W. B. Yeats's “Imitated from the Japanese” and the Philosophy Of

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W. B. Yeats’s “Imitated from the Japanese” and the Philosophy of Kobayashi Issa1

Yuki ITO

Introduction. In 1938, W. B. Yeats published his poem “Imitated from the Japanese” in his poetry collection New Poems. The poem reads:

“Imitated from the Japanese”

A most astonishing thing Seventy years have I lived;

(Hurrah for the flowers of Spring For Spring is here again.)

Seventy years have I lived No ragged beggar man, Seventy years have I lived, Seventy years man and boy, And never have I danced for joy.2

Yeats wrote the draft version of this poem in a letter to Dorothy Wellesley, written in 1936, now published in Letters on Poetry from W. B. Yeats to Dorothy Wellesley (1964). According to the letter, he composed “this poem out of a prose translation of a Japanese 2 城西人文研究第 35 巻 W.B.Yeats’s “Imitated from the Japanese” and the Philosophy of Kobayashi Issa

Hokku in praise of Spring3.” Part, it will be discussed from the viewpoint of the philosophical influence of Friedrich Since the letter’s disclosure, Yeatsian scholars had been looking for the haiku Nietzsche. In Part Two, Issa’s haiku and his philosophy will be presented. In this Part,

(hokku4) that had influenced Yeats, and there have been various theories put forth. For Issa will be discussed from the viewpoint of the religious faith. example, Earl Miner suggested that the haiku might be from a part of the Noh play Kakitsubata, which Ezra Pound translated5. On the other hand, Richard Finneran Part I. Tragic Laughter and Self-caricature. insisted that the source was Emori Gekkyo’s haiku6. Before discussing the origin of this poem, it is important to note that Yeats edited The source of the poem remained undetected until Edward Marx’s discovery in and published The Oxford Book of Modern Verse in 1936. At the time (1936-37), Yeats 2005. Marx published a series of papers under the title, “Yone Noguchi in W. B. Yeats’s re-read Friedrich Nietzsche and enforced his philosophy of tragedy. In the Japan” in a serial bulletin of Ehime University, which was later reprinted in Yeats introduction, he excluded War Poets such as Wilfred Owen, insisting that “passive Annual 17 (in a combined and revised version), in 2007. Consequently, his discovery suffering is not a theme for poetry8.” It is well-known that this statement incited a great became popular among international readers. Marx found that Yeats nearly plagiarized controversy. As well, it should be remembered that Yeats rejected Sean O’Casey’s play, a series of Kobayashi Issa’s haiku7, which had been translated by Yone Noguchi; The The Silver Tassie at the Abbey, for a similar reason. His antagonistic attitude toward series was included in Noguchi’s essay, “Hobby,” published in the journal Adelphi in “passive suffering” was deeply rooted in his philosophy. 1935, and later reprinted in the Indian journal Visva-Bharati Quarterly, in 1936. Yeats In the poem “Imitated from the Japanese,” special attention should be paid to the likely read the Indian journal, and composed “Imitated from the Japanese” based on last line: “And never have I danced for joy.” This can be read as a resignation or a Issa’s haiku, found within. passive resignation to a joyless life, in old age. So, here is a question: Does this stance This paper will discuss the philosophies of Yeats and of the haiku poet Issa. contradict Yeats’s own philosophy or not? I admit this line can be interpreted as a great Yeats’s philosophical stance will be discussed in light of his theory of “tragic joy,” while happiness “never have I danced for joy” like this. However, Issa’s model haiku of this Issa’s stance will be based on his evocation of Pure Land Buddhism faith, especially poem cannot read as such a happiness, and Yone Noguchi, the translator of the haiku, True Pure Land Buddhism [Jōdo shinshū] founded by Shinran (1173-1223CE). explained as the following: While this paper does not insist that Yeats was strongly influenced by Issa, a closer examination of the similarities and differences between the two poets seems How strongly I was impressed by the last hokku poem [note: the model relevant, in light of Yeats’s near plagiarism and the main content of the poem under haiku of the final line of Yeats’s poem “Imitated. . .” i.e. “Alas fifty years purview. have passed, / Having no night / When I danced in joy”] since I myself The body of this paper will be divided into two parts. In Part One, Yeats’s tragic like Issa had spent long fifty years with no night in dancing! Issa must philosophy and self-caricature in “Imitated from the Japanese” will be discussed. In this have been a poor fellow like myself, who if he was asked about his hobby 城西人文研究第 35 巻 W.B.Yeats’s “Imitated from the Japanese” and the Philosophy of Kobayashi Issa 3

(hokku4) that had influenced Yeats, and there have been various theories put forth. For Issa will be discussed from the viewpoint of the religious faith. example, Earl Miner suggested that the haiku might be from a part of the Noh play Kakitsubata, which Ezra Pound translated5. On the other hand, Richard Finneran Part I. Tragic Laughter and Self-caricature. insisted that the source was Emori Gekkyo’s haiku6. Before discussing the origin of this poem, it is important to note that Yeats edited The source of the poem remained undetected until Edward Marx’s discovery in and published The Oxford Book of Modern Verse in 1936. At the time (1936-37), Yeats 2005. Marx published a series of papers under the title, “Yone Noguchi in W. B. Yeats’s re-read Friedrich Nietzsche and enforced his philosophy of tragedy. In the Japan” in a serial bulletin of Ehime University, which was later reprinted in Yeats introduction, he excluded War Poets such as Wilfred Owen, insisting that “passive Annual 17 (in a combined and revised version), in 2007. Consequently, his discovery suffering is not a theme for poetry8.” It is well-known that this statement incited a great became popular among international readers. Marx found that Yeats nearly plagiarized controversy. As well, it should be remembered that Yeats rejected Sean O’Casey’s play, a series of Kobayashi Issa’s haiku7, which had been translated by Yone Noguchi; The The Silver Tassie at the Abbey, for a similar reason. His antagonistic attitude toward series was included in Noguchi’s essay, “Hobby,” published in the journal Adelphi in “passive suffering” was deeply rooted in his philosophy. 1935, and later reprinted in the Indian journal Visva-Bharati Quarterly, in 1936. Yeats In the poem “Imitated from the Japanese,” special attention should be paid to the likely read the Indian journal, and composed “Imitated from the Japanese” based on last line: “And never have I danced for joy.” This can be read as a resignation or a Issa’s haiku, found within. passive resignation to a joyless life, in old age. So, here is a question: Does this stance This paper will discuss the philosophies of Yeats and of the haiku poet Issa. contradict Yeats’s own philosophy or not? I admit this line can be interpreted as a great Yeats’s philosophical stance will be discussed in light of his theory of “tragic joy,” while happiness “never have I danced for joy” like this. However, Issa’s model haiku of this Issa’s stance will be based on his evocation of Pure Land Buddhism faith, especially poem cannot read as such a happiness, and Yone Noguchi, the translator of the haiku, True Pure Land Buddhism [Jōdo shinshū] founded by Shinran (1173-1223CE). explained as the following: While this paper does not insist that Yeats was strongly influenced by Issa, a closer examination of the similarities and differences between the two poets seems How strongly I was impressed by the last hokku poem [note: the model relevant, in light of Yeats’s near plagiarism and the main content of the poem under haiku of the final line of Yeats’s poem “Imitated. . .” i.e. “Alas fifty years purview. have passed, / Having no night / When I danced in joy”] since I myself The body of this paper will be divided into two parts. In Part One, Yeats’s tragic like Issa had spent long fifty years with no night in dancing! Issa must philosophy and self-caricature in “Imitated from the Japanese” will be discussed. In this have been a poor fellow like myself, who if he was asked about his hobby 4 城西人文研究第 35 巻 W.B.Yeats’s “Imitated from the Japanese” and the Philosophy of Kobayashi Issa

had no other way to answer but with the word of walking.9 the British police. Yeats did not discriminate against Casement’s sexuality, but his anger was roused against the possibility of forgery by British authorities (Yeats wrote: “If Regarding to the fact Yeats read Noguchi’s passage above with the haiku, it is safety to Casement were a homo-sexual what matter! But if the British Government can with say that Yeats did not interpret the model haiku as an expression of great happiness. impunity forge evidence to prove him so no unpopular man with a cause will ever be

Concerning Yeats’s’ philosophy of tragedy, a full description would be quite safe16”). As well, considering the alarm caused by the coming Spanish Civil War, Yeats complex as it contains various aspects, but it is generally accepted that Yeats was deeply also worried about the situation in Europe17. Furthermore, he was attacked by critics influenced by Nietzsche: as scholars like Harold Bloom, Dennis Donohue, Otto because of the publication of The Oxford Book of Modern Verse. Yeats defended his Bohlman, and Frances Nesbitt Oppel point out10. philosophy against this kind of criticism. According to his letter, the poem was written As well, Yeats confessed his fascination with Nietzsche in a letter to Lady “to dissolve” his “emotional crisis.” Gregory11, he was also absorbed with texts such as Hausmann’s English-translation of So, was the poem a mere pastime to calm his mind, rather than to express his core The Birth of Tragedy (1872, revised 1886; Hausmann’s English translation). In the early philosophical stance? In the same letter, Yeats wrote: “My emotional crisis has given part of The Birth of Tragedy, Nietzsche praised Schopenhauer’s tragic theory: “all me a theme for one of my more considerable poems, in the metre of Sailing to tragedy . . . leads to resignation12” as “the metaphysical comfort13.” However, in the Byzantium but I must not attempt it until quite recovered18.” The metre of Sailing to introduction of the expanded edition of the book, Nietzsche later criticized such this Byzantium is ottava rima, an eight-line stanza form of pentameter with an ababcc thought as a “will to disown life,” and attacked it as a mode of hostility against the will rhyming scheme, of Italian origin, used mainly for mock-heroic verse. In the history of to live14. He further advocated the opposite value: “the will to be tragic,” which means British literature, Lord Byron adopted this form for his “Don Juan.” Yeats also adopted a philosophical stance to affirm a hero’s fatal end, with joy. Hausmann’s English edition this form in his later career, and employed it in “Among School Children,” and other included this new introduction and Yeats read it. poems. Yeats wrote: “one of my more considerable poems, in the metre of Sailing to In Yeats’s philosophy, Schopenhauer’s resignation concerning the “will to disown Byzantium” is probably “The Gyres” (this was included in the collection New Poems). life” may correspond to Yeats’s depiction of “passive suffering.” The final line of the In this context, it is reasonable to think that “The Gyres” deals with a similar theme to poem “Imitated from the Japanese” seems evidently to state this. If it is true, just as that of “Imitated from the Japanese.” Here follows an extract of the poem: seen in the later Nietzsche, must Yeats reject this kind of resignation as “passive suffering”? The gyres! the gyres! Old Rocky Face, look forth; In the letter included the draft of the poem, Yeats confessed that he had an Things thought too long can be no longer thought, “emotional crisis15.” He had read William J. Moleney’s book, The Forged Casement For beauty dies of beauty, worth of worth, Diaries, which stated that Roger Casement’s diary on his own sexuality was forged by And ancient lineaments are blotted out. 城西人文研究第 35 巻 W.B.Yeats’s “Imitated from the Japanese” and the Philosophy of Kobayashi Issa 5

Concerning Yeats’s’ philosophy of tragedy, a full description would be quite safe16”). As well, considering the alarm caused by the coming Spanish Civil War, Yeats complex as it contains various aspects, but it is generally accepted that Yeats was deeply also worried about the situation in Europe17. Furthermore, he was attacked by critics influenced by Nietzsche: as scholars like Harold Bloom, Dennis Donohue, Otto because of the publication of The Oxford Book of Modern Verse. Yeats defended his Bohlman, and Frances Nesbitt Oppel point out10. philosophy against this kind of criticism. According to his letter, the poem was written As well, Yeats confessed his fascination with Nietzsche in a letter to Lady “to dissolve” his “emotional crisis.” Gregory11, he was also absorbed with texts such as Hausmann’s English-translation of So, was the poem a mere pastime to calm his mind, rather than to express his core The Birth of Tragedy (1872, revised 1886; Hausmann’s English translation). In the early philosophical stance? In the same letter, Yeats wrote: “My emotional crisis has given part of The Birth of Tragedy, Nietzsche praised Schopenhauer’s tragic theory: “all me a theme for one of my more considerable poems, in the metre of Sailing to tragedy . . . leads to resignation12” as “the metaphysical comfort13.” However, in the Byzantium but I must not attempt it until quite recovered18.” The metre of Sailing to introduction of the expanded edition of the book, Nietzsche later criticized such this Byzantium is ottava rima, an eight-line stanza form of pentameter with an ababcc thought as a “will to disown life,” and attacked it as a mode of hostility against the will rhyming scheme, of Italian origin, used mainly for mock-heroic verse. In the history of to live14. He further advocated the opposite value: “the will to be tragic,” which means British literature, Lord Byron adopted this form for his “Don Juan.” Yeats also adopted a philosophical stance to affirm a hero’s fatal end, with joy. Hausmann’s English edition this form in his later career, and employed it in “Among School Children,” and other included this new introduction and Yeats read it. poems. Yeats wrote: “one of my more considerable poems, in the metre of Sailing to In Yeats’s philosophy, Schopenhauer’s resignation concerning the “will to disown Byzantium” is probably “The Gyres” (this was included in the collection New Poems). life” may correspond to Yeats’s depiction of “passive suffering.” The final line of the In this context, it is reasonable to think that “The Gyres” deals with a similar theme to poem “Imitated from the Japanese” seems evidently to state this. If it is true, just as that of “Imitated from the Japanese.” Here follows an extract of the poem: seen in the later Nietzsche, must Yeats reject this kind of resignation as “passive suffering”? The gyres! the gyres! Old Rocky Face, look forth; In the letter included the draft of the poem, Yeats confessed that he had an Things thought too long can be no longer thought, “emotional crisis15.” He had read William J. Moleney’s book, The Forged Casement For beauty dies of beauty, worth of worth, Diaries, which stated that Roger Casement’s diary on his own sexuality was forged by And ancient lineaments are blotted out. 6 城西人文研究第 35 巻 W.B.Yeats’s “Imitated from the Japanese” and the Philosophy of Kobayashi Issa

Irrational streams of blood are staining earth; We must laugh and we must sing, Empedocles has thrown all things about; We are blest by everything, Hector is dead and there's a light in Troy; Everything we look upon is blest. (lines 41-43; 70-72) We that look on but laugh in tragic joy. (lines 1-8) As well, Yeats sometimes shows another version of acceptance of life, employed Superficially, this poem “The Gyres” seems to be quite different in stance from through self-caricature. He sometimes caricatured his own old age in his poems like “Imitated from the Japanese.” In “The Gyres” the narrator depicts the shift of the “The Tower.” Psychologically, caricature is a style of metacognition, a way of tinctures of the gyres in his mystic systems—in other words, he depicts the shift of recognizing an object through the (often ludicrous) exaggeration of its features. In civilizations, and the tragic fall of one: “Hector is dead and there’s a light in Troy; / We self-caricature, a person can recognize him/herself at a distance and represent that look on but laugh in tragic joy.” This couplet is famed for conveying Yeats’s themselves as a kind of humorous object. This style of metacognition can act as a philosophy of tragedy or “tragic joy.” Yeats deals with laughter as a Nietzschean form psychological therapy to calm an “emotional crisis.” Furthermore, in Nietzschean of “Superman” laughter, meaning that it is for a hero who can look into the abyss with philosophy, for artists it is a way to attain greatness. In A Genealogy of Morals (1887; joy, without closing his eyes. In his poem “Vacillation,” Yeats wrote “such men as come 1888, 1924, Hausmann’s English translation, which was a favored text of Yeats), /proud, open-eyed and laughing to the tomb” (lines 33-34). Nietzsche states: Here, Yeats’s “tragic joy” seems to be limited to such a brave hero in danger.

However, apparently this is not so. Acceptance and resignation differ; acceptance is an Thus, as I said, it would have precisely been in keeping with a great affirmative attitude, while resignation is the opposite. In his poem “A Dialogue of Self tragedian: who, like every artist, only reaches the last summit of greatness, and Soul,” the voice of “My Soul” resigns his life and aims at Heaven (“That is to say, when he learns to see himself and his art below him, when he knows how ascends to Heaven; /Only the dead can be forgiven” (lines 38-39), while the voice of to laugh at himself.19 “My Self” affirms his clumsy life with impurity in a manner of Nietzschean Eternal Return: Here, Nietzsche states that through the artist’s transcendence and mocking laughter over both their art and self is a means of attaining tragic greatness. Yeats is in agreement with My Self. A living man is blind and drinks his drop. this idea. But after reading Nietzsche, Yeats fell into a slump. Yet, after learning to laugh What matter if the ditches are impure? at himself, he overcame it: What matter if I live it all once more? . . . Some years ago I began to believe that our culture, with its doctrine of 城西人文研究第 35 巻 W.B.Yeats’s “Imitated from the Japanese” and the Philosophy of Kobayashi Issa 7

However, apparently this is not so. Acceptance and resignation differ; acceptance is an Thus, as I said, it would have precisely been in keeping with a great affirmative attitude, while resignation is the opposite. In his poem “A Dialogue of Self tragedian: who, like every artist, only reaches the last summit of greatness, and Soul,” the voice of “My Soul” resigns his life and aims at Heaven (“That is to say, when he learns to see himself and his art below him, when he knows how ascends to Heaven; /Only the dead can be forgiven” (lines 38-39), while the voice of to laugh at himself.19 “My Self” affirms his clumsy life with impurity in a manner of Nietzschean Eternal Return: Here, Nietzsche states that through the artist’s transcendence and mocking laughter over both their art and self is a means of attaining tragic greatness. Yeats is in agreement with My Self. A living man is blind and drinks his drop. this idea. But after reading Nietzsche, Yeats fell into a slump. Yet, after learning to laugh What matter if the ditches are impure? at himself, he overcame it: What matter if I live it all once more? . . . Some years ago I began to believe that our culture, with its doctrine of 8 城西人文研究第 35 巻 W.B.Yeats’s “Imitated from the Japanese” and the Philosophy of Kobayashi Issa

in a comedy my own thought.20 small living things, like insects. Before the essay “Hobby,” Noguchi presented some information about Issa to As well, Yeats associates laughter at himself with “tragic joy.” In his essay “Samhain: Yeats. And then Noguchi dedicated his haiku collection book in English, Japanese 1904—The Dramatic Movement,” he wrote the following: “The arts are at their greatest Hokkus (1920), to Yeats. In the introduction, citing Yeats’s famous phrase of “Innisfree,” when they seek for a life growing always more scornful of everything that is not itself Noguchi discussed Issa as a poet of “clay and wattles made” and praised “his simple and passing into our own fullness . . . from this is tragic joy and the perfectness of sympathy with a small living thing23.” tragedy21.” Returning to the haiku published in “Hobby.” Noguchi cited and translated The poem “Imitated from the Japanese” possesses a tone of self-mocking or Issa’s verses. These were not poems about fragile insects but rather about his own old self-caricature; the poet can afford to laugh at bitterness or difficulty in attaining “tragic age: joy” as a living man—this can be seen to describe a path to “tragic joy.” How strange it is Part II. Kobayashi Issa’s Philosophy of “Wild Foolish Being22.” That I should have lived fifty years! As previously mentioned, according to his letter, Yeats composed the poem “out Hallelujah to flower’s spring! of a prose translation of a Japanese Hokku in praise of Spring” with its origin in Noguchi’s translation into English of Issa’s haiku. First day of spring at last! Noguchi’s essay “Hobby” is written in “haibun” form (a light essay with haiku Fifty years! I’ve lived, . . . included). In the essay, Noguchi lamented that he had no hobbies except walking or Not a beggar in rush clothes! wandering—referring to the wandering haiku poet Kobayashi Issa.

Kobayashi Issa is among a handful of most-famed historical Japanese haiku A1as fifty years have passed， poets; he lived in Edo period (1765-1828CE). Unlike the premier haiku master Matsuo Having no night Bashō (1644-1964CE), Issa was from the peasant class. It is known that he had When I danced in joy.24 城西人文研究第 35 巻 W.B.Yeats’s “Imitated from the Japanese” and the Philosophy of Kobayashi Issa 9

sincerity and self-realisation, made us gentle and passive. . . When I had numerous personal tragedies in his life: the loss of his mother in his childhood, bullying this thought I could see nothing else in life. I could not write the play I by his stepmother, hardship during his apprenticeship, the death of his father, and had planned, for all became allegorical, and though I tore up hundreds of following family quarrels concerning his father’s heritage, the serial death of his wife pages in my endeavour to escape from allegory, my imagination became and four children, and second wife, followed by the burning-down of his house, and sterile for nearly five years and I only escaped at last when I had mocked then disease. Living such a hard life, Issa wrote haiku revealing a deep sympathy with in a comedy my own thought.20 small living things, like insects. Before the essay “Hobby,” Noguchi presented some information about Issa to As well, Yeats associates laughter at himself with “tragic joy.” In his essay “Samhain: Yeats. And then Noguchi dedicated his haiku collection book in English, Japanese 1904—The Dramatic Movement,” he wrote the following: “The arts are at their greatest Hokkus (1920), to Yeats. In the introduction, citing Yeats’s famous phrase of “Innisfree,” when they seek for a life growing always more scornful of everything that is not itself Noguchi discussed Issa as a poet of “clay and wattles made” and praised “his simple and passing into our own fullness . . . from this is tragic joy and the perfectness of sympathy with a small living thing23.” tragedy21.” Returning to the haiku published in “Hobby.” Noguchi cited and translated The poem “Imitated from the Japanese” possesses a tone of self-mocking or Issa’s verses. These were not poems about fragile insects but rather about his own old self-caricature; the poet can afford to laugh at bitterness or difficulty in attaining “tragic age: joy” as a living man—this can be seen to describe a path to “tragic joy.” How strange it is Part II. Kobayashi Issa’s Philosophy of “Wild Foolish Being22.” That I should have lived fifty years! As previously mentioned, according to his letter, Yeats composed the poem “out Hallelujah to flower’s spring! of a prose translation of a Japanese Hokku in praise of Spring” with its origin in Noguchi’s translation into English of Issa’s haiku. First day of spring at last! Noguchi’s essay “Hobby” is written in “haibun” form (a light essay with haiku Fifty years! I’ve lived, . . . included). In the essay, Noguchi lamented that he had no hobbies except walking or Not a beggar in rush clothes! wandering—referring to the wandering haiku poet Kobayashi Issa.

Kobayashi Issa is among a handful of most-famed historical Japanese haiku A1as fifty years have passed， poets; he lived in Edo period (1765-1828CE). Unlike the premier haiku master Matsuo Having no night Bashō (1644-1964CE), Issa was from the peasant class. It is known that he had When I danced in joy.24 10 城西人文研究第 35 巻 W.B.Yeats’s “Imitated from the Japanese” and the Philosophy of Kobayashi Issa

As can be seen, the lines seemingly resemble Yeats’s poem “Imitated from the Japanese.”

Yeats wrote that his poem was drawn from a prose translation of a haiku, but as Marx 六十年踊る夜もなく過しけり keenly points out, this is incorrect. It is not a translation of a single haiku poem but a rokujyū-nen odoru yo mo naku sugoshi keri verse translation of a series of three haiku25. The original haiku poems in Japanese are following. (I added romaji and my literal translations): sixty years spent— without a night

五十年あるも不思議ぞ花の春 of dancing gojū-nen aru mo fushigi zo hana no haru26 As Marx points out, in usual the interpretation, the “dance” is “bon odori,” the I’ve lived for fifty years traditional Japanese dance to console ancestor spirits27. However, the dance had another how amazing— aspect—that is, a couples’ matching party with dance in the night; it sometimes included spring of flower sexual affairs. In this haiku, the narrator expresses his lamentation that he did not have such night-dance parties. There might also be a renunciatory tone; however, in this

春立や菰もかぶらず五十年 context the sixty-year-old man laments his unachieved opportunity to join others in the haru tatsu ya komomo kaburazu gojū-nen dance. Through the inference inherent in the haiku form, Issa ironically describes his aged narrator’s unquenched sexual passion. spring has come— As Edward Marx points out, Issa was a man who kept his sexual vigor into his without wearing ragged beggar’s clothes beggar’s clothes old age, recording his affairs in his poetic diaries. I agree with Marx’s suggestion that I’ve lived for fifty years. Yeats would have been glad if he had been able to learn of this fact28. Marx’s discoveries are redoubtable; however, I would like to add something here. These two haiku were taken from Kobayashi Issa’s haiku notebook The Seventh Diary Issa often wrote his own introductions to his haiku diaries on the day of New Year. In [Shichiban Nikki], which was begun in 1810, when he was 50 years of age. the essay “Hobby,” Noguchi cited Issa’s introduction of The Seventh Diary because Issa The last of the three haiku is not included in this diary. It was written 10 years had reflected on his long, wandering life in it. Noguchi did not however cite the later and compiled in Busei Era Haiku Notebook [Bunsei kuchō]. Noguchi changed the introduction found within the Bunsei Era Haiku Notebook. However, if he had referred original phrase “sixty years” into “fifty years,” according to his aim to lament (or mock) to it, this would have been quite interesting. Here, it is worth paying attention to the his own fifty years. The original haiku is the following: introduction of Bunsei Era Haiku Notebook. The year when Issa became sixty-year old 城西人文研究第 35 巻 W.B.Yeats’s “Imitated from the Japanese” and the Philosophy of Kobayashi Issa 11

As can be seen, the lines seemingly resemble Yeats’s poem “Imitated from the Japanese.”

春立や菰もかぶらず五十年 context the sixty-year-old man laments his unachieved opportunity to join others in the haru tatsu ya komomo kaburazu gojū-nen dance. Through the inference inherent in the haiku form, Issa ironically describes his aged narrator’s unquenched sexual passion. spring has come— As Edward Marx points out, Issa was a man who kept his sexual vigor into his without wearing ragged beggar’s clothes beggar’s clothes old age, recording his affairs in his poetic diaries. I agree with Marx’s suggestion that I’ve lived for fifty years. Yeats would have been glad if he had been able to learn of this fact28. Marx’s discoveries are redoubtable; however, I would like to add something here. These two haiku were taken from Kobayashi Issa’s haiku notebook The Seventh Diary Issa often wrote his own introductions to his haiku diaries on the day of New Year. In [Shichiban Nikki], which was begun in 1810, when he was 50 years of age. the essay “Hobby,” Noguchi cited Issa’s introduction of The Seventh Diary because Issa The last of the three haiku is not included in this diary. It was written 10 years had reflected on his long, wandering life in it. Noguchi did not however cite the later and compiled in Busei Era Haiku Notebook [Bunsei kuchō]. Noguchi changed the introduction found within the Bunsei Era Haiku Notebook. However, if he had referred original phrase “sixty years” into “fifty years,” according to his aim to lament (or mock) to it, this would have been quite interesting. Here, it is worth paying attention to the his own fifty years. The original haiku is the following: introduction of Bunsei Era Haiku Notebook. The year when Issa became sixty-year old 12 城西人文研究第 35 巻 W.B.Yeats’s “Imitated from the Japanese” and the Philosophy of Kobayashi Issa

was significant year in that his philosophical theory of “ara bompu” [lit. a wild, foolish “[t]he struggle of the fly in marmalade” (“Ego Donimus Tuus,” line 49). At the same being/a sinner] was first elucidated. In Mahayana Buddhism, an ordinary person is time, he asserted his own life with desires and clumsiness. This is similar to the attitude called “bompu,” which means “foolish being” or “sinner.” In the introduction of the of “MySelf” in Yeats’s poem “A Dialogue of Self and Soul”: “The unfinished man and haiku notebook, Issa termed himself “ara-bompu.” “Ara” means “wild,” so he regarded his pain / Brought face to face with his own clumsiness” (lines 47-48). himself as a wild foolish being or wild sinner. On New Year’s Day that year, Issa wrote While Yeats’s philosophy is influenced by Nietzsche, Issa’s philosophy is based the passage following: especially Pure Land Buddhist belief. He is remembered as an ardent believer of this

strain of Buddhism31. 荒凡夫のおのれのごとき、五十九年が間、闇きよりくらきに迷ひ In the Pure Land teaching, Amida or the Buddha of Immeasurable Light wants て、はるかに照らす月影さへたのむ程の力なく、たまたま非を改 to salvage, especially, sinners because these people cannot help themselves and know めんとすれば、暗々然として盲の書を読み、あしなへの踊らんと that on their own they are helpless—bounded to earthy desires and unable to do any するにひとしく、ますます迷ひに迷ひをかさねぬ。げにげに諺に good (create good karma through their actions). So, all they can do is completely rely いふとほり、愚につける薬もあらざれば、なほ行末も愚にして、 on the mercy of Amida by calling the name of the Amida: “nembutsu,” through repeated

愚のかはらぬ世を経ることをねがふのみ 29 chanting. If they can only do so, they can then be reborn in the Pure Land of Amida, which is a path to nirvana. In this teaching, believers must be completely passive toward My translation is below: Amida’s mercy. This is known as tariki hongwan [lit. relying on other-power (of

Amida)]. The opposite of this—relying on anything other than Amida (including I, being as ara-bompu, until now, have spent fifty-nine years, getting lost, themselves) is regarded as something false thing which will cause the sufferer further from darkness to darkness, without the faint power to perceive a far-off delusion, resulting in being cast into Buddhist hell. moon beam. Occasionally, when I try to amend my faults, it is in the As an eager believer of this school, in his masterpiece My Spring [Ora ga haru], darkness, as if a blind man tries to read a book, a lame man tries to dance, Issa referred to various attitudes self-help as the “hell fire of self-help [jiriki jigoku no delusions come upon delusions30. As the old saying shows, there is no honō32.” elixir to cure foolishness. So, all I can wish is to meet my last day with Nonetheless, as the introduction of Bunsei Era Haiku Notebook shows, Issa foolishness and live this world with the same foolishness. affirmed his own clumsy life with earthly desires in this faith. Does his philosophy contradict with Pure Land Buddhism, or not? Issa was not able to overcome his earthy desires, and spent his lifetime with delusions In the ninth chapter of one of the sacred scriptures of the Pure Land sect, the until the year of the above writing, struggling as though in the same manner as Yeats: Tannishō, or Passages Deploring Deviations of Faith, bompu and dance are both 城西人文研究第 35 巻 W.B.Yeats’s “Imitated from the Japanese” and the Philosophy of Kobayashi Issa 13

Amida)]. The opposite of this—relying on anything other than Amida (including I, being as ara-bompu, until now, have spent fifty-nine years, getting lost, themselves) is regarded as something false thing which will cause the sufferer further from darkness to darkness, without the faint power to perceive a far-off delusion, resulting in being cast into Buddhist hell. moon beam. Occasionally, when I try to amend my faults, it is in the As an eager believer of this school, in his masterpiece My Spring [Ora ga haru], darkness, as if a blind man tries to read a book, a lame man tries to dance, Issa referred to various attitudes self-help as the “hell fire of self-help [jiriki jigoku no delusions come upon delusions30. As the old saying shows, there is no honō32.” elixir to cure foolishness. So, all I can wish is to meet my last day with Nonetheless, as the introduction of Bunsei Era Haiku Notebook shows, Issa foolishness and live this world with the same foolishness. affirmed his own clumsy life with earthly desires in this faith. Does his philosophy contradict with Pure Land Buddhism, or not? Issa was not able to overcome his earthy desires, and spent his lifetime with delusions In the ninth chapter of one of the sacred scriptures of the Pure Land sect, the until the year of the above writing, struggling as though in the same manner as Yeats: Tannishō, or Passages Deploring Deviations of Faith, bompu and dance are both 14 城西人文研究第 35 巻 W.B.Yeats’s “Imitated from the Japanese” and the Philosophy of Kobayashi Issa

discussed. Within, a dialogue on the theme of dancing happiness and delusions is presented between the founding father of the school Shinran and his disciple Yuienbō An English version of this passage is shown below: (1222-1289CE): Even when I call the Nembutsu, I rarely feel like dancing for joy

念仏まうしさふらへども、踊躍歓喜 [note: dance for joy]のこゝ [note: yuyaku kangi 踊躍歓喜 in the original Japanese], nor do I have ろ、をろそかにさふらふこと、またいそぎ浄土へまいりたきこゝ any fervent longing to be reborn in the Pure Land. Why is this so?” I ろにさふらはぬは、いかにとさふらふべきことにてさふらふやら asked. んと、まうしいれてさふらひしかば、親鸞もこの不審ありつるに、 “There was once a time when I, Shinran, also had doubts on this 唯円房おなじこゝろにてありけり。よくよく案じみれば、天にお question. Now, Yuienbō, I find you sharing the same doubts. But when I どり、地におどるほどによろこぶべきことを、よろこばぬにて、 reflect on this more deeply, I realize that our Rebirth in the Pure Land is いよいよ往生は一定とおもひたまふなり。よろこぶべきこゝろを all the more assured because we cannot feel like dancing for joy as we をさへて、よろこばせざるは煩悩の所為なり。しかるに仏かねて would wish. That is how you should think of this problem. It is しろしめて、煩悩具足の凡夫とおほせられたることなれば、他力 defilement by evil passions that presses our hearts and prevents us from の悲願はかなくのごとし、われらがためなりけりとしられて、い rejoicing. But since Amida Buddha, knowing this already, has called us よいよたのもしくおぼゆるなり。また浄土へいそぎまいりたき ‘common beings defiled by Ignorance,’ I realize that the Compassionate

こゝろのなくて、いさゝか所労のこともあれば、死なんずるやら Vow of Other Power was made for the benefit of just such defiled beings んとこころぼそくおぼゆることも、煩悩の所為なり。久遠劫より as ourselves, and so I feel it all the more worthy of trust. いままで流転せる苦悩の旧里はすてがたく、いまだむまれざる安 Moreover, when we have no longing to be reborn instantly in the 養の浄土はこひしからずさふらふこと、まことによくよく煩悩の Pure Land, if we fall even slightly ill, we feel helpless with the fear of 興盛に候ふにこそ。なごりをしくおもへども、娑婆の縁尽きて、 death. This is likewise because of our evil passions. How strong indeed ちからなくしてをはるときに、かの土へはまいるべきなり。いそ must they be when we find it so hard to leave our native land of suffering, ぎまいりたきこゝろなきものを、ことにあはれみたまふなり。こ where we have been wandering through births and deaths for numberless れにつけてこそ、いよいよ大悲願はたのもしく、往生は決定と存 kalpas, and when we can feel no longing for Amida’s Pure Land, where じ候へ。踊躍歓喜のこころもあり、いそぎ浄土へもまゐりたくさ we have yet to be reborn! We are reborn into that land when we have

ふらはんには、煩悩のなきやらんと、あやしくさふらひまなし 33 exhausted, even though reluctantly, our karmic relations to this world of

(emphasis mine) suffering and end our lives helplessly. So Amida pities above all those 城西人文研究第 35 巻 W.B.Yeats’s “Imitated from the Japanese” and the Philosophy of Kobayashi Issa 15

ふらはんには、煩悩のなきやらんと、あやしくさふらひまなし 33 exhausted, even though reluctantly, our karmic relations to this world of

(emphasis mine) suffering and end our lives helplessly. So Amida pities above all those 16 城西人文研究第 35 巻 W.B.Yeats’s “Imitated from the Japanese” and the Philosophy of Kobayashi Issa

were to rejoice[note: 踊躍歓喜 in the original Japanese] with an eager Based on this faith, Issa accepted his own weakness and affirmed himself as a aspiration for Rebirth in the Pure Land, we might believe that we had no man with earthy desires. With reference to the ninth chapter of Tannishō, this haiku can

evil passions at all.34 be read differently. In the tradition of Pure Land Buddhism, a life without dancing in joy can be understood as a life of delusion. However, to face and accept such reality of The words or phrases “dancing for joy” and “rejoice” in the translated passage is life can become a path to enlightenment, or rebirth in the Pure Land of Amida Buddha. yuyaku kangi 踊躍歓喜 (or kangi yuyaku 歓喜踊躍) in the original Japanese, which In the teaching of the sect, believers must remain passive toward the mercy of Amida means “dance for joy.” This term is a cornerstone of the Pure Land sect, and often Buddha. This can be regarded as an attitude of passive acceptance of one’s own being. appears in sutras like the (Dai) Muryōjyu-kyō [(Larger) Infinite Life Sutra] to describe However, it is not an attitude of self-pity, in that self-pity avoids facing or accepting the the heavenly joy attended by knowing the Buddhistic truth (Amida Buddha’s Vow No. reality of oneself. This haiku, illumined by Issa’s philosophy based on Pure Land

44: “設我得仏、他方国土、諸菩薩衆、聞我名字、歓喜踊躍、修菩薩行、具足徳 Buddhism, represents a attitude which is neither self-pitying or that of “passive

本、若不爾者、不取正覚 35”; an English translation is the following: “If, when I attain suffering.” The phrase “having no night / when I danced in joy” may be interpreted as buddhahood, bodhisattvas in the lands of the other directions who hear my Name should Issa’s assertion of his fifty years of worldly existence, with earthy desires—and in an not rejoice so greatly as to dance and perform the bodhisattva practices and should not illuminative, transformative realization understanding himself as a wild, foolish being acquire stores of merit, may I not attain perfect enlightenment36” (emphasis mine)). The or wild sinner: ara-bompu. Buddhistic dance for joy is also related to ancient, shamanic bon dance. Developing this notion, a monk known as Ippen (1234-1289CE) started a new school of Buddhism Conclusion. known as Jishū, or Dancing Nembutsu School. As discussed above, this paper has presented the philosophies and philosophical There is an inaccurate but common theory stating that the Tannishō scripture was stances of Yeats and Issa. The final line of Yeats’s poem “Imitated from the Japanese” prohibited for lay people. However, according to The New Encyclopedia of Jōdo Shū, appears to condone a passive resignation of a joyless life—a perspective clearly disliked in the Edo period, the scripture was published numerous times, and common people by Yeats elsewhere in his philosophical writings. However, regarding his elucidation of became accustomed to its philosophy37. Regarding this fact, is very likely that Issa had tragic philosophy, as influenced by Nietzsche, it is possible to trace a path to “tragic joy” knowledge of this scripture. through a laughing at himself, in other word, self-caricature. In the passage quoted above, the faith’s founder Shinran confessed that he was The final line of the poem is taken from one of Issa’s haiku, written when the 城西人文研究第 35 巻 W.B.Yeats’s “Imitated from the Japanese” and the Philosophy of Kobayashi Issa 17

who feel no urgent longing to go to the Pure Land. Reflecting on this, we not able to “dance for joy” in the truth of Amida Buddha as a foolish being filled with realize all the more how trustworthy is Amida's Great Compassionate earthy desires. However, such attitude can be a way to be saved, because one faces one’s Vow and how firmly our Rebirth is assured. If, on the contrary, our hearts own clumsiness relying on the mercy of Amida Buddha. were to rejoice[note: 踊躍歓喜 in the original Japanese] with an eager Based on this faith, Issa accepted his own weakness and affirmed himself as a aspiration for Rebirth in the Pure Land, we might believe that we had no man with earthy desires. With reference to the ninth chapter of Tannishō, this haiku can evil passions at all.34 be read differently. In the tradition of Pure Land Buddhism, a life without dancing in joy can be understood as a life of delusion. However, to face and accept such reality of The words or phrases “dancing for joy” and “rejoice” in the translated passage is life can become a path to enlightenment, or rebirth in the Pure Land of Amida Buddha. yuyaku kangi 踊躍歓喜 (or kangi yuyaku 歓喜踊躍) in the original Japanese, which In the teaching of the sect, believers must remain passive toward the mercy of Amida means “dance for joy.” This term is a cornerstone of the Pure Land sect, and often Buddha. This can be regarded as an attitude of passive acceptance of one’s own being. appears in sutras like the (Dai) Muryōjyu-kyō [(Larger) Infinite Life Sutra] to describe However, it is not an attitude of self-pity, in that self-pity avoids facing or accepting the the heavenly joy attended by knowing the Buddhistic truth (Amida Buddha’s Vow No. reality of oneself. This haiku, illumined by Issa’s philosophy based on Pure Land

44: “設我得仏、他方国土、諸菩薩衆、聞我名字、歓喜踊躍、修菩薩行、具足徳 Buddhism, represents a attitude which is neither self-pitying or that of “passive

本、若不爾者、不取正覚 35”; an English translation is the following: “If, when I attain suffering.” The phrase “having no night / when I danced in joy” may be interpreted as buddhahood, bodhisattvas in the lands of the other directions who hear my Name should Issa’s assertion of his fifty years of worldly existence, with earthy desires—and in an not rejoice so greatly as to dance and perform the bodhisattva practices and should not illuminative, transformative realization understanding himself as a wild, foolish being acquire stores of merit, may I not attain perfect enlightenment36” (emphasis mine)). The or wild sinner: ara-bompu. Buddhistic dance for joy is also related to ancient, shamanic bon dance. Developing this notion, a monk known as Ippen (1234-1289CE) started a new school of Buddhism Conclusion. known as Jishū, or Dancing Nembutsu School. As discussed above, this paper has presented the philosophies and philosophical There is an inaccurate but common theory stating that the Tannishō scripture was stances of Yeats and Issa. The final line of Yeats’s poem “Imitated from the Japanese” prohibited for lay people. However, according to The New Encyclopedia of Jōdo Shū, appears to condone a passive resignation of a joyless life—a perspective clearly disliked in the Edo period, the scripture was published numerous times, and common people by Yeats elsewhere in his philosophical writings. However, regarding his elucidation of became accustomed to its philosophy37. Regarding this fact, is very likely that Issa had tragic philosophy, as influenced by Nietzsche, it is possible to trace a path to “tragic joy” knowledge of this scripture. through a laughing at himself, in other word, self-caricature. In the passage quoted above, the faith’s founder Shinran confessed that he was The final line of the poem is taken from one of Issa’s haiku, written when the 18 城西人文研究第 35 巻 W.B.Yeats’s “Imitated from the Japanese” and the Philosophy of Kobayashi Issa

poet was sixty years old. The haiku, as with Yeats’s line, reveals bitterness, regarding renga) and “haiku” are different. However, the latter is the term used throughout old age and life. However, in the same year, in the same haiku notebook, Issa expressed this paper for convenience. his philosophy of ara bompu, in which he asserts the nature of his own life and old age, 5 Earl Miner, The Japanese Tradition in British and American Literature (Princeton: based on his Pure Land Buddhist faith. In the teaching of Pure Land Buddhism Princeton UP, 1958) 251. (especially of Shinran), to be “passive” toward the mercy of Amida Buddha enables us 6 Yeats, The Poems 681-82. to have a positive attitude to face and affirm our lives with impunity. Issa lived in this 7 Kobayashi Issa（1763-1828 CE）“Kobayashi” is the poet’s family name while “Issa” faith, and composed his haiku works. Then, Yone Noguchi translated Issa’s works. And is his haigō [haiku poet’s penname]. His personal name is “Yatarō.” Even so, Yeats, the Nietzschean poet who disliked “passive suffering,” adopted the translated for haiku poets, it is common to call one’s haigō rather than calling one’s family haiku as a model of his own work. The philosophies of the two poets differ, but their name or personal name. In this paper, he is mainly called as “Kobayashi Issa” philosophies both have power to accept and affirm human life including the bitterness or “Issa.” of old age. 8 W. B. Yeats, ed., The Oxford Book of Modern Verse, 1892-1935 (Oxford: Clarendon P, 1936) xxxiv. Acknowledgement 9 Yone Noguchi, “Hobby” The Adelphi 11:2 (London: Self-published, 1935) 107. 10 Cf. Harold Bloom, Yeats (New York: Oxford UP, 1970); The Anxiety of Influence: A This work was supported by JSPS KAKENHI Grant Number JP20K00393. theory of Poetry. (New York: Oxford UP, 1973); Dennis Donohue, Yeats:

Fontana Modern Masters, eds. Frank Kermode (London: Fontata, 1971); Otto Notes Bohlman, Yeats and Nietzsche: An Exploration of Major Nietzschean Echoes in 1 This is a revised version of the paper read at the International Yeats Society and the the Writings of William Butler Yeats (London: Macmillan, 1982); Frances Yeats Society of Japan Joint Symposium in Kyoto 2018 held at Kyoto University, Nesbitt Oppel, Mask and Tragedy: Yeats and Nietzsche, 1902-10 December 15, 2018. (Charlottesville: UP of Virginia, 1987). 2 In this paper, W. B. Yeats’s poems are cited from W. B. Yeats, The Poems: The 11 W. B. Yeats, The Letters of W. B. Yeats, eds. Allan Wade (London: Rupert Hart-Davis, Collected Works of W. B. Yeats, eds. Richard Finneran (New York: Scriber, 1954) 379. 1997). 12 Friedrich Nietzsche, William A Haussmann trans., The Birth of Tragedy: or, 3 W. B. Yeats and Dorothy Wellesley, Letters on Poetry from W. B. Yeats to Dorothy Hellenism and Pessimism. (London: T. N. Foulis, 1909) 11. Wellesley (London: Oxford UP, 1964) 116. 13 Ibid, 18. 4 Technically speaking, “hokku” (lit. starting verse: the first 17 syllable verse of haikai 14 Ibid, 7. 城西人文研究第 35 巻 W.B.Yeats’s “Imitated from the Japanese” and the Philosophy of Kobayashi Issa 19

Fontana Modern Masters, eds. Frank Kermode (London: Fontata, 1971); Otto Notes Bohlman, Yeats and Nietzsche: An Exploration of Major Nietzschean Echoes in 1 This is a revised version of the paper read at the International Yeats Society and the the Writings of William Butler Yeats (London: Macmillan, 1982); Frances Yeats Society of Japan Joint Symposium in Kyoto 2018 held at Kyoto University, Nesbitt Oppel, Mask and Tragedy: Yeats and Nietzsche, 1902-10 December 15, 2018. (Charlottesville: UP of Virginia, 1987). 2 In this paper, W. B. Yeats’s poems are cited from W. B. Yeats, The Poems: The 11 W. B. Yeats, The Letters of W. B. Yeats, eds. Allan Wade (London: Rupert Hart-Davis, Collected Works of W. B. Yeats, eds. Richard Finneran (New York: Scriber, 1954) 379. 1997). 12 Friedrich Nietzsche, William A Haussmann trans., The Birth of Tragedy: or, 3 W. B. Yeats and Dorothy Wellesley, Letters on Poetry from W. B. Yeats to Dorothy Hellenism and Pessimism. (London: T. N. Foulis, 1909) 11. Wellesley (London: Oxford UP, 1964) 116. 13 Ibid, 18. 4 Technically speaking, “hokku” (lit. starting verse: the first 17 syllable verse of haikai 14 Ibid, 7. 20 城西人文研究第 35 巻 W.B.Yeats’s “Imitated from the Japanese” and the Philosophy of Kobayashi Issa

15 Yeats and Wellesley, Letters on Poetry from W. B. Yeats to Dorothy Wellesley, 117. 26 Issa’s original haiku poems are cited from Kobayashi Issa, The Collected Works of 16 Ibid, 141. Kobayashi Issa [Issa zenshū]: Vol. 3-4 (Tokyo: Shinano Shimbun-sha, 1977).

17 Ibid, 116. The phrase “花の春 hana no haru” is kigo (season word), which literally means 18 Ibid, 117. “spring of flower” but also connotes “new year.” 19 Friedrich Nietzsche, William A. Haussmann and John Gray trans., A Genealogy of 27 Marx 2005, 122; Marx 2007, 86. Morals (London: Macmillan, 1924) 132-33. 28 Ibid. 20 W. B. Yeats, Mythologies (New York: Macmillan, 1959. New York: Touchstone, 29 Issa, The Collected Works of Kobayashi Issa: Vol. 4, 333.

1998) 333-34. 30 The original Japanese word is “迷い[mayoi].” In BDK’s English version of The 21 W. B. Yeats, Explorations (London: Macmillan, 1962) 169-70. Larger Sutra on Amitāyus [Muryōju-kyō], the kanji “ 迷 ” is translated as 22 In Hongwanji-ha’s glossary, “凡夫[bompu]” is translated as “foolish being” (Shinran, “deluded” (Bukkyō Dendō Kyōkai. The Three Pure Land Sutras (Berkeley, Dennis Hirota, et, al., The Collected Works of Shinran. Vol.2 (Kyoto: California: Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research, 2003), 44. Hongwanji-ha, 1997), 187. On the other hand, in Bukkyō Dendō Kyōkai For the reason above, that word “delusion” was chosen here as the translation. (BDK)’s English version of Tannishō, the term is translated as “ordinary being” 31 Cf. Zuika Ōshiki, Issa’s World: Shinran Follower’s Literature [Issa no sekai: shinran (Bukkyō Dendō Kyōkai. Tannishō: Passages Deploring Deviations of Faith & kyōto no sekai] (Tokyo: Kōbundō, 1997). Rennyo Shonin Ofumi: The Letters of Rennyo (Berkeley, California: Numata 32 Ōshiki, 57.

Center for Buddhist Translation and Research, 2007), 25. According to Shinran, 33 Daiei Kaneko. ed. Passages Deploring Deviations of Faith [Tannishō] (Tokyo: “Foolish beings: […] we are full of ignorance and blind passion. Our desires are Iwanami, 1982) 54-55. “Kunojiten,” Japanese two-character-sized repeat marks, countless, and anger, wrath, jealousy, and envy are overwhelming arising in the original quotations are replaced by common hiragana. without pause; to the very last moment of life they do not cease, or disappear, 34 Bukkyō Dendō Kyōkai. Tannishō: Passages Deploring Deviations of Faith & or exhaust themselves” (Shinran, Dennis Hirota, et, al., 488) Rennyo Shonin Ofumi: The Letters of Rennyo (Berkeley, California: Numata 23 Yone Noguchi, Japanese Hokkus (Boston: Four Seas Company, 1920) 17. Center for Buddhist Translation and Research, 2007) 7-8. 24 Noguchi, “Hobby” 106-07. 35 Hajime Nakamura, et. al. ed. The Three Great Sutras of Pure Land Buddhism [Jōdo 25 Edward Marx “Yone Noguchi in W. B. Yeats’s Japan (2): Hokku” Bulletin of the sambu-kyō]: Vol. 1 (Tokyo: Iwanami, 1963) 163-64. Faculty of Law and Letters: Humanities 19 (Ehime University. 2005)118; “Nō 36 Bukkyō Dendō Kyōkai. The Three Pure Land Sutras (Berkeley, California: Numata Dancing: Yone Noguchi in Yeats's Japan,” Yeats Annual 17 (Basingstoke: Center for Buddhist Translation and Research, 2003) 17. Palgrave, 2007) 83. 37 Jōdo Shū, “kangi yuyaku” The New Encyclopedia of Jōdo Shū [shinsan jōd 城西人文研究第 35 巻 W.B.Yeats’s “Imitated from the Japanese” and the Philosophy of Kobayashi Issa 21

o shū daijiten], jōdo shū daijiten] Online. par a. 1