moslem Empire or Arabian Empire empire Syria/Egypt 635 to 642 Nation captured Damascus, Syria, and Egypt.

Moslem Empire or Arabian Empire empire

311 Jerusalem, Palestine 638 Nation took Jerusalem.

Moslem Empire or Arabian Empire empire North Africa 640 to 711 Arabs conquered Berbers of North Africa.

Moslem Empire or Arabian Empire empire Egypt 642 al-Fustat was new capital of Egypt.

Moslem Empire or Arabian Empire empire Persia 642 Nation took Persia.

Moslem Empire or Arabian Empire state Middle East 644 Nation controlled whole Middle East, except Byzantine Empire.

Byzantine empire Constantinople, Turkey 650 to 700 Nation lost Italy, Syria, Palestine, Egypt, Africa, and Sicily to Moslem Conquest.

Moslem Empire or Arabian Empire empire Egypt 652 Nubians and Arabs agreed to Aswan on Nile River as boundary.

Moslem Empire or Arabian Empire empire Tunisia 670 Nation invaded Tunisia, which was part of Byzantine Empire.

Moslem Empire or Arabian Empire empire Constantinople, Turkey 672 Nation attacked Constantinople.

Moslem Empire or Arabian Empire empire Byzantium 674 to 678

312 Nation besieged Constantinople by land and sea but failed. Byzantine army used Greek fire at sea.

Moslem Empire or Arabian Empire empire Tunis, Tunisia 697 to 698 It destroyed Byzantine city at Carthage and built new city of Tunis nearby.

Moslem Empire or Arabian Empire empire Africa 700 It took Carthage and north Africa. Moroccans {Moors} and Berbers became Moslem. It absorbed north-Africa Maghreb Christians.

Moslem Empire or Arabian Empire empire India 711 Omayyads conquered Sind and founded Muslim state in India.

Moslem Empire or Arabian Empire state Damascus, Syria 715 Nation was at greatest extent, with Damascus as capital.

Moslem Empire or Arabian Empire empire Constantinople, Turkey 717 Nation attacked Constantinople, which had 500,000 people.

Moslem Empire or Arabian Empire empire Toulouse, France 721 Nation took Toulouse.

Moslem Empire or Arabian Empire empire Iraq 740 to 750 Nation lost to Khazars in Caucasus.

Moslem Empire or Arabian Empire empire India 750 Nation defeated Maitraka Dynasty.

Moslem Empire or Arabian Empire empire Baghdad, Iraq 800 Senbad tried to avenge death of Abu Moslem.

313

Moslem Empire or Arabian Empire empire East Africa 800 to 900 Arabs and Persians explore East African coast and set up trading stations at Malindi, Mombasa, Kilwa, and Mogadishu.

Byzantine empire Balkan Peninsula 800 to 900 Cyril and Methodius tried to convert Slavic peoples.

Moslem Empire or Arabian Empire empire Iran 822 Babak revolted against Moslems.

Byzantine empire Balkan Peninsula 900 to 1000 It enslaved Slavs.

Moslem Empire or Arabian Empire empire Sicily 902 to 1050 Arab Moslems from north Africa took Sicily.

Fatimid caliphate Cairo, Egypt 909 to 1171 Fatimite sect set up caliphate in Africa, which first conquered Libya and Cyrenaica [909], and then Sicily, west Arabia, Palestine, and Syria. Fatimite sect of Islam believed that only direct descendants of Fatima, Mohammad's daughter, were true caliphs.

Buyides kingdom Persia/Iraq 945 to 1055 All-e Buyeh took Baghdad [947].

Buyides kingdom Persia/Iraq 950 to 1000 The warrior Mardavij led.

Buyides kingdom Persia/Iraq 950 to 1050

314 The writer Ghabus-e-Voshmgir led.

Buyides kingdom Persia/Iraq 1000 to 1055 Kaykavoos Ebn Eskandar was leader.

Byzantine empire Bulgaria 1018 to 1186 Byzantine Empire took Bulgaria.

Seljuk Turk empire Afghanistan 1050 to 1100 Muslim Turks from central Asia defeated Ghaznavids, went to Persia, and reached Baghdad. Abbasid caliph named leader Tughril Beg regent and sultan. Seljuk Turks invaded Asia Minor [1065] and Turkish language and people followed.

Seljuk Turk or Sultanate of Rum sultanate Asia Minor/Syria/Palestine 1072 to 1130 Nation began when Toghrol defeated Byzantine Empire at Manzikert, after attacking Greece from both north and east. It built Friday Mosque at Isfahan [1088]. Seljuk Turks are Mongoloid peoples from south Siberia and Turkestan.

Seljuk Turk or Sultanate of Rum sultanate Asia Minor/Syria/Palestine 1080 to 1090 Alp Arsalan followed Toghrol. Nezam-ol Molk or Nezamiya was vizier of Alp and built many schools for Islam.

Seljuk Turk or Sultanate of Rum sultanate Asia Minor/Syria/Palestine 1097 Nation defeated First Crusade under Peter the Hermit.

Seljuk Turk empire Middle East 1099 Nation took Palestine. It attacked Christians on pilgrimages. Byzantine emperor appealed for help, and the pope [1095] called a crusade.

Moslem Empire or Arabian Empire empire Africa/Niger/Somalia 1100 West Africa, Niger, and Somalia became Islamic.

Seljuk Turk or Sultanate of Rum sultanate

315 Asia Minor/Syria/Palestine 1130 Nation ended when Baldwin I and Baldwin II of Byzantine Empire defeated Seljuk Turks in north Syria.

Fatimid or Fatimite caliphate Cairo, Egypt 1171 Nation ended when Saladin overthrew Fatimite caliph Nureddim and started Ayyubite Dynasty.

Ottoman civilization Bursa, Turkey 1200 to 1300 Ottoman Turks or Osmanli Turks settled in Turkey under Orkhan. Bursa was capital.

Latin Empire of Constantinople state Constantinople, Turkey 1204 to 1261 Nation started when Fourth Crusade army defeated Byzantine Empire at Constantinople.

Ottoman empire Near East 1250 to 1453 Ottoman Turks tried to take Constantinople for 200 years.

Mameluke sultanate Cairo, Egypt 1250 to 1517 Nation started when Emir Eibek killed the Ayyubite sultan. Mamelukes were Turkish and Circassian soldier-slaves of Fatimite caliphs and Ayyubite sultans. Bahrite Dynasty of Turks and Mongols ruled [1250 to 1382]. Burjite Dynasty of Circassians ruled [1382 to 1517].

Byzantine empire Constantinople, Turkey 1261 Greek Orthodox Church and Byzantine Empire separated entirely from west at end of Latin Empire of Constantinople. Byzantine Empire got only part of Greece.

Latin Empire of Constantinople state Constantinople, Turkey 1261 Nation ended when Byzantine Empire regained power with help from Osmanli Turks or Ottoman Turks.

Mameluke sultanate Palestine 1291 Nation ended Crusader States.

Osmani or Ottoman

316 principality Turkey 1326 Principality was northeast of Turkey. Osman ruled it. Bursa was Ottoman capital.

Ottoman empire Bursa, Turkey 1326 to 1922 Osman I took Bursa, capital of Mongols in Asia Minor, to begin empire.

Ottoman empire Bursa, Turkey 1361 to 1389 Murad I or Amaruth I took Adrianople [1361], won at Skopje [1371], and fought at Larisa, Thessalonika, Seres, Philippopolis, Sophia, Turnovo, and Nicopolis [1393], and fought at Widin [1389]. He got tribute from Byzantine Empire. He defeated Serbs and Bulgarians at Kossovo or Nish [1389].

Timurid empire Samarkand, Kazakhstan/Persia/Afghanistan/India/Levant 1369 to 1450 Nation started when Tamerlane or Timur Lang, Mongol, became Khan and conquered Persia, India down to Delhi, south Russia, and Levant. Samarkand was capital. Harat or Herat, Afghanistan, was main city.

Ottoman empire Asia Minor 1390 Nation conquered Asia Minor.

Ottoman empire Bursa, Turkey 1396 to 1423 Bajazet I or Bayazit I or Bayazid I took east Anatolia, defeated Christians at Nikopol [1396], and besieged Constantinople [1402] but lost to Tamerlane at Ankara (Angora). Tamerlane sacked Bursa in northwest Turkey [1423].

Timurid empire India 1398 Tamerlane defeated Tughlakids of Delhi Sultanate.

Timurid empire Iraq 1410 to 1450 Turkomans captured Baghdad and western lands from Timurids. Turkomans and Uzbeks then raided deep into empire [1450].

Byzantine empire Turkey 1450

317 Nation had only Constantinople and some land west. It had Romanus gate.

Ottoman empire Istanbul, Turkey 1453 Muhammed II or Mehmet II took Constantinople, which became the capital Istanbul.

Ottoman empire Greece 1456 to 1821 Ottoman Empire took all of Greece.

Ottoman empire Serbia/Macedonia 1459 It annexed Serbia and Macedonia, but Montenegro remained independent.

Ottoman empire Bosnia 1463 Ottoman Empire took Bosnia.

Ottoman empire Istanbul, Turkey 1481 Nation took Balkan Peninsula, Trebizond and Karamania in Asia, and part of Khanate of Crimea.

Ottoman empire Istanbul, Turkey 1500 Nation lost Belgrade, Albania, and Rhodes to Knights Hospitalers.

Ottoman empire Albania 1501 Ottoman Empire took Albania from Venice.

Ottoman empire Moldavia 1504 Ottoman Empire took Moldavia after King Stephen the Great of Moldavia died.

Ottoman empire Iran 1514 Safavids and Ottomans warred.

318 Mameluke sultanate Cairo, Egypt 1517 Nation ended when conquered by Ottoman Turks under Selim I.

Ottoman empire Istanbul, Turkey 1517 Selim I took Egypt and Syria from Mamelukes and assumed caliphate as Sunni. He also captured Kurdistan from Persia and took Mecca and Medina.

Ottoman empire Croatia 1526 to 1699 Ottomans ruled Croatia.

Ottoman empire Istanbul, Turkey 1527 Suleiman I the Magnificent took Belgrade [1527], Rhodes, Arab north African coast [1528 to 1541], and Persia. He defeated Magyars of Hungary at Mohacs [1526] and later took control of Hungary to Budapest and into Moldavia. Barbarossa commanded his fleet, which controlled Mediterranean Sea. He did not take Malta. He besieged Vienna [1529]. He lost Tunis to Charles V of Austria.

Ottoman empire Istanbul, Turkey 1571 Nation lost at sea at Lepanto, west Greece, to Spain and Venice.

Ottoman empire Istanbul, Turkey 1583 Nation besieged Vienna, but siege was broken.

Ottoman empire Istanbul, Turkey 1600 to 1826 Janizaries, abducted Christian soldiers, had harsh training and later gained power and controlled who became sultan. Empire had bribery and corruption.

Ottoman empire Istanbul, Turkey 1673 Nation tried to take Venice.

Ottoman empire Istanbul, Turkey

319 1699 Treaty of Karlowitz gave Venice, Poland, and Holy Roman Empire most of Turkish Europe.

Ottoman empire Istanbul, Turkey 1730 Religious leaders {ulema} spread revolt.

Egypt colony Africa 1800 to 1900 Britain colonized it.

Ottoman empire Istanbul, Turkey 1826 Janizaries all died.

Ottoman empire Istanbul, Turkey 1852 Crimean War stopped Russia slightly, but Bulgaria, Bosnia, Hercegovinia, Montenegro, and Serbia rebelled against Ottomans.

Ottoman empire Istanbul, Turkey 1876 Midhat Pasha declared a constitution [1876], but Abdul-Hamid II ended it.

Ottoman empire Istanbul, Turkey 1878 Russia and Romania declared war against Ottomans, and Treaty of San Stefano gave more territory to Russia and freed Bulgaria, Romania, Serbia, and Montenegro.

Kuwait state Kuwait 1899 Nation became British protectorate.

Ottoman empire Istanbul, Turkey 1913 Nation lost all European lands after Balkan Wars. Enver Pasha of Young Turks became dictator.

Egypt state Egypt

320 1914 Nation became British protectorate.

Ottoman empire Istanbul, Turkey 1914 Turkey fought on side of Germany in World War I and succeeded in Gallipoli campaign.

Iraq state Iraq 1915 Britain occupied Iraq, helping it against Ottoman Empire.

Ottoman empire Turkey 1918.10 Ottoman Empire agreed to armistice.

Iraq state Iraq 1920 Britain gained mandate over Iraq.

Levant States state Syria/Lebanon 1920 France gained control over Levant States of Syria and Lebanon.

Egypt independence Egypt 1922 Under Wafd party, it became independent of Britain.

Ottoman empire Istanbul, Turkey 1922.06 Nation ended when Kemal Ataturk replaced Sultan and led Turkey.

Jordan emirate Jordan 1923 Nation became emirate under Abdullah.

Lebanon republic Lebanon 1926 Nation became independent of France.

321

Jordan state Jordan 1928 Britain gained mandate over Jordan.

Iraq independence Iraq 1932 Nation became independent of Britain. Later, Faisal II became king.

Syria republic Syria 1941 Nation united territories into republic.

Syria independence Syria 1944 Nation became independent of France.

Jordan independence Jordan 1946 Nation became independent of Britain.

Israel state Israel 1947 United Nations divided Palestine into Jewish state, Arab state, and international area around Jerusalem. Jewish state was from Haifa to Sea of Galilee down to Gaza and Gulf of Aqaba and over to Dead Sea. Arab state was on west bank of Jordan River and in Gaza Strip.

Egypt republic Egypt 1952 Naguib and Nasser led democracy after deposing King Farouk.

Iraq junta Iraq 1958 Military junta ruled after military coup.

United Arab Republic state Egypt/Syria 1958 to 1961 Egypt and Syria combined.

322

Egypt law Egypt 1962 Egypt nationalized most industries.

Iraq coup Iraq 1963 Military junta ruled after coup.

White Revolution revolution Iran 1963 Nation nationalized some industries.

Ba'ath Party coup Iraq 1970 Nation took over.

Islamic Republic republic Iran 1979 to 1989 Ayatollah Khomeini started Islamic Republic in Iran after shah left. He died in 1989.

Egypt state Sinai Peninsula 1981 Israel returned Sinai Peninsula to Egypt.

Iraq war Iraq 2003 USA invaded and deposed Saddam Hussein.

SOCI>History>History>Nation>Europe

Minoan or Cretan civilization Minos, Crete -3000 to -1470 Bronze Age culture began when sea trade united Greek islands. Era of peace followed. Pictograph writing became linear writing. Minos was legendary king of Crete. They used bronze, were rich traders, and built towns, ports, and palaces. Pottery has bird and fish designs. Mycenaeans from Plain of Argos in east Greece invaded and settled Crete [- 1450], ending Minoan civilization.

Aegean civilization

323 Crete/Mycenae, Greece/Pylos, Greece/Troy, Asia Minor/Cyclades Islands, Crete -3000 to -900 Bronze Age culture included Minoan and Mycenaean civilizations.

Middle Minoan Period civilization Crete -2000 to -1570 Bronze Age culture had palaces at Knossus, Phaistos, and Mallia. Cretan alphabet came from Semitic language Phoenician alphabet.

Luvian civilization Crete -1700 to -1600 Nation brought Linear A alphabet.

Mycenaean civilization Argos, Greece/Mycenae, Greece/Pylos, Greece -1600 to -1120 Lion Gate [-1250: in Mycenae] Mycenaeans lived on Plain of Argos in east Greece and built towns with defensive walls, as at Tiryns, Pylos, and Mycenae. After Minoan civilization fell, they occupied Crete [-1450] and took over sea trade. It had warriors, fortress- like palaces, and massive royal tombs, like Treasury of Atreus. It traded with Sicily and Italy. They founded colonies at Rhodes and Cyprus. They changed Minoan script into Greek alphabet. Invaders destroyed Mycenae [-1120].

Middle to Late Minoan or Cretan civilization Crete -1570 to -1425 Nation followed Early Minoan or Cretan civilization and had palaces at Knossus, Phaescus, and Hagia Triada. It had sea trading and navy.

Druid civilization Britain -1500 to -75 Celts, including Druids, came to Britain. Stone Age people built dolmen.

Middle to Late Minoan or Cretan civilization Minos, Crete -1470 to -1425 Nation ended when volcano island Thera erupted, making tidal waves and ash.

Celt or Kelt civilization Europe -1200 to -400 Nation was in west-central Europe. Lugh was greatest hero. Bel, Baal, or Beil was chief god. Holidays were Beltane or May Day and Halloween.

Mycenaean civilization Mycenae, Greece

324 -1120 Greeks destroyed Mycenae.

Etruscan civilization Italy -1000 to -900 Peoples from Asia Minor, probably Lydia, founded it in north and central Italy.

Aegean Sea Islands colony Greece -1000 to -800 Greeks established colonies.

Mycenaean state Mycenae, Greece/Pylos, Greece -900 Nation ended by movements of Dorians.

Sparta city-state Sparta -900 to -600 Dorians founded it in south Greece.

Aeolian civilization Greece -800 Nation was in Asia Minor east of Lesbos, including Phocaea on coast and Sardis inland.

Etruscan civilization Italy -800 Nation was group of city-states in west-central Italy.

Greek civilization Cumae, Italy/Tarentum, Italy/Heraclea, Italy/Crotona, Italy -800 Greeks colonized it. Crotona is also Croton.

Greek civilization Magna Graecia -800 Greeks colonized north Greece.

Greek civilization Spain -800 Greeks colonized Spain south coast.

325

Hallstatt kingdom Bohemia/Austria/Bavaria -800 to -700 Nation was a warrior culture.

Greek or Hellenic civilization Greece -800 to -338 Big city-states were Athens, Sparta, Thebes, Corinth, Samos, and Miletus. Athens is famous for pottery. Athens, then Corinth, and then Thebes were dominant. Greeks traded at Caere in west-central Italy, Naucratis in Egypt on Mediterranean, and Daphnae in Egypt at top of Red Sea. Politicians began, along with rhetoric. Citizens met in assemblies to decide actions. Foreign traders and artisans were not citizens. Women and slaves were not citizens. Women stayed at home, wore veil when they went out, did not speak to anyone outside home, did not own property, and did not go to school. Schoolboys memorized literature, wrote, took music, and did gymnastics. People consulted Delphic oracle. Gods were like humans, not animals.

Latin civilization Rome, Italy -753 to -509 Traditionally, Romulus was first king, and Romulus and Remus founded it [-753]. It is on Tiber River. Etruscans and Latins settled there. Kingdom ended, and Roman Republic began [-509], with two consuls, elected for one year.

Syracuse colony Syracuse, Sicily -735 Greeks founded colony.

Etruscan civilization Italy -700 to -396 Peoples from Balkans founded it. Etruria, Umbria, and Latium were cities. It used Greek alphabet. Elba Island and Italy had iron ore. They had iron tools and pottery. People wore togas. Warriors fought contests. Oracles read animal entrails. Wolf was totem.

Cyrene colony Cyrene, North Africa -650 Greeks founded colony.

Greek or Hellenic civilization Greece -650 Aristocrats or landholders, who bought horses and hoplite soldiers, ruled city-states. Soldiers had armor, helmets, spears, shields, and formations.

Athens city-state Athens, Greece

326 -620 Nobles and priests {eupatrid} formed Council of Areopagus, which was chief criminal court and appointed magistrates and officials. Middle classes included skilled workers and tradesmen {demiurgoi} and farmers {georgoi} but had little power. Draco codified laws.

Athens city-state Athens, Greece -600 Recession caused many free farmers to lose land. Because land had divided among heirs so often, plots were too small for profit.

Greek or Hellenic civilization Byzantium/Olbia, Turkey/Chalcedon, Black Sea/Trapezios, Black Sea/Sinope, Greece -600 Greeks colonized Asia Minor and Black Sea.

Greek or Hellenic civilization Massilia, France -600 Greeks colonized France.

Greek or Hellenic civilization Paestum, Italy/Crotona, Italy/Catania, Italy -600 Greeks colonized Italy.

Greek or Hellenic civilization Syracuse, Sicily -600 Greeks colonized Sicily.

Greek or Hellenic civilization Tarshish, Spain -600 Greeks colonized Spain. Current name of Tarshish is Cadiz, Spain.

Greek or Hellenic civilization Almina, Syria -600 Greeks colonized Syria.

Sparta state Sparta, Greece -600 Nation began when Lycurgus set up military state. Assemblies held power. Smaller assembly, Gerousia, had 30 men, all older than 60, elected by ballot from among propertied men {homoioi} that had finished military service. Larger assembly, Appella, had all free men over 30 and only accepted or rejected Gerousia suggestions.

327 Sparta had five elected magistrates, two kings, and 1000 families of citizens. One king was for religion, and one king was for war. The police {Krypteia} were under upper class {ephor} and policed lower classes {helot}. Currency used iron. Rulers banned silver, gold, and arts. Workers manufactured only simple things. Rulers divided all land equally. Rulers encouraged having more children but killed infant boys if they were not healthy. At age 7, boys left home and stayed in public school. Only men over age 30 stayed with their wives. All men ate together, in small groups. Families raised women strictly.

Etruscan civilization Italy -600 to -500 Nation confederated Tarquinii, Caere, Veii, and Clusiam. Caere had 25,000 people. Oligarchies ruled.

Athens city-state Athens, Greece -510 Revolt deposed the tyrant Hippias.

Roman Republic republic Rome, Italy -509 to -48 Nation started when Lucius Junius Brutus overthrew Tarquin Dynasty of Etruscan kings and started Roman Republic. Brutus became consul. As tribute, local kings had to supply men for army. Property-owning citizens also had to serve in army. Citizens faced conscription. Noble patrician families ruled at first. Later, Senate ruled. Senate elected two Consuls to govern as magistrates for one year. Tribunes championed the people.

Greek or Hellenic civilization Greece -500 Warrior class developed and tyrants ruled city-states {polis}.

Iberian civilization Spain -500 Celts invaded Spain.

Roman Republic republic Rome, Italy -500 to -400 Republic subdued nearby Samnite and Latin city-states.

Celt or Kelt civilization France/Spain -500 to 1 Nation developed from west-Europe and central-Europe Altai and Hallstatt peoples. Celts invaded Spain -500. They had Celt language and writing. They had hill-forts, used horses, and worked iron. Supreme sky god had many powers. Cernunnos was Celtic fertility god. Taranic was sun god and thunder god. Dagda was the Good God.

Athens

328 city-state Greece -480 Xerxes burned Athens.

Delian League league Greece -478 to -404 Athens was dominant city-state. Athens forced 150 other cities to pay for the fleet, eventually by treaty [-449].

Athens city-state Athens, Greece -462 Council of Areopagus powers went to ekklesia and juries. Archons became powerless. Instead, ekklesia elected ten generals {strategoi}.

Roman Republic republic Rome, Italy -451 Senate appointed ten men {Decemviri} {Ten Men} to write laws. Decemviri published a law code {Code of the Twelve Tables} that gave equality to all classes and depended on clan customs. After finishing, Decemviri refused to resign, ruled tyrannically, and abused power. Senate soon regained power.

Roman Republic republic Rome, Italy -449 Plebeians elected tribunes, who later vetoed laws. Veto {veto} means "I forbid it".

Etruscan civilization Italy -400 Greeks took Campania and Elba.

Etruscan civilization Italy -396 Nation ended when conquered by Romans.

Roman Republic republic Rome, Italy -390 Gauls sacked Rome.

Macedonian kingdom Macedon -358 to -146 Nation began when Philip II organized administration and armies, using gold taken from Thrace. Alexander the Great was Philip II's son. Alexander's generals ruled after his death, until descendants lost to Romans.

329

Greek or Hellenic civilization Greece -338 Nation ended when Macedonia defeated Greeks at Chaeronea.

Hellenistic civilization Greece/Alexandria, Egypt/Syracuse, Sicily/Pergamon, Asia Minor -331 to -323 Greek trade, ideas, and art spread throughout Middle East. Wealthy enjoyed comforts, literature, and learning. Alexandria, Syracuse, and Pergamon (Pergamum) were cultural centers. 200,000 people were in Alexandria.

Macedonian kingdom Macedon -330 to -323 Alexander the Great took Babylon, Persepolis, Medea, Parthia, Bactria, and Samarkand from Scythians. He went down Indus River Valley in west India, then went along Indian Ocean and Persian Gulf to Babylon, and died there.

Macedonian kingdom Macedon -323 to -190 After Alexander died, Successors or Diadochi, Alexander's generals, fought each other, until Antigonus II conquered Macedon and united Greece.

Roman Republic republic Rome, Italy -281 to -275 Romans defeated King Pyrrhus of Epirus and controlled central and south Italy.

Roman Republic republic Rome, Italy -253 First plebian became chief priest {pontifex maximus}. He offered public legis-actiones instruction, and lawyer profession began.

Roman Republic republic Sardinia/Corsica -238 Sardinia and Corsica became subject to Rome.

Syracuse siege Syracuse, Sicily -212 Romans besieged and took Syracuse. Archimedes died during siege.

Warrior Society state Europe

330 -200 Celtic myths described Celtic heroes, heroines, kings, and druids. Vikings had warrior societies.

Roman Republic state Rome, Italy -200 to -100 Small farmers had heavy military taxes. Landowners took small-farmer lands and formed large estates. Money collected by Rome mostly went to landowners and businesses.

Roman Republic republic Egypt -168 Egypt had to pay tribute.

Roman Republic republic Macedon/Greece -147 to -146 Rome took over Macedon and Greece.

Macedonian kingdom Macedon -146 Nation ended when Philip V lost twice to Rome, and Perseus lost to Rome in Macedonian Wars. Macedonia became first Roman province.

Roman Republic republic Spain/France/Syria/Egypt/Greece/Asia Minor -133 It controlled Pergamon (Pergamum) and Greece. Rome took north Spain and south France. Rome defeated Philip V of Macedon, Antiochus III of Syria, and Egypt. Senate ruled. The plebians or people received more rights. Rome became wealthy but not for plebians.

Roman Republic republic Gaul -121 Rome took south Gaul and named it province of Narbonensis in southeast France.

Roman Republic republic Parthia -92 Parthia stopped Roman soldiers at Euphrates River, where Parthians ruled.

Roman Republic republic Rome, Italy -90 to -88 Marsic War or Social War forced Rome to give citizenship to all free Italians and ended with government-authority reestablishment.

331 Roman Republic republic Rome, Italy/Numidia -88 Caius Marius fought Jugurtha, king of Numidians, but Sulla got army command.

Roman Republic republic Judah -63 Romans conquered Judah.

Roman Republic republic Rome, Italy -60 to -55 Julius Caesar organized the First Triumvirate with Pompey and wealthy Crassus. Caesar championed the people against Senate. He also divorced his second wife Pompeia after her scandal with Clodius.

Roman Republic republic Switzerland -58 Rome took Helvetia and Rhaetia.

Roman Republic republic France -51 Rome took all of Gaul.

Roman Republic republic Rome, Italy -31 End of republic began when Octavian (Augustus) defeated Antony and Cleopatra at Actium.

Roman Republic republic/empire Austria/Hungary -15 to 10 Rome defeated Celts and controlled Pannonia and Dacia.

Roman Principate empire Judaea -14 Rome took direct control over Judaea.

Roman Principate empire Rome, Italy -14 to 68 Julian-Claudian Dynasty of emperors ruled.

Roman Principate

332 empire Rome, Italy -14 to 284 From Augustus to before Diocletian {Principate}, emperor was Senate leader. The popular assembly had little power. During Principate, old Roman law became consistent, refined, and practical. Legal scholarship began.

Papacy state Rome, Italy 29 to 2003 Nation began with St. Peter, first bishop of Rome. Today, pope rules Holy See from Vatican. College of Cardinals, each of whom also has a See, selects pope. Church claims that he is representative of Christ, Vicar of Christ or Vicegerent of Christ. In Catholicism, bishop of Rome is main bishop, because Jesus had designated St. Peter, who became bishop of Rome, church leader {Petrine supremacy, Catholicism}.

Roman Principate empire Mauritania 40 Rome took it and controlled north Morocco and northwest Algeria.

Roman Principate empire Sudan 61 to 63 Roman force explored Nile River Valley.

Great Fire fire Rome, Italy 64 The people believed that Christians had angered Roman gods, blamed Christians, and persecuted them by burning them or by exposing them to beasts in the arena. Perhaps, Peter and Paul died then.

Pax Romana peace Rome, Italy 69 to 180 Death of Emperor Marcus Aurelius ended Pax Romana.

Roman Principate empire Britain 85 Rome under Agricola conquered south Britain.

Roman Principate empire Rome, Italy/Near East 130 to 300 It persecuted Christians for failing to follow law and make sacrifices to emperor and Roman gods. By 300, one-tenth of Roman Empire was Christian.

Roman Principate empire Rome, Italy

333 138 to 180 Antonines ruled. Rome had 1,000,000 people.

Roman Principate empire Rome, Italy 249 Christian persecution resumed.

Roman Principate empire Europe 250 to 300 Rome fortified towns, as Alemanni raided to Milan and Goths reached Greece.

Roman Dominate empire Rome, Italy 305 to 400 In empire after Diocletian {Dominate}, emperor was absolute ruler. Emperor had agencies for finance, legislation, administration, and his household. The imperial bureaucracy and treasury did not use old legal forms. Edicts set administrative law. Imperial legislation replaced all other laws. Individual judicial decisions were not laws, except by imperial decree. High taxes forced peasants into semi-slavery {colonate}, as tenants to large landholders. Empire had monopolies, fixed peasantry, and closed job groups. Economic system resembled feudalism.

Roman Dominate empire Constantinople, Turkey 324 Constantine the Great reunited eastern and western Roman Empires.

Roman Dominate empire Constantinople, Turkey 330 Constantine the Great moved capital to Constantinople (formerly Byzantium).

Roman Dominate empire Britain 407 Romans left Britain.

Aquitaine kingdom France 500 to 600 Franks conquered west and central Europe and formed separate Kingdom of Aquitaine.

Austrasia kingdom France/Germany/Netherlands 500 to 600 Franks conquered west and central Europe and formed separate Kingdom of Austrasia.

334 Burgundy kingdom Burgundy 500 to 600 Franks conquered west and central Europe and formed separate Kingdom of Burgundy.

Essex kingdom Britain 500 to 600 Saxons and Angles settled in Britain.

Frankish kingdom France 500 to 600 Franks held area around Paris.

Neustria kingdom France 500 to 600 Franks conquered west and central Europe and formed separate Kingdom of Neustria.

Orleans kingdom France 500 to 600 Franks conquered west and central Europe and formed separate Kingdom of Orleans.

Sussex kingdom Britain 500 to 600 Saxons and Angles settled in south Britain.

Wessex kingdom Britain 500 to 600 Saxons and Angles settled in west Britain.

Frankish kingdom France 520 Franks defeated Ostrogoths north of Alps.

Lombard kingdom Lombardy 568 to 772 Nation began when Lombards under King Albion took north Italy. Pavia was capital.

Lombard kingdom

335 Lombardy 600 to 700 Nation conquered north-central Italy. Liutprand led at height. They accepted Christianity and Latin culture.

Viking Age civilization Denmark/Sweden 600 to 1100 Scyld was first king of Denmark. Njord was father of Freyr and Freyja. Freyr is ancestor of the kings in Yngling Saga of Iceland. Old Danish king tombs are at Leire or Roskilde in Denmark. Birka, Sweden, was another town. Vikings had ship burials. Cult of Thor was strong. A three-way knot {Valknut} was in weaving and on stone carvings.

Northumbria kingdom England 664 Northumbrian king favored Roman Church over Celtic Church.

Spain kingdom Spain 672 Many kingdoms fought, causing anarchy.

Venice city-state Venice, Italy 697 Venice became a republic, with an elected doge (duke).

Celtic/Gaelic kingdom Tara, Ireland 700 Provinces were Ulster, Munster, Leinster, Connaught, and Meath. Cormac Mac Art was famous king.

Norse or Northmen or Norman or Dane or Viking civilization Ireland 700 Nation began raiding Ireland.

Viking civilization Scandinavia 700 to 800 Nation had trade and agriculture. It grew barley and oats and had cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, and poultry. People lived in longhouses near coasts. It built ships. It had a runic alphabet and carved messages on wood, metal, and stone. It had assemblies {thing, assembly} {nation, thing} to decide laws and judge crimes. Criminals became slaves for Scandinavian farms or farms abroad. As population increased, 800, Vikings raided coasts of Britain, Ireland, and France.

Moorish Kingdom kingdom Toledo, Spain/Cordoba, Spain/Seville, Spain 711 to 740

336 Nation began when north African nomads, Moors, converted to Islam, invaded Spain under Berber King Tarik, and defeated last Visigoth King Roderick [715]. Then Moors captured Lusitania (Portugal). They failed to take Kingdom of Asturias in north Spain. There was no strong central government.

Bulgar kingdom Bulgaria 716 Bulgars moved into Balkans and north Greece.

Papal States or Patrimony of St. Peter state Ravenna, Italy 756 Papal States began when Pepin the Short gave Ravenna and Adriatic Coast of Italy to Pope. Patrimony of St. Peter was land in Italy, Sicily, and Sardinia that Constantine I supposedly had given to Pope in the Donation.

Lombard kingdom Lombardy 772 Desiderius attacked Rome, but Charlemagne defeated Lombards.

Viking civilization Britain 787 Vikings raided British coast.

Norse or Northmen or Norman or Dane or Viking civilization England 793 Vikings attacked England. English nobles paid raiders {Danegeld}.

Norse or Northmen or Norman or Dane or Viking civilization Ireland 795 Nation attacked Ireland.

Moravia kingdom Moravia 800 Moravia took Bohemia, Silesia, south Poland, and north Hungary. Poland, Bohemia, and Moravia became Catholic Christian.

Burgundy kingdom Switzerland 800 to 900 Nation took part of Switzerland.

Swabia kingdom

337 Switzerland 800 to 900 Nation took part of Switzerland.

Pictish kingdom Scotland 830 to 843 Nation was in east and north.

Gwynedd kingdom Wales 830 to 850 Rhodri Mawr the Great, prince of Gwynedd, defeated Vikings and England, and ruled Wales.

Norse or Northmen or Norman or Dane or Viking civilization France 842 Nation attacked Nantes.

Dalriada kingdom Scotland 843 King Kenneth Mac Alpin was in west. He forced Vikings out, defeated Pictish kingdom, and became Pict king [843].

Norse or Northmen or Norman or Dane or Viking kingdom Scandinavia/Normandy/England/Russia 843 to 1035 Nation overpopulation caused raids on Britain's coast and Europe's north coasts. Vikings had shipbuilding, sailing, and pagan mythology. Norse are Danes in England, Varangians in Russia, and Norsemen, Northmen, or Normans in rest of Europe.

Norse or Northmen or Norman or Dane or Viking civilization Spain 844 Nation attacked Seville.

Norse or Northmen or Norman or Dane or Viking civilization Iceland 850 Nation colonized Iceland.

Norse or Northmen or Norman or Dane or Viking civilization Italy 859 Nation attacked Nimes and Pisa.

Flanders

338 county Flanders 862 Flanders became county under France.

Varangian kingdom Novgorod, Russia 862 Nation founded Novgorod, first town in north Russia, on Ilmen River, and attacked Khazars and eastern Slavs. Leader was Rurik. Varangians were Norsemen.

Dane civilization England 865 Danes took England.

Varangian kingdom Russia 900 Main Varangian town was Kiev or Kiev Rus, on Dnieper River. Varangians were Norsemen.

Norse or Northmen or Norman or Dane or Viking civilization Germany 900 to 962 Nation attacked Germany and divided it into feudal domains.

Croatia kingdom Croatia 900 to 1000 Croatian kingdom began.

Western Caliphate or Caliphate of Cordoba caliphate Spain 900 to 1000 Nation started under Omayyeds when al-Mansur took almost all Spain.

Western Caliphate or Caliphate of Cordoba caliphate Spain 910 Nation reached peak under Abdu-r-Rahman III, with university at Cordoba.

Frankish kingdom Germany 911 Last Carolingian king died, and small kingdoms began. Other main kingdoms were Franconia, Saxony, Bavaria, and Swabia. Smaller kingdoms were Frisia in northwest; Lower Lorraine in northwest; Upper Lorraine in west; Thuringia in east; Carinthia, Carniola, and Styria in southeast; Austria in east; Moravia in east; Bohemia in east; and Pomerania in northeast.

339

Norse or Northmen or Norman or Dane or Viking civilization Iceland 930 Nation formed an assembly {Althing}.

Arles kingdom France 933 to 1378 Nation formed in Burgundy and Provence.

Holy Roman Empire empire Italy/Germany 962 to 1806 Otto I united France and Germany, and the pope crowned him emperor [962]. German princes at Aachen or Aix-la- Chapelle chose emperor, and then the pope crowned him at Rome. Before preceding prince died, nobles elected heir. Diet assembly met irregularly to control empire. Church became dominant, and crucifix became powerful symbol.

Bohemia state Bohemia 962 to 1918 Silesia and Moravia became part of Bohemia.

Luxembourg duchy Luxembourg 963 to 1437 Lucilinburhuc Castle [963] gives it its name. After 1437, Bourbons, Habsburgs, Hohenzollerns, and France ruled it. Congress of Vienna associated it to Netherlands as Grand Duchy, as it is today.

Varangian kingdom Russia 986 Nation became Christian. Vladimir was king.

Norman civilization Greece 1000 to 1100 Normans attacked Greece.

Varangian kingdom Kiev, Russia 1000 to 1100 Russian Primary Chronicle Iaroslav the Wise ruled Kiev Rus. Varangians merged with Slavs and raided Volga River area and Byzantine Empire, entering Greece.

Holy Roman Empire empire

340 Italy/Germany 1000 to 1200 Emperors absorbed feudal-lord duchies {stem duchies}. Franconia, Swabia, Bavaria, Saxony, and Lotharingia were still under feudal lords, and Frankfurt, Regensburg, and Augsburg remained free cities, so Holy Roman Empire was still confederation.

Sweden kingdom Sweden 1000 to 1658 Denmark controlled South Sweden.

Genoa city-state Genoa, Italy 1000 to 1815 Nation was sea power.

Western Caliphate or Caliphate of Cordoba caliphate Spain 1031 Nation ended when another caliphate took over.

Scotland state Scotland 1034 Nation became united at current size.

Norse or Northmen or Norman or Dane or Viking kingdom Scandinavia/Normandy/England/Russia 1035 Nation ended when Canute died.

Normandy kingdom Normandy 1035 to 1166 Nation was in north France.

Castile and Leon kingdom Spain 1037 Spanish kingdoms united.

Normandy kingdom Sicily 1072 to 1091 Normans conquered Sicily.

Croatia kingdom

341 Croatia 1091 Hungary ruled Croatia.

Norman kingdom Italy/Sicily 1091 Normans under Robert Guiscard and Roger I took south Italy and Sicily.

Lotharingia kingdom Belgium 1100 Belgium was part of Lotharingia.

Bosnia kingdom Bosnia 1100 to 1200 Nation became kingdom.

Venice republic Venice, Italy 1100 to 1200 Venice helped Byzantine Empire against Normans of Greece. Venetian traders were then like Byzantine citizens, traded all over empire, and controlled all trade between Europe and East.

Holy Roman Empire empire Holy Roman Empire 1100 to 1300 It chartered the free cities.

Milan republic Milan, Italy 1163 to 1796 Nation started after Frederick I of Holy Roman Empire destroyed Milan.

Lombard League league Lombardy 1167 Lombard League of towns formed, led by Milan. It fought against Frederick I of Holy Roman Empire for Pope Alexander III.

Brabant duchy Belgium 1183 to 1430 It was in Netherlands and Belgium and includes Brussels.

Bulgaria kingdom

342 Bulgaria 1186 Bulgaria, under Ivan I, regained independence from Byzantine Empire.

Teutonic Order of Knights society Germany 1190 to 1286 Nation began to defend Christian lands in Palestine and Syria. Teutonic Knights conquered Poland, Silesia, and Prussia: Lubeck, Brandenburg, Prague, Dresden [1216], Thorn [1231], Marienwerder [1233], Elbing [1237], Berlin [1237], Stettin [1243], Danzig by 1250, Frankfurt [1253], and Königsberg [1286].

Lorraine kingdom France 1200 Belgium was part of lower Lorraine.

Urbino republic Urbino, Italy 1200 to 1508 Montefeltro family led Urbino.

Venice republic Venice, Italy 1204 to 1797 Nation began when Venice took Crete, Cyprus, Dalmatia, Venetia, Negroponte, and Greek islands. Venice built strong navy and defeated Egyptian navy. Canals run between islands in lagoon. Beach is the Lido. Rialto Bridge and Bridge of Sighs are famous, as are Palace of the Doge (duke) and St. Mark's cathedral.

Serbia kingdom Serbia 1217 Nation became kingdom.

Lombard League league Lombardy 1226 League formed again.

Cordoba state Cordoba, Spain 1236 Christians took Cordoba from Moslems.

Florence republic Florence, Italy 1237 to 1737

343 Nation became autonomous after Frederick II of Holy Roman Empire defeated second Lombard League. It was Guelph city, supporting Papacy, but split into black and white Guelphs. It had silks, wools, and jewelry. It has Uffizi Gallery and Florence Cathedral.

Hanseatic League organization Germany 1241 Lübeck and Hamburg formed an association (Hansa) for trade and mutual protection.

Holy Roman Empire empire Germany 1250 to 1273 Robber barons, nobles, and kings split Germany.

Norway kingdom Iceland/Greenland 1262 Nation gained Iceland and Greenland.

Naples kingdom Naples, Italy 1266 to 1435 The pope gave it to Angevins after Papacy defeated Hohenstaufens of Holy Roman Empire. Naples also controlled Albania.

Holy Roman Empire empire Austria/Slovenia 1276 Ottocar II of Bohemia lost Austria to Rudolph I of Hapsburg. Slovenia was part of Austria.

Milan republic Milan, Italy 1277 to 1395 Visconti family ruled Milan.

Genoa republic Genoa, Italy/Pisa, Italy 1284 to 1815 Nation started after wars with Venice and Pisa that ruined navy. Ghibelline city Pisa lost to Guelph city Genoa.

Walachia state Walachia/Moldavia 1290 Nation became principality.

Switzerland confederation Switzerland

344 1291 Three provinces of Switzerland confederated to be independent of Hapsburgs of Holy Roman Empire.

Lithuania duchy Ukraine/Belorussia 1300 to 1386 Gedimin and Olgerd, grand dukes of Lithuania, took Ukraine and Belorussia. Lithuania had unified to stop Livonian and Teutonic Knights.

Bosnia state Bosnia 1300 to 1400 Bosnia got Hercegovina from Serbia.

Venice republic Venice, Italy 1310 Council of Ten began rule.

Hanseatic League league Germany 1320 to 1330 League defeated Waldemar IV, king of Denmark, and Magnus VII, king of Norway and Sweden, to control trade in north Europe. Albert of Mecklenburg replaced Magnus VII and his son Haakon VI in Norway and Sweden.

Genoa duchy Genoa, Italy 1339 Elected-for-life dukes {doge} ruled Genoa.

Burgundy kingdom Flanders 1384 Burgundy took Flanders.

Bohemia kingdom Hungary 1386 Bohemia ruled part of Hungary.

Poland kingdom Hungary 1386 Poland ruled part of Hungary.

Switzerland confederation Switzerland

345 1388 Switzerland confederation expelled Hapsburgs.

Walachia kingdom Walachia/Moldavia 1394 Nation became kingdom. Landowners {boyar} ruled serfs.

Milan duchy Milan, Italy 1395 to 1450 The pope declared Milan a duchy.

Kalmar Union kingdom Denmark/Sweden/Norway/Iceland 1397 to 1523 Nation started after Queen Margaret of Denmark defeated Sweden and put Eric of Pomerania on Swedish throne. Sture family ruled behind throne, when Margaret of Denmark's son ruled all three kingdoms, including Iceland.

Florence republic Florence, Italy/Pisa, Italy 1406 Guelph city defeated Pisa, Ghibelline city, and smaller cities.

Genoa duchy Genoa, Italy 1408 Merchants formed bank to finance voyages and commerce.

West Africa nation Portugal/West Africa 1420 to 1450 Nation explored west coast of Africa.

Naples kingdom Naples, Italy 1442 King of Aragon got Kingdom of Naples. slave trading law Lisbon, Portugal 1442 to 1500 First slave market for African slaves began. By 1500, Portugal had taken 150,000 slaves.

Moldavia kingdom Moldavia 1450

346 Nation became kingdom, including Bessarabia and Bukovina.

Genoa duchy Genoa, Italy 1450 to 1500 Nation fought with France and Milan, had civil strife, and lost all colonies by 1500.

Venice republic Venice, Italy 1450 to 1500 Nation declined after fighting Ottomans.

Austria duchy Austria 1453 Austria became grand duchy.

Bohemia kingdom Bohemia/Hungary 1471 Kings of Hungary began rule of Bohemia.

Moscovy duchy Moscow, Russia 1480 Ivan III freed it from Mongols or Tatars.

Florence republic Florence, Italy 1494 Savonarola was religious reformer, expelled Medici, and got Charles VIII of Spain to invade Italy. Florence hanged him after riots.

Milan duchy Milan, Italy 1494 to 1535 Different leaders ruled during Italian Wars.

Switzerland republic Switzerland 1499 Switzerland provinces became free of Holy Roman Empire.

Finland duchy Finland 1500 Finland became grand duchy.

347

Genoa duchy Genoa, Italy 1500 Spain took over.

Portugal discoverer Portugal 1500 to 1600 Portugal discovered Indonesia and Indochina and ruled, because native empires were no longer powerful.

Portugal kingdom Ethiopia 1500 to 1600 Portugal took Ethiopia.

African colonies colony Africa 1500 to 1700 Portugal, Holland, Britain, and France colonized Africa.

Moscovy duchy Lithuania 1505 to 1550 Dukes of Muscovy defeated Lithuania.

Urbino duchy Urbino, Italy 1508 to 1626 Della Rovere dukes led Urbino.

Oceania nation Portugal/Oceania 1511 Portugal explored Pacific Ocean.

Field of the Cloth of Gold conference Flanders 1520 Henry VIII of England allied with France. Other kings were there.

Prussia kingdom Prussia 1525 Prussia became Protestant under Poland.

Silesia

348 kingdom Silesia/Austria 1526 Silesia became Austrian province.

Milan duchy Milan, Italy 1535 to 1713 Spain took Milan [1535] in Italian Wars.

Spain kingdom Madrid, Spain 1559 to 1584 Palace of Escorial Palace of Escorial built.

Sweden kingdom Estonia 1561 Sweden took Livonia (Estonia) from Livonian Knights.

Netherlands kingdom Netherlands 1568 to 1648 Nation fought for independence from Spain.

Florence republic Florence, Italy 1569 Cosimo I or Cosimo de Medici became Duke of Tuscany through pope's order. Florence was at wealthiest.

Polish-Lithuanian Kingdom kingdom Poland/Lithuania 1569 Polish and Lithuanian kingdoms merged.

Venice republic Venice, Italy 1571 Nation participated in Battle of Lepanto, stopping Ottoman Empire in Mediterranean.

Poland kingdom Poland 1572 to 1795 Jagiello Dynasty ended by election as diet got strong powers.

Catholic League league

349 France 1576 Duke of Guise led League, which opposed Henry III.

Union of Utrecht state Netherlands 1579 Holland and northern provinces of Utrecht, Artois, Zeeland, and Friesland united.

United Provinces state Netherlands 1581 Holland and northern provinces declared independence from Spain, as they fought Spain.

Holy Roman Empire empire Germany/Austria 1592 Emperors received crown at Frankfurt, with no pope.

Holy Roman Empire empire Florence, Italy 1600 Hapsburgs controlled it. potato food England 1600 to 1700 Americas exported potatoes to England. standing army army England 1600 to 1700 United States established a standing army. Before that, armies assembled only in war.

United Provinces state Netherlands 1648 East and West Indies Companies of United Provinces built trade and colonial empire. Jews and Huguenots took refuge. House of Orange was stadholder and alternated rule with republicans.

Genoa duchy Genoa, Italy 1650 Austria took over.

Protectorate state England

350 1653 Cromwell dissolved Rump Parliament, formed Barebones Parliament, and established Protectorate. He tried to form league of Protestant nations. When he passed Navigation Act, first Dutch War started. The struggle for foreign trade led to war with Spain.

Prussia kingdom Prussia/Poland 1660 Elector of Brandenburg freed Prussia from Poland.

Russia kingdom Ukraine 1667 Russia gained Ruthenia.

Hungary kingdom Hungary 1683 Hapsburgs of Austria and Holy Roman Empire got east Hungary from Ottoman Empire after Poland helped lift siege of Vienna.

Croatia kingdom Croatia 1699 Hungary regained Croatia.

Genoa duchy Genoa, Italy 1700 France took over.

Moldavia state Moldavia 1700 Greek Phanariot governors {hospodar} ruled province of Ottoman Empire from Constantinople.

Walachia state Walachia 1700 Greek Phanariot governors from Constantinople ruled province of Ottoman Empire.

Prussia kingdom Prussia 1701 to 1871 Nation began when Hohenzollern Elector of Brandenburg crowned himself king, as Frederick I, and united Brandenburg and Duchy of Prussia.

Russia

351 kingdom Estonia 1710 Russia took Livonia.

Milan duchy Milan, Italy 1713 to 1796 Austria took Milan.

Venice republic Venice, Italy 1715 Nation lost Greek islands to Ottoman Empire.

Quadruple Alliance league Italy 1718 Quadruple Alliance of England, France, Austria, and Germany formed against Spain to prevent takeover of Italy.

Hats/Caps party Sweden 1721 Hats wanted to fight Russia. Caps wanted to negotiate with Russia. The factions struggled.

Holy Roman Empire empire Florence, Italy 1737 Hapsburgs became dukes of Tuscany.

Prussia kingdom Prussia 1740 to 1786 Frederick II fought War of the Austrian Succession and gained Silesia, fought Seven Years War, gained west Poland and west Prussia in first Polish partition, and fought War of the Bavarian Succession.

Russia kingdom Moldavia/Wallachia 1768 Russia took Moldavia and Wallachia from Ottoman Empire.

Russia kingdom Moldavia/Wallachia 1770 to 1800 Russia defeated Ottoman fleet and controlled to Dniester River and Black Sea.

Paris Commune government

352 Paris, France 1789 Paris Commune began governing Paris. National Guard formed under Marquis de Lafayette.

Estates General legislature France 1789.05 King Louis XV called Estates General, to change finances. Led by the people and merchants {third estate}, it declared itself National Assembly and took Oath of the Tennis Court to write constitution. King agreed, then dismissed the minister Necker, and then reinstated him.

National Assembly legislature France 1789.08 to 1789.12 Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen Assembly ended rights of nobles. Mob went to Versailles and took king and National Assembly to Paris.

Legislative Assembly legislature France 1791 In Legislative Assembly, Girondists were moderate, Jacobins were moderates under Lafayette and Mirabeau, and Cordeliers were radicals under Danton and Desmoulins.

First Republic republic France 1792 It executed Louis XVI and his queen Marie Antoinette. French Revolutionary calendar began. Vendée royalists and provincials revolted. Reign of Terror began. Convention expelled Girondists. Jacobins became powerful and radical under Robespierre and Saint-Just. They eliminated the radical Cordeliers Marat, Hébert, and Danton. Revolutionary Tribunal and Committee of Public Safety used guillotine freely.

Directory government France 1794 New constitution founded Directory.

National Convention conference France 1794 National Convention stopped Robespierre.

Milan duchy Milan, Italy 1796 Napoleon and French took Milan in French Revolutionary Wars.

Prussia kingdom Prussia

353 1797 Prussia lost in French Revolutionary Wars.

Venice republic Venice, Italy 1797 Napoleon and French took Venice peacefully, ending independence.

Consulate empire France 1799 Napoleon Bonaparte overthrew Directory and started the Consulate, with himself as First Consul, to combat inflation, bankruptcy, and corruption.

European culture Europe 1800 Individual plates, knives, spoons, and forks became common {table manners}.

Holy Roman Empire empire Austria 1806 French Revolutionary Wars and Napoleon's conquests created state of Austria, ending Holy Roman Empire.

Warsaw duchy Warsaw, Poland 1806 Napoleon created Duchy of Warsaw, ruled by Saxony.

Confederation of the Rhine confederation Germany 1806 to 1813 Napoleon started confederation after he defeated Prussia and Brandenburg, and it included Bavaria, Wurtemburg, Saxony, Westphalia, and Baden. Legislature later consolidated smaller German states.

Portugal kingdom Portugal 1807 France occupied Portugal.

Prussia kingdom Prussia 1807 Prussia had to settle for Treaty of Tilsit and then reformed society and military.

Croatia kingdom Croatia

354 1809 to 1813 France took Croatia.

Netherlands state Netherlands 1810 Netherlands became part of France.

Russia kingdom Russia 1812 Napoleon and his Grande Armée of France lost in Russia. Russia got Bessarabia, which had been in Moravia and Turkey.

Russia kingdom Russia 1812 to 1850 Russia and Rumania traded Bessarabia several more times.

Congress of Vienna congress Austria 1815 Francis II and Metternich presided. Bourbon Restoration restored Louis XVIII as king of France. Talleyrand was his foreign minister. Austria got Lombardy, Venetia, and Galicia, so Austrian Empire was Austria, Bohemia, Moravia, south Poland, Lombardy, Venetia, Dalmatia, Galicia, and Kingdom of Hungary. Kingdom of Hungary had Croatia and Slovenia. Venetia is region near Venice. German Confederation formed, with Prussia, Confederation of the Rhine states, German free cities, Austria, Holstein, Hanover, and Luxembourg. Austria controlled legislature {diet, assembly}. Prussia got west Prussia and Poznan. Papal States stayed the same as before. Bourbons ruled Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, which included Sicily, Naples, and south Italy. Savoy, Genoa, and Sardinia became kingdom under Savoy line. United Provinces or Holland and Austrian Netherlands or Belgium and Luxembourg merged into one kingdom. Kingdom of Poland or Congree-Poland was region around Warsaw. Cracow was republic. Denmark lost Norway. It guaranteed Switzerland confederation neutrality.

Prussia kingdom Prussia 1818 Nation joined German Confederation and formed German customs union {Zollverein}. It got Rhine land, Westphalia, part of Saxony, Pomerania, west Prussia, and west Poland at Congress of Vienna.

Conservative Party party England 1820 Conservative Party formed in Britain from former Tories.

Liberal Party party England

355 1820 Liberal Party formed in Britain from former Whigs.

Moldavia kingdom Moldavia 1822 Ottoman Empire put Moldavia under native ruler.

Walachia kingdom Walachia 1822 Ottoman Empire put Walachia under native ruler.

Serbia state Serbia 1828 Serbia became principality under Ottoman Empire. Karageorgevich and Obrenovich factions struggled.

Lunar Society scientific group Birmingham, England 1830 Society included Josiah Wedgwood, Matthew Boulton, and Erasmus Darwin.

Radical party Switzerland 1830 Nation brought democracy to most cantons.

Chartist party England 1830 to 1850 Chartist movement was to place People's Charter before Parliament.

Potato Blight famine Ireland 1840 to 1846 Potato blight killed 1,000,000 in Ireland, and 1,500,000 people emigrated.

Schleswig-Holstein state Denmark 1848 Germany and Austria fought Denmark over province of Schleswig-Holstein.

Switzerland constitution Switzerland 1848 Federal constitution made.

356

Naples constitution Naples, Italy 1848.02 Nation modified kingdom.

Second Republic state France 1848.02 Republic formed after deposing Louis Philippe.

Lombardy state Lombardy 1848.04 Nation became independent of Austria.

Hungarian Republic republic Hungary 1848.04 to 1849 Nation began under Kossuth, but Austria and Russia stopped it.

Venetian Republic state Venice, Italy 1848.04 to 1849.08 Nation became independent of Austria but lost to Austria in August 1849.

Frankfurt Parliament or German National Assembly legislature Frankfurt, Germany 1848.05 to 1849.06 Legislature was socialist.

Pan-Slav congress Prague, Czech Republic 1848.06 to 1848.12 Congress preceded revolt in Prague, which Hapsburgs of Austria defeated.

Austria serfs farmer Austria 1848.09 It freed serfs.

Croatia state Croatia 1849 to 1868 Austria ruled Croatia.

German Union

357 confederation Germany 1849 to 1950 Nation formed after Revolution of 1848.

Frankfurt Parliament or German National Assembly legislature Frankfurt, Germany 1849.01 to 1849.06 Legislature published a constitution for all of Germany and asked Frederick William IV to be king, but he said no. Prussians broke up German National Assembly in June 1849.

Sardinia kingdom Sardinia, Italy 1849.02 to 1849.03 Nation had a constitution with Charles Albert as king. Sardinia under Garibaldi fought Austria. Austrian navy defeated Sardinians [March 1849], at Novara. Victor Emmanuel II became king.

Roman Republic state Rome, Italy 1849.02 to 1849.07 Nation began, the pope left, and Rome under Garibaldi fought France until defeated by France in July 1849.

Hungary state Hungary 1849.04 to 1849.08 Nation seceded from Austria after new Austrian constitution, but Russia defeated Hungary in August 1849.

Congress of Paris congress Paris, France 1856 Danubian Principalities of Walachia and Moldavia (Romania) became independent, to settle conflict between Ottoman Empire and Russia.

Fenian Movement party Ireland 1858 James Stephens started movement for Irish independence.

Denmark kingdom Denmark 1864 Denmark lost Schleswig-Holstein to Prussia in war with Prussia and Austria. Denmark's farmers started cooperatives and became educated under Bishop Grundtvig.

Prussia kingdom Prussia 1866

358 Austro-Prussian War was for Schleswig-Holstein province. Prussia got Hanover, Nassau, Frankfurt, Hesse, and Schleswig-Holstein and formed North German Confederation.

North German Confederation confederation Germany 1866 to 1869 Nation had 22 nations north of Main River.

Serbia kingdom Serbia 1867 Ottoman Empire left Serbia.

Austro-Hungary Monarchy or Dual Monarchy kingdom Austria/Hungary 1867 to 1918 Nation reorganized Austrian Empire. Francis Joseph II continued to rule Austria until 1916. Slovakia, Ruthenia, Dalmatia, and Banat of Temesvar were under Austria-Hungary. Banat of Temesvar is between Yugoslavia and Romania. Czech, Serbia, Poland, Italy, and Romania continually caused unrest. Magyars controlled Hungary. Croatia had some freedom.

Croatia kingdom Croatia 1868 Hungary regained control of Croatia.

Italy kingdom Venice, Italy 1869 Italy gained Venetia from Austria at end of Austro-Prussian War.

Zollverein league Prussia 1869 League commercially joined the 22 North-German-Confederation nations plus Bavaria, Baden, Wurtemburg, and Hesse.

Italy kingdom Rome, Italy 1870 King Victor Emmanuel II annexed Rome.

Third Republic of France republic France 1870 Nation began by deposing King Napoleon III. It rebuilt France quickly and began colonization. Factions were royalists, military, republicans, and workers.

359 Prussia kingdom Prussia 1870 to 1871 After defeating France, Prussia formed German Empire (Germany) [1871], under Bismarck. German Empire controlled German customs union (Zollverein).

Great Depression depression Europe 1870 to 1880 Trade cycle had deep recession.

Italy kingdom Italy 1870 to 1900 Italy colonized Libya, Somaliland, and Eritrea.

German Empire empire Germany 1871 Nation began under Bismarck and Hohenzollern Prussian emperor Wilhelm I or William I. It included North German Confederation, Alsace and Lorraine, and Zollverien of Prussia. Legislature was Reichstag or diet.

Spain republic Spain 1873 Carlists revolted. King Amadeus abdicated. Republic formed.

Iceland independence Iceland 1874 Nation gained home rule from Norway.

Bosnia kingdom Bosnia 1875 Bosnia rebelled against Ottoman Empire.

Bulgaria kingdom Bulgaria 1875 Bulgaria, under Stanbulov, rebelled against Ottoman Empire.

Dual Alliance alliance Europe 1879 Austro-Hungary and Germany allied to stop Pan-Slavism of Serbia, which Russia had encouraged.

360 Milan kingdom Serbia 1882 Milan gained Serbia.

Triple Alliance alliance Austro-Hungary/Germany/Italy 1882 Austro-Hungary, Germany, and Italy allied against Pan-Slavism of Serbia. Cavour led Italy.

Luxembourg duchy Luxembourg 1890 Luxembourg, under Duke Adolph of Nassau, gained home rule from Netherlands.

Pale region Russia/Poland/Lithuania 1890 5,000,000 Jews were in Russia, Poland, and Lithuania, region called the Pale. World had 25,000,000 Jews in 1890.

Russia kingdom Finland 1890 Russia tightened rule of Finland.

Russia/France alliance Russia/France 1892 to 1914 Russia and France allied.

Germany law Germany 1896 German law became code.

First Peace Conference conference The Hague, Netherlands 1899 Conference established war conventions ratified by most nations.

Sinn Fein party Ireland 1899 Under Arthur Griffith, Sinn Fein replaced Home Rule party.

Labor Party party

361 England 1906 Moderately democratic-socialist party elected first Parliament members. kulaks farmer Russia 1908 Kulaks owned free farms and increased grain production, but Ottoman Empire controlled Bosphorus, blocking Russian grain exports through Black Sea.

Italy kingdom Africa 1911 Italy attacked Ottoman Empire to take land in north Africa.

Albania independence Albania 1912 Nation left Ottoman Empire and became independent kingdom under William, prince of Wied.

Iceland independence Iceland 1918 It became independent of Denmark.

Czechoslovakia independence Check Republic/Slovakia 1918.06 to 1992 It became independent of Austria.

Bulgaria armistice Bulgaria 1918.09 War ended in Bulgaria.

Yugoslavia independence Yugoslavia 1918.10 Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes became independent of Austria [1918 to 1941] until invaded in World War II.

Austria republic Austria 1918.11 Hapsburg rule ended.

Austro-Hungary Monarchy or Dual Monarchy state

362 Austria/Hungary 1918.11 Nation signed armistice.

Germany republic Germany 1918.11 Social Democrats in Reichstag parliament deposed Kaiser William II of German Empire.

Hungary independence Hungary 1918.11 It became independent of Austria.

Poland republic Poland 1918.11 Nation formed under Pilsudski, with boundaries similar to those of 1772, including Polish Corridor along Vistula River to Baltic Sea and Upper Silesia.

Comintern or Third Socialist International conference Moscow, Russia 1919 In other countries, some communists sided with Russia and others were against Russia.

Finland independence Finland 1919 Finland under Mannerheim became independent from Russia, after Civil War with Russia.

Germany republic Germany 1919 Hindenburg brought army back to Germany under control and prevented radical revolution.

Weimar Republic republic Germany 1919 to 1934 Junkers or wealthy industrialists controlled it. Stresemann was foreign minister. Economy had recovered from World War I by 1925. At end, President Hindenburg appointed Adolf Hitler as chancellor.

Bulgaria state Bulgaria 1919.11 Bulgaria lost territory. Stambuliski, then military dictatorships, led it.

Hungary kingdom

363 Hungary 1920 Admiral Nagybanya was regent.

Little Entente alliance Czech Republic/Slovakia/Romania/Yugoslavia 1921 Czechoslovakia, Romania, and Yugoslavia opposed Hungary.

Ireland independence Ireland 1921.03 Ireland became free of England.

Irish Free State state England 1921.06 Irish Free State became dominion of England. England confiscated all land.

Soviet Union or USSR state Russia 1922 to 1991 Soviet government organized, under Lenin, into 15 republics. In west were Great Russia, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Belorussia or White Russia, Ukraine, and Moldavia or Bessarabia. In south were Georgia, Armenia, and Azerbaijan in Transcaucasia. In east were Kazakh, Turkoman, Uzbek, Tadzhik, and Kirghiz. New Economic Policy started.

National Socialist German Workers' Party or Nazi Party party Bavaria 1923 Nazis believed that Germans should unite to take eastern lands back from other peoples, German peoples were superior, and Marxists and Jews were bad.

Greece republic Greece 1924 Republic began after deposing George II.

First Five Year Plan law Russia 1928 to 1938 Act replaced Lenin's New Economic Policy, controlled churches, emphasized Russia, emphasized industrialization, emphasized literacy and education, emphasized health, supported poor, and freed women. All farms were collective {kolkhoz} or state {sovkhoz}. It did not allow free farmers {kulak}. By 1935, army and secret police had killed 5,000,000 peasants and kulaks. Nation had army and politician purges.

Yugoslavia state Yugoslavia 1929 to 1941

364 Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes became dictatorship under Alexander I.

Lithuania state Lithuania 1930 Nation became dictatorship.

Spain republic Spain 1931 King's son founded Falange or fascist and nationalist party.

Austria state Austria 1934 to 1940 Nation became dictatorship when National Socialists allied with some clergy and fascists to make one-party corporate state under Chancellor Dollfuss, who suppressed Socialists. After Dollfuss, Schuschnigg became dictator.

Poland state Poland 1935 Nation became dictatorship when military junta ruled after Pilsudski died.

Eire state Ireland 1937 Eire formed in Ireland.

Albania occupation Albania 1939 Italy occupied Albania.

Bohemia occupation Bohemia/Moravia 1939 Germany occupied Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia, leaving Slovakia free.

Greece occupation Greece 1939 Germany occupied Greece.

Spain state Spain 1939 to 1975

365 Nation became dictatorship when Franco created fascist state after Falange defeated Republic. Spain was neutral in World War II.

Czechoslovakia occupation Czech Republic/Slovakia 1939.03 Germany took rest of Czechoslovakia.

Free French party France 1940 Charles de Gaulle organized Free French resistance during World War II.

Vichy Government state France 1940 to 1942 Germany formed Vichy government under Henri Petain in south France, but Germany controlled north France itself.

Denmark state Denmark 1940.04 Nation became dictatorship after Germany invaded.

Norway state Norway 1940.04 Nation became dictatorship after Germany invaded and Quisling led puppet government.

Italy republic Italy 1943 Italy deposed Mussolini, lost Sicily and African colonies, and surrendered to Allies. It then helped Allies.

Iceland republic Iceland 1944 Nation became republic.

Yalta Conference conference Yalta, Ukraine 1944 Allies gave east Poland to Russia. United Nations charter advanced.

Potsdam Conference conference Potsdam, Germany 1945 Allies gave east Germany to Poland, divided Germany into four sectors, and authorized war trials.

366

Czechoslovakia state Czech Republic/Slovakia 1945 to 1992 Czechoslovakia formed, but Russia got Ruthenia.

Albania republic Albania 1946 Nation became Communist under Enver Hoxha.

Bulgaria republic Bulgaria 1946 Nation became Communist.

Fourth Republic state France 1946 France entered NATO.

Hungary republic Hungary 1946 Nation became republic again.

Iron Curtain speech USA 1946 Winston Churchill spoke about Iron Curtain across Europe.

Germany occupation Germany 1946 to 1955 Allies occupied Germany.

Cominform/Comecon league Europe 1947 Russia set up Cominform and Comecon for eastern European Communist nations, to counter NATO.

Hungary state Hungary 1947 Nation became Communist.

Poland

367 state Poland 1947 Nation became Communist.

Romania state Romania 1947 Nation became Communist.

Yugoslavia state Yugoslavia 1948 Yugoslavia broke with Cominform and established market socialism.

Czechoslovakia state Czech Republic/Slovakia 1948.02 Nation became Communist through coup.

Ireland republic Ireland 1949 Republic of Ireland formed.

West Germany state Germany 1949.05 West Germany (Federal Republic of Germany) began.

East Germany state Germany 1949.10 East Germany (German Democratic Republic) began.

Community of Six league Europe 1952 About coal and steel, it included Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, France, Italy, and West Germany.

Greece league Greece 1952 Greece joined NATO.

Germany league USA

368 1955 After 10 years of occupation, Germany entered NATO.

European Economic Community or EEC league Europe 1957 Community included Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, France, Italy, and West Germany.

Italy league Italy 1957 Italy joined NATO.

Fifth Republic republic France 1958 to 1969 Nation formed under Charles De Gaulle, with new constitution with strong President. He gave Algeria independence and fixed finances.

Albania state Albania 1960 Albania allied with Communist China.

Communism schism Russia/China 1961 Communist China and Russia split, and Russia withdrew help to China.

European Common Market league Greece 1962 Greece joined.

Greece junta Greece 1967 Military junta ruled.

Portugal democracy Portugal 1974 Salazar died in Portugal, and democracy returned.

East Germans people Czech Republic/Slovakia/Hungary 1989

369 Borders opened to fleeing East Germans.

Romania republic Romania 1989 Romania killed dictator.

Bulgaria republic Bulgaria 1990 Nation reformed.

Estonia independence Estonia 1990 Nation became independent of Russia.

Germany state Germany 1990 Christian Democrats won election in East Germany, and East Germany unified with West Germany.

Latvia independence Latvia 1990 Nation became independent of Russia.

Lithuania independence Lithuania 1990 Nation became independent of Russia.

Russia state Russia 1990 Union of Soviet Socialist Republics in Russia split, and republics acted independently.

Russia republic Russia 1991 Boris Yeltsin, Russian-Republic leader, thwarted army government-takeover attempt. USSR disbanded in favor of Commonwealth of Independent States.

Ukraine independence Ukraine 1991 Nation became independent of Russia.

370

SOCI>History>History>Population

Homo erectus population Earth -1000000 Homo erectus population was 100,000 to 400,000.

Homo erectus population Earth -500000 to -200000 Homo erectus population was 1,000,000.

Neanderthal population Earth -200000 Neanderthal population was 1000 to 100,000. Fire use began.

Homo sapiens population Earth -40000 Population was 1,000,000 to 10,000,000 people.

Homo sapiens population Earth -20000 Population was 3,000,000 to 10,000,000 people.

Homo sapiens population Earth -10000 Population was 5,000,000 to 10,000,000 people.

Homo sapiens population Earth -8000 Population was 5,000,000 to 10,000,000 people.

Homo sapiens population Earth -4000 Population was 80,000,000 to 90,000,000 people.

Homo sapiens population Earth -1500 Birth rate increased greatly.

371

Homo sapiens population India -500 India had 25,000,000 people. Aryans were in north, above Deccan Peninsula. Dravidians were in south and in Vindhya hills and jungles.

Homo sapiens population Earth 1 130,000,000 people were alive. 20,000,000 people were in Africa, which had no plow, few horses, and slash-and- burn farming.

Homo sapiens population Earth 1500 Population was 425,000,000. China had 100,000,000. Europe had 80,000,000. France had 16,000,000. Mexico had 5,000,000. South America had 9,000,000. USA and Canada had 1,000,000.

Homo sapiens population Earth 1650 Population was 550,000,000.

Homo sapiens population Earth 1750 Population was 700,000,000. 2,000,000 people were in North America. 6,000,000 people were in England.

Homo sapiens population Earth 1800 Population was 900,000,000. Europe had 185,000,000. China had 300,000,000. Japan had 28,000,000. USA had 7,000,000, with 700,000 blacks. India had 175,000,000.

Homo sapiens population Earth 1900 Population was 1,600,000,000. China had 475,000,000. Japan had 45,000,000. India had 300,000,000. USA had 76,000,000. Canada had 6,000,000. Africa had 110,000,000. Latin America had 75,000,000. Europe had 400,000,000. 50,000,000 had emigrated already at 1,000,000 a year. London had 7,000,000. Berlin had 2,000,000. Vienna had 2,000,000.

Homo sapiens population Earth 1950 Population was 2,400,000,000. Central and South America had 100,000,000.

372 Homo sapiens population Earth 2000 Population was 6,500,000. Central and South America had 500,000,000. USA had 285,000,000. China had 1,200,000,000. India had 1,000,000,000. Africa had 700,000,000.

SOCI>History>History>Rulers ruler ruler Earth -4000 to 2007 Rulers are presidents, ministers, kings, and emperors.

SOCI>History>History>Rulers>Africa

Ezana of Axum king Eritrea 330 to 356 He lived 330 to 356, was ruler of Axum, and became Christian.

Idris ibn Abdallah or Moulay Idris ruler Morocco 788 to 793 He lived ? to 793, was Arab chief, took Morocco, and started Idrisid Dynasty [789 to 926]. He preceded Idris II [809], who lived 793 to 828.

Sumanguru king Ghana 1230 to 1235 He lived 1190 to 1255, took Kumbi in Ghana, and then lost to Mali and Malinke under Sundiata Keita [1235]. He was last Susu or Sosso king of Kante dynasty.

Sunjata or Sundiata Keita or Sun Diata king/poet Keita/Mali 1230 to 1235 Sunjata or Sundiata [1300: epic poem about Mande poet] He lived 1217 to 1255, was king of Keita, revolted against Ghana [1230 to 1235], and founded new West African kingdom in Mali [1235]. It was much larger then Ghana and controlled south-Sahara caravan-trade centers, such as Timbuktu and Gao. He converted to Islam. Sunjata was a Mande poet.

Mansa Musa [Musa, Mansa] king Mali 1312 to 1337 He lived 1280 to 1337, was Muslim, and had a tolerant legal system.

Zera Yacub or Zar'a Ya'eqob emperor Ethiopia 1434 to 1468

373 He was Christian and built monasteries.

Sonni Ali emperor West Africa 1462 to 1492 He lived ? to 1492, ruled Songhai, and took east Mali to make Songhai Empire. He took trade centers Timbuktu and Jenne in Mali. Capital was at Gao. Having overrun much of Mali, he aimed to preserve best features and develop them under better management. His son succeeded him, but his general Askia Mohammed Turré soon took over.

Nzinga Nkuvu or João I king Bakongo/Lower Congo/Mbanza Kongo 1470 to 1507 He lived 1430 to 1506 and became Christian [1491] when Portuguese arrived.

Askia Mohammed Turre [Turre, Askia Mohammed] emperor West Africa 1500 to 1600 He ruled Songhai Empire as it expanded.

Nzinga Mbemba or Alfonso I king Bakongo/Lower Congo/Mbanza Kongo 1507 to 1543 He lived 1456 to 1542, ruled Kongo kingdom in central Africa, was Christian, and allied with Portugal.

Dingiswayo chief Africa 1807 to 1818 In southeast Africa, he united Zulu tribes to make a Zulu kingdom (Mtetwa Empire) and taught Shaka Zulu.

Menelik II king Ethiopia 1889 to 1913 He lived 1844 to 1913 and became king with Italy's help.

Haile Selassie [Selassie, Haile] or Lion of Judah king Ethiopia 1930 to 1974 He lived 1894 to 1975 and started reforms in 1930s but then retrenched. Italy forced him to leave [1936], but he became king again [1941]. He united with Eritrea [1962]. Marxists deposed him [1974] and he died [1975].

SOCI>History>History>Rulers>America

Acamapichtli king Mexico City, Mexico/Tenochtitlán, Mexico 1376 to 1396 He lived 1356 to 1396 and was first Aztec emperor {tlatoani} (one who speaks) at Tenochtitlán. Aztecs used Nahuatl language.

374 Hatun Tupac [Tupac, Hatun] or Viracocha Inca emperor Cuzco Valley, Peru 1390 to 1400 He lived 1347 to 1400 and was eighth Inca ruler. As previous rulers had done, he used the name Sapa Inca (the unique Inca), but he also changed his name to supreme god's name, Viracocha Inca. He took neighboring lands and allied with other rulers. He gave army, government, and religious jobs to his family or his associates. People entering his presence bowed, wore no shoes, and carried packs on their backs. Inca myth said he traveled to Pacific and never returned.

Itzcoatl king Mexico 1426 to 1440 Aztec king allied with Texcoco and Tlacopan, and they defeated Tapanecs. Aztecs had trade caravans controlled by guild {pochteca}. They built pyramids, palaces, and temples. Main temple was at Tenochtitlan. It had up to 20,000 sacrifices a day.

Yupanqui or Pachacuti emperor Cuzco, Peru 1438 to 1470 Yupanqui was Viracocha Inca's son and choose the name Pachacuti. He defeated nearby state that invaded, reformed government, and expanded north to Ecuador. Fortress was at Cuzco.

Pachacuti Inca Yupanqui or Pachacutec king/architect Cuzco, Peru/Machu Picchu, Peru/Ollantaytambo, Peru 1438 to 1471 Machu Picchu [1460 to 1470: mountain city] He lived ? to 1471 and was Inca emperor [1438 to 1471]. Incas built roads and buildings using shaped and fitted stone blocks. Machu Picchu is northwest of Cuzcoa and is high in mountains, with stepped streets and agricultural terraces.

Moctezuma Ilhuicamina or Moctezuma I or Montezuma I emperor Mexico 1440 to 1469 He lived 1398 to 1469. Aztecs defeated other lake cities and took east Mexico.

Tupac Inca Yupanqui or Topa Inca emperor Peru 1471 to 1493 He was Inca emperor [1471 to 1493], was Pachacuti's son, and was Huayna Capac's father.

Topa Inca or Tupac Inca or Tupac Yupanqui emperor Peru 1471 to 1493 He lived 1440 to 1493 and took Bolivia, Chile, and Argentina as commander [1463 to 1471].

Tizoc emperor Mexico City, Mexico 1481 to 1486

375 He ruled Aztec Empire.

Ahuizotl emperor Mexico 1486 to 1502 He ruled at Aztec height.

Huayna Capac [Capac, Huayna] or Quechua Wayna Qhapaq [Qhapaq, Quechua Wayna] emperor Peru 1493 to 1527 Huayna Capac led Inca Empire at greatest extent.

Huayna Capac [Capac, Huayna] or Quechua Wayna Qhapaq emperor Peru 1493 to 1527 He was Inca emperor [1493 to 1527], was Tupac's son, and was father of Huascar, Atahualpa, Manco Inca Yupanqui, and Pawllu Inca.

Moctezuma II or Montezuma II or Motecuhzoma Xocoyotzin emperor Mexico 1502 to 1520 He lived 1466 to 1520 and lost to Cortez from Spain.

Manco Inca Yupanqui emperor Peru 1534 to 1537 He lived 1516 to 1544 and was last Inca emperor [1534 to 1537].

Hiawatha or Ayenwatha chief USA 1550 As Lone Pine tribe chief, he created Iroquois Confederation of Native American tribes in northeast USA and so became Onondaga and Mohawk chief.

Pontiac or Obwandiyag chief USA 1763 to 1766 He lived 1720 to 1769, was Ottawa chief in north-central USA, and led Pontiac's Rebellion [1763 to 1766].

Tecumseh chief USA 1800 to 1810 He lived 1768 to 1813 and was Shawnee chief.

Sequoia or Sequoyah chief Southeast USA 1809 to 1821

376 He lived 1770 to 1843 and developed syllabic alphabet for Cherokee language.

Pedro I king Brazil 1821 to 1831 He lived 1798 to 1831, declared independence from Portugal, and was John VI of Portugal's son.

Agustin de Iturbide [Iturbide, Agustin de] emperor Mexico 1822 to 1823 He lived 1783 to 1824.

Pedro II king Brazil 1831 to 1889 He lived 1825 to 1889 and became king after his father, Pedro I, abdicated. He later fought Argentina and Paraguay.

Maximilian emperor Mexico 1864 to 1867 He lived 1832 to 1867. Napoleon III sent him to aid Mexican conservatives against Juarez. Someone killed him after French soldiers left. He was brother of Francis Joseph II of Austria.

Geronimo chief Arizona 1875 to 1886 He lived 1829 to 1909, led Bedonkohe band of Apache, was Apache chief, and fought USA army in Arizona until he surrendered [1886], ending wars against Native Americans.

Chief Joseph chief USA 1877 Joseph lived 1840 to 1904, was Nez Perce chief, and surrendered to USA [1877].

SOCI>History>History>Rulers>Asia

An Duong [Duong, An] king Vietnam -3000 to -2000 He founded Au Viet dynasty.

Jimmu Tenno or Kamuyamato Iwarebiko emperor Japan -607 He founded Japan and explored Inland Sea [-607] from Hyuga to Yamato.

Chandragupta I or Chandragupta Maurya king

377 Ganges Valley, India -325 to -293 He lived -340 to -293, acquired Magadha kingdom [-325], defeated Nanda dynasty [-321], married clan princess to form Gupta or Maurya dynasty [-321 to -293], and defeated Seleucus I [-305].

Chandragupta Maurya king India/Punjab/Afghanistan -322 to -296 He lived -325 to -296 and founded Mauryan Empire when he conquered Magadha Kingdom, had strong central government, and had strong army. He defeated invasion by Seleucus [-305]. Maurya Empire conquered part of south India.

Bindusara king India -296 to -272 He lived -320 to -272. Maurya Empire extended to Madras.

Asoka or Ashoka king India/Afghanistan -273 to -232 He lived -290 to -232 and ruled Maurya Empire at greatest extent, because he conquered all India, Afghanistan, Baluchistan, Ceylon, Nepal, and Kashmir. He defeated Kalinya Empire [-265] and then warred no more. He then promoted religious tolerance, non-violence, and personal dignity. He became Buddhist [-255] and established Buddhism as state religion. He built 80,000 stupas and many monasteries. He tried to restore discipline to the monks. He emphasized charity, self-command, and self-control. Buddhist missionaries went to Burma and Ceylon [-240]. He started the idea of heavenly salvation for good behavior {svarga} in Buddhism. After he died, Buddhism died out in north India. He increased trade, planted banyan trees, and built roads, reservoirs, wells, and inns. Literature had Mahabharata, including Bhagavadgita, and Ramayana.

Zheng or Cheng or Shih Hwang-ti or Qin Shi Huang-di king China -221 to -206 He founded Qin or Ch'in or Ts'in dynasty. As king of Ch'in in Senshi Province, he subdued six other kingdoms and united China. Shih Hwang-ti or Shi Huang-di means first emperor. Hsien Yang was capital. He built first Great Wall of China, 1500 miles long, in north and northwest. He centralized government, set up bureaucracy, forced nobles to live at capital, and redistributed land to peasants. He stopped crime and enforced laws with strong army. He unified measures and currency. He standardized Chinese characters. His tomb was near Lin Tung. His death started civil war.

Wu-ti or Liu Ch'e emperor China -141 to -87 He lived -156 to -87, took Central Asia's Tarim Basin, south Manchuria, and southeast China, and founded Early Han or Former Han or Western Han. Silk Road began.

Wang Mang emperor China 9 to 23 He lived -45 to -23, seized power in Han dynasty when regent, and started Hsin court.

378 Kaniska or Kanishka king India/Pakistan/Afghanistan 120 to 162 He was king of Kushan and ruled north India, Pakistan, Afghanistan, and central Asia. He converted to Buddhism. Kushana kingdom was in Gandhara, Punjab, and Sind.

Wu Ti or Shih Tsu or Ssu-ma Yen or Martial Emperor emperor China 265 to 290 He lived 236 to 290, united China after Han dynasty ended, and started Western Chin dynasty [265 to 317].

Meghavarna king Sri Lanka 352 to 379 He sent embassy to Gupta court [360], which built religious monument for them.

Chandragupta II or Vikramaditya or Chandragupta Vikramaditya king Ganges Valley, India 375 to 415 He was of Gupta dynasty. Gupta Empire covered north India.

Sui Wendi or Wen-di or Yang Jian emperor China 581 to 589 He united China and founded Sui Dynasty [581 to 604].

Harsha or Harshavardhana king India 606 to 647 He lived 590 to 647, defeated White Huns, and restored Hinduism.

Tai-tsung or Tai Tsung or Taitsung emperor China 627 to 649 He was of Tang Dynasty.

Jayavarma II king Cambodia 802 to 850 He lived 792 to 850 and declared independence of Java [802], founding Khmer Empire.

Seiwa emperor Japan 858 to 876 He became Japanese emperor at age nine or ten. He removed his opponents [866] and became regent {sessho}.

Rajaraja Chola I

379 king India 985 to 1014 He became Chola Empire king and defeated Chera of Kerala in south India.

Rajendra Chola I king India 1014 to 1052 He became Chola Empire king. His merchant fleets traded, and his navy controlled trade between Arabia and China.

Anawrahta or Aniruddha king Pagan, Burma 1044 to 1077 He built large empire with strong army and unified Burma. Pagan was capital.

Suryavarman II or Paramavishnuloka king Cambodia 1113 to 1150 He started building temples at Angkor Wat.

Mohammad of Ghur or Mu'izz ad-Din Muhammad ibn Sam [Muhammad ibn Sam, Mu'izz ad-Din] king India 1186 to 1206 He defeated last Ghaznavid and founded Muslim empire in north India.

Genghis or Jenghiz or Chinghis or Temuchin or Lord Absolute khan China 1206 to 1227 He lived 1163 to 1227. He became Mongol king {Great Khan} to begin Mongol Empire. He captured Zhongdu (Peking or Beijing) and defeated Ch'in Empire of China [1215]. He conquered Transoxania, Turkestan, Afghanistan, south Russia, and southeast Europe [1227]. He placed conquered peoples in army, used Turkish alphabet for Mongol language, and used Chinese tax system to collect tribute.

Ogodei khan China 1227 to 1241 He was Genghis Khan's son and became khan at his death.

Kublai or Khubilai khan China 1260 to 1294 He lived 1215 to 1294. Nobles elected him Great Khan [1260]. He defeated Sung Dynasty [1279] and founded Yuan Dynasty in China. He failed to conquer Japan, Indonesia, and southeast Asia.

Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlug [Tughlug, Ghiyas-ud-din] or Ghiyasuddin Tughluk [Tughluk, Ghiyasuddin] sultan India 1321 to 1325

380 Nobles elected Tughlug, Turkish general, sultan, and he founded Tughluq dynasty. His son Mohammed murdered him.

Mohammed bin Tughluq sultan India 1325 to 1351 He killed his father and expanded Tughluq Empire, but he caused provincial revolts.

Tamerlane or Timur Leng [Leng, Timur] or Timur Lang [Lang, Timur] or Timur the Lame emperor Persia/India/Samarkand, Kazakhstan/Levant 1369 to 1405 He lived 1336 to 1405. Descendant of Genghis Khan, he first ruled Samarkand. Using horsemen, he conquered Persia [1379], Iraq, Syria, and Afghanistan and established Timurid Empire. He invaded south Russia [1395]. He invaded India [1397] and Tughluq Empire, sacked Delhi [1398], and killed most people. He died on way to China [1405].

Zafar Khan Muzaffar or Hassan Gangu governor India 1401 to 1411 He was governor [1391], became independent of Delhi Sultanate [1401], and founded Gujarat Dynasty.

Yong Le or Yongle or Yong-le or Zhu Di emperor China 1403 to 1424 He lived 1360 to 1424 and was first Ming emperor. Nanking was first Ming capital.

Ahmad Shah or Shah Ahmad sultan Ahmadabad, India 1411 to 1442 Of Gujarat Dynasty, he started Muzaffarid Dynasty, was Zafar Khan's grandson, and built Ahmadabad as capital. His soldiers received half cash and half land plots.

Sejong king Korea 1419 to 1450 He lived 1397 to 1450, was relative of Yi Song-gye, and started official Korean script, Han'gul. He ended Japanese piracy.

Trailok king Siam 1448 to 1488 He lived 1431 to 1488, and reformed laws. He had military and civilian divisions, with departments for local government, finance, and law. Siamese society had classes, and all people had land. He fought wars with northern states. He moved capital north to P'itsanulok. He appointed his son "second king".

Sikander Lodi [Lodi, Sikander] sultan India 1489 to 1517

381 He ruled Delhi, annexed Bihar [1492], moved capital to Agra, and invaded Rajastan.

Baber or Babar or Babur emperor Kabul, Afghanistan 1504 to 1530 Autobiography [1510 to 1530: Hindustan description] He lived 1483 to 1530 and was descendant of Tamerlane and Chingis Khan. He founded Mogul or Moghul Empire [1504] when he took Delhi and killed Sultan of Delhi Sultanate. He defeated Hindu kingdoms down to Bihar. He invaded India [1525]. He brought grapes, melons, bananas, and sugar cane to Pakistan. He liked poetry.

Tabinshwehti king Burma 1531 to 1550 He lived 1512 to 1550, was of Toungoo dynasty [1531 to 1550], took Pegu from Mons [1546], and became king of Burma.

Bayinnaung or Braginoco or Barinnaung king Burma/Thailand 1551 to 1581 From Burma, he took Thailand.

Akbar or Great Mogul emperor India 1556 to 1605 He lived 1542 to 1605. Mogul Empire took Afghanistan and rest of north India. Agra was capital. He reformed government, allowed religious tolerance, and started land tax. He married the Rajputana Hindu king's daughter. Urdu language started, which was Hindi language with Turkish and Persian words.

Oda Nobunaga [Nobunaga, Oda] shogun Japan 1568 to 1600 He lived 1534 to 1582. Ashikaga shogunate defeated all rival barons. He took Kyoto and unified Japan {National Unification period}.

Wanli or Wan-li or Chu I-chun or Hsien Ti or Shen Tsung emperor China 1573 to 1620 He lived 1563 to 1620. Empire had painting and porcelain making.

Shivaji Bhonsle or Sijavi king India 1674 to 1680 He lived 1627 to 1680 and started Maratha kingdom [1674]. Mahrattas from west-central India established capital at Poona and conquered part of Mogul Empire [1655 to 1674].

Mahmud king Afghanistan 1722 to 1725

382 With Afghans, he defeated Sultan Hossein, ending Safavid Dynasty in Persia and starting Ghilzay Afghan dynasty [1722 to 1730].

Chi'en Lung or Chien Lung or Chi'en-lung emperor China 1736 to 1795 He was of Manchu family and controlled north to Amur River and south to Indochina.

Alaungpaya or Alaung Phra or Alompra or Aungzeya king Burma 1752 to 1760 He lived 1711 to 1760, defeated Mons of Burma, raided India, and started Alaungpaya dynasty or Konbaung dynasty.

Mutsuhito or Meiji emperor Japan 1868 to 1912 Shogun had surrendered to Perry. In Meiji Restoration [1868], clans took capital, Kyoto, from shogun. Mutsuhito lived 1852 to 1912 and ruled Japan [1873 to 1912]. Capital moved to Edo (Tokyo). Emperor owned all land. Government had prefectures. Conscription built army. Clans industrialized and built ships, weapons, and cotton mills. They studied navigation and other western techniques.

Kwang Hsu emperor China 1875 to 1908 He lived 1871 to 1908. Of Ch'ing dynasty, he tried to reform China with Hundred Days reform [1898], but Tz'u Hsi blocked reform, forced his resignation [1908], and became empress.

Hirohito emperor Japan 1926 to 1989 He lived 1901 to 1989. Army controlled him until after World War II. Constitution [1947] took away all his powers, except for symbolism.

SOCI>History>History>Rulers>Asia>Middle East

Menes pharaoh Egypt -3100 to -3000 He was king in south Egypt and united north (Lower Egypt) and south (Upper Egypt), beginning the 1st Dynasty. He founded Memphis as capital in Lower Egypt. The pharaoh became like god.

Gilgamesh king Uruk, Iraq -2700 Uruk is in Iraq.

Cheops or Khufu pharaoh

383 Egypt -2500 He founded IV Dynasty and built Great Pyramid at Giza.

Sargon I emperor Akkad -2400 to -2350 He began Akkadian or Old Assyrian Empire by conquering Sumer city-states in south Mesopotamia.

Gudea king Lagash, Iraq -2100 He and his son ruled Amorites or Gutians.

Semiramis or Semiramide or Shamiram queen Babylonia/Assyria -2000 to -800 In legends, she associated with king Ninus, legendary founder of Nineveh. Perhaps, she was Shammuramat of Babylon, wife of Shamshi-Adad V [-811 to -808].

Hammurabi king/lawgiver Babylonia -1792 to -1750 Code of Hammurabi [-1792: first law code] He lived -1792 to -1750. He started First Babylonian Empire. He conquered Sumer and Akkad. His capital was at Babylon. By myth, Sun god gave laws to Hammurabi. Code of Hammurabi first codified existing laws. 282 articles were about wages, fees, divorces, slaves, and practical affairs. Code had first law of maximum retaliation, limiting revenge to no more than original harm.

Mursilis I king Babylon -1595 As Hittite king, he took Babylon.

Ahmose I pharaoh Thebes, Egypt -1554 He defeated Hyskos and started New Kingdom. He took Nubia and Canaan, Palestine.

Hatsheput queen Egypt -1490 to -1458 She lived ? to -1458 and was of XVIII dynasty. She was Thutmose I's eldest daughter. Her half-brother Thutmose II married her and was pharaoh [-1495 to -1490], and then she was regent to Thutmose III. She became pharaoh [-1479 to -1458]. She built temple at Deir el-Bahari in Thebes.

Thotmes III king Egypt

384 -1481 to -1446 After Queen Hatsheput had become pharaoh, Thotmes III conquered to Euphrates River and Levant, including south Canaan, Syria, and Palestine, but not Mitanni in east Syria and north Mesopotamia.

Amenhotep III pharaoh Egypt -1411 to -1375 In 18th Dynasty, empire was at maximum size. Thebes was capital. His statues are at Thebes and are Colossi of Memnon. Memnon was an Ethiopian hero of the Greeks.

Suppiluliumas I king Mesopotamia -1380 He became Hittite king.

Iknaton or Amenhotep IV or Akhnaton pharaoh el-Amarna, Egypt -1375 to -1358 Hymn to the Sun He tried to institute monotheism based on the god of the Sun {Aton}. Sun-god temple was at the new capital Amarna or Tel-el-Amarna, 300 miles south of Thebes. He changed Egyptian life drastically. The priests of Amon opposed him. He had bad economy and lost all foreign lands. His queen was Nefertiti or Nefretete.

Tutankhamon pharaoh Egypt -1355 He restored polytheistic religion. Thebes became capital again.

Ramses II pharaoh Egypt -1292 to -1225 In 19th Dynasty, he fought Hittites. Empire went from fourth cataract of Nile River to Syria. Temples were at Karnak, Thebes, and Abu-Simbel.

Muwattalis king Syria -1285 As Hittite king, he lost to Ramses II but kept north Syria.

Ramses III pharaoh Egypt -1198 to -1167 In 20th Dynasty, he fought Syria and Libya, reunited kingdom, and lived in luxury with the nobles. Harem intrigue killed him.

Saul king Israel -1012 to -1006

385 He became first king of Israel, was first defeated by Philistines, and then defeated them.

David king/poet Israel -1012 to -990 Psalms [-1012 to -990] He defeated Philistines, conquered all of Canaan, and unified Hebrews. Jerusalem was capital. In the Bible, he fought the giant Goliath for Saul, became king of Israel after Saul, loved Bathsheba, and wrote Psalms.

Solomon king Israel -967 to -935 Aramaic Edomites became independent. He rebuilt Jerusalem.

Adadnirari II king Assyria -911 to -891 He started late Assyrian civilization.

Omri king Israel -878 to -871 Samaria was capital.

Ahab king Israel -871 to -852 He married the Phoenician Jezebel, so Baal became worshiped, not Yahweh. The prophet Elijah was against him.

Jehu king Israel -871 to -852 Elijah helped him, and he restored worship of Yahweh.

Ashurnasirpal III emperor Mesopotamia -850 He began New Assyrian Empire by conquering to Mediterranean.

Athaliah king Judaea -845 to -839 Kingdom of Judah worshiped Baal, not Yahweh. He killed descendants of former kings.

Shalmaneser III emperor Mesopotamia -800

386 New Assyrian Empire took Syria and Palestine.

Tiglath Pileser III emperor Mesopotamia -750 New Assyrian Empire took Babylonia, Media, and Syria.

Hezekiah king Judaea -725 to -697 He was king of Judah.

Sargon II emperor Assyria -722 to -705 New Assyrian Empire took Samaria [-722], Carcemish, Babylon, and west Kurdistan. He built Khorsabad as capital. He conquered Israel [-720].

Sennacherib emperor Assyria -705 to -681 New Assyrian Empire destroyed Babylon [-689]. He also defeated Egypt [-690], Cyprus, Cilicia, and Syria and exacted tribute from Jerusalem. He built capital at Nineveh.

Necho I or Nekhao Memkheperre king Egypt -690 to -664 He lived -710 to -664.

Esar-Haddon emperor Mesopotamia/Egypt -680 to -669 New Assyrian Empire defeated Chaldeans and took control in Egypt [-673 to -670].

Ashurbanipal or Sardanapalus or Asnapper emperor Assyria -668 to -626 He took Elam [-646] and destroyed Thebes, Egypt. New Assyrian Empire was at height of learning, art, and power. He had famous library.

Psamtik king Egypt -663 to -609 He lived -684 to -610, started Saite Dynasty, and took Syrtis and Cyrene in Libya and Salamis in Cyprus.

Nitocris queen Egypt

387 -660 to -656 She lived -686 to -656.

Nabopolassar king Babylonia -626 to -605 He was Chaldean, conquered Assyria at Nineveh [-612], and started New Babylonian Empire. His son, Nebuchadnezzar II, defeated Egyptians at Carchemish, Syria [-605].

Necho II king Egypt -609 to -561 He lived -630 to -561. Saite Dynasty rebuilt canal from Nile to Arabian Gulf. He defeated Assyrians [-609]. He lost to Babylonians [-588].

Nebuchadnezzar or Nebuchadnezzar II king Babylonia -605 to -562 He lived -630 to -562. Second Babylonian Empire defeated Egypt under Necho [-588]. It then defeated revolt in Judah [-587 to -586] and took Jews into captivity in Babylon (Babylonian Captivity). It also conquered Elam and Achaemenids. He rebuilt temple to Marduk and enlarged Tower of Babel.

Croesus king Lydia -560 to -546 He lived -595 to -546. Lydia included Pisidia and Lycia in southwest Asia Minor and was at maximum power and wealth. He resisted Medes. He ruled until overthrown by Persia under Cyrus the Great.

Cyrus II or Cyrus the Great king Persia -557 to -529 He lived -600 to -529, founded Persian Empire, and captured Babylon [-539]. He freed Jews. His capital was at Pasargadae. He established Achaemenid Dynasty and Persian Empire and conquered Medea [-549], Lydia, Babylonia, and Egypt [-525]. He restored Jews to Palestine and rebuilt temple for third time. He respected local customs and governments and only wanted tribute. He tried to take Hindu Kush but Scythians killed him [-529].

Cambyses king Persia -529 to -521 He lived -558 to -521, was Cyrus's son, and took Egypt from Assyria [-525].

Darius I or Darius the Great king Persia -521 to -486 He lived -550 to -486. Achaemenid Dynasty of Persian Empire built Persepolis, fought Scythians, and conquered to northwest India and Danube River. Army, police, and satrap governors responsible only to king ruled the 20 provinces {satrapy}. He improved government and communication and tried to build highway from Ephesus to Susa. Ionian cities in Asia Minor revolted [-499] but lost. He attacked mainland Greece by navy but lost [-490], and then lost to Greek army at Marathon [-490].

388

Xerxes I or Xerxes the Great emperor Persia -485 to -465 He lived -519 to -465. Of Achaemenid Dynasty, he was Darius I's son. He defeated Egypt. He invaded Greece by building bridge over Hellespont channel. He won at Thermopylae [-480], sacked Athens [-480], lost his fleet at Salamis [-480], and went back to Persia. His army lost at Plataea and his fleet burned at Mycale on same day [-479].

Artaxerxes I emperor Persia -464 to -424 He lived -483 to -424. Achaemenid Dynasty of Persian Empire became weak by wars with Greece, Egypt, and Bactria.

Artaxerxes II emperor Persia -404 to -358 He lived -456 to -358. Of Achaemenid Dynasty, he defeated Cyrus the Younger in civil war and ruled Persian Empire. Persia and Sparta negotiated Treaty of Antalcidas [-386].

Artaxerxes III or Arses emperor Persia -358 to -338 He lived ? to -338. Of Achaemenid Dynasty, he massacred his family to rule Persian Empire. He defeated Egypt.

Darius III king Persia -334 to -330 He lived -380 to -330 and lost to Alexander the Great at Granicus, Issus, and Gaugamela, ending Achaemenid Dynasty and Persian Empire.

Ptolemy I or Ptolemy Soter king Egypt -323 to -285 He lived -367 to -282 and was general for Alexander the Great of Macedonia. He moved capital to Alexandria [- 305]. He built library [-305]. He ruled with his son [-285 to -282].

Seleucus I king Syria/Babylonia/Persia -323 to -281 He lived -358 to -281, was one of Alexander's generals, and began Seleucid Dynasty. He received Babylonia after Alexander the Great's death. He fought to Indus River in India. He won at Ipsus against Antigonus I of Macedon and later defeated Lysimachus of Macedon in Wars of the Diadochi.

Ptolemy II king Egypt -282 to -246 He lived -309 to -246. Ptolemaic, Macedonian, Lagid, or XXXI Dynasty built library at Alexandria and fought Syria.

389

Arsaces I king Persia -247 to -211 From central Asia, he led Parni branch of Dahae and founded Parthian kingdom in east Persia, which became Parthian Empire.

Ptolemy III king Egypt -246 to -221 He lived -280 to -221. Ptolemaic, Macedonian, Lagid, or XXXI Dynasty fought Syria and controlled Asia Minor and Greek coast.

Antiochus the Great king Syria/Israel -223 to -187 He lived -242 to -187, was Seleucid, and took Judea [-198].

Ptolemy IV king Egypt -221 to -205 He lived -243 to -205 and was of Ptolemaic, Macedonian, Lagid, or XXXI Dynasty.

Antiochus IV king Syria/Persia -175 to -164 He lived -215 to -164. Seleucids tried to stop Maccabees in Judaea. Rome blocked Seleucid invasion of Egypt.

Mithradates I emperor Persia -171 to -138 He lived -200 to -138 and was Parthian emperor. He conquered from Caspian Sea to Persian Gulf to border of India [-160 to -140].

Hyrcanus I king Judea -134 to -104 He lived ? to -104 and left Pharisees to become Sadducee [-120].

Hyrcanus II king Judea -76 to -40 He lived ? to -30 and was Judea high priest [-76 to -40]. Rome took Judea, and Hyrcanus II, a Maccabee, was puppet ruler [-63 to -40].

Cleopatra queen Egypt

390 -51 to -30 She lived -69 to -30. She was of Ptolemaic Dynasty. Julius Caesar and Marc Anthony loved her. After she and Marc Anthony lost at Actium, she killed herself using asp.

Herod the Great king Judea -37 to -4 He lived -73 to -4, was Hyrcanus's half-Jewish minister, and ruled for Rome. He built Masada [-30] by Dead Sea as fortress towering 1300 feet. He murdered rabbis. According to the Bible, he massacred children [-4].

Herod Antipas or Herod Antipatros tetrarch Judaea -4 to 40 He lived -20 to 40. According to the Bible, he executed John the Baptist and brought his head on a platter when Salome asked for it. He was Herod the Great's son.

Ardashir I king Persia 224 to 241 He started Sassanid or Sassanian Dynasty when people of Fars revolted against Parthians. He, noble soldier, killed last Parthian king [226]. He reunited Persia. Sasan was his ancestor.

Sapor I or Shapur I king Persia 241 to 272 He lived 224 to 272 and was Ardashir's son. He defeated and captured Roman Emperor Valerian [260], captured Armenia, and invaded Syria and Cappadocia. He started to build at Ctesiphon.

Mithradates II king Persia 300 He lived 256 to 190 and was of Sassanid or Sassanian Dynasty.

Shapur II or Shapur the Great king Persia 309 to 379 He lived 309 to 379 and fought Roman Empire [337 to 363]. Sassanid or Sassanian Dynasty defeated Constantius II and Julian the Apostate of east Roman Empire [363]. There was high prosperity.

Theodosius I or Theodosius the Great emperor Constantinople, Turkey 379 to 395 He lived 346 to 395. East Roman Empire negotiated peace with Visigoths. He invaded Italy and reunited East and West Roman Empires, for last time. People in west left cities for farms, army had mercenaries, and government raised taxes. He put down rebellion in Salonica. He ended Trinity doctrine of Arius, by force and by first Council of Constantinople, and forbade paganism.

Theodosius II emperor/lawgiver

391 Byzantium 408 to 450 Codex Theodosianus [429 to 438: Legal code based on Roman law systematized all imperial laws since time of Constantine, in 16 books] He lived 401 to 450, was emperor [408 to 450], was Arcadius's and Aelia Eudoxia's son, and built protective walls around Constantinople [412]. He issued Law of Citations [438]. Theodosius I lived 346 to 395 and was emperor [379 to 395].

Kaleb king Aksum/Yemen 520 to 570 As king of Aksum or Axum [520 to 570], he conquered Yemen [525] in south Arabia and built churches.

Justinian I emperor/lawgiver Constantinople, Turkey 527 to 565 Code of Justinian [533: codified Roman law]; New Laws [534: statutes about administration and Church, with private-law principles]; Digest or Pandects [529 to 565: excerpts from commentaries on Sabinus, Perpetual Edict, and Responsa and Quaestiones of Papinian, in 50 books] He lived 482 to 565, was Illyrian, and was emperor of Byzantine Empire [527 to 565]. His generals Belisarius and Narses conquered Vandal Kingdom in Africa and Italy. Ravenna, Italy, became capital. They subdued Ostrogoths and took south part, up to Cordoba, of Visigothic Kingdom in Spain. He fought Khosru I of Sassanid Empire in east and controlled Egypt and Levant. Burgundian Kingdom was in south France. Frankish Kingdom was in north France. Celts were in Britain. Lombards were north of Greece. Slavs were north of Lombards. He codified Roman law. He closed the Academy. Emperor became spiritual leader of Orthodox Church, together with bishops. He supported Orthodox Christians. He called second Council of Constantinople to unify church. He built Hagia Sophia or St. Sophia Church in Constantinople. He persecuted Jews, Coptic Christians of Egypt, and Nestorian Christians in east Syria. Theodora was empress. She ended Nika riot over taxes and church doctrine. In art, Christ had a ring {nimbus, light ring} of light, like sun god, around his head. He fixed interest at 8% for business loans and 4% to 12% for other loans with average interest of 6% and set maximum interest equal to principal.

Hatim Tai king Arabia 550 to 600 He was famous for generosity.

Chosroes II or Khosrow II or Khosrow Parviz [Parviz, Khosrow] king Persia 590 to 628 Of Sassanid or Sassanian Dynasty, he was Khosrow I's grandson and succeeded his father Hormizd or Hormoz [590], but Bahram Chubin forced him to flee to Byzantine Empire. Emperor Maurice of Byzantine Empire helped him regain throne, but got Armenia in return for his help. After Phocas murdered Maurice, Chosroes II took Armenia, Cappadocia, Syria, and Jerusalem [615]. He defeated White Huns. He took Egypt [616]. He next reached Constantinople [617]. Heraclius I of Byzantine Empire entered Assyria and Mesopotamia [627] and then his son murdered Chosroes II and became king as Kavadh II Shiruya.

Heraclius I emperor Constantinople, Turkey

392 610 to 641 He lived 575 to 641, led Byzantine Empire, was Armenian, defended Constantinople by defeating Avars on west [626], and took back Syria, Palestine, and Egypt from Persia [628].

Abu Bakr or Abu Bekr caliph Arabia 632 to 634 He lived 573 to 634, was uncle of Ali, was one of the first converts to Islam, became first caliph [632], and subjugated all Arabia to start Moslem Empire [634].

Omar or Umar caliph Arabia/Syria/Iraq/Egypt 634 to 644 Omar lived 581 to 644, was second caliph, set up administration, set up tax system, and started kadi office. Capital was Medina. He conquered Syria, Palestine, Middle East, Mesopotamia, and Persia [637] but not Byzantine Empire. He conquered Egypt [640 to 641]. He took north Africa [644]. He took Kabul [664].

Othman or Uthman caliph Arabia/Syria/Iraq/Egypt 644 to 656 He lived 574 to 656 and was third caliph of Moslem Empire.

Ali or Ali ibn Abi Talib caliph Medina, Saudi Arabia 656 to 661 He lived 598 to 661, was cousin and son-in-law of Mohammed, was Abu Bakr's nephew and Mohammad's cousin, was one of the first converts to Islam, and was fourth caliph. He married Fatima, Mohammad's daughter. In Sunni Islam, he was fourth and last Khulafa-i-Rashidun or Rightly Guided Caliphs. In Shi'a Islam, he was the first imam and true caliph. His sons did not become caliph.

Muawiya I or Mu'awiyya I caliph Arabia/Syria/Iraq/Egypt 661 to 683 He lived 600 to 683 and started Omayyed Dynasty of caliphs. He assassinated Ali [661] and deposed Hassan and Hussein, sons of Ali. He then united most of Islam using diplomacy. He moved capital from Medina to Damascus. After he died, his son Muawiya II was caliph several months [683 to 684].

Abdul-Malik caliph Arabia/Syria/Iraq/Egypt 684 to 705 He lived 646 to 705, was fifth Omayyed caliph, was Sunni, and united Islam.

Leo III or Leo the Isaurian emperor Anatolia 717 to 741 He was from Anatolia, allied Byzantine Empire with Khazars in south Russia, and controlled Anatolia.

Constantine V emperor

393 Constantinople, Turkey 741 to 775 He lived 718 to 775. Byzantine Empire controlled Balkans. al-Mansur caliph Baghdad, Iraq 762 to 775 He lived 716 to 775 and was second Abbasid caliph of Moslem Empire. Abbasid family was at al-Humaymah.

Barmakids or Barmecides vizier Baghdad, Iraq 771 to 806 From Persia, they were viziers for Harun-al-Rashid until murdered.

Harun al-Rashid or Haroun al-Raschid caliph Baghdad, Iraq 786 to 809 He lived 764 to 809 and was fifth Abbasid caliph of Moslem Empire. He was in the Arabian Nights. Barmacides, from Persia, were his viziers. After he died, his son al-Amin became caliph [809 to 813].

Irene of Athens empress Byzantium 797 to 802 She lived 752 to 803.

Mamun or al-Mamun or al-Ma'mun caliph Baghdad, Iraq 813 to 833 He lived 786 to 833, was Harun-al-Rashid's son, and was Abbasid caliph of Moslem Empire, succeeding his brother al-Amin [813]. He established Bayt al-Hikmah (House of Wisdom) library and academy. Baghdad had 500,000 people. Empire was at height of art and science. Decimal system came from India.

Basil I emperor Constantinople, Turkey 867 to 886 He lived 826 or 835 to 886 and started Macedonian Dynasty [867 to 1056]. Byzantine Empire fought Bulgars. He repaired finances and codified law.

Ahmad ibn Tulun prince Egypt 868 to 884 He lived 835 to 884, was Egyptian noble from Turkey, rebelled from Abbasid caliphate, and started Tulunid dynasty [868 to 905] in Egypt.

Basil II emperor Byzantium/Bulgaria 976 to 1025

394 He lived 957 to 1025 and became sole emperor [976]. He was Bulgaroctonus or Slayer of Bulgars. He confiscated great landowner estates and gave jobs to his followers. He fought Bulgar kingdom in Bulgaria under Tsar Samuel [990 to 1014] and won Battle of Balathista [1014]. He defeated Italy and Normandy [1018]. Byzantium controlled from Italy to Euphrates River in Iraq.

Sabuktagin king Iran/Afghanistan/India 977 to 997 He started Ghaznavid dynasty, was son-in-law of Albtakin, and helped Samanians.

Mahmud or Ghazna or Mohammed of Ghazna king Persia/India 997 to 1030 He lived 971 to 1030 and was Sabuktagin's son. He took all Samanian lands [999] and conquered into India. After his death 1030, Seljuk Turks threatened his empire and it gradually declined. al-Zahir caliph Egypt 1021 to 1036 He was Fatimid.

Mas'ud king Iran/Afghanistan/India 1031 to 1041 Of Ghaznavid Dynasty, he was Mahmud's son. He lost to Seljuk Turks, but family still ruled east Afghanistan and west India.

Tughril Beg sultan Persia/Iraq 1038 to 1063 He lived 990 to 1063 and led Seljuk Turks from central Asia [1038] to Persia [1040 to 1044] and Baghdad [1055], where he became sultan.

Alp Arslan sultan Iraq 1063 to 1072 He lived 1029 to 1072 and was nephew of Tughril Beg and Seljuk Turk. He invaded Asia Minor [1065] and Armenia and defeated Byzantine army at Battle of Manzikert [1071].

Jallaluddin Malekshah [Malekshah, Jallaluddin] sultan Iraq 1072 to 1092 He followed Alp Arsalen as sultan. Nezam-ol Molk or Nezamiya was vizier of Malekshah. Seljuk Turks or Sultanate of Rum controlled Middle East. Seljuk control of Holy Land was reason for Crusades.

Abd-al-Mumin caliph Morocco/Spain/Algeria/Tripoli 1147 to 1163

395 He lived 1094 to 1163, took Marrakech [1147], conquered Algeria, Tripoli, and part of Spain [1163], and started the Almohads.

Saladin or Salah al-Din ruler Egypt/Syria 1173 to 1193 He lived 1138 to 1193, took Jerusalem [1173] and Damascus, and started Ayyubid dynasty [1173 to 1250]. With Saracens, he conquered Tunisia, Yemen, and Syria. He defeated Crusade at Hattin [1187]. He held Jerusalem through Third Crusade. He met Richard I of England.

Baybars al-Bunduqdari sultan Egypt 1250 to 1277 He lived 1223 to 1277, was Turkish slave, and started Mameluke dynasty [1250 to 1517].

Michael VIII emperor Constantinople, Turkey 1261 to 1282 He lived 1225 to 1282, reunited Byzantine Empire as states of Nicaea, Trebizond, and Epirus, and started Palaeologan Dynasty [1261 to 1453].

Osman I or Othman I emperor Turkey 1299 to 1326 He lived 1259 to 1326 and started Osmanli or Ottoman principality {beg} in northeast Turkey. He began Islamic law and government. As leader of Ottoman Turks or Osmanli Turks, he founded Ottoman Empire by taking Bursa [1317 to 1326], capital of Mongols in Asia Minor, using artillery. Bursa became Ottoman capital.

Bajazet I or Bayazit I or Bayazid I emperor Anatolia 1389 to 1403 He lived 1360 to 1403. Ottoman Empire took east Anatolia [1396].

Mohammad II or Mehmed the Conqueror sultan Turkey 1451 to 1481 He lived 1429 to 1481, was sultan of Turkey, bombarded Constantinople for eight weeks, had 80,000 soldiers, and started Ottoman Empire [1453]. Emperor Constantine XI of Byzantine Empire died fighting [1453].

Ismail I or Khata'i shah/poet Persia 1501 to 1524 He was first Safavid, was Shia, and took Persia [1502].

Selim I or Selim the Grim sultan Istanbul, Turkey 1512 to 1520

396 He lived 1467 to 1520 and led Ottoman Empire at height. He defeated Persia and got Kurdistan, defeated Mamelukes in Syria and Egypt, killed many Shiite Moslems, and got Caliphate by taking over Mecca and Medina.

Tahmasp shah Iran 1524 to 1576 He lived 1514 to 1576. Safavids ruled Persia.

Abbas I or Abbas the Great or Shah Abbas [Abbas, Shah] shah Iran 1587 to 1629 He lived 1571 to 1629, was Safavid, and moved capital from Ghazvin to Isfahan. Mullahs were powerful. He punished Sufis. He built the Medan town square in Isfahan and encouraged art. Shah means king.

Nader Shah shah Persia 1736 to 1747 He lived 1688 to 1747 and defeated Afghans [1729].

Agha Mohammad Khan Ghajar [Ghajar, Agha Mohammad Khan] shah Persia 1794 to 1797 He lived 1742 to 1797 and began Qajar or Ghajar Dynasty.

Fath-Ali shah Persia 1797 to 1834 He lived 1762 to 1834, was Qajar, lost Caucasia to Russia, and fought Afghans and Ottoman Empire. His son was Abbas Mirza, who wanted to reform but never ruled.

Ibrahim Pasha viceroy/khedive Egypt 1805 to 1848 He lived 1789 to 1848 and was Muhammad 'Ali's son or adopted son. His father named him hereditary governor of Egypt. He led his father's armies against Wahhabite sect in Arabia [1816 to 1818].

Muhammad Ali [Muhammad, Ali] or Muhammad 'Ali pasha Egypt 1805 to 1849 He lived 1769 to 1849, became pasha under Ottoman Empire [1805], and defeated Mamelukes [1811]. He took Syria from Ottoman Empire [1833] and led revolts in Asia Minor [1838], which European armies suppressed.

Mohammad Shah shah Persia 1835 to 1848 He lived 1810 to 1848 and was Qajar.

Nasseroddin Shah

397 shah Persia 1848 to 1896 He lived 1831 to 1896 and was Qajar. Amir Kabir was Premier [1848 to 1851].

Ismail Pasha or Ismail the Magnificent pasha Egypt 1863 to 1879 He lived 1830 to 1895 and was Ibrahim Pasha's son. Debt caused him to allow France and Britain to take over Egyptian government. He sold Suez Canal [completed in 1869] to Britain [1876].

Midhat Pasha grand vizier Istanbul, Turkey 1876 He lived 1822 to 1883 and published a constitution for Ottoman Empire [1876].

Abbas II pasha Egypt 1892 to 1914 He lived 1874 to 1944.

Mozzaffar-oddin Shah shah Persia 1895 to 1907 He lived 1853 to 1907, was Qajar, and signed new constitution [1906].

Mohammad-Ali Shah shah Persia 1907 to 1909 He lived 1872 to 1925, was Qajar, and cancelled new constitution.

Ahmad Shah shah Persia 1909 to 1924 He lived 1898 to 1930, was Qajar, and revolted and defeated Mohammad-Ali Shah.

Faisal I king Iraq 1921 to 1933 He lived 1885 to 1933.

Tutankhamon tomb pharaoh tomb Egypt 1922 He lived -1336 to -1327. Tomb opened [1922].

Fuad I king

398 Egypt 1923 He lived 1868 to 1936.

Reza Shah Pahlavi shah Iran 1925 to 1941 He lived 1878 to 1944 and started Pahlavi Dynasty.

Ibn Saud king Saudi Arabia 1932 to 1953 He lived 1880 to 1953. As king of Nejd, he took Hejaz region of Arabia [1925] and created Saudi Arabia [1932 to 1953].

Farouk I king Egypt 1937 to 1952 He lived 1920 to 1965. Kingdom ended when Nasser began republic.

Faisal II king Iraq 1939 to 1958 He lived 1935 to 1958.

Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi [Pahlavi, Mohammad Reza Shah] shah Iran 1941 to 1979 He lived 1919 to 1980 and began rule when his father Reza Shah Pahlavi abdicated [1941], after Britain and Russia occupied Iran. He put down rival governments [1947]. He defeated Communists and overcame Premier Mossadegh [1953], with help from USA CIA. He started land and other reforms in White Revolution [1962 to 1963]. He fled Iran [1979], as Moslem clerics took power in peaceful revolution under Ayatollah Khomeini.

Hussein I king Jordan 1952 to 1999 He lived 1936 to 1999.

Feisal king Saudi Arabia 1964 to 1975 He lived 1905 to 1975 and ended slavery and strong monarchy.

SOCI>History>History>Rulers>Europe

Minos king Knossos, Crete -1500

399 Cretan civilization had boxing, bull leaping, hunting, musicians, dancers, and board games.

Romulus founder Rome, Italy -753 to -716 By legend, he founded Rome.

Numa Pompilius king Rome, Italy -715 to -673 He was legendary peaceful king.

Tarquin or Tarquinius Priscus or Tarquin the Elder or Tarquin I king Rome, Italy -616 to -579 He was Etruscan.

Servius Tullius [Tullius, Servius] king Rome, Italy -578 to -535 He built wall around city.

Brennus king Rome, Italy -390 As chief of Senones, Adriatic coast Gauls, he defeated Rome in Battle of the Allia [-390] and took Rome.

Philip II king Macedon -358 to -336 He lived -382 to -336 and took Thrace's gold. He invented phalanx infantry formation using ten rows, with long pikes between preceding soldiers. He used armored cavalry charges and catapults. He conquered Athens at Chaeronea [-338]. He took Thebes [-335] and enslaved the people after rebellion. He died while preparing to attack Persia. His son was Alexander the Great.

Alexander the Great king Macedon -336 to -323 He lived -356 to -323 and conquered whole Middle East. He died of typhoid fever in Babylon.

Antigonus II king Greece -276 to -239 He lived -319 to -239, conquered Macedon [-276], and united Greece.

Augustus or Octavian emperor Rome, Italy

400 -27 to 14 He lived -63 to 14 and was Julius Caesar's great nephew. Octavian controlled Persia, Syria, Egypt, Asia Minor, Greece, Italy, Gaul, Lusitania or Portugal, and Spain and so consolidated Roman Empire [-31]. He became first emperor of Rome as Augustus [-27]. He imposed Pax Romana, had good administration, and encouraged arts.

Tiberius emperor Rome, Italy 14 to 37 He lived -42 to 37 and reformed finances of Roman Empire. Senate and Assembly lost all power.

Caligula or Caius Julius Caesar Germanicus emperor Rome, Italy 37 to 41 He lived 12 to 41 and led Roman Empire.

Claudius or Claudius Nero Germanicus emperor Britain 41 to 54 He lived -10 to 54 and invaded Britain [43].

Nero emperor Rome, Italy 54 to 68 He lived 37 to 68, killed his mother, wife, cousin, and many Christians, and defeated many revolts against Roman Empire.

Boudicca queen Britain 60 to 61 She lived 26 to 62, was Iceni queen, and rebelled against Rome [60].

Vespasian or Titus Flavius Vespasianus [Vespasianus, Titus Flavius] emperor Rome, Italy 69 to 79 He lived 9 to 79 and began Flavian line of Roman Empire. He constructed Forum [75] and began Colosseum. His son Titus finished Colosseum [80].

Trajan emperor Rome, Italy 98 to 117 He lived 53 to 117, took Parthia and Dacia for Roman Empire, and built Roman Forum and Column of Trajan. Roman Empire was at greatest extent.

Hadrian emperor/lawgiver Rome, Italy 117 to 138 Perpetual Edict [131: codified Roman praetorian laws]

401 He lived 76 to 138 and was emperor [117 to 138]. Roman Empire was at greatest extent. He built walls in Germany and Britain. He set Roman east boundary at Euphrates River. He ordered Perpetual Edict.

Antonius Pius emperor Rome, Italy 138 to 161 He lived 86 to 161 and began Antonine Dynasty of Roman Empire. He was Stoic and noted for good administration.

Marcus Aurelius Antoninus emperor/writer Rome, Italy 161 to 180 Meditations [167] He lived 121 to 180 and was second Antonine ruler of Roman Empire. He was Stoic and noted for good administration. People can try to understand universe order and goodness, accept consequences for themselves, and sympathize with and live harmoniously with others.

Septimius Severus [Severus, Septimius] emperor Rome, Italy 193 to 211 He lived 146 to 211 and was Libyan general. He built chain of forts and long ditches in north Africa. He was member of equestrian class, with army and administrative experience in Roman Empire. Emperor became absolute master, without preserving legal forms. The prefect became head of civil administration and judges in Rome. He devalued currency, gave power to army, set high taxes, and caused high inflation, which led to civil war, which he won, and to foreign wars, which he won with some losses.

Caracella emperor Rome, Italy 211 to 217 All freeborn people in empire received Roman citizenship.

Cormac MacArt [MacArt, Cormac] or Cormac Ulfhada Mac Airt king Ireland 254 to 277 He codified many laws and led the five kings of Ulster, Leinster, Connaught, Meath, and Munster. His capital was at Tara.

Aurelian or Restorer of the Roman Empire emperor Rome, Italy 270 to 275 He lived 214 to 275 and was from Illyria. He fought at Palmyra and defeated barbarians in Britain, Gaul, Spain, Egypt, Syria, and Mesopotamia. He reestablished Roman rule throughout empire. Someone murdered him at invasion of Persia.

Diocletian emperor Rome, Italy 284 to 305 He lived 245 to 305, was from Illyria, regained Britain, and defeated Persians and barbarians. He ruined Roman Empire economy by heavier taxes. He reorganized the army of 500,000 men and used conscription.

402 He created smaller dioceses to replace larger provinces. He created four prefectures [285], called the Tetrarchy. They were Italy and Africa, Gaul and Spain, Greece and north, and Egypt and Asia. He divided empire along line from Danube to Dalmatia, with himself in eastern half {Eastern Empire}, which was richer and more populous. Maximian, general in Gaul, controlled west half [295]. Constantius and Galerius ruled subsections [292]. He persecuted Christians [303] for failure to worship emperor. Senate became only honorary.

Constantine the Great emperor Rome, Italy 306 to 337 He lived 274 to 337 and was Constantius' son. Army proclaimed him emperor of West Roman Empire [306], and civil war followed. Before battle [312], he added Christian symbol to shields. He became western emperor [312]. Later, he judged disputes between churches and built churches. He removed sun god from coins [320]. Sunday became holiday [321]. He reunited empire [324] and became emperor of east and west. He moved capital to Byzantium and called it Constantinople [330]. He had himself baptized when he died. Christian centers were in Rome, Africa, Egypt, Syria, and Asia Minor.

Constantine II or Flavius Claudius Constantinus emperor Rome, Italy 337 to 340 He lived 317 to 340. Roman Empire stayed united.

Constantius II or Flavius Julius Constantius emperor Rome, Italy 337 to 361 Roman Empire stayed united.

Alaric I king Italy/Spain/Gaul 395 to 410 He lived 370 to 410 and conquered Italy, Spain, and south Gaul, as Visigoths fled from Huns to Roman lands.

Attila or Attila the Hun or Scourge of God king Hungary 433 to 453 He lived 406 to 453 and led Huns during conquests. Ostrogoths lost to Huns under Attila and went westward [433]. Huns got tribute from Byzantine Empire and from tribes in central and east Europe. After he died, Huns settled in Hungary and Austria.

Aun king Uppsala, Sweden 450 to 480 He was buried at Old Uppsala in mounds. He is in Beowulf and Ynglinga Saga of Iceland.

Adils or Eadgils king Uppsala, Sweden 460 to 505 He lived 450 to 505, was Ottar Vendilkraka's son, and was buried at Old Uppsala in mounds. He is in Beowulf and Ynglinga Saga of Iceland.

403 Gundobad king Lyon, Burgundy 473 to 516 Roman law of Burgundians [501 to 515] He lived ? to 516, was king of Burgundy [473 to 516], was Patrician of Western Roman Empire [472 to 473], and issued short, unsystematic set of Roman laws [501 to 515].

Theodoric the Great king Ravenna, Italy 474 to 526 Edict of Theodoric [508: short and unsystematic book of Roman laws] He lived 454 to 526, was Ostrogoth king [474 to 526], and defeated Vandals under Odoacer several times in Italy [481] [484], starting Ostrogoth kingdom [493]. He believed in Arianism, which was contrary to Catholic orthodoxy, and had trouble with the pope.

Clovis I or Chlodowech or Chlodwig king Belgium/France/Germany 481 to 511 He lived 466 to 511, was Salian Frank king [465 to 511], and united Franks, founding Merovingian Dynasty and Frankish Kingdom [481]. Capital was at Lutetia (Paris). Using stirrups for horses, he defeated Romans, Alemanni, Burgundians, and Visigoths and ruled down to Loire River. Franks became Christian. He married Catholic princess of Burgundy and became Christian later. At his death, his sons got parts of his lands.

Alaric II king Rome, Italy 484 to 507 Roman Law of Visigoths or Alaric's Breviary [506] He lived ? to 507 and issued short, unsystematic set of Roman laws [506]. Clovis defeated Alaric II at Battle of Campus Vogladenis [507].

Arthur king England 500 The legendary king lived at Camelot and founded Knights of the Round Table.

Egil or Ongentheow king Uppsala, Sweden 515 to 530 He was Aun's son and was buried at Old Uppsala in mounds. He is in Beowulf and Ynglinga Saga of Iceland.

Dagobert I king France 639 He lived 605 to 639, united Merovingian Frankish kingdoms, and controlled Bretons and Basques.

Recceswinth king Toledo, Spain 649 to 672

404 Visigothic Code [654] He codified law, based on Alaric's code [654].

Charles Martel [Martel, Charles] king France 714 to 741 He lived 688 to 741, was Frankish king [714 to 741] from Austrasia east of Rhine River, united former Merovingian kingdoms of Franks, won Battle of Tours [733], and founded Carolingian line. He helped Boniface convert Germany to Christianity. He was grandfather of Charlemagne.

Abd-al-Rahman I ruler Spain 721 to 732 He was governor of Spain [721 to 732], fought Battle of Toulouse [721], and invaded France again, but lost at Tours (Poitiers) to Charles Martel of Franks [732].

Leo the Isaurian or Leo the Syrian king Rome, Italy 730 Ecloga or Selections [730] He lived 685 to 741 and issued short unsystematic law set in Greek [730] and new decrees in maritime law and feudalism.

Pepin the Short king France 751 to 768 He lived 714 to 768 and started Carolingian Dynasty of Franks when he became Frank king by election [751]. He deposed last Merovingian king, defended Rome from Lombards twice, and gave his acquisitions in Italy, including Ravenna, to the pope, creating Papal States [756]. The pope gave him the title Patrician of Rome. He then fought Saxons, who were pagan, and drove Moorish Kingdom behind Pyrenees. He was father of Charlemagne.

Abdu-r-Rahman I or Abdurrahman I or Abdur Rahman I emir Spain 756 to 788 He lived ? to 788, went to Spain after escaping from Abu Muslem, and became emir of Cordoba. North Spain also contained Kingdoms of Leon, Castile, Navarre, Aragon, and Barcelona.

Cynewulf king/poet Northumbria, England/Mercia, England 757 to 786 Christ II [760 to 780: religious poem]; Elene [760 to 780: religious poem]; Fates of the Apostles [760 to 780: religious poem]; Juliana [760 to 780: religious poem] He was king of West Saxons or Wessex [757 to 786]. He wrote in Old English.

Charlemagne king France/Germany 771 to 813 He lived 742 to 813. Of Carolingian Dynasty of Franks, he united Franks again [771]. He defeated Spanish Moors and set up Spanish March, from along Pyrenees down to Ebro River and Catalonia. He took Austria [788], defeated

405 Saxons, converted them, and restored Leo III to Holy See after defeating Lombards. He got Carinthia and Bohemia from Avars, Wends, and Slavs. He set up the Dane Mark or Dane March at Elbe River in north Germany to stop Danes. He became emperor of Western Empire of Rome [800], when Pope Leo III, who had regained Rome by Charlemagne's conquests, crowned him. Western Empire of Rome had France, Germany, and Italy. Capital was at Aachen. Charlemagne presided at synods and ruled the bishops. Alcuin of York was his teacher, founded palace school at Aachen, ran library, and taught at Tours. Einhard wrote life of Charlemagne. It used Carolingian alphabet to copy Bibles and books. Charlemagne set weights and measures to one silver pound equal to 240 pennies {denarii}. Charlemagne and Catholic Church developed new warfare rules. He established royal court {aula regis}, which was superior to popular courts. He also issued decrees {capitulary} on the poor, general welfare, and education, with his council's consent. He sent envoys {missi, envoy} to all empire parts to force law obeyance and inspect. He contacted Byzantine and Islamic Empires. Art was for religious purposes, not just personal glory.

Offa king England/Wales 778 to 797 He was king of Mercia in central England, fought south Wales [778], and built dike [784] between England and Wales.

Egbert or Ecgbehrt or Ecgbert king England 802 to 839 He lived 770 to 839, was king of Wessex [802 to 839], defeated Mercia at Battle of Ellendun [825], and united England.

Louis I or Louis the Pious emperor France 814 to 840 He lived 778 to 840, was Charlemagne's son, and was Frank. He negotiated at Lugenfeld (Field of Lies) [833] and faced incursions by Norse. His sons were Lothair I, Charles II the Bald, and Louis the German, who rebelled often.

Louis the German king Germany 817 to 876 He lived 804 to 876, was Louis I the Pious' son, got Germany [817], and was East Frank king [817 to 876].

Lothair I or Lothar I king Lotharingia, Germany/Italy 840 to 855 He lived 795 to 855, was Louis I the Pious' son, and got Lotharingia and Italy [817 to 855], and led Holy Roman Empire [840 to 855].

Charles the Bald or Charles II king France 843 to 877 He lived 823 to 877, was Louis I the Pious' son, got south and west France [843 to 877], held Council of Pistes [864], and led Holy Roman Empire [875 to 877].

406 Boris I king Bulgaria 852 to 889 He lived ? to 907 and was khan [852 to 889]. Bulgaria became Christian [865].

Harold I or Harold Luva king Norway 866 to 874 He was Viking in southeast Norway and became first king of Norway at Hafrs Fjord [872], uniting small kingdoms and causing some losers to go to Iceland and other losers, under Rollo, to go to Normandy.

Alfred the Great king England 866 to 899 Doom Book or Code of Alfred or Legal Code of Aelfred the Great [890]; Anglo-Saxon Chronicle [890] He lived 849 to 899 and was West Saxon king [866 to 889]. He defeated Danes [871], captured London, and limited Danes to the Danelaw: East Anglia, Midlands, York, Lincoln, Nottingham, Derby, Leicester, and Stamford. Northumbria in Scotland, Wales in west Britain, Mercia in middle-south Britain, and Wessex in southwest England were free. He recaptured some of the Danelaw from Danes [886], becoming king of all England. He codified laws, emphasized Christianity, and started navy, schools, and writing. He set up fortified sites {burgh} and shires. He commissioned Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, history of England.

Basilius Macedo or Basilius the Macedonian or Basilius I emperor Constantinople 867 to 886 Imperial Law [888] He lived ? to 886, was Byzantine emperor [867 to 886], started Macedonian dynasty [867 to 1081], and issued law condensations [888] and new decrees in maritime law and feudalism.

Leo the Wise king Constantinople 886 to 912 Imperial Law [888] He lived 862 to 912, was Basilius' son, and restated Roman law in 60 books, abridging all previous work and eliminating obsolete law.

Simeon I king Bulgaria 888 to 927 He lived 864 to 927, was king of Bulgaria [888 to 927], took Serbia [925], and was first tsar of Bulgarian Empire [925 to 927].

Edward the Elder king Wessex, England 899 to 925 Edward recaptured all the Danelaw from Danes.

Gorm the Old king

407 Denmark 899 to 936 He lived 855 to 936 and regained independence from Sweden [899]. Jelling was capital. He was father of Harold I.

Wenceslaus king/duke Bohemia 907 to 929 He was Duke of Bohemia [907 to 929], promoted Christianity, and negotiated peace with Henry I of Saxony [929]. He is Roman Catholic patron saint of Bohemia.

Conrad of Franconia or Conrad I king Franconia, Germany 911 to 918 He lived 890 to 918 and was Duke of Franconia [906 to 918]. East Franks chose him leader against Magyars [911].

Charles III or Charles the Simple king France 911 to 922 He lived 879 to 929, was king [893 to 922], and gave Norsemen Duchy of Normandy [911] to keep peace and to become Christians.

Rollo or Rolf or Rolph the Ganger duke Normandy 911 to 932 He lived 860 to 932. Charles III of France gave Viking Rollo Duchy of Normandy [911 to 932] to keep peace and become Christians.

Abd-al-Rahman III caliph Cordoba, Spain 912 to 961 He lived 891 to 961, was Omayyad, started Cordova Caliphate, and supported arts and industry. Artisans invented paper.

Henry I or Henry the Fowler king Saxony 919 to 936 He lived 876 to 936, was father of Otto I, and was first Saxon king [919]. He defeated Wends, took Lotharingia, and defeated Magyars. Denmark became vassals.

Athelstan or Athelstan the Glorious king England 925 to 939 He lived 895 to 939, was Alfred the Great's grandson, was king of England [925 to 939], and defeated Scots, Irish, and Danes at Battle of Brunanburg [937] in north England.

Boleslav I or Boleslaus the Cruel king Poland/Bohemia 929 to 967

408 He lived 915 to 967 or 972, killed Wenceslaus [929], and was duke of Bohemia [929 to 967].

Otto I or Otto the Great king Saxony 936 to 973 He lived 912 to 973. Of Brandenburg Dynasty or Ottonian Dynasty of Saxon emperors, he was Henry the Fowler's son, became Saxon king [636], united France and Germany, and took Italy [951]. The pope crowned him Holy Roman emperor [962]. He fought France, conquered Lombardy, and aided Pope John XII.

Hywel Dda or Howell Oda or Howell the Good prince Wales 942 Law of Hywel Dda [942] He was king of Deheubarth, took Gwynedd, and ruled Wales [942]. He codified law in south Wales [942].

Mieszko I king Poland 963 to 992 He lived 935 to 992 and was Piast duke of Poland [963]. He preceded Boleslav I, who started independent kingdom.

Sviatoslav I duke Kiev, Ukraine 964 to 972 He lived 945 to 972, was Grand Prince of Kiev [964 to 972], defeated Khazars, and marched to Caucasus and Balkans, taking Belorussia.

Harold Bluetooth king Denmark 985 He lived 911 to 986 and was Gorm the Old's son.

Svend I or Sweyn or Sweyn Forkbeard or Swegen or Swein king England/Norway/Denmark 986 to 1014 He lived 960 to 1014, was Harold Bluetooth's son, was king of Denmark [986 to 1014], took England [1013], allied with Sweden, and defeated King Olaf I of Norway, dividing Norway [999 to 1014].

Hugh Capet [Capet, Hugh] king France 987 to 996 He lived 938 to 996, deposed Carolingian line, and became king of France [987], starting Capetian line.

Stephen I king Hungary 997 to 1038 He lived 969 to 1038, was first of Arpad dynasty, accepted Christianity, and was first king of Hungary. Magyars became Christians. Nobles {magnate, Hungary} grew more powerful.

409 Otto III king Holy Roman Empire 998 to 1002 He lived 980 to 1002, was king in Germany [983 to 1002], was Holy Roman emperor [998 to 1002], deposed the pope, set up German pope, and then set up French pope.

Brian Boru [Boru, Brian] king Ireland 1002 to 1014 He lived 941 to 1014, was king of Munster [997], and became High King of Ireland [1002]. He defeated Vikings and dissident nobles at Battle of Clontarf [1014], but someone killed him afterward.

Olaf II Haraldsson king Norway 1015 to 1028 He lived 995 to 1030, established Christianity, and fled when King Canute's followers revolted [1028].

Canute I or Canute the Great or Cnut king Denmark/England/Norway/Sweden 1016 to 1035 He lived 994 to 1035, was Sweyn's son, was Viking king, and united Denmark, England, and Norway [1016]. He codified laws and brought peace and Christianity.

Henry III or Henry the Black or Henry the Pious emperor Holy Roman Empire 1028 to 1056 He lived 1017 to 1056 and was of Salian dynasty. Holy Roman Empire was at greatest extent. He supported reform by Benedictine Cluniac monastic order, which wanted a government-free church, and helped elect a German reform pope. In 1046, he deposed three popes and nominated popes.

Magnus I king Norway 1035 to 1047 He lived 1024 to 1047 and became king when Canute died [1035]. He was king of Denmark [1042 to 1047].

Fernando I or Ferdinand I or Ferdinand the Great king Spain 1035 to 1065 He lived 1017 to 1065. King of Castile [1035 to 1065] and Leon [1037] subjugated Moors in Seville, Toledo, Saragossa, and Badajoz [1065] and controlled Spain.

MacBeth king Scotland 1040 to 1057 He lived 1020 to 1057, defeated Duncan [1040], killed him to take over kingdom, and then lost part of kingdom to Malcolm [1054].

Edward III or Edward the Confessor

410 king England 1042 to 1066 He lived 1003 to 1066, reduced taxes, and struggled with Godwin. He chose Godwin's son as heir, leading to Norman Conquest of England [1066].

Henry IV emperor Germany/Austria 1056 to 1105 He lived 1050 to 1106, was king of Germany [1056 to 1105], and established Holy Roman Empire rule over duchies [1084]. He and Pope Gregory VIII clashed over bishop and abbot investiture [1075]. He appointed his own bishops in defiance of Pope Gregory VII. Threatened with revolt, he humbled himself in the snow before the pope, but civil war started anyway. He invaded Italy, forced Pope Gregory VII from Rome, and named Guibert of Ravenna pope. Guibert crowned him emperor [1084]. His son Henry V forced him to abdicate [1105].

Harold king England 1066 He lived 1022 to 1066. Witan assembly elected him king [1066], with Pope's sanction. He lost and died at Battle of Hastings [1066].

William I or William the Conqueror king London, England 1066 to 1087 Domesday Book [1086: census of England for taxation purposes, for William the Conqueror] He lived 1027 to 1087, was Duke of Normandy, and conquered England, led by Harold, at Battle of Hastings [1066] during Norman Conquest. He built many castles, brought in priests from France, started separate ecclesiastical courts, surveyed England, and demanded loyalty first to king then to nobles. Norman kings followed. He sent representatives to preside over county courts, rather than use clergy. He held all land parcels directly or indirectly.

Alfonso VI or Alfonso the Brave king Castile 1072 to 1109 He lived 1040 to 1109, was king of León [1065 to 1109], was king of Castile [1072 to 1109], and attacked Muslim kingdoms in Spain.

Ladislaus I king Croatia/Hungary 1077 to 1095 He lived 1040 to 1095 and got Croatia and Hungary [1077] after Boleslaus III of Poland died.

Matilda of Tuscany queen Tuscany 1077 to 1115 She lived 1046 to 1115, was countess of Tuscany [1077 to 1115], and gave her land to the pope [1115].

Henry of Burgundy king Burgundy/Portugal/Coimbra, Spain 1093 to 1112

411 He lived 1066 to 1112, was duke of Burgundy, and became Count of Portugal [1093].

Henry V emperor Holy Roman Empire 1105 to 1125 He lived 1086 to 1125, deposed his father, was Germany king [1099 to 1125], was Holy Roman emperor [1111 to 1125], was of Salian Dynasty, captured the pope and cardinals, and forced them to allow him to appoint his own bishops.

David I king Scotland 1124 to 1153 He lived 1082 to 1153 and started feudal system.

Lothair II or Lothar II emperor Holy Roman Empire 1125 to 1137 He lived 1070 to 1137, was king of Germany [1125 to 1137], and was Holy Roman emperor [1133 to 1137] after election by nobles, who elected all later emperors.

Eleanor of Aquitaine queen France/England 1137 to 1204 She lived 1122 to 1204 and was queen to Louis VII of France [1137 to 1152]. Later, she got annulment, became queen of Henry II of Burgundy and England [1152 to 1189], set up her court at Poitiers, helped her sons revolt against Henry II, and got her son Richard I kingship of England [1189 to 1199], then her son John [1199 to 1216].

Alfonso I king Lisbon, Portugal 1139 to 1185 He lived 1110 to 1185, was Henry of Burgundy's son, and was first king of Portugal [1139 to 1185], becoming independent of Castile. He took Lisbon [1147], Cadiz, and Murcia from Caliphate. He favored art and learning.

Conrad III emperor Germany 1148 to 1152 He lived 1093 to 1152, was king of Germany [1138 to 1152], and was first Hohenstaufen emperor of Holy Roman Empire [1148]. In Second Crusade, he sailed to Antioch to establish Principality of Antioch and sailed to Tyre to hold it. He struggled with papacy.

Eric IX or Erik the Lawgiver or Erik the Saint king Sweden 1150 to 1160 He lived 1120 to 1160, established Christianity in north Sweden, and conquered Finland [1157].

Frederick I or Frederick Barbarossa or Frederick Red Beard emperor Germany/Austria 1152 to 1190

412 He lived 1123 to 1190 and was duke of Swabia as Frederick III [1147 to 1190]. As Hohenstaufen emperor of Holy Roman Empire [1152 to 1190], he elevated Henry the Lion in Saxony and Bavaria but then humiliated him and ended last duchies of Germany [1152]. As king of Germany, he then proclaimed general peace. As emperor, he started calling Germany Holy Roman Empire. He fought Pope Alexander III and Lombard League but lost at Legnano and accepted Peace of Constance [1183], guaranteeing Lombard-city freedom. He led Third Crusade [1189] against Saladin, but he drowned.

Henry II king England 1154 to 1189 He lived 1133 to 1189, was king [1154 to 1189], founded English jury and court system, and was first of Plantagenet Dynasty. He was Duke of Burgundy and married Eleanor of Aquitaine. He invaded England and defeated barons. He struggled with Thomas à Becket over whose courts tried clergymen. He convened Great Council [1164], which proclaimed Constitutions of Clarendon, which gave more power to king's courts to try clergymen. His knights murdered Thomas à Becket, and people's reaction forced him to do penance. After he had Thomas à Becket killed, he rescinded Constitutions of Clarendon. He took north England and Wales. Pope Adrian IV awarded him Ireland, and he invaded it [1167]. He struggled with his son. He invaded Ireland again [1172]. Richard I, Eleanor's son, and Philip II of France defeated him [1185].

Waldemar I or Waldemar the Great king Denmark 1157 to 1182 He lived 1131 to 1182, defeated Sweyn [1157] at Viborg, and ruled north Scandinavia.

Philip II or Philip Augustus king France 1180 to 1223 He lived 1165 to 1223. Of Capetian Dynasty, he joined Third Crusade to take back Jerusalem [1191] but retreated to Egypt. He conquered Angevins in west. He increased king's power over nobles, created law court and advisory council, and warred on England to regain his lands. France became the greatest European power at Bouvines [1214], doubling kingdom's size. He fought the Albigenses religious sect, which controlled south France. He ended serfdom, built cathedrals and cities, and presided over prosperity.

Sverre king Norway 1184 to 1202 He lived 1151 to 1202 and established power over nobles [1201].

Richard I or Richard the Lionhearted king England 1189 to 1199 He lived 1157 to 1199 and fought his father Henry II to gain crown. He went on Third Crusade [1189] and his brother John became king. Leopold II imprisoned him and then gave him to Henry VI. Ransom released him, and he fought Philip of France. He returned to England and regained his crown.

Baldwin VI of Hainaut [Hainaut, Baldwin VI of] or Baldwin IX of Flanders duchy Flanders 1191 to 1195 He lived 1150 to 1195. The count of Hainaut took Flanders, but Ghent, Bruges, and Ypres remained independent.

413 Ottocar I king Bohemia 1198 to 1230 He lived ? to 1230, was duke [1197 to 1198], and was king [1198 to 1230].

John I king England 1199 to 1215 He lived 1167 to 1216 and became king while Richard I was on Third Crusade. He had Richard held captive abroad. He lost Brittany to Philip II of France. Barons forced him to sign Magna Carta [1215]. He exiled all Catholic monks. The pope interdicted and excommunicated all of England. England had war threats. King John became vassal to Pope.

Waldemar II king Denmark 1202 to 1241 He lived 1170 to 1241 and ruled north Scandinavia.

Frederick II emperor Germany/Austria 1215 to 1250 He lived 1194 to 1250. Of Hohenstaufen Dynasty of Holy Roman Empire, he became king {anti-king} in opposition to Otto IV [1210]. He peacefully got Jerusalem, Nazareth, and Bethlehem [1228] by treaty. He fought Pope Gregory IX, Pope Innocent III, and Pope Innocent IV [1239 to 1250] and conquered Italy. His court was in Sicily. Law, currency, and commerce reforms, and arts and science expansion, made his era the Proto-Renaissance. After he died [1250], the pope became ruler of Italy.

Henry III king England 1216 to 1272 Provisions of Oxford [1258] He lived 1207 to 1272, was John's son, and was king [1227 to 1272]. Regency [1216 to 1227] lost in invasions of Gascony and Brittany and spent much money. As Plantagenet, he became king [1227]. Barons' War under Simon de Montfort defeated him at Lewes [1263]. Barons called Parliament but then lost to Edward I.

Haakon IV king Norway 1217 to 1263 He lived 1204 to 1263 and reformed legal system and got Iceland and Greenland [1223].

Ivan Asen II king Bulgaria 1218 to 1241 Trnovo was capital.

Louis IX king France 1226 to 1270

414 He lived 1215 to 1270, was Capetian, stopped invasion by England, stopped warring nobles of France, led Seventh Crusade to Egypt, was captive at El Mansura [1250], and crusaded against Tunis. He improved taxation, gave right of appeal to all, streamlined administration, and built Gothic cathedrals. He became Roman Catholic saint.

Alexander Nevski [Nevski, Alexander] grand duke Russia 1236 to 1263 He lived 1220 to 1263, led Novgorod [1236], and was Grand Prince of Vladimir [1252].

John I of Avesnes count Holland/Belgium/Luxembourg 1246 to 1257 He lived 1218 to 1257 and ruled Holland, Belgium, and Luxembourg as count of Hainaut.

Ottocar II king Bohemia/Austria 1253 to 1278 He lived 1230 to 1278, was Premysl, was King of Bohemia [1253 to 1278], and was Duke of Austria [1253 to 1276]. As King of Bohemia, he took Austria from Brandenbergs of Saxony [1251].

Premysl or Otakar II or Ottokar II or Premysl Otakar [Otakar, Premysl] duke Bohemia 1253 to 1278 He lived 1230 to 1278 and was king of Bohemia [1253 to 1278]. Premysls or Przemysls were under Holy Roman Empire, ruled Bohemia, and acquired Silesia and Moravia.

Charles I or Stephen d'Anjou king Naples, Italy 1262 to 1285 He lived 1226 to 1285, was king of Sicily [1262 to 1282] and king of Naples [1282 to 1285], was of Angevin family, and led Guelphs to control of Italy by beating Ghibellines under Manfred [1266]. Sicilian Vespers revolt [1282], instigated by Peter III of Aragon, ended his rule in Silicy.

Magnus VI king Norway 1263 to 1280 He lived 1238 to 1280 and settled with Scotland [1266] and codified law [1274].

Philip III king France 1270 to 1285 He lived 1245 to 1285 and was of Capetian Dynasty.

Edward I or English Justinian king/lawmaker England 1272 to 1307

415 Statute of Mortmain [1279: king controlled church land acquisitions]; Hundred Rolls [1279 to 1280: great landholders had to prove title to land]; First and Second Statutes of Westminster [1285 and 1290: codified statutes of England] He lived 1239 to 1307, was king [1272 to 1307], won Baron's War for his father, conquered Wales [1282 to 1284], and fought Scotland. He reformed laws. He reduced private and church courts and limited Church courts to church matters, in Circumspecte Agatis. He permitted attachments of feudal lands by merchants, in Statute of Merchants. He issued Statute of Mortmain decree, which prohibited land transfer to Church without king's consent [1300]. He reproclaimed Magna Charta. He formed Model Parliament [1295] of barons, clergy, and merchants and promised no taxes without its consent. Parliament had two knights from every shire and two burgesses from every town. He granted Parliament right to present petitions to king. He defeated Scottish armies and ruled Scotland directly [1296 to 1307] but died in 1307. Near end of his reign, judicial scandal caused court reform, and thereafter judges were people trained in law, not churchmen or courtiers.

Rudolf I emperor Austria 1273 to 1291 He lived 1218 to 1291. As duke of Austria, he became emperor and started Hapsburg dynasty. He was friendly with the pope and tried to check the robber barons. He defeated Ottocar II of Bohemia, gained Austria, and united Germany.

Diniz or Dinis or Denis of Portugal king Portugal 1279 to 1325 He lived 1261 to 1325 and fought Knights Templar, founded university, and helped farmers.

Philip IV king France 1285 to 1314 He lived 1268 to 1314. Of Capetian Dynasty, he tried to extend clergy taxation and stop gold export, which angered Pope Boniface VIII. He arrested Bishop Saisset for rebellion, called first States-General, and captured the pope. He had Pope Clement V elected and moved him to Avignon, France. He got money by confiscating wealth of bankers in Lombardy, Jews in France, and Knights Templar. He lost at Guienne to Edward I of England and failed to control Flanders in Battle of the Spurs.

Edward II king England 1307 to 1327 He lived 1284 to 1327.

John of Luxembourg king Bohemia 1310 to 1346 He lived 1310 to 1346, became Bohemia king, and became overlord of Silesia dukes [1335].

Robert Bruce [Bruce, Robert] king Scotland 1314 to 1329 He lived 1274 to 1329, defeated English at Bannockburn in central Scotland [1314], and became king of Scotland.

416 Louis IV or Ludwig the Bavarian king Bavaria 1314 to 1347 He lived 1282 to 1347 and defeated Frederick the Fair at Muhlberg [1322]. He struggled against Pope Clement VII.

Magnus VII or Magnus Ericsson king Norway/Sweden 1319 to 1363 He lived 1316 to 1377. Nobles elected him king. He united Sweden [1319 to 1363] and Norway [1319 to 1343] and allied with Waldemar IV, king of Denmark, but Hanseatic League defeated him. His son was Haakon VI. Albert of Mecklenburg replaced Magnus VII and Haakon VI.

Waldemar III king Denmark 1326 to 1329 He lived 1314 to 1364 and was Duke of Schleswig [1330 to 1364].

Philip VI king France 1328 to 1346 He lived 1293 to 1350, deposed Capetian kings of France, and became first Valois king by Salic law. He got control of Flanders, began Hundred Years War, and ended its first phase with his defeat at Crecy.

Edward III king England 1330 to 1377 He lived 1327 to 1377 and was king [1327 to 1377]. He gained power [1330] but failed to subdue Scotland. He entered Hundred Years War [1337 to 1359] with his son Edward the Black Prince, which ended with Treaty of London. He had money troubles with Parliament. He caused economic crash by defaulting on payments to Bardi and Peruzzi families of Florence [1339]. Through his mother, he claimed he was king of France. He agreed to get consent of Parliament for all laws [1350]. Statute of Laborers [1351] tried to make all work have wage ceiling and set fixed prices. Wat Taylor rebellion was series of revolts against it. Finally, king ended Statute and promised end to serfdom. He saw Black Death cause demands for social change. He had trouble with church and John Wyclif. He ended Brehon Laws of Ireland. He appointed judges {Justices of the Peace} to preside over national courts in shires [1361]. The Good Parliament [1376] elected Speaker to represent Commons and spoke against high taxes.

Stephen Dushan [Dushan, Stephen] or Stefan Dusan [Dusan, Stefan] king Serbia 1331 to 1355 He lived 1308 to 1355, took Bulgaria, Macedonia, and Thessaly from Byzantine Empire, controlled Montenegro, and attacked Constantinople.

Richard II king England 1337 to 1399 He lived 1312 to 1400, defeated peasants after revolt, and had to deal with barons under Earl of Gloucester. He married Charles IV of France's daughter [1396]. He banished his cousin Henry of Bolingbroke for accusing Duke of Norfolk of treason. Later, Henry of Bolingbroke, who became Henry IV, forced him to abdicate.

417 Waldemar IV king Denmark 1340 to 1375 He lived 1320 to 1375 and fought Hanseatic League but lost. He reunited Denmark and allied with Magnus VII, king of Norway and Sweden, but he lost to Hanseatic League. He took Norway by beating Albert of Mecklenburg, Swedish king.

Louis I or Louis the Great king Hungary 1342 to 1382 He lived 1326 to 1382, got Dalmatia, defeated Ottoman Empire, mastered nearby lands, and ruled Poland [1370 to 1382], displacing Piasts.

Charles IV emperor Holy Roman Empire 1355 to 1378 He lived 1316 to 1378, was king of Germany and Bohemia [1346 to 1378], and wrote Golden Bull [1356], which lasted until 1806. It established seven prince-electors as diet legislative upper house. They elected emperor. Brandenburg, Bohemia, and Saxony were the important electors. Other princes were in diet middle house. City representatives were in diet lower assembly.

Edward the Black Prince prince France 1356 He lived 1330 to 1376 and defeated France at Poitiers [1356] and captured the French king, John II.

Charles V or Charles the Wise king France 1364 to 1380 He lived 1338 to 1380 and put down Jacquerie Revolt of peasants against nobles and army. He gave rights to assembly {States-General} but revoked those rights to stop the power of Étienne Marcel and Charles the Bad. He appointed Du Guesclin as constable of France, who drove England out of France [1734]. He increased taxes and developed standing army. He favored learning under his ministers, Marmousets.

Ferdinand I king Portugal 1367 to 1383 He lived 1345 to 1383 and fought Castile [1369].

Margaret queen Denmark 1380 She lived 1353 to 1412 and was queen of Denmark [1388 to 1412], Sweden [1375 to 1412], and Norway [1389 to 1412].

Charles VI or Charles the Mad or Charles the Well-Beloved king France 1380 to 1411

418 He lived 1368 to 1422.

John I or John the Great king Portugal 1385 to 1433 He lived 1357 to 1433. As master of Knights of Aviz, he cooperated in revolt against Spain and, with Pereira of Portugal, defeated Castile at Aljubarota. He defeated Moors, allied with England, and began colonization and exploration. He started Aviz Dynasty.

Ladislaus II or Jagiello king Poland/Lithuania 1386 to 1434 He lived 1350 to 1434, was grand duke of Lithuania [1378 to 1401], became Ladislaus II king of Poland [1386 to 1434], and founded Jagiello Dynasty and Polish-Lithuanian kingdom, strongest in east Europe.

Henry IV king England 1399 to 1413 He lived 1367 to 1413, invaded England in Richard II's absence, and then put down Scotland, Wales, and Percy rebellions. He founded Lancaster Dynasty, whose symbol was the white rose. Lancaster Dynasty was Henry IV, Henry V, and Henry VI.

Witowt king Lithuania 1401 to 1430 He lived 1350 to 1430 and ruled Lithuania at height.

Louis de France duke Orleans, France 1407 He lived 1372 to 1407. As Duke of Orleans, he caused civil war between south-France Armagnacs and east-France Burgundians [1407]. He started Valois-Orleans kings [1411].

Henry V king England 1413 to 1422 He lived 1387 to 1422. Of Lancaster Dynasty, as Prince Hal, he defeated Glendower and army of Wales. He invaded France [1415], restarting Hundred Years War. He defeated France at Agincourt, France [1415], and conquered Normandy [1417 to 1419]. He put down Lollards [1417]. He married French king's daughter.

Philip the Good duke/count Burgundy/Flanders 1419 to 1467 He lived 1396 to 1467 and was duke of Burgundy and count of Flanders. He took Luxembourg, Netherlands, and Belgium [1433]. He sponsored Treaty of Troyes, giving England rule of Normandy. He supported Pragueries nobles against Charles VII. Then he allied with Charles VII of France in Treaty of Arras.

Charles VII or Charles the Victorious or Charles the Well-Served king

419 France 1422 to 1461 He lived 1403 to 1461. Joan of Arc rallied him at Orleans [1429]. He allied with Burgundy [1435] and ended Hundred Years War against England [1453]. He strengthened finances with Jacques Coeur, wealthy Orient trader. Coeur left after someone poisoned Agnes Sorel, Charles' mistress. Charles VII put down Praguerie revolt of nobles.

Henry VI king England 1422 to 1471 He lived 1421 to 1471. During his regency, England lost to Joan of Arc and France in Hundred Years War. Queen Margaret of Anjou and Duke of Somerset were Lancaster regents and leaders. Of Lancaster Dynasty, he became king of France [1430] but lost Paris when Burgundians ended alliance [1436]. Richard, Duke of York, whose symbol was the red rose, fought Queen Margaret of Anjou and Duke of Somerset for kingship in Wars of the Roses, captured Henry VI, and killed Somerset at St. Albans [1455]. He lost kingship [1461] but got it back [1470 to 1471].

Henry the Navigator or Dom Henrique king Portugal 1434 to 1460 He lived 1394 to 1460 and was King John I of Portugal's son. Of Aviz Dynasty, he sent Vasco de Gama to discover Africa at Angola. Portuguese reached Cape Bojaddor [1434], Cape Verde Islands [1444], Azores [1444], and Senegal [1445]. He sent Cabral to discover Brazil. He sent Almeida and Albuquerque to discover East Indies. The pope gave monopoly on Africa to Portugal by Pontifex Romanus [1455]. He started slave trade. He commissioned maps, scales, and cartography.

Alfonso V king Portugal 1438 to 1481 He lived 1432 to 1481. Of Aviz Dynasty, he monopolized African trade by lease. Portuguese reached Equator [1473] and Vongo [1482]. Fort was at Elmina, Guinea [1481]. Bartolomeu Diaz reached Cape of Good Hope [1487]. Portuguese reached Calicut, India [1498].

Frederick II margrave Brandenburg 1440 to 1470 He lived 1413 to 1471, was Elector of Brandenburg, and was Hapsburg.

John Hunyadi [Hunyadi, John] general Hungary 1441 to 1456 He lived 1385 to 1456, was governor of Transylvania [1441], and took Belgrade from Ottoman Empire [1456].

Casimir IV king Poland/Lithuania 1447 to 1492 He lived 1427 to 1492 and united Poland with Grand Duchy of Lithuania [1447].

Frederick III emperor Germany/Austria 1452 to 1493

420 He lived 1415 to 1493. Of Hapsburg Dynasty of Holy Roman Empire, he used marriages to try to make Austria rule world.

Stephen the Great prince Moldavia 1457 to 1504 He lived 1437 to 1504.

Matthias Corvinus [Corvinus, Matthias] or Messala Corvinus [Corvinus, Messala] king Hungary/Bohemia 1458 to 1490 He lived 1443 to 1490, was king of Hungary [1458 to 1490], conquered and became king of Bohemia [1478 to 1490] and Austria, founded Corvina library at Buda or Budapest, and fought Ottoman Empire.

Edward IV king England 1461 to 1483 He lived 1442 to 1483, defeated Duke of Lancaster, and captured Henry VI. He lost later to Earl of Warwick and Margaret of Anjou, queen to Henry VI [1470], but then he defeated them [1471]. He founded York kings. He was Richard Duke of York's son. York kings were Edward IV, Edward V, and Richard III.

Louis XI king France 1461 to 1483 He lived 1423 to 1483 and was Valois. As dauphin, he conspired against his father Charles VII. He submitted to League of the Public Weal, led by Charles the Bold of Burgundy and Francis II of Brittany, but then he reneged. He got Peace of Ancenis from Francis II but then helped the captured Charles the Bold stop revolt of Liege. He took part of Mary of Burgundy's lands at her death. He revoked Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges [1461], which had limited the pope's authority and asserted French Roman Catholic Church's independence.

Ivan III or Ivan the Great grand duke Moscow, Russia 1462 to 1505 He lived 1440 to 1505, freed Moscow from Golden Horde or Tatar Empire [1480], expanded state, threw out German merchants, and took Novgorod. He married last Byzantine Emperor's niece and called himself Tsar.

Charles the Bold duke Burgundy 1467 to 1477 He lived 1433 to 1477, controlled Low Countries, and fought Louis XI of France. He was Philip the Good's son.

Lorenzo de' Medici leader Florence, Italy 1469 to 1492 He lived 1449 to 1492, stopped Pazzi Conspiracy [1748], fought the pope [until 1481], and failed to check Savonarola [1492 to 1494].

Isabella I queen

421 Castile/Leon 1469 to 1504 She lived 1451 to 1504 and married Ferdinand V [1469], king of Aragon, to found Spanish monarchy.

Ladislaus II or Uladislaus II king Bohemia/Hungary 1471 to 1516 He lived 1456 to 1516, had a double marriage treaty, was king of Hungary [1490 to 1516], and was Ladislaus II king of Bohemia [1471 to 1516].

Ferdinand V king Aragon/Castile 1474 to 1516 He lived 1452 to 1516, was king of Castile [1474 to 1504], was Ferdinand II of Aragon [1479 to 1516] and Ferdinand II of Sicily [1468 to 1516], and married Isabella I of Castile and Leon to unite Spain [1469]. He took last Moorish city in Spain at Granada [1474]. He expelled Moors and Jews from Spain. He started Spanish Inquisition [1478]. He sent Columbus to America [1492]. He divided overseas colonies with Portugal at Treaty of Tordesillas. He won Navarre in Italian Wars between Spain and France. Isabella I and Ferdinand V are the "Catholic kings".

Mary of Burgundy duchess Flanders 1477 to 1482 She lived 1457 to 1482. When she died, rebellion spread in Flanders.

Maximilian I emperor Holy Roman Empire 1482 to 1519 He lived 1459 to 1519 and married Anne of Brittany to get part of France. Marriage caused war with France. He lost part of France at Treaty of Arras [1482]. He regained it at Treaty of Senlis. He married Mary of Burgundy [1493] to get Low Countries as king of Germany and Burgundy and Holy Roman emperor [1493 to 1519]. As king of Austria, he put down rebellion in Flanders. He married niece of Ludovico Sforza to get Milan. He warred with Venice, leading to fighting in Italian Wars and costing all his money. He reformed, tried to crusade against Turks, encouraged Swabian League, helped merchants, patronized arts, and allowed Protestant Reformation.

Richard III king England 1483 to 1485 He lived 1452 to 1485. Of York Dynasty, he murdered the true king Edward V in Tower of London, put down rebellion of Stafford, lost to Earl of Richmond (Henry VII) at Bosworth Field [1485], and was last of York kings, ending Wars of the Roses.

Henry VII king England/Wales 1485 to 1509 He lived 1465 to 1509 and was first Tudor king of England and Wales. Of Lancaster Dynasty, he invaded England and defeated Richard III of House of York at Bosworth Field [1485]. He married a York and founded Tudor line, ending Wars of the Roses. Tudor line was Henry VII, Henry VIII, Edward VI, Mary I, and Elizabeth I. He subdued Ireland and negotiated peace with Scotland. He founded Star Chamber.

422 Manuel I king Portugal 1495 to 1521 He lived 1469 to 1521 and tried to convert Jews to Christianity, but they left.

Louis XII king France 1498 to 1515 He lived 1462 to 1515, was Valois, and resumed Italian Wars but lost to Holy Roman Empire.

Henry VIII king England 1509 to 1547 He lived 1491 to 1547 and married Katherine of Aragon, who bore Mary I. He allied with France at Field of the Cloth of Gold. His minister was Cardinal Wolsey. Later, Charles V of Holy Roman Empire and he fought France. He got rid of Wolsey when he failed to get divorce. He married Anne Boleyn. Thomas Cromwell became minister and started anti-Catholic policy. He married Anne Boleyn [1530], who bore Elizabeth I. He took the pope's powers for himself, established Church of England, and published the Bible in English. He married Jane Seymour, who bore Edward VI, Anne of Cleves, Catherine Howard, and Catherine Parr. He also took Wales, warred with Scotland, and lost Ireland. In 1534, he split with Roman Catholicism and became English church leader.

Christian II king Denmark 1513 to 1523 He lived 1481 to 1559 and was king of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden [1513 to 1523] and Denmark [1513 to 1523]. Of Oldenburg line, he took Stockholm, Sweden, after Sture family died out at Lake Asunde [1520].

Francis I king France 1515 to 1547 He lived 1494 to 1547. With Venice, he resumed Italian Wars and won at Marignano. He lost election to be emperor of Holy Roman Empire to Charles V [1519]. He failed to ally with England at Field of the Cross of Gold. He attacked Charles V and lost at Pavia [1525]. He signed Treaty of Madrid, giving up claims to Spanish territory. He formed League of Cognac with the pope, Venice, and Florence, leading to another war with Charles V. War ended to League's disadvantage at Treaty of Cambrai [1529]. He allied with Suleiman I of Ottoman Empire and fought Charles V of Holy Roman Empire and Henry VIII of England [1542]. He had to sign Treaty of Crepy, in which France lost Naples and Flanders and Charles V lost Burgundy.

Charles I king Spain 1516 to 1558 He lived 1500 to 1558, was Charles I of Spain [1516 to 1556] and was Charles V of Holy Roman Empire [1519 to 1558]. He fought France under Francis I in Italian Wars, sacked Rome, and got Italy. He then succeeded Ferdinand V and Isabella I as Charles I of Spain. He defeated Schmalkaldic League but compromised his anti-Protestant position by Peace of Augsburg [1555]. He promoted Catholic Reformation. He conquered Mexico and Peru. Silver mined at Potosi, Peru, helped cause inflation in Europe.

Charles V emperor

423 Germany/Austria 1519 to 1554 He lived 1500 to 1558. As Archduke of Austria and king of Spain, nobles elected him Holy Roman Emperor [1519]. Hapsburg Dynasty of Holy Roman Empire included Spain, Latin America, Naples, Sicily, Low Countries, and Austria. He defeated the peasants in Peasants' War [1524 to 1526] and in other uprisings. This preserved feudalism [until 1806]. He had to give power to German princes. He abdicated in favor of his brothers and son [1554] to become Charles I of Spain [until 1556]. As Holy Roman Empire emperor and Austria king, he added territory in Flanders and Holland [1490]. He took Rome and captured Pope Clement VII [1527].

John III king Portugal 1521 to 1557 He lived 1502 to 1557, was Manuel I's son, started Inquisition, and increased slavery. Kingdom was at height.

Gustavus I king Sweden 1523 to 1560 He lived 1496 to 1560. Nobles elected him king after he led peasants revolt against Denmark and dissolved Kalmar Union. He established Lutheran Church [1527]. He ended economic dependence on Hanseatic League by defeating it [1537]. He founded Vasa Dynasty: Gustavus I, Eric XIV, Charles IX, Gustavus II, Christina, Charles X, and Charles XI.

Cosimo I de Medici duke Florence, Italy 1537 to 1574 He lived 1519 to 1574, had absolute power, and led Florence at height. He became grand duke of Tuscany [1569 to 1574] through the pope's order. He was Giovanni de' Medici or Giovanni delle Bande Nere's son [1498 to 1526]. He gained a banking fortune, patronized arts, and started Medici rule.

Mary Stuart or Mary Queen of Scots queen Scotland 1542 to 1587 She lived 1542 to 1587, was queen of Scotland [1542 to 1567], and was queen consort of France [1559 to 1560]. She escaped to England after her husband's murder and her remarriage. She engaged in several attempts to get throne from Queen Elizabeth I, with Catholic support, because she was Catholic. England beheaded her [1587].

Edward VI king England 1547 to 1553 He lived 1537 to 1553 and was under regency of Duke of Somerset, Edward Seymour, who eased heresy and treason laws, favored Protestants, and helped yeomen. Duke of Northumberland engineered Somerset's downfall and caused struggle for throne by opposing Mary I.

Mary I queen England 1553 to 1558 She lived 1516 to 1558. Staunch Catholic, she married Philip II of Spain, allied with Spain, and restored England to Catholic Church. Her religious persecutions made her Bloody Mary.

424 Philip II king Spain 1556 to 1598 He lived 1527 to 1598 and ascended when his father, Charles I, abdicated. He got Netherlands, Belgium, and Luxembourg at Treaty of Augsburg between Spain and Holy Roman Empire. Belgium had Flanders, Hainaut, Limburg, Antwerp, and Brabant. He married Mary I of England but left when he did not become king of England. He fought France. By Treaty of Cateau-Cambresis [1559], Spain became leading European power, holding America, Naples, Sicily, Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, Portugal, Milan, and Franche-Comte in France. He was strong Catholic and emphasized Spanish Inquisition. When he imposed the Inquisition in the Netherlands, William the Silent led rebellion against Duke of Alba. Philip II took Portugal when Henry I died, with support of legislature {Cortes} of Portugal. Because Francis Drake had raided Cadiz and England's navy had helped Netherlands, he built Spanish Armada, but it lost [1588]. He helped Catholic League in Wars of Religion in France. He gained Philippines.

Sebastian king Portugal 1557 to 1578 He lived 1554 to 1578 and lost Africa.

Ferdinand I emperor Austria/Germany/Hungary/Bohemia 1558 to 1564 He lived 1503 to 1564. Of Hapsburg Dynasty of Holy Roman Empire, he fought Suleiman I in Hungary, pushed Protestant Reformation, abolished liberty, fought Peasants' War, and got Peace of Augsburg [1555].

Elizabeth I queen England 1558 to 1603 She lived 1533 to 1603, was Tudor, and built navy, colonies, and trade under her ministers Burghly and Cecil. She favored Anglicans against Protestants and first sheltered then imprisoned Mary, Queen of Scots. She had romances with Earl of Essex and Earl of Leicester.

John of Austria or Don John or Juan of Austria captain Spain/Austria 1571 He lived 1547 to 1578 and defeated Ottoman Empire navy at naval Battle of Lepanto [1571].

Henry III king France 1574 to 1589 He lived 1551 to 1589. Henry of Navarre led Huguenots, a French Protestant party, and married Margaret of Valois, leading to St. Bartholomew's Day massacre of Protestants in Paris, followed by Wars of Religion. Henry of Navarre defeated Henry III and Catholic League. Because Henry III was last of Valois line, Henry III designated Henry of Navarre (later Henry IV) to be king. Duke of Guise, head of Catholic League, opposed this designation, and War of the Three Henries followed, in which Henry III murdered Guise and Catholic League rebels.

Stephen Batory [Batory, Stephen] king Transylvania/Romania/Poland 1575 to 1586

425 He lived 1533 to 1586 and was Prince of Transylvania [1576 to 1586] in Romania. Nobles elected him King of Poland [1575].

Feodor I czar Russia 1584 to 1598 He lived 1557 to 1598, was Ivan IV's son, and was Rurikid. Oleg followed and moved to Kiev.

Boris Godunov [Godunov, Boris] czar Russia 1584 to 1605 He lived 1551 to 1605 and was Feodor I's son.

Sigismund III Vasa king Poland/Sweden 1587 to 1632 He lived 1566 to 1632 and was king of Poland [1587 to 1632] and Sweden [1592 to 1599]. Vasa kings of Poland fought Sweden and Russia.

Bourbon dynasty France 1589 Bourbon line in France had Louis XIII, Louis XIV, Louis XV, and Louis XVI. Later, it had kings of Spain and Sicily and branched into Bourbon-Vendôme line in France and Bourbon-Parma line in Italy.

Henry IV or Henry of Navarre king France 1589 to 1610 He lived 1553 to 1610, was of Bourbon family, was Huguenot leader, and defeated army sent by Henry III of France and Catholic League, ending Wars of Religion. He gave up Protestantism to enter Paris. He fought Spain until Treaty of Vervins. He published Edict of Nantes, giving religious tolerance. His minister Sully worked for trade and order and helped peasants. In 1598, he granted toleration to Protestants. He started Bourbon line. Bourbons were Louis XIII, Louis XIV, Louis XV, and Louis XVI.

Philip III king Spain 1598 to 1621 He lived 1578 to 1621. Lerma ran government, negotiated peace with England and United Provinces (the Netherlands), and entered Thirty Years War. Philip III expelled Moriscos, who were Christian Moors that had rebelled.

James I king England 1603 to 1625 He lived 1566 to 1625, was Stuart, and was Mary Queen of Scots' son. He was king of Scotland before 1603 and allied with Elizabeth I of England. As king of England, he favored Catholicism, dissolved Parliament [1611], and allowed war on Spain. Stuarts were James I, Charles I, Charles II, and James II.

Louis XIII king

426 France 1610 to 1643 He lived 1601 to 1643, was of Bourbon family, and married Anne of Austria. In 1610, Marie de Medici held regency. His ministers were Cardinal Richelieu and Mazarin.

Gustavus II king Sweden 1611 to 1632 He lived 1594 to 1632 and ended Kalmar War with Denmark [1613] by payment. He gained concessions from nobles. He gained Livonia from Poland. He allied with France and Denmark to aid Protestants. He defeated all opponents in Germany as he swept through [1630 to 1632] in Thirty Years War.

Ferdinand II emperor Germany/Austria 1619 to 1637 He lived 1578 to 1637. Holy Roman Empire leader was strong Catholic and controlled Austria, Bohemia, and Hungary. Bohemian nobles rebelled, beginning Thirty Years War [1618]. He murdered his commander Wallenstein.

Philip IV king Spain/Portugal 1621 to 1665 He lived 1605 to 1665 and was king of Spain [1621 to 1665] and Portugal [1621 to 1640]. Olivares was his chief minister.

Charles I king England 1625 to 1647 He lived 1600 to 1647, was Stuart, and was king of England, Scotland, and Ireland. To get money, he had to sign Petition of Right [1628], which stated that taxes, imprisonment, and quartering of soldiers in homes needed due cause or consent of Parliament. Later, he dissolved Parliament. He tried to impose Catholicism in Scotland, leading to Bishop's Wars [1640]. Long Parliament convened, which was Protestant and middle class, while king and nobles were Catholic or Anglican. Duke of Buckingham, George Villiers, married him to French Catholic, leading to Puritan Revolution. In the civil war, Oliver Cromwell defeated him [1647]. Pride's Purge of Parliament rid the parliament of opposition to Protestant army. Rump Parliament beheaded Charles I.

Frederick Henry king Holland 1625 to 1647 He lived 1584 to 1647, defeated Spain in Thirty Years War, and presided over era of artists, scientists, commerce, and prosperity.

Uladislas VII Vasa or Ladislaus IV king Poland 1632 to 1648 He lived 1595 to 1648.

John IV or John of Braganza king Portugal 1640 to 1656

427 He lived 1603 to 1656, was of Braganza family, and allied with England.

Frederick William or Frederick the Great Elector king Brandenburg 1640 to 1688 He lived 1620 to 1688, ended Thirty Years War, received territory at Peace of Westphalia [1648], got control of Prussia at Peace of Oliva [1660], and defeated Sweden in third Dutch War.

Anne of Austria regent Austria/France 1643 to 1661 She lived 1601 to 1666, was consort to Louis XIII [1615], and held regency for Louis XIV [1643 to 1661]. Mazarin controlled her.

Louis XIV or Sun King king France 1643 to 1715 He lived 1638 to 1715. Anne of Austria was regent at first. During regency [1643 to 1661], Mazarin dominated, won Thirty Years War, ended Fronde rebellion, got Peace of the Pyrenees with Spain, and married Louis to Marie Therese of Austria. From 1661 to 1691, the Bourbon Louis and his minister Colbert reformed economy. He pursued colonialism {mercantilism, Louis XIV}, added import taxes, and got gold from exports and manufacturing. He emphasized control by state. He changed administration for civil servants and nobles. He started War of Devolution, started third Dutch War with England and France against Holland, got Franche- Comte, got part of Flanders, and took Strasbourg. He fought League of Augsburg or Grand Alliance, which had Holy Roman Empire, Sweden, Spain, German states, England, and Holland, in War of the Grand Alliance. He fought War of the Spanish Succession against England, Holland, Austria, and most German states over whether Hapsburgs or Bourbons ruled Spain. French generals Villars and Vendôme matched English Duke of Marlborough and Eugene of Savoy in Holland, but then Blenheim, Gibraltar, and Malplaquet were battle victories for Grand Alliance. War of the Spanish Succession ended in Peace of Utrecht and Treaty of Utrecht, Treaty of Rastatt, and Treaty of Baden. War ruined economy of France. He revoked Edict of Nantes and persecuted Huguenots. He struggled with the pope over Gallicanism, which he supported, and Jansenism, which he suppressed. His mistresses were La Valliere, Montespan, and Maintenon. He built Versailles Palace.

Alexis czar Russia 1645 to 1676 He lived 1629 to 1676 and was Romanov.

Johann II Kazimierz Vasa or John II Casimir king Poland 1648 to 1669 He lived 1609 to 1669.

Frederick III king Denmark/Norway 1648 to 1670 He lived 1609 to 1670, lost to Charles XI of Sweden, and lost in Thirty Years War.

428

Leopold I emperor Holy Roman Empire 1655 to 1705 He lived 1640 to 1705, was king of Hungary [1655 to 1705] and Bohemia [1658 to 1705], and Holy Roman emperor [1658 to 1705]. Holy Roman Empire warred with Louis XIV of France. He put down rebellion of Thokoly in Hungary and ended resulting siege of Vienna by Ottoman Empire, with aid from Poland. He got Hungary, Slovenia, and Croatia at Treaty of Karlowitz.

Charles II king England 1660 to 1685 He lived 1630 to 1685 and was Stuart. General Monck ended rule of Cromwell and organized Stuart Restoration [1660]. Prime Minister was first Earl of Clarendon and then Cabal. London had plague and fire [1666]. He began second Dutch War against William of Orange. He intervened in Titus Oates affair, rumor that Jesuits were plotting to assassinate king. He dissolved Parliament [1681]. Political parties, parliamentary power, sea trade, and arts grew.

Charles XI king Sweden 1660 to 1697 He lived 1655 to 1697, helped win Thirty Years War, and conquered St. Petersburg, Livonia in Estonia, Latvia, Karelia in east Finland, Denmark, south Sweden, and Pomerania in north Poland and northeast Germany.

Charles II king Spain 1665 to 1700 He lived 1661 to 1700, was king of Spain, Naples, and Sicily [1665 to 1700], and fought with Louis XIV of France but lost.

Feodor III czar Russia 1676 to 1682 He lived 1661 to 1682 and was Romanov.

Mary II queen England/Scotland/Ireland 1677 to 1694 She lived 1662 to 1694 and married William III [1677].

Ivan V czar Russia 1682 to 1696 He lived 1666 to 1696 and was Romanov.

Peter I or Peter the Great czar Russia 1682 to 1725

429 He lived 1672 to 1725, was Romanov, overthrew his sister, and took the title emperor. He shifted capital to St. Petersburg from Moscow. He expanded Russia to Black and Baltic Seas. He took Livonia, Estonia, and Karellas from Sweden [1721] and won Northern War. He took Azov on Black Sea from Ottoman Empire and built navy but later lost it. He defeated Persia. He westernized and industrialized. He started universal taxation, reformed army and government, and built schools and hospitals. He freed women from serf status and crushed serf revolts. Serfs became even more subject to nobles. Russia had lumber and iron. He formed Russian Orthodox Church with himself as head.

James II king England 1685 to 1688 He lived 1633 to 1701 and was Stuart. After Puritan Revolution [1649], he escaped to France and married Catholic. After Charles II became king, James II returned to England as Lord Admiral but later resigned. England exiled him after Titus Oates affair. He became king when Charles II died [1685]. He presided over the Bloody Assizes, bishop trials, and hostile parliaments. Glorious Revolution deposed him.

William III or William of Orange king England/Scotland/Ireland 1688 to 1702 He lived 1650 to 1702. Before 1688, as William of Orange of United Provinces, he negotiated peace with England after Dutch Wars and fought against Louis XIV of France in War of the Grand Alliance. He helped remove James II of England and became king in Glorious Revolution. As king, he accepted Bill of Rights and Act of Settlement, gave land in Ireland to nobles, raised taxes, and started Bank of England. He fought Louis XIV of France in War of the Spanish Succession. Whigs, landowners and merchants, gained control of Parliament.

Charles XII king Sweden 1697 to 1718 He lived 1682 to 1718, fought Northern War, and won at first but then lost to Russia and Poland [1721], ending Swedish power.

Augustus II king Poland 1697 to 1733 He lived 1670 to 1733. Elector of Saxony became king of Poland [1697].

Frederick I king Brandenburg/Prussia 1701 to 1713 He lived 1657 to 1713. Hohenzollern Elector of Brandenburg united Brandenburg and Duchy of Prussia.

Anne queen England 1702 to 1714 She lived 1665 to 1714, was Stuart, and fought War of the Spanish Succession. Great Britain began [1707]. Parliament became strong. Because she had no children, she preceded Hanover kings: George I, George II, George III, George IV, and Victoria.

John V king

430 Portugal 1706 to 1750 He lived 1689 to 1750.

Charles VI emperor Germany/Austria 1711 to 1740 He lived 1685 to 1740. Holy Roman Empire claimed Spain against Charles II of Spain, in War of the Spanish Succession. He involved Austria in War of the Polish Succession. His Pragmatic Sanction gave Hapsburg lands to Maria Theresa of Austria, which later led to War of the Austrian Succession.

Frederick William I king Prussia 1713 to 1740 He lived 1688 to 1740, created efficient army and government, and gained treasury surplus by avoiding war.

Philip V king Spain 1713 to 1746 He lived 1683 to 1746 and was of Bourbon family. His accession led to War of the Spanish Succession, which Peace of Utrecht settled [1713]. Spain lost all outside territory to Austria and Britain, and he became king of Spain. Cardinal Alberoni tried to get back Italian lands, leading to Quadruple Alliance [1718] to block the move. Quadruple Alliance was France, England, Holy Roman Empire, and Germany. He also took part in War of the Polish Succession and War of the Austrian Succession.

George I king Great Britain 1714 to 1727 He lived 1660 to 1727, was of Hanover family, and became king under Act of Settlement [1701]. Quadruple Alliance [1718] assured his succession. Whig party began to have real power.

Danilo I king Montenegro 1715 to 1735 He lived 1670 to 1735 and allied with Russia.

Louis XV king France 1715 to 1774 He lived 1710 to 1774 and was of Bourbon family. First, he was under regency of Philippe II or Philippe d'Orleans [1715 to 1723]. He fought War of the Polish Succession, War of the Austrian Succession, and Seven Years War, which resulted, together with costly court and official corruption, in loss of colonies and financial ruin. Cardinal Fleury was minister [1726 to 1743]. Madame de Pompadour was mistress [1743 to 1764].

Catherine I queen Russia 1725 to 1727 She lived 1684 to 1727.

431 Peter II czar Russia 1727 to 1730 He lived 1715 to 1730.

George II king England 1727 to 1760 He lived 1683 to 1760, was of Hanover family, and fought War of the Austrian Succession. Walpole was Tory Prime Minister [until 1741] and fought Seven Years War. William Pitt the Elder was Whig Prime Minister [from 1741].

Anna Ivanovna or Anna of Russia queen Russia 1730 to 1740 She lived 1693 to 1740, was in War of the Polish Succession [1733 to 1735], and attacked Turkey [1736].

Augustus III king Poland 1735 to 1763 He lived 1696 to 1763. Elector of Saxony was king of Poland [1735].

Ivan VI czar Russia 1740 to 1741 He lived 1740 to 1764.

Frederick II or Frederick the Great king Prussia 1740 to 1786 He lived 1712 to 1786, engaged in War of the Austrian Succession against Maria Theresa of Austria, and gained Silesia. He fought Seven Years War [1756 to 1763] against Holy Roman Empire. He partitioned Poland. He fought War of the Bavarian Succession, after creating Furstenbund League of princes [1785]. Bavaria is in south Germany. He established Prussian military strength and reformed society and law.

Elizabeth queen Russia 1741 to 1762 She lived 1709 to 1762, ended German influence, fought in Seven Years War, and founded Moscow University.

Maria Theresa queen Austria/Hungary/Bohemia 1748 to 1780 She lived 1717 to 1780 and was queen of Hungary and Bohemia [1740 to 1780]. Austria controlled Milan, Mantua, Tuscany, and Modena in Italy, after end of War of Austrian Succession [1740 to 1748].

Joseph I king Portugal

432 1750 to 1777 He lived 1714 to 1777. Pombal was his minister, and economy became good.

Charles III king Spain 1759 to 1788 He lived 1716 to 1788 and was of Bourbon family. He joined Seven Years War through Family Compact between France and Spain, which ended with Treaty of Paris [1763]. He then controlled Naples, Parma, and Sicily. He helped American Revolution and gained territory in America at Treaty of Paris [1783]. Floridablanca was his minister, with increasing power and prosperity.

George III king England 1760 to 1820 He lived 1738 to 1820, was of Hanover family, and blocked Whigs by forcing the older William Pitt's resignation. Lord North was his minister. Both forced American Revolution. Tories, who were aristocrats, controlled Parliament. Walpole, Burke, and the younger William Pitt were Tory ministers. Pitt ended king's power. George III became insane.

Peter III czar Russia 1762 He lived 1728 to 1762.

Catherine II or Catherine the Great queen Russia 1762 to 1785 She lived 1729 to 1796, partitioned Poland, got Crimea, fought Ottoman Empire, and colonized Alaska. After Pugachev Rebellion, she chartered nobles to make serfs slaves [1785].

Joseph II emperor Europe 1765 to 1790 He lived 1741 to 1790, abolished serfdom in Holy Roman Empire [1781], ended dues to feudal lords, allowed peasants to buy land cheaply, ordered religious tolerance, eliminated torture, liberalized penal code, and abolished monastic orders and clergy rights. Opposition by Furstenbund League of princes, under Frederick II of Prussia, caused him to fail to annex Bavaria in War of the Bavarian Succession. He allied with Russia and Catherine II against Ottoman Empire. He controlled Hungary, Bohemia, Austria, and part of Netherlands [1780].

Gustavus III king Sweden 1771 to 1792 He lived 1746 to 1792 and restored king's authority in Sweden, over Caps and Hats.

Louis XVI king France 1774 to 1793 He lived 1754 to 1793 and was of Bourbon family. Helping American Revolution resulted in near bankruptcy. His ministers, first Turgot, and then Necker, tried to correct finances. He summoned States-General, leading to French Revolution [1789]. Ministers negotiated with Austria and French Revolution leaders, but he dismissed them after court

433 politics involving Marie Antoinette. When French Revolutionary War started badly, king and queen tried to flee, and revolutionaries captured and guillotined them. His queen was Marie Antoinette, who said, "Let them eat cake" when told the people had no bread.

Louis Bonaparte [Bonaparte, Louis] king Netherlands/Batavia 1778 to 1846 He lived 1778 to 1846. France created Batavian kingdom in Netherlands [1778 to 1846].

Charles IV king Spain 1788 to 1808 He lived 1748 to 1819 and was of Bourbon family. His minister Godoy quit Spanish side of French Revolutionary Wars and allied with France. Iberian peoples of Spain and Portugal revolted against France in Peninsular War but lost to France, who captured his son. His queen was Maria Luisa.

Francis II emperor Holy Roman Empire 1792 to 1806 He lived 1768 to 1835 and was Francis I king of Bohemia [1804 to 1835] and Hungary [1792 to 1835]. Holy Roman Empire lost to France in French Revolutionary Wars [1792]. He lost again to Napoleon [1806], dissolved Holy Roman Empire [1806], and gave his daughter Josephine to Napoleon. With Metternich, he joined coalition against Napoleon [1813].

Gustavus IV king Sweden 1792 to 1809 He lived 1778 to 1837 and fought Napoleon with the Austrian, Prussian, and Russian coalition. He lost Finland to Russia. Revolution deposed him [1809].

Paul I czar Russia 1796 to 1801 He lived 1754 to 1801.

Frederick William III king Prussia 1797 to 1840 He lived 1770 to 1840, lost to Napoleon at Jena [1806], and signed Treaty of Tilsit, giving west Prussia to France. He gave Poland to Duke of Warsaw. He joined Continental System. Then his ministers revitalized Prussia and fought War of Liberation from France. He joined Holy Alliance.

Alexander I czar Russia 1801 to 1825 He lived 1777-1825, was Romanov, and promoted Holy Alliance of Russia, Austria, and Prussia [1815].

Joseph Bonaparte [Bonaparte, Joseph] king

434 Spain 1806 to 1813 He lived 1768 to 1844 and was king of Naples [1806 to 1808] and Spain [1808 to 1813].

John VI king Portugal 1807 to 1826 He lived 1767 to 1826 and went back to Portugal from Brazil.

Ferdinand VII king Spain 1808 to 1833 He lived 1784 to 1833, was of Bourbon family, and was king of Spain [1808 to 1833]. Napoleon captured him, but he later regained throne. He set aside new constitution twice. He lost mainland South and Central America [1825]. He caused Carlist Wars [1839] by giving his kingdom to his daughter instead of Don Carlos, as required by Salid law.

Charles XIII king Sweden/Norway 1809 to 1818 He lived 1748 to 1818, accepted constitution, settled with Russia, fought Napoleon at Leipzig [1814], and united Norway [1814 to 1818] with Sweden when Denmark gave up rule of Norway.

Louis XVIII king France 1815 to 1824 He lived 1755 to 1824. In Bourbon Restoration, he became king through Talleyrand at Congress of Vienna and Talleyrand was his foreign minister. He tried to reconcile French factions with new constitution. Someone assassinated his nephew. Royalists gained control through Villele [1820].

William I king Netherlands 1815 to 1840 He lived 1772 to 1843.

Charles XIV king Sweden/Norway 1818 to 1844 He lived 1763 to 1844.

Charles X king France 1824 to 1830 He lived 1757 to 1836. Talleyrand was his foreign minister.

Nicholas I czar Russia 1825 to 1855

435 He lived 1796 to 1855, was Romanov, crushed Decembrist Conspiracy, defeated Polish uprising, helped Austria defeat Hungarian Republic [1849], and lost Crimean War to Britain.

Louis Philippe or Citizen King king France 1830.07 to 1848.02 He lived 1773 to 1850. As Duke of Orleans, Lafayette helped him and he replaced Charles X in July Revolution [1830]. He allowed business freedom and Algeria colonization. His reactionary cabinet and slight electoral reforms led to February Revolution [1848].

Leopold I king Belgium 1831 to 1865 He lived 1790 to 1865. Belgium became independent of Holland [1830].

Otto I king Greece 1833 to 1862 He lived 1815 to 1867 and was from Bavaria.

Maria II queen Portugal 1834 to 1853 She lived 1819 to 1853 and defeated Miguel in Miguelist Wars.

Ferdinand emperor Austria 1835 to 1848.12 He lived 1793 to 1875 and abdicated to Francis Joseph I, who soon gained absolute power. Metternich was Council of State leader but resigned.

Ferdinand II king Portugal 1837 to 1853 He lived 1816 to 1885 married Maria II [1836].

Victoria queen England 1837 to 1901 She lived 1819 to 1901 and was Hanover. Lord Melbourne and Palmerston were Prime Ministers in first half of her reign, before her husband Prince Albert died. Disraeli and Gladstone were Prime Ministers during last half of her reign. Her children married to ally with most of Europe. She had diamond jubilee [1897]. Her reign is Victorian Era.

Isabella queen Spain 1839 to 1868

436 She lived 1830 to 1904 and became queen at end of Carlist War [1839]. Carlists had revolted because her father Ferdinand VII did not follow Salid Law of succession, which allowed male heirs only, but Carlists under Don Carlos lost. She abdicated [1868].

William II king Netherlands 1840 to 1849 He lived 1792 to 1849.

Frederick William IV king Prussia 1840 to 1861 He lived 1795 to 1861 and put down 1848 Revolution. Treaty of Olmutz [1850] blocked his plan for German Union with Austria by forming German Confederation, with Austria as leader.

Louis Napoleon or Napoleon III president/emperor France 1848.12 to 1870 He lived 1808 to 1873. After trying to become emperor in 1836 and 1840, he returned to France, and assembly elected him president of Republic [1848], promising democracy and order. He dissolved legislature, crushed worker revolt, and ended Second Republic. He founded Second Empire of France [1852]. He granted more power to legislature and reigned in prosperity. He built Suez Canal [1859 to 1869], adventured in Mexico, got China Lands, fought Crimean War, restored the pope, and controlled Papal States. He fought Franco-Prussian War [1869 to 1870], but Prussia captured and deposed him.

Francis Joseph I or Franz Joseph I emperor Austria 1848.12 to 1916 He lived 1830 to 1916 and reorganized Austrian Empire [1867] as Austro-Hungary. He lost Lombardy and Venetia in Austro-Prussian War or Seven Weeks War, which Peace of Prague settled.

William III king Netherlands 1849 to 1890 He lived 1817 to 1890.

Danilo II king Montenegro 1851 to 1860 He lived 1826 to 1860 and became archbishop [1851].

Alexander II czar Russia 1855 to 1881 The Tsar liberator lived 1818 to 1881, was Romanov, and freed serfs [1861] but did not allow them to leave their villages without permission. He started local assembly {zemstvo} and new judicial system. He fought Crimean War over Russian influence in southeast Europe. Someone assassinated him.

Alexander John Cusa [Cusa, Alexander John]

437 prince Walachia/Moldavia 1859 to 1866 He lived 1820 to 1873, was prince of Romania [1859 to 1866], and led Danubian Principalities of Walachia and Moldavia [1859].

Nicholas I king Montenegro 1860 to 1910 He lived 1841 to 1921 and helped Montenegro gain independence from Bulgaria and Ottomans [1878].

Victor Emmanuel II king Italy 1861 to 1878 He lived 1820 to 1878 and led wars of Risorgimento as Sardinia king, with Garibaldi as general. After victory over Papal States, Florence was capital. He ruled as constitutional monarch.

William I king Prussia 1861 to 1888 He lived 1797 to 1888 and was emperor of Germany [1871 to 1888] and king of Prussia [1861 to 1888]. His minister was Bismarck. Prussia and Austria fought Denmark over Schleswig-Holstein [1864]. German Empire began [1871].

George I king Greece 1863 to 1913 He lived 1845 to 1913.

Leopold II king Belgium 1865 to 1909 He lived 1835 to 1909.

Carol I prince Romania 1866 to 1881 He lived 1839 to 1914. Romania gained independence from Ottoman Empire [1881]. Romania had pogroms and laws against Jews.

Miguel II king Portugal 1866 to 1920 He lived 1853 to 1927 and abdicated [1920] when republic formed.

Alphonso XII king Spain 1875 to 1885 He lived 1857 to 1885 and became king after Carlists revolted and lost.

438

Humbert I king Italy 1878 to 1900 He lived 1844 to 1900.

Alexander III czar Russia 1881 to 1894 He lived 1845 to 1894, was Romanov, and promoted peace and industry. The Black Hundred beat people and robbed Jewish homes and shops.

Alphonso XIII king Spain 1886 to 1931 He lived 1886 to 1941.

Ferdinand king Bulgaria 1887 to 1918 He lived 1861 to 1948 and was Saxe-Coburg-Gotha. Bulgaria became independent [1908].

Wilhelm II or William II kaiser Germany 1888 to 1918 He lived 1859 to 1941, led German Empire, dismissed Bismarck [1890], built commerce, took colonies, and built up navy. He had Entente Cordiale with Britain and France. He formed Triple Entente of Britain, France, and Russia. He formed Triple Alliance of Germany, Italy, and Austro-Hungary. He had to abdicate after World War I.

Charles I king Portugal 1889 to 1908 He lived 1863 to 1908.

Wilhelmina queen Netherlands 1890 to 1948 She lived 1880 to 1962.

Nicholas II czar Russia 1894 to 1917 He lived 1868 to 1917, was Romanov, and tried to keep the peace at Hague Conference. He lost Russo-Japanese War [1905] and then faced Revolution of 1905, which established legislature or Duma. He blocked Duma with his premier Stolypin but allowed some land reform. He led army in World War I. Rasputin came to control his family. Revolutionaries killed him after Russian Revolution [1917].

Victor Emmanuel III

439 king Italy 1900 to 1946 He lived 1869 to 1947 and appointed Mussolini [1922]. He dismissed Mussolini [1943] to make peace.

Edward VII king England 1901 to 1910 He lived 1841 to 1910, was Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, and cooperated with Asquith in limiting House of Lords veto power. His era is Edwardian Era. The next rulers in the family changed house name to Windsor: George V, Edward VIII, George VI, and Elizabeth II.

Haakon VII king Norway 1905 to 1957 He lived 1872 to 1957 and became king after Norway and Sweden split [1905].

Manuel II king Portugal 1908 to 1910 He lived 1889 to 1932.

Charles I king Austria 1916 to 1918 He lived 1887 to 1922.

Alexander king Greece 1916 to 1920 He lived 1893 to 1920 and became king after Venizelos forced his father Constantine to abdicate, because Constantine had kept Greece neutral in World War I.

Boris III king/dictator Bulgaria 1918 to 1943 He lived 1894 to 1943, was dictator [1938 to 1943], and allied with Hitler.

Peter I king Serbia/Croatia/Slovenia 1918.10 to 1921 He lived 1844 to 1921 and became king of Serbia, Croatia, and Slovenia.

George II king Greece 1922 to 1924 He lived 1890 to 1947 and became king by Treaty of Lausanne [1922]. Republic formed [1924]. He became king again as republic failed [1935 to 1947].

440

Zog I or Ahmed Bey Zogu [Zogu, Ahmed Bey] king Albania 1928 to 1946 He lived 1895 to 1961 and was president [1925 to 1928] then king of Albania [1928 to 1939].

Alexander king Yugoslavia 1929 to 1934 He lived 1888 to 1934. Someone killed him.

Carol II king Romania 1930 to 1940 He lived 1893 to 1953.

Edward VIII king England 1935 to 1936 He lived 1894 to 1972, abdicated to marry an American, and became Duke of Windsor [1936].

Michael king Romania 1944 He lived 1921 to ?.

Baudouin or Boudewijn king Belgium 1951 He lived 1930 to 1993 and ruled when Leopold III abdicated.

Elizabeth II queen England 1952 to 2003 She lived 1926 to ?.

Juan Carlos I king Spain 1975 to 2007 He lived 1938 to ? and ruled after Franco died.

SOCI>History>History>Town

Jericho town Jericho, Palestine -9000 to -8000

441 Jericho began around a spring. New Stone Age people built wood and stone houses with plaster floors. Town walls had stacked brick masonry. It grew to eight acres [-8000] [Bronowski, 1974].

Göbekli town Göbekli, Turkey -8000 Town was in east Turkey.

Jericho town Jericho, Palestine -7000 Jericho had population 300, tower, and walls.

Catalhoyuk or Catal Huyuk town Catal Huyuk, Turkey -7000 to -5800 South-central Turkey sites {forked mound} had population 8000, with 2000 houses. They had men and animal paintings and sculptures. Catal Huyuk traded obsidian, salt, sulfur, and bitumen. It had one-story mudbrick houses with plaster, wood frames, and reed and mud roofs. Houses were clean. Houses connected, with no streets. People did activities on roofs. Wooden stairs went into houses through roof openings. It used obsidian tools. It was a trading center by a river on a fertile plain. It grew cereal grains and had sheep. Continuous cultivation used irrigation and animal manure, not slash-and-burn methods. It had fertility cults. Burials were under houses. For yearly ceremonies, they used men and women's heads. People abandoned town [-5800], for unknown reasons.

Jericho town Jericho, Palestine -6000 to -5000 Jericho had population 3000, had watchtowers and ditches, and was obsidian, salt, sulfur, and bitumen trading center. Continuous cultivation used irrigation and animal manure, not slash-and-burn methods. Jericho had fertility cults.

Karanova town Bulgaria -5000 Culture began.

Babylon town Sumer -4000 Site that later became Babylon was first inhabited.

Eridu town Eridu, Sumer -4000 Culture began.

Ugarit town Ras Shamra, Syria

442 -4000 Town is on east Mediterranean coast. Ugarit is now Ras Shamra.

Byblos town Byblos, Asia Minor -3100 Town is on east Mediterranean coast.

Skara Brae town Orkney Island, Scotland -3000 Neolithic village was off coast of Scotland. It had ten small houses with flat stone for walls, large slabs for floors, and stone furniture. Orkney has no trees.

Valdivia town Valdivia, Ecuador -3000 to -2200 Neolithic planned town with plaza and wooden multifamily dwellings had 1000 people. People planted corn and domesticated dogs.

Troy town Troy, Asia Minor -2700 to -1200 Disaster or invasion destroyed it nine times.

Caral town Caral, Peru -2627 to -1977 Neolithic culture was near Supe River, north of Lima. Town had 160 acres, plazas, reed-and-mud homes, irrigation system, and 500-feet wide and 60-feet tall rock pyramid. Buildings used reed sacks filled with stones {shicra}. Town traded with coast, 14 miles away, which supplied fish and shellfish. It used squash, cotton, sweet potatoes, and fruits but no maize. It had no gold or pottery but used bone flutes.

El Paraiso town Lima, Peru -1800 Town was ceremonial center with pyramid. There was fishing, cotton, corn, and jewelry.

Kotosh town Kotosh, Peru -1800 It had ceremonial platforms.

Casma town Peru -1500

Copan

443 town Copan, Honduras -1400 It is in west Honduras.

San Jose Mogote town San Jose Mogote, Mexico -1350 Town was in south Mexico.

Chang-an town China -1200 Town was early Chinese civilization.

Rome town Rome, Italy -800 to -500 Town started after Celts invaded Italy and pushed Etruscans south into central Italy, where native Samnites, Sabines, and Latins lived. Rome was first trading center and assembly place for Latins, Sabines, and Etruscans.

Tiahuanaco town Tiahuanaco, Bolivia -400 Town was near Lake Titicaca.

Cyrenaica town Cyrenaica, Libya 115 Jewish community in northeast Libya revolted against Rome.

London town London, United Kingdom 200 to 250 London became main town of Britain.

Nara capital Nara, Japan 710 to 784 Town was south of Kyoto.

Heian-kyo capital Heian-kyo, Japan 794 Town is Kyoto.

Cahokia city

444 Cahokia, Illinois 1050 to 1200 City, in south Illinois, had rectangular flat-topped temple mounds (Cahokia Mounds) around squares or beside wide streets. Largest was Monk's Mound, over 30 meters high.

Katanga town Zaire 1100 Town began in central Africa.

Great Zimbabwe town Zimbabwe 1450 Town was in south Africa.

Antwerp town Belgium 1500 to 1600 Town became prominent through salted and pickled fish, shipping, manufacturing, imported wool from England, imported wood and grain from Baltic, and exported textiles from Flanders and Picardy.

Holland town Holland 1500 to 1600 Cities of Amsterdam, Rotterdam, The Hague, Leiden, and Delft became prominent.

Nagasaki town Nagasaki, Japan 1570 Nagasaki, under Christian king, invited Portuguese.

Amsterdam town Holland 1600 to 1688 Town had shipping, manufacturing, letters of credit, and stock exchange. Letters of credit are discounted bills for loans. It had shipping in flutes or flyboats used for cargo. It had wool from England, salted and pickled fish, wood and grain from Baltic, and textiles in Flanders and Picardy.

Memphis fort Memphis, Tennessee 1682 France built fort.

St. Louis fort St. Louis, Missouri 1682 France built fort on Mississippi River.

445 Detroit fort Detroit, Michigan 1701 France built fort on Lake Erie.

New Orleans fort New Orleans, Louisiana 1718 France built fort on Mississippi River.

SOCI>History>History>Treaty

Treaty of Kadesh treaty Anatolia -1284 Treaty was between Ramses II of Egypt and Hattusilis III of Hittite Empire.

Treaty of Verdun treaty France/Germany 843 Treaty partitioned Frank lands into France as west Frankish kingdom, under Charles II the Bald, and Germany as east Frankish kingdom, under Louis the German.

Treaty of Mersen treaty Lotharingia, Germany 870 After Louis the German fought Charles the Bald, treaty gave Lotharingia to Germany, which Louis the German ruled. After that, feudalism and manorial system began, and kings declined in power.

Concordant of Worms treaty Worms, Germany 1122 Treaty gave power to elect bishops to pope, with veto power by emperor of Holy Roman Empire.

Peace of Constance treaty Lombardy 1183 Treaty gave freedom to Lombard League towns and independence from the pope to Holy Roman Empire.

Magna Charta treaty Runnymede, England 1215 Barons and prelates forced King John to sign Magna Charta. Magna Charta gave more rights to freemen, including barons, lesser knights, and burgesses. It guaranteed trial by jury, alleviated some taxing powers of king, and protected baron property. Magna Charta did not give rights to serfs. Committee of 25 barons enforced it. Magna Charta is part of British Constitution, which includes many other documents.

Treaty of London

446 treaty London, United Kingdom 1359 Treaty ended England's involvement in Hundred Years War.

Bretigny treaty France 1360 England got Aquitaine.

Treaty of Anglo-Portuguese friendship treaty Portugal/England 1373 King Edward III of England and King Ferdinand and Queen Eleanor of Portugal established alliance. It is oldest treaty still in effect.

Treaty of Troyes treaty France 1420 Treaty gave Normandy to England from France. Henry V became heir to French throne. He married Katherine, Charles VI of France's daughter. War resumed when Henry V died [1422].

Tours treaty Poitiers, France 1444 to 1449 France got Duchy of Maine. England broke treaty but lost.

Treaty of Tordesillas treaty Spain 1494 Spain got West Indies, Central America, and South America, and Portugal got Brazil and Africa.

Peace of Augsburg treaty Augsburg, Germany 1555 Princes in empire chose Lutheran or Catholic Church for state.

Treaty of Cateau-Cambresis treaty Italy 1559 Treaty gave Sicily, Naples, and Milan to Spain.

Spain/Portugal treaty Spain/Portugal 1580 to 1640 Spain united with Portugal.

Treaty of Vienna

447 treaty Vienna, Austria 1606 Treaty of Vienna between Hungary and Ottoman Empire gave religious freedom to southeast Europe.

Peace of the Pyrenees treaty Portugal 1640 Spain lost Portugal.

Peace of Westphalia or Treaty of Westphalia treaty Europe 1648 Treaty ended Thirty Years War and ended authority of Holy Roman Empire, so 300 princes freely held lands in Germany and Italy. Holy Roman Empire then was mainly Austria, still ruled by Hapsburgs. Duchy of Prussia was in north Germany. Elector of Brandenburg gained. Switzerland became fully independent, with 13 cantons ruled by oligarchies. United Provinces in Netherlands became independent. Peace of Westphalia established modern international law, by recognizing absolute jurisdiction of nations in their territories.

Peace of the Pyrenees treaty Spain 1659 France took part of Spain.

Treaty of Oliva treaty Oliva, Poland 1660 Poland lost land to Sweden.

Treaty of Andrusov treaty Andrusov, Russia 1667 Poland lost land to Russia.

Treaty of Ryswick treaty Ryswick, Netherlands 1697 Treaty ended Dutch Wars among France, Netherlands, and England, with Netherlands free and Protestant.

Peace of Karlowitz treaty Karlowitz, Poland 1699 Venice got Dalmatia. Poland got Bosnia, Bulgaria, Wallachia, Moldavia, Bessarabia, and Jedisan. Holy Roman Empire got Hungary. Ottoman Empire lost.

Act of Union treaty England/Scotland

448 1707 Treaty joined England, including Wales and Ireland, and Scotland as Great Britain.

Peace of Utrecht treaty Utrecht, Netherlands 1713 to 1714 Treaty ended War of the Spanish Succession, which started after death of Charles II of Spain. Spain and Austria were against Britain and France. It gave Milan to Austria and Sicily to Savoy. Philip V became Bourbon king of Spain, not Holy Roman Empire emperor. Hapsburgs of Austria got Spanish Netherlands from Spain. Spanish Netherlands had Belgium and Luxembourg.

Treaty of Passarowitz treaty Hungary 1718 Holy Roman Empire gained Hungary and Transylvania from Ottoman Empire, to end Austro-Turkish War.

Savoy-Austria Trade treaty Sicily/Sardinia, Italy 1720 Savoy traded Sicily to Austria for Sardinia.

Belgrade treaty Romania 1739 Treaty set border between Ottoman Empire and Austria, keeping Hungary for Austria. Ottoman Empire got back Bulgaria, Bosnia, Wallachia, Moldavia, and Bessarabia. Russia did not build Black-Sea navy.

Treaty of Paris treaty Paris, France 1763 Treaty gave England all USA and Canada, except New Orleans for France. It gave Florida to Spain.

First Polish Partition treaty Poland 1772 Stanislaus II, king of Poland, accepted Russian aid against Prussia and Austria and had to accept Poland partition. Russia got all of Latvia, Belorussia, Lithuania, and Ukraine.

Treaty of Kutchuk Kalnarji treaty Crimea 1774 Russia won control of Tatars of Crimea.

Treaty of Paris treaty Paris, France 1783 Treaty ended American Revolution. Benjamin Franklin, for USA, negotiated with Britain.

449 Sistova treaty Bosnia/Romania 1791 Ottoman Empire got Belgrade. Austria got Bosnia.

Jassy treaty Ukraine 1792 Russians got up to Dniester River from Ottoman Empire.

Second Polish Partition treaty Poland 1793 Russia, Prussia, and Austria divided it.

Third Polish Partition treaty Poland 1795 Poland was split among Russia, Prussia, and Austria.

Treaty of Campo Formio treaty Campo Formio, Italy 1797 Treaty ended French Revolutionary War in Italy. Austria got Venice and Dalmatia. Cisalpine Republic in north Italy began, with Milan as capital.

Concordat treaty France 1801 Napoleon negotiated peace with Catholic Church.

Treaty of Luneville treaty Luneville, France 1801 Treaty ended war of Austria and France.

Treaty of Amiens treaty Amiens, France 1802 Treaty ended war of France and England.

Act of Mediation treaty Switzerland 1803 Treaty restored Switzerland confederation.

Treaty of Tilsit

450 treaty Prussia 1807 France negotiated peace with Russia and Prussia.

Treaty between Sikhs and British treaty India 1809 Treaty set Sikh boundaries in India.

Treaty of Paris treaty Paris, France 1814 Talleyrand worked for mild terms and Bourbon-king restoration.

Treaty of Adrianople treaty Adrianople, Greece 1829 Treaty ended war between Ottoman Empire and Russia. Moldavia and Walachia became Russian protectorates. Greece became independent of Turkey.

Treaty of Olmutz treaty Olmutz, Germany 1850 Treaty blocked German Union and restored German Federation, which included Prussia and Austria. Austria dominated it.

Burlingame Treaty treaty USA 1868 Treaty gave Chinese right to come to USA.

Fort Laramie Treaty treaty USA 1868 Great Sioux Reservation created in South Dakota, North Dakota, Montana, Wyoming, and Nebraska.

Treaty of Versailles treaty Versailles, France 1871 Treaty formally ended Franco-Prussian War between France and Prussia.

Congress of Berlin/Treaty of Berlin conference/treaty Berlin, Germany 1878 Act ended Russo-Turkish War [1876 to 1878]. Ottoman Empire got Macedonia again. Montenegro and Serbia became independent. Greater Bulgaria divided into north Bulgaria, Rumelia in east Bulgaria, and Macedonia under Ottoman Empire. Bosnia went to Austro-Hungary.

451

Treaty of San Stefano treaty San Stefano, Italy 1878 Treaty ended first Balkan War. It gave Montenegro and Macedonia to Bulgaria. Greater Bulgaria included Bulgaria, Rumelia, and Macedonia, as it had earlier.

Treaty of Shimonoseki treaty China 1895 Treaty ended Sino-Japanese War.

Treaty of Paris treaty Paris, France 1898 Treaty ended Spanish-American War. USA got Philippines, east tip of Cuba, and Puerto Rico.

South Africa Act treaty South Africa 1910 Union of South Africa became independent as British commonwealth and established apartheid laws separating whites, blacks, and mixed.

Treaty of Brest-Litovsk treaty Brest-Litovsk, Russia 1918.03 Treaty ended Russian participation in World War I. Bolsheviks controlled European Russia.

Treaty of Bucharest treaty Romania 1918.05 to 1918.11 Treaty ended war on Eastern Front between Germany and Romania. Romania annexed Bessarabia. However, in November, Romania warred again.

Armistice treaty Paris, France 1918.1111 Treaty ended World War I on Western Front on November 11 at 11 am.

Treaty of Versailles treaty Versailles, France 1919.06 Paris Peace Conference started in January 1919. Treaty created Weimar Republic in Germany, which faced unemployment, inflation, and extremism. Italy gained Trieste and Tyrol. Greece got west Thrace and European Turkey. Japan got German islands in Pacific Ocean.

Treaty of Saint-Germain treaty

452 Austria 1919.09 Treaty established current Austria and Romania.

Treaty of Neuilly treaty Bulgaria 1919.11 Bulgaria lost territory.

Treaty of Riga treaty Poland 1920 Treaty negotiated peace between Russia and Poland, after Poland went to war to get more eastern territory. Finland, Latvia, Estonia, and Lithuania became independent. Russia lost Bessarabia. Vilma went from Lithuania to Poland.

Treaty of Trianon treaty Hungary 1920.06 Austria and Hungary became republics. Czechoslovakia became republic, and Tomas Masaryk and Eduard Benes were first two presidents. Upper Silesia went to Poland. Romania got Transylvania, Banat, and Bukovina.

Treaty of Sevres treaty Turkey 1920.08 Ottoman Empire was left with only Istanbul and Anatolia.

Turkey/Russia treaty Turkey/Russia 1921.03 Treaty between Turkey and Russia allowed Turkish Republic under Kemal Ataturk.

Washington Conference/Nine-Power Treaty treaty China 1922 Treaty assured borders of China and kept Open Door Policy.

Treaty of Lausanne treaty Switzerland 1923.07 Treaty ended war between Greece and Turkey, and Allies signed it. Thrace went to Turkey. Several million Greeks, Turks, and Bulgarians moved.

Treaty of Rome treaty Rome, Italy 1924 Treaty transferred port of Susak from Italy to Serbia, Croatia, and Slovenia kingdom.

Treaty of Locarno

453 treaty Italy 1925 Treaty required fewer reparations from Germany.

Kellogg-Briand Pact or Pact of Paris treaty Paris, France 1929 Treaty agreed to negotiate differences among France, Britain, USA, and Germany and so removed most restrictions on Germany. Weimar Republic had evacuated Ruhr and paid reparations.

Lateran Treaty treaty Italy 1929 Treaty gave control of Vatican City to the pope. Roman Curia was papal court.

Locarno Pact treaty Italy 1929 Treaty set Germany's west boundary and put Germany in League of Nations, with approval of France, Britain, and USA.

Munich Pact treaty Munich, Germany 1938 Treaty partitioned Czechoslovakia. Germany got Bohemia and Moravia and demanded Danzig and Polish Corridor. Adolf Hitler signed for Germany. Neville Chamberlain, Prime Minister of England, said he wanted "peace in our time" {peace in our time} from Axis powers. Others accused him of appeasement.

Nonaggression Pact treaty Germany/Russia 1939.08 Hitler gave Russia, under Stalin, east Poland, Baltic republics, north Bokovina, and Bessarabia.

Atlantic Charter treaty Britain/USA 1941 to 1948 Treaty began NATO or North Atlantic Treaty Organization.

Tehran Declaration treaty Tehran, Iran 1943 Allies agreed on European territory.

Dumbarton Oaks Conference/Treaty at Dumbarton Oaks treaty Dumbarton Oaks, California 1944 Treaty established United Nations charter.

454

Act of Chapultepec treaty Chapultepec, Mexico 1945 Treaty furthered Pan-Americanism.

Arab League league Egypt 1945 League led by Egypt included most Arab and Moslem states.

Treaty of Paris treaty Paris, France 1947 Allies finalized peace with Italy, which became a republic. Italian parties were Catholics, Communists, and Socialists.

Benelux league Belgium/Netherlands/Luxembourg 1947 to 2007 Countries signed Benelux Customs Union treaty [1944]. Benelux Economic Union replaced it [1960].

Rio Treaty treaty Americas 1948 Treaty formed Organization of American States (OAS). It settled war between Nicaragua and Costa Rica and Dominican-Republic question.

Warsaw Pact treaty/league Europe 1949 Treaty grouped communist East European nations. League included Albania, Bulgaria, Romania, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Poland, East Germany, and Russia. Kaliningrad or Königsberg was in Russia. Oder-Niesse line divided East Germany from Poland.

Sino-Soviet Treaty treaty Russia/China 1950 Russian and Chinese Communist parties negotiated the border.

Southeast Asia Treaty Organization or SEATO treaty Asia 1954 to 1977 Southeastern Asia Treaty Organization started as Southeast Asia Collective Defense Treaty or Manila Pact (SEATO).

Paris Pacts treaty

455 Paris, France 1955 West Germany became sovereign and joined NATO. East Germany became free and joined Warsaw Pact of east European nations.

Central Treaty Organization or CENTO treaty Asia 1955 to 1979 First, it was Middle East Treaty Organization (METO) or Baghdad Pact.

Alliance for Progress league Americas 1962 Alliance involved all nations in Western Hemisphere, except Cuba.

Treaty between East and West Germany treaty Germany 1970 to 1972 Willy Brandt had policy of Ostpolitik, leading to Treaty of Moscow [1970], Treaty of Warsaw [1970], Four Power Agreement on Berlin [1971], Transit Agreement [1972], and Basic Treaty [1972]. Both nations then joined United Nations. The nations unified [1990].

Alliance for Progress league Cuba 1975 Cuba reentered.

Helsinki Agreements on Human Rights treaty Helsinki, Finland 1975 Laws established procedures for reporting on human rights and opened East Europe to communications from outside.

Camp David Accords treaty Egypt/Israel 1979 Anwar Sadat of Egypt [assassinated 1981] and Moshe Dayan of Israel signed peace treaty.

Convention on the Law of the Sea treaty United Nations 1982 Treaty established 200-mile territorial waters. missile treaty USA/Russia 1987 USA and Russia reached agreement on intermediate range missile reductions in Europe.

456 Nuclear Weapons treaty USA/Russia 1991 USA and Russia agreed on weapons and missiles.

SOCI>History>History>War

Trojan war Troy, Asia Minor -1200 Greeks destroyed Troy after ten-year war. Legendarily began when Paris took the Greek queen Helen (Helen of Troy) by force to Troy and ended when Greeks sacked Troy after hiding in Trojan Horse.

Persian Wars war Persia/Greece -499 to -479 Greek city-states, led by Athens, united against Persia.

Syracuse-Carthage war Syracuse, Sicily -480 Carthage tried to take Sicily and Syracuse but did not.

Persian Wars war Greece -449 Greece defeated Persia under Xerxes to end Persian Wars.

Peloponnesian War war Greece -431 to -404 In some city-states, rich oligarchs ruled. In democratic city-states, citizens ruled. Sparta and Corinth led Peloponnesian cities, favoring oligarchies, against wealthy Athens, favoring democratic cities. First, Corcyra (Corfu) rebelled against Corinth and then Athens, led by Pericles, helped it. Corinth asked Sparta for help. Peace came [-421] but failed as Athens moved against Syracuse, which allied with Sparta. They besieged Athens, which surrendered. Sparta then asked for Persian aid and won Peloponnesian War. It used mercenaries. Alcibiades was Athenian general and friend of Socrates. Merchants grew rich. Oligarchies took over democracies. It ruined Athenian farmland.

Revolt of Egypt war Egypt -405 Egypt revolted against Persia.

Period of Warring States war Yellow River, China/Yangtze River, China -403 to -221 Spring and Autumn Period ended [-475], and later Jin dynasty lands became three kingdoms [-403]. It ended when Qin dynasty unified China.

457

Italian War war Italy -396 Rome completed conquest of Italy and ruled it until end of Roman Empire.

Wars of the Diadochi war Greece -304 to -301 Ptolemy I, ruler of Egypt as former general of Alexander, defeated Antigonus I of Macedon.

First Punic War war Sicily -264 to -241 Sicily was at first ruled by Carthage. Rome defeated Carthage and took most of Sicily. Hamilcar Barca led Carthage, and Scipio led Rome. Rome controlled Italy south of Arno River.

Second Punic War war Italy -218 to -202 Hannibal, Hamilcar Barca's son, led Carthage army from New Carthage in Spain [-218]. He led cavalry and elephants over Alps and won in Po River valley at Trasimende [-217], in south Italy at Capua, and at Cannae [-216] but did not take Rome. Carthage lost New Carthage [-209]. He withdrew to aid his brother and then to defend Carthage against Scipio but lost at Zama [-202]. Rome then controlled west Mediterranean.

Liu war China -210 to -202 Liu family ended civil war and started Han dynasty.

First Macedonian War war Macedon -194 Philip V of Macedon lost to Rome, which had helped Athens against Macedon.

Second Macedonian War war Macedon -190 Antiochus III of Seleucids in Persia and Philip V of Macedon lost to Rome.

Third Macedonian War war Macedon -168 Perseus of Macedon lost to Rome.

Third Punic War war Carthage, Tunisia/Rome, Italy

458 -160 to -146 Cato the Elder or Cato the Censor helped start war. He believed in the old virtues and was miser. It ended when Rome under Scipio Africanus Minor (the Younger) sacked Carthage. After Punic Wars, Romans created large estates that used slaves from poor-peasant lands. Peasants came to cities. Soldiers became paid professionals.

Roman Civil War war Rome, Italy -76 After Caius Marius and Cinna, for the people, took Rome while Sulla, for Senate, was in Greece, Sulla won civil war.

Gallic Wars war Gaul -60 to -49 Julius Caesar of Roman Republic fought Gauls in France and gained power.

Jewish Revolt revolution Judaea 66 to 73 Palestinian Jews revolted against Romans led by Vespasian. After starving Jerusalem and destroying temple, Rome subdued Jews at Masada.

Roman civil war war Rome, Italy 68 to 69 After Emperor Nero died, there was war.

Hadrian's Wall wall Britain 122 to 138 Hadrian built wall to defend province of Britain. Scots and Picts breached wall twice.

Roman civil war war Rome, Italy 235 to 284 Roman Empire had civil war.

North Africans region North Africa 238 to 300 People revolted against Rome.

Aurelian Walls wall Rome, Italy 271 to 276 Aurelian Walls surrounded Rome.

Genji and Haiki War

459 war Japan 700 to 950 Buddhist priests and Fujiwara family were powerful. Capital was at Heian (Kyoto).

First Crusade war Clermont, France 1095 War began under Pope Urban II and Peter the Hermit at Council of Clermont and encouraged pilgrimages to Holy Land. Knights Templar and Knights Hospitaler began during Crusades.

Second Crusade war Rome, Italy 1145 to 1147 Bernard of Clairvaux preached for it because Zangi captured County of Edessa. Louis VII of France led it.

Damascus siege Asia Minor 1147 to 1149 Christian armies of Second Crusade lost to Turks in Asia Minor.

Minamoto clan Kamakura, Japan 1185 Minamoto Yorimoto of Minamoto clan defeated Tiara clan.

Third Crusade war Rome, Italy 1189 to 1192 Richard I of England and Philip II of France led Christian forces [1189]. Richard I of England and Saladin negotiated a truce [1192].

Fourth Crusade war Rome, Italy 1202 Fourth Crusade captured Constantinople and set up state, until Osmanli Turks defeated Christian soldiers and restored Byzantine Empire.

Sixth Crusade war Jerusalem, Palestine 1228 Frederick II of Holy Roman Empire peacefully got Jerusalem, Nazareth, and Bethlehem by treaty. gunpowder war Europe 1230 Gunpowder came to Europe.

460 Barons' War war Lewes, France 1263 Barons under Simon de Montfort defeated Henry III of France.

Sicilian Vespers war Sicily 1282 Sicilian Vespers revolt sent Sicily to King of Aragon.

Hundred Years War war France 1337 to 1453 Edward III, king of England, claimed France and began the 100 Years War. Joan of Arc and De Guesclin led France.

Byzantine civil war war Byzantium 1341 to 1354 Empire had civil war.

Jacquerie revolt Paris, France 1358 Peasants revolted north of Paris.

Spain rebellion Spain 1360 Rebellion was against Peter I of Castile, who also fought Charles V of France. Edward the Black Prince, Duke of Cornwall, helped him.

Hundred Years War war France 1374 Bertrand du Guesclin, constable of France, drove England out of France.

Peasants' Revolt revolt England 1381 Peasants led by Wat Tyler marched to London to protest tax to King Richard II. They committed crimes on way, ruined king's house, and murdered Archbishop of Canterbury and Lord Treasurer. Someone killed Wat Tyler, but Parliament cancelled tax and pardoned rebels. However, soon situation became as it was before.

Hussite Wars war Czech Republic 1419 to 1436

461 Protestant Czechs under John Huss and fundamentalist peasant Taborites of Moravian Church fought against Catholic Germans and Ultraquists. Ultraquist nobles backed some Church rites. Sigismund, a Catholic, was nominally king. It ended when George of Podebad negotiated peace.

Hundred Years War war Europe 1453 War ended as England lost at Castillon.

Venice-Ottoman war Turkey 1463 to 1479 Ottoman Empire defeated Venice.

Onin war Japan 1467 to 1477 Hosokawa and Yamana clans fought civil war.

Ikko-ikki revolt Japan 1488 Ikko Buddhists revolted.

Italian Wars war Lombardy 1494 to 1495 France and Spain fought over Italy [1494]. Switzerland defeated Charles the Bold of Burgundy [1495].

Japan peasant revolt revolution Japan 1500 to 1600 Peasants, under renegade samurai warriors, joined against lords.

Hungary Peasants Revolt revolution Hungary 1514 Peasants revolted in Hungary, lost, and became serfs.

Inca rebellion Peru 1536 to 1572 Manko Inka, Huayna Capac's grandson, and other Inca rebelled against Spanish. Tupaq Amaru I was last Inca emperor.

Transylvania Revolt revolution Hungary

462 1541 Transylvania princes, mainly Bocskay, revolted against Rudolf II of Hapsburg and Catholics and got west Hungary. Ottoman Empire got central Hungary. Hapsburgs of Austria got part of west Hungary.

Swiss Civil War war Switzerland 1550 Protestant Reformation caused war.

French Wars of Religion war France 1560 to 1590 Protestant minority fought with Catholic majority as nobles fought weak Valois kings.

Wars of Religion war France 1562 Catholics and Protestants fought.

Sea Beggars revolt Brill, Netherlands 1572 Privateers, some anti-Catholic noblemen, opposed Spanish during Revolt of the Netherlands but terrorized everybody. They captured Brielle [1572]. Rebel army was Geuzen or Beggars. William I of Orange first encouraged them [1568] but later jailed some leaders.

St. Bartholomew massacre Paris, France 1572 8,000 Protestants died.

Guise Revolt revolution France 1588 Duke of Guise led revolt against Henry III of France.

Gunpowder Plot or Guy Fawkes Day war England 1605 Guy Fawkes tried to blow up Parliament and King James I, to arouse the people.

Time of Troubles war Russia 1605 After nobles deposed Boris Godunov, Poland invaded and aided man pretending to be Dimitri, Ivan IV's son. More pretenders appeared and ruled.

Holland-Spain

463 war Holland/Spain 1609 to 1621 Truce held.

Thirty Years War war Bohemia/Austria/Spain 1618 to 1621 Protestant Bohemian princes, acting as Bohemian diet, deposed Catholic Hapsburg emperor Ferdinand II of Holy Roman Empire and Austria and elected Frederick the Winter King, starting Thirty Years War [1618]. Protestant Reformation had already divided Holy Roman Empire. Emperor won at first, but France then assisted rebels. England fought Holy Roman Empire, too. Spain joined Thirty Years War on side of Holy Roman Empire and Hapsburgs [1620]. War between Holland and Spain merged into Thirty Years War [1621]. Holland was on side of France and England.

Puritan Revolution war England 1647 Cromwell and Puritans defeated Charles I of England.

Cossack Rebellion rebellion Russia 1648 Rebellion was against Poland.

England Civil War war England 1649 to 1651 Oliver Cromwell and Puritans defeated Charles II and Scots at Dunbar [1649]. Oliver Cromwell won at Worcester [1651], to end civil war, and established Commonwealth.

Bacon's Rebellion rebellion Virginia 1676 Farmers revolted against colony.

Glorious Revolution revolution England 1688 Revolution ended rule of James II, Catholic, in favor of Protestant William of Orange.

King William's War war USA/Canada 1689 to 1697 First French and Indian War started when France attacked British colonies.

French and Indian Wars war USA 1689 to 1763

464 Britain pushed France northward and then out of east USA and Canada.

Russo-Turkish Wars war Russia/Turkey 1696 to 1878 Russia and Ottoman Empire warred intermittently and slowly gave Russia Crimea, Ukraine, Bessarabia, and Caucasus [1829].

War of the Grand Alliance war Europe 1697 War ended with defeat of Louis XIV of France by Holy Roman Empire, Holland, England, Spain, and German states. Austria got Hungary from Ottoman Empire.

Queen Anne's War war USA/Canada 1701 to 1703 Second French and Indian War lost France more territory to England.

Dutch-Xhosa war Africa 1702 to 1877 Southeast Africa had nine wars.

Mazeppa Rebellion rebellion Russia 1709 Cossacks rebelled against Peter I of Russia, who then took away their freedom.

Transylvania Prince Rebellion rebellion Hungary 1711 Francis II Rakoczy and Transylvania princes rebelled against Hapsburgs of Holy Roman Empire and Austria, who stopped rebellion and took Transylvania and Hungary.

Austro-Turkish War war Romania 1716 to 1717 Austria took Belgrade from Ottoman Empire [1717].

War of Polish Succession war Sicily/Naples, Italy/Parma, Italy 1735 War gave Sicily, Naples, and Parma to Spain under Bourbons. France lost, Holy Roman Empire lost, and Poland won.

War of Jenkin's Ear war

465 Spain 1739 War was about English right to trade at Portobello. Austria and Britain were against Spain, France, and Prussia.

Silesian War or War of the Austrian Succession war Silesia 1745 to 1748 Frederick II of Prussia claimed Silesia from Maria Theresa of Austria [1745]. Philip V of Spain fought on side of Austria. It ended [1748] with Maria Theresa as queen of Austria. Austria controlled Milan, Mantua, Tuscany, and Modena in Italy. Savoy controlled Papal States and Sardinia. Venice, Genoa, and Lucca were independent. Silesia went to Prussia.

King George's War war USA/Canada 1745 to 1748 Third French and Indian War removed France from Canada and northeast USA after defeat by England.

French and Indian Wars war Canada 1754 to 1763 Last French and Indian War, in which Britain won Quebec and western French forts. George Washington lost at Fort Necessity and then aided General Braddock.

Seven Years War war Germany/Austria 1756 to 1763 Prussia and Holy Roman Empire fought. England, France, Spain, Poland, and Russia participated.

Boston Massacre revolution Boston, Massachusetts 1770 British soldiers fired at crowd of colonists and were later tried in court.

Gaspee Burning revolution USA 1772 Rhode Island men torched HMS Gaspee, sent by Britain to enforce trade laws and prevent smuggling, exploding its powder magazine.

Boston Tea Party revolution Boston, Massachusetts 1773 Colonists threw tea that was subject to British tax from ships into Boston harbor.

Quebec Campaign war Canada 1776 USA failed to arouse Canada against British. USA took Montreal, lost Quebec, and went back to USA.

466

Ohio campaign Ohio 1779 General Clark of USA defeated American natives.

Carolina campaign North Carolina 1781 USA under Nathaniel Greene defeated Britain under Cornwallis.

Revolt of the Netherlands war Netherlands 1789 Netherlands fought against Joseph II of Holy Roman Empire (Austria) and his reforms.

French Revolution revolution France 1789.0714 Revolution began on July 14, which is now Bastille Day, with storming of Bastille prison. Causes were liberal trends of Enlightenment, France bankruptcy, subsequent taxes, mercantile system, and disparity between rich and poor.

French Revolutionary Wars war France/Netherlands/Switzerland 1792 to 1798 French Assembly declared war on Austria [1792]. Early French defeats led to taking Tuileries Palaces, murdering Swiss Guards, giving more power to Paris Commune, and electing National Convention. French Revolutionary Army took Netherlands and formed Batavian Republic [1795]. France took Switzerland and created Helvetic Republic [1798].

Vendemaire Revolt revolution France 1794 Napoleon put down noble's Vendemaire Revolt against Directory and gained fame.

Mamelukes Rebellion rebellion Egypt 1798 to 1811 Mohammed Ali, pasha of Egypt, defeated Ottoman Empire.

Peninsular War war Spain 1808 to 1814 Napoleon of France captured the Bourbon King Charles IV of Spain and his son Ferdinand VII [1808].

South America war South America

467 1810 to 1824 Simon Bolivar, the Liberator, led South America in war against Spain. He eventually won at Ayacucho [1824].

Revolt of Mexico war Mexico 1811 Hidalgo y Costilla led revolt of Mexico against Spain.

War of 1812 war USA 1812 William Henry Harrison won Battle of Thames in Ontario, Canada, giving USA control of Northwest. Francis Scott Key wrote National Anthem.

Croatia war Croatia 1813 Hungary regained Croatia from France.

Serbia Rebellion rebellion Serbia 1817 Serbs led by Milosh Obrenovich rebelled against Ottoman Empire.

Musket Wars war New Zealand 1818 to 1833 Maori tribes fought with muskets.

Greek Revolution war Greece 1821 Greece under Ypsilantis fought Ottoman Empire and Egypt and won at Navarino or Pylos.

Mexico Civil War war Mexico 1823 Santa Anna and others fought for leadership of Mexico after Iturbide left.

Anglo-Burmese Wars war Burma 1824 to 1885 Wars added Burma to British India.

Miguelist Wars war Portugal 1826

468 John VI of Portugal died, starting Miguelist Wars over his successor.

Belgium Secession secession Belgium 1830 Belgium, including most of Luxembourg, seceded from Netherlands.

Poland Insurrection war Poland 1830 King suspended constitution after insurrection.

Canada Rebellion rebellion Canada 1837 to 1838 MacKenzie rebelled against Britain in north Canada, and Papineau rebelled against Britain in south Canada.

Opium War war China/Britain 1839 to 1842 Britain sold opium from India in south China, but Manchu or Ch'ing Dynasty banned it and burned shipment [1839]. Britain won Opium War with Ch'ing Dynasty of China [1842]. Opium War gave Hong Kong to Britain and allowed free trade in China. Missionaries came to China.

First Sikh War war India 1845 Ranjit Singh of Sikhs took Punjab and Kashmir from Britain.

Mexican War war San Jacinto, Texas 1845 Sam Houston of USA defeated Santa Anna of Mexico and USA gained Texas.

Sonderbund War war Switzerland 1847 Protestant diet in Switzerland dissolved Sonderbund union of Catholic cantons, causing Sonderbund War, which Catholics quickly lost.

Greek Revolt revolution Greece 1848 Greece revolted against Austria.

Sicily revolution Sicily

469 1848.01 Sicily revolted against Kingdom of Naples.

February Revolution revolution France 1848.02 Revolution deposed Louis Philippe. Second Republic formed.

Revolution of 1848 revolution Prussia 1848.04 to 1848.11 Revolution started in Berlin, but Frederick William IV ended it in November. Other German kingdoms wrote constitutions during this time.

June Days revolution France 1848.06 Revolution lost to Second Republic.

Second Sikh War war India 1849 Sikhs lost all land to Britain.

Crimean War war Crimea 1853 England defeated Russia and prevented Russian access to Black Sea.

Sepoy Rebellion or Indian Mutiny war India 1857 Brahmin Bengal soldiers in England's army rebelled and ended puppet rule of Mogul Dynasty and British East India Company. Britain began direct rule of India.

Italian War war Lombardy 1859 Francis Joseph II of Austria lost Lombardy to Italy.

Carlist Revolt revolution Spain 1860 Carlists revolted in Spain but lost.

Risorgimento war Italy

470 1860 to 1861 Risorgimento was period of Italy unification [1815 to 1870]. Papal States lost Bologna, Romagna, Marches, and Umbria to Sardinia under Garibaldi [1860]. Garibaldi, from Sardinia, took Lombardy, Parma, Modena, and Two Sicilies from Papal States and gave them to Victor Immanuel II [1861].

War between the States or USA Civil War war South USA 1861 to 1865 North was states above Mason-Dixon line separating Pennsylvania and Maryland. South was states below. 600,000 died. USA population was 30,000,000 people.

Poland Insurrection war Poland 1863 Insurrection led to more Russian influence.

Sand Creek massacre or Chivington massacre or Battle of Sand Creek Colorado 1864 John Chivington and Colorado Volunteers attacked Black Kettle, Cheyenne, and Arapaho.

Austro-Prussian War war Austria/Prussia 1866 to 1869 Bismarck of Prussia started it, and Prussia defeated Austria.

Carlist Revolt revolution Spain 1869 Don Carlos lost revolt.

Franco-Prussian War war France/Prussia 1869 to 1870 Prussia quickly defeated France.

Carlist Revolt revolution Spain 1872 Don Carlos lost revolt.

Satsuma Revolt revolution Japan 1877 Clans revolted against emperor, who wanted westernization, industrialization, and reform, but they lost. Emperor got all clan lands. Feudalism ended.

First Balkan War

471 war Balkan Peninsula 1885 Bulgaria, under Alexander of Battenberg, got Rumelia from Serbia.

Wounded Knee massacre Wounded Knee, South Dakota 1890 USA 7th Cavalry massacred Minniconjou Sioux under Big Foot.

Sino-Japanese War war China 1894 to 1895 Japan defeated China.

South African War or Second Boer War war South Africa 1899 to 1902 Britain defeated Boers.

Boxer Rebellion revolt China 1900 Society of Harmonious Fists secret society attacked Christians in China, and British retaliated. China lost government control to British. Japan also took land.

Philippine Revolt revolution Philippines 1901 USA put down revolt led by Aguinaldo of Philippines.

Russo-Japanese War war Russia/Japan 1904 to 1905 Russia did not withdraw from Manchuria after Boxer Rebellion, and Japan forced Russia to leave Manchuria.

Revolution of 1905 or First Russian Revolution war Russia 1905 to 1906 Strikes and mutinies, especially on the ship Potemkin, led to Duma parliament [1906] and to land reform, but Stolypin [assassinated 1917] blocked Duma.

Bosnia and Hercegovina Annexation annexation Bosnia/Hercegovina 1908 Austro-Hungary annexed Bosnia and Hercegovina and agitated Russia and Serbia, which was trying to unify region's Slavs.

472 HMS Dreadnaught battleship England 1910 New battleship type countered German navy buildup.

Korea Annexation annexation Korea 1910 Japan annexed Korea.

Mexican Revolution war Mexico 1910 to 1915 Madero led revolt against Diaz, causing civil war. Madero, Emil Zapata, Huerta, Carranza, and Obregon fought for revolt.

Chinese Revolution war China 1911 Sun Yat-sen led overthrow of Ch'ing Dynasty.

Balkan Wars war Balkan Peninsula 1913 Ottoman Empire lost Croatia, Serbia, Bulgaria, Romania, and Greece.

Second Balkan War war Balkan Peninsula 1913 Bulgaria started it to gain Macedonia, but Serbia won. Greece got Crete and southeast Macedonia.

World War I or Great War war Europe 1914.06 to 1918 War began when Gavrilo Princip, member of plot by Serbian secret society, assassinated the Hapsburg Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria at Sarajevo, Bosnia, in June 1914. Austria-Hungary gave ultimatum to Serbia in July, which accepted it, but then Austro-Hungary declared war on Serbia a week later. Russia mobilized. In August, Germany declared war on Russia, declared war on France, and invaded neutral Belgium. England declared war on Germany. Austria-Hungary declared war on Russia in August. It had tanks and poison gas. Allies or Entente were England, France, Czech, Serbia, Montenegro, Russia, Japan, China, Italy [1915], Romania [1916], USA [1917], Greece [1918], and Portugal [1918]. Central Powers were Germany, Austria, Hungary, Bulgaria [1915], and Ottoman Empire. Neutral countries were Albania, Spain, Belgium, Switzerland, Holland, Sweden, Norway, Denmark, Persia, and Arabia.

World War I or Great War war Belgium 1914.08

473 Although Belgium was neutral under King Albert I, Germany invaded Belgium.

World War I or Great War war Germany 1914.08 to 1918 British navy blockaded German ports on North Sea.

Easter Rebellion rebellion Ireland 1916 Ireland under Patrick Pearse rebelled against England. Sinn Fein Party under Eamon De Valera started Irish Assembly (Dail Eireann) and declared independence. English Black and Tans defeated Irish nationalists and Britain occupied Ireland after rebellion.

World War I or Great War war Albania 1916 Austria defeated Albania under dictator Essad Pasha.

World War I or Great War war Austria 1916 Russia defeated Austria.

U-boat blockade war Atlantic Ocean 1916 U-boat submarines blockaded Britain and sank all vessels.

World War I or Great War war Arabia 1917 Arabia revolted against Ottoman Empire.

World War I or Great War war Russia 1917.03 Russian Revolution {February Revolution} ended Eastern Front.

February Revolution/Bolshevik Revolution war Russia 1917.03 to 1917.11 War and economy caused revolution. St. Petersburg strikers and food rioters took capital, and soldiers refused to stop them. They forced Nicholas-II abdication. Provisional government formed under Lvov. Lvov resigned when parliament {Duma} voted for peace in World War I. Kerensky then led Socialist Revolutionary government. Bolsheviks and Mensheviks fought civil war, with Bolsheviks taking St. Petersburg in November {October Revolution} {Bolshevik Revolution}. Bolsheviks declared end to private land ownership and began terror campaign. Bolsheviks also fought with Poland. Lenin became government head.

474

World War I or Great War war France 1918 Germany attacked Western Front.

Bessarabia Annexation annexation Bessarabia 1918.05 Romania annexed Bessarabia by Bucharest Treaty between Germany and Romania.

World War I or Great War war Austria 1918.09 Revolt in Austria and Germany led to abdication by Kaiser Wilhelm II of Germany.

China Civil War war China 1919 War began after Sun-Yat-Sen left presidency. Kuomintang was in south. Warlords backed government in north.

Communist Revolt revolution Hungary 1919 Bela Kun tried Communist takeover of Hungary, but Romania ended it.

Kronstadt Revolt revolution Kronstadt, Russia 1921 Sailors revolted and demanded human rights.

Greece war Asia Minor 1922.03 Greece invaded Asia Minor but lost to Ataturk of Turkey.

Beer Hall Putsch revolution Bavaria 1923 Adolf Hitler tried to take over Munich but went to jail, where he wrote his book Mein Kampf or My Struggle.

Romania Civil War war Romania 1927 Ferdinand died, and Carol II and Michael fought.

Iron Guard

475 war Romania 1930 Anti-Semitic terrorists gained power.

Sino-Japanese War war Manchuria 1931 to 1945 War started when Japan took Manchuria and set up state of Manchukuo, restoring last emperor of China. Japan occupied north China to Great Wall [1933], uniting communists and nationalists of China in opposition. Japan attacked again [1937] and took north China, south China ports, and part of Indochina [1940]. By 1943, Japan took Burma, Siam, Indochina, Malaya, Indonesia (Dutch East Indies), and Philippines. Japan already had Korea, Formosa, and Marianas, Marshall, and Caroline Islands, by Treaty of Versailles [1919].

Ethiopia war Ethiopia/Italy 1935 to 1936 Italy invaded and took Ethiopia [1936].

Rhineland occupation Germany 1936 Germany occupied Rhineland and built forts, violating treaties.

Spanish Civil War war Spain 1936 The people elected radical and Communist republicans to Spanish legislature. Falange forces joined Insurgent forces to fight republic. Italy helped Falange.

Trade War war England/Ireland 1938 Trade war between England and Ireland ended.

Austria Occupation annexation Austria 1938.03 to 1940 Germany occupied Austria in March 1938, when Mussolini withdrew his opposition. Union {Anschluss} with Germany began [1940].

Russia-Finland war Finland 1939 to 1940 Russia invaded Finland and soon took part of Poland, Lithuania, Latvia, and Estonia.

World War II war Europe

476 1939 to 1945 Axis Powers were Germany, Italy, Hungary, Bulgaria, Yugoslavia, and Romania. Japan allied with Axis. Allies were England and France, and later Russia and USA. China allied with Allies. Spain, Switzerland, Sweden, Arabia, Eire, and Turkey were neutral. 35,000,000 Europeans died, including 20,000,000 in Russia. Hitler altered war rules, using overwhelming and indiscriminate force {total war}. He annexed territory, moved people, exterminated people, took booty, used reprisals, and enslaved war prisoners.

World War II war Poland 1939.0901 War began as Germany under Hitler invaded Poland, ostensibly because it had refused him Danzig. Russia soon invaded Poland from east.

World War II war Belgium/Netherlands 1940.03 Germany invaded Belgium, ruled by King Leopold III, and Netherlands, though both were neutral. Germany forced British evacuation at Dunkirk. Germany signed armistice with France in June 1940, taking north France and leaving fascist French government at Vichy in south France.

Battle of Britain war England 1940.09 Britain won victory in air over English Channel, preventing invasion by Germany.

World War II war Africa 1941 Rommel (the Desert Fox) of Germany took north Africa from British and French.

Yugoslavia war Yugoslavia 1941.03 Axis attacked Yugoslavia after Yugoslav military removed pro-Axis government. Peter II of Yugoslavia fled. Italy and Germany took Yugoslavia and Greece.

Russia war Russia 1941.06 to 1941.11 Finland joined Germany in attacking Russia. Germany moved close to Moscow before winter, besieged Stalingrad and Petrograd, and took Ukraine.

Germany war Germany 1941.1211 to 1945 Germany declared war on USA.

France war

477 France 1942 Germany took over south France.

Germany war Germany 1942 Allied bombing of Germany began.

Poland war Poland/Russia/Germany 1942 to 1944 Germany invaded Russia and took all Poland [1942]. Russia conquered Poland and set up provisional government in Lublin [1944].

Finland war Finland 1944 Finland gave up fighting Russia and fought Germany.

Hungary war Hungary/Russia 1944 Russia conquered Hungary.

Japan war Japan 1944.06 USA bombing of Japan began.

Philippines war Philippines 1944.08 USA fought Japan.

Austria war Austria 1945 to 1955 Allies occupied Austria, and they signed peace treaty later [1955].

Burma war Burma 1945.04 Britain recovered Burma from Japan.

Okinawa war Okinawa, Japan

478 1945.06 USA captured Okinawa from Japan.

Manchuria war Manchuria 1945.0808 Russia invaded against Japan.

Japan war Japan 1945.0912 Japan surrendered to USA, ending World War II in Pacific, and MacArthur occupied Japan. China got all territory it had before, except Hong Kong and Macao.

Greece civil war war Greece 1946 to 1950 Royalists and communists fought. Plebiscite [1950] voted against George II, whom his son Paul replaced.

China Civil War war China 1947 to 1948 USA soldiers withdrew [1947]. Nationalists started a constitution and elected Chiang Kai-Shek president. Mao Tse- Tung led Communists to victory in civil war [1948]. Chang Kai-Shek led Nationalists to Formosa.

Berlin Blockade blockade Berlin, Germany 1948 to 1949 Russia started blockade. Berlin Airlift of Allies broke it.

Arab-Israeli War war Egypt 1948.05 to 1949 King Farouk I of Egypt and Arab League attacked new state of Israel after Britain left. 700,000 Palestinians became refugees. Oil pipeline ran from Iraq through Jordan and Syria to Haifa.

Korean War war Korea 1950.06 to 1953 North Korea invaded South Korea. United Nations sent USA troops to fight. China intervened against United Nations when Americans approached Manchuria. Douglas MacArthur led United Nations forces in Korean War until dismissed by Truman over how to fight war [1952].

Korean War Truce war Korea 1953 North Korea, China, and United Nations signed at Panmunjeom.

479 Hungarian Revolution revolution Hungary 1956 Russia crushed revolution and selected Kadar to lead government.

Poznan Riots war Poznan, Poland 1956 Russia controlled riots, and Gomulka became premier of Poland.

Suez Canal war Egypt 1956 After Egypt nationalized Suez Canal, short occupation by Israel, Britain, and France followed.

Sumatra revolution Sumatra, Indonesia 1957 Sumatra revolted against Indonesia.

Lebanon civil war war Lebanon 1958 Moslem and Christians fought.

Indonesia Revolt revolution Indonesia 1959 Sukarno won and assumed broad powers.

Ireland Religious War war Ireland 1960 to 1998 Catholics and Protestants fought.

India war Goa 1961 India took Goa, Damao, and Diu from Portugal.

Syria Revolt revolution Syria 1961 Syria revolted from Egypt, ending United Arab Republic.

Berlin Wall building

480 Berlin, Germany 1961 to 1990 Wall split east and west Berlin.

China-India war China/India 1962 Border disputes between China and India erupted into war. China took land.

Tibet Revolt revolution Tibet 1962 Tibet revolted against China but failed.

Indonesia war Malaysia 1963 Indonesia attacked Malaysia but failed, weakening Sukarno.

Vietnam War war USA/Vietnam 1963 to 1973 USA sent advisors [1963] and then soldiers [1965]. North Vietnamese launched a Lunar New Year {Tet} offensive [1968]. Secret negotiations started [1970]. Countries signed cease-fire in Paris [1973]. 50,000 Americans died.

Nigeria civil war or Biafran War war Nigeria 1966 to 1970 It was between Hausa and Igbo in south Nigeria.

East Pakistan rebellion Bangladesh 1967 Neglect caused East Pakistan to rebel against West Pakistan, and India and West Pakistan warred over border.

Second Arab-Israeli War war Israel/Egypt/Jordan/Syria 1967 Israel took Sinai Peninsula up to Suez Canal from Egypt, West Bank of Jordan River from Jordan, and Golan Heights at border with Syria from Syria.

Russia-Czechoslovakia war Czech Republic/Slovakia 1968 Russia invaded Czechoslovakia to end reforms of Alexander Dubcek.

Syria civil war war

481 Syria 1970 Socialist Ba'ath Party defeated Moslem Brotherhood.

Turkey-Cyprus war Cyprus 1972 Turkey invaded Cyprus against Greece and took north Cyprus.

Third Arab-Israeli War war Israel/Palestine 1972 to 1973 Arabs won back territory.

Kurdish Rebellion rebellion Iraq 1975 Kurds rebelled against Iraq, who stopped rebellion.

Afghan War war Afghanistan/Russia 1979 to 1988 Russian soldiers supported puppet government against Islamic rebels.

Iraq-Iran war Iraq/Iran 1980 to 1988 Iraq attacked Iran. 1,000,000 people died in war. infitada rebellion Palestine 1987 to 1997 Palestinians rebelled against Israeli rule {infitada}.

Angola-South Africa war Angola/South Africa 1988 Angola and South Africa halted war.

China student rebellion China 1989 Army put down protests by Student Union in Tiananmen Square. Goddess of Democracy stood there.

Bosnia secession Yugoslavia 1991

482 Bosnia seceded from Yugoslavia.

Croatia rebellion Yugoslavia 1991 Rebellion was against Serbia. Later, Croatia became independent.

Gulf War war Kuwait 1991 Iraq lost after it occupied Kuwait [1990] and faced economic controls and weapons inspections.

SOCI>History>Historians

Herodotus historian Greece -449 to -430 Researches [-449]; Persian Wars [-430: about wars between 499 to 479] He lived -484 to -425.

Thucydides historian Greece -431 History of the Peloponnesian Wars [-431] He lived -460 to -410 and explained Peloponnesian Wars.

Xenophon historian Greece -401 Retreat of the Ten Thousand or Anabasis [-401] He lived -444 to -357.

Livy or Titus Livius [Livius, Titus] historian Padua, Italy/Rome, Italy -29 to -9 From the Founding of the City [-29 to -9: history of Rome from -753 to -9] He lived -59 to 17.

Lucan or Marcus Annaeus Lucanus [Lucanus, Marcus Annaeus] historian Rome, Italy 65 Pharsalia or Civil War [65] He lived 39 to 65.

Mestrius Plutarch [Plutarch, Mestrius] historian/biographer Greece 80 to 110

483 Parallel Lives of the Noble Greeks and Romans [100 to 110]; Morals [80 to 90: including On Eating Flesh, On the Fortune or the Virtue of Alexander the Great, On the Worship of Isis and Osiris, On the Malice of Herodotus, On the Decline of the Oracles, On the Delays of the Divine Vengeance, On Peace of Mind] He lived 46 to 120.

Suetonius or Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus [Tranquillus, Gaius Suetonius] historian Rome, Italy 98 to 117 Lives of the Caesars or The Twelve Caesars [98 to 117] He lived 75 to 160 and wrote about Roman Empire.

Ssu-ma Ch'ien historian Chang'an (Xian), China 100 Historical Records [100] He lived -145 to -90 and wrote dynasty histories.

Pausanias historian Greece 100 to 200 Description of Greece [100 to 200] He studied legends, customs, and arts.

Tacitus or Publius Tacitus [Tacitus, Publius] or Gaius Cornelius Tacitus [Tacitus, Gaius Cornelius] historian Rome, Italy/Germany 105 to 115 Histories [105: Roman Empire from Tiberius to Domitian]; Annals [115: Roman Empire from Tiberius to Domitian] He lived 56 to 117.

Appian of Alexandria historian Alexandria, Egypt 130 to 150 Punic Wars [130 to 150]; Roman Civil Wars [130 to 150] He lived 95 to 165.

Pseudo-Plutarch historian/biographer Greece 200 to 400 Lives of the Ten Orators [100: about ancient Athens and based on Caecilius of Calacte's works]; Doctrines of the Philosophers [100]; On Music [100] Later Plutarch-of-Delphi Moralia editions included unknown authors, called Pseudo-Plutarch.

Fa-hien historian Qingzhou, Shandong, China 399 Record of Buddhistic Kingdoms [399 to 414] He was Chinese Buddhist historian who traveled through India and Ceylon [399 to 414].

Tabari or Abu Jafar Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari [al-Tabari, Abu Jafar Muhammad ibn Jarir]

484 historian Persia/Baghdad, Iraq 914 Annals of Apostles and Kings [914] He lived 839 to 923.

Balami or Abu-Ali Mohammad Balami [Balami, Abu-Ali Mohammad] historian Bokhara 946 to 973 Annals [966: translated and shortened version of Tabari plus fables] He was vizier at Bokhara [946 to 973].

Mas'udi or Abu al-Husayn 'ali Ibn al-Husayn al-Mas'udi [al-Mas'udi, Abu al-Husayn 'ali Ibn al-Husayn] historian Baghdad, Iraq 956 Meadows of Gold and Mines of Gems [956] He lived ? to 957 and wrote world history.

Jacopo de Voragine [Voragine, Jacopo de] or Jacobus de Voragine [Voragine, Jacobus de] historian/biographer Rome, Italy 1260 to 1275 Golden Legend [1260 to 1275] He lived 1229 to 1298 and wrote about saints.

Ibn Khaldun historian/sociologist/economist Tunis, Tunisia 1370 Prolegomenon or Introduction or Muqaddima[1370] He lived 1332 to 1406, was Sufi and politician, and was "father of science of history". History analyzes development of culture through social, political, and economic patterns and causes {unran}.

Samuel Pepys [Pepys, Samuel] historian/biographer London, England 1669 Diary [1669] He lived 1633 to 1703.

Samuel Johnson [Johnson, Samuel] historian London, England 1750 to 1779 Dictionary [1750]; Lives of the Poets [1779] He lived 1709 to 1784.

James Boswell [Boswell, James] historian/biographer Scotland/London, England 1762 Biography of Samuel Johnson [1762] He lived 1740 to 1795.

485 Edward Gibbon [Gibbon, Edward] historian England 1783 Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire [1783] He lived 1737 to 1794.

Louis Saint-Simon [Saint-Simon, Louis] historian Paris, France 1788 Memoirs on the Court of Louis XIV [1788] He lived 1675 to 1755.

Thomas Carlyle [Carlyle, Thomas] historian London, England 1837 French Revolution [1837] He lived 1795 to 1881. Heroes make history {great man theory}, not social forces.

Richard F. Burton [Burton, Richard F.] historian England 1853 Pilgrimage to Mecca [1853] He lived 1821 to 1890 and translated Kama Sutra and Arabian Nights.

Leo Frobenius [Frobenius, Leo] historian Halle, Germany 1898 to 1913 African Masks and Secret Societies [1898]; Voice of Africa [1913] He lived 1873 to 1938.

Van Wyck Brooks [Brooks, Van Wyck] historian/critic USA 1909 to 1947 Finders and Makers series [1909 to 1947: history] He lived 1886 to 1963.

Thomas Edward Lawrence [Lawrence, Thomas Edward] or Lawrence of Arabia historian England/Arabia 1916 to 1923 Seven Pillars of Wisdom [1923] He lived 1888 to 1935 and helped King Faisal I of Egypt defeat Ottoman Empire in the Arab revolt.

Leon Trotsky [Trotsky, Leon] or Lev Bronstein [Bronstein, Lev] historian Moscow, Russia 1920 Defense of Marxism [1920] He lived 1879 to 1940 and was Bolshevik leader. Stalin exiled him to Mexico and murdered him there.

486 Will Durant [Durant, Will] historian USA 1926 to 1967 Story of Philosophy [1926 and 1961: with Ariel Durant]; Story of Civilization [1967] He lived 1885 to 1981.

Edith Hamilton [Hamilton, Edith] historian USA 1930 to 1955 Greek Way [1930]; Roman Way; Mythology [1955] She lived 1867 to 1963.

Arnold Joseph Toynbee [Toynbee, Arnold Joseph] historian England 1934 to 1961 Study of History [1934 to 1961: 12 volumes] He lived 1889 to 1975.

Robin G. Collingwood [Collingwood, Robin G.] historian England 1936 to 1940 Idea of History [1936]; Principles of Art [1938]; Essay on Metaphysics [1940] He lived 1889 to 1943, was positivist, and wrote about Roman Britain. Epistemology Philosophy, history, and all thinking depend on fundamental assumptions {absolute presupposition}, which form perspective. Absolute presuppositions are neither true nor false. People need to imagine previous-epoch thoughts and actions to understand their practical problems. The idea of agency is basis of the idea of causality.

Jacques Barzun [Barzun, Jacques] historian USA 1961 Classic, Romantic, and Modern [1961] He lived 1907 to ?.

Barbara Tuchman [Tuchman, Barbara] historian USA 1962 Guns of August [1962] She lived 1912 to 1989.

Kenneth B. Clark [Clark, Kenneth B.] historian England 1969 Civilisation [1969: Harper and Row, New York, about art] He lived 1903 to 1983.

Antonia Fraser [Fraser, Antonia] historian England

487 1969 Mary Queen of Scots [1969] She lived 1932 to ?.

John M. Roberts [Roberts, John M.] historian England 1994 to 1997 History of the World [1994]; Concise History of the World [1997] He lived 1928 to 2003.

SOCI>History>Historians>USA History

Alexis de Tocqueville [Tocqueville, Alexis de] historian Paris, France/USA 1835 Democracy in America [1835] He lived 1805 to 1859.

Francis Parkman [Parkman, Francis] historian USA 1847 to 1885 Oregon Trail [1847]; History of the Conspiracy of Pontiac [1851]; Montcalm and Wolfe [1885] He lived 1823 to 1893.

James Truslow Adams [Adams, James Truslow] historian USA 1921 Founding of New England [1921] He lived 1878 to 1949.

Allan Nevins [Nevins, Allan] historian USA 1932 to 1971 Grover Cleveland: A Study in Courage [1932]; Hamilton Fish: The Inner History of the Grant Administration [1936]; Ordeal of the Union [1947 to 1971] He lived 1890 to 1971.

Carl Sandburg [Sandburg, Carl] historian USA 1939 Abraham Lincoln: The Prairie Years [1939]; Abraham Lincoln: The War Years He lived 1878 to 1967.

Henry Steele Commager [Commager, Henry Steele] historian USA 1943 to 1950 Majority Rule and Minority Rights [1943]; American Mind [1950] He lived 1902 to 1998.

488 Arthur Schlesinger [Schlesinger, Arthur] historian USA 1945 to 1965 Age of Roosevelt [1957 to 1960]; Age of Jackson [1945]; 1000 Days [1965] He lived 1917 to ?.

George F. Kennan [Kennan, George F.] historian USA 1946 Long Telegram [1946] He lived 1904 to 2005.

Bruce Catton [Catton, Bruce] historian USA 1953 Stillness at Appomattox [1953] He lived 1899 to 1978 and wrote about USA civil war.

MacKinlay Kantor [Kantor, MacKinlay] historian USA 1955 Andersonville [1955: USA civil war] He lived 1904 to 1977.

Theodore White [White, Theodore] historian USA 1960 to 1972 Making of the President [1960 and 1968 and 1972] He lived 1915 to 1986.

Samuel Eliot Morison [Morison, Samuel Eliot] historian USA 1971 to 1974 European Discovery of America: The Northern Voyages [1971]; European Discovery of America: The Southern Voyages [1974] He lived 1887 to 1976.

Peter Novick [Novick, Peter] historian USA 1988 That Noble Dream [1988]

489