Non-Timber Forest Products: Local Livelihoods and Integrated Forest Management

Non-timber Forest Products: Local Livelihoods and Integrated Forest Management

Iain Davidson-Hunt1, Luc C. Duchesne2, and John C. Zasada3

NTFP: AN EVOLVING CONCEPT led to an explosion in the research of and writing about NTFP from an international In October of 1999 a conference was held in perspective. A quick scan of FAO reports and Kenora, Ontario, Canada, to explore the non- the bibliography of NTFP literature, both of timber forest products (NTFPs) of boreal and which can be found on the FAO-NWFP Web site cold temperate forests. Up to this time, the reveals the growth of international interest in concept of NTFP, was one that had been devel- the topic of NTFP for tropical and subtropical oped largely for tropical and subtropical for- forests. While the main focus for NTFP has ests. An extensive body of literature exists on a been the tropical and subtropical regions of the wide range of topics for the NTFPs of tropical world, there has also been a parallel, albeit and subtropical forests. The Food and Agricul- smaller, growth of interest in the NTFPs of ture Organization of the United Nations was boreal and cold temperate forests. one of the first agencies to promote NTFPs through their program on non-wood forest Although the widespread economic interest in products (NWFP) (http://www.fao.org/forestry/ the NTFPs of boreal and cold temperate forests FOP/FOPW/NWFP/nwfp-e.stm). Over the past may be new, a large amount of research in 10 years, numerous other international agen- other fields of knowledge predate the concept of cies such as the World Bank, Canadian Inter- NTFP and apply to NTFP issues. While it is national Development Agency (CIDA) (http:// difficult to divide this literature into discrete www.worldbank.org), International Develop- categories, we suggest that the following seven ment Research Centre (IDRC) (http:// categories roughly cover the main literature in www.idrc.ca), Center for International Forestry which the NTFP concept has emerged. Research (CIFOR) (http://www.cifor.cgiar.org), International Union for the Conservation of 1. Ethnographic Studies Nature (IUCN) (http://www.iucn.org), and the Biodiversity Support Program (BSP) (http:// The ethnographic record provides a rich set www.bsponline.org), among others, have of historical and contemporary information incorporated the concept of NTFP into their on the collection and gathering of plants, programming. The 1980s and the 1990s also animals, insects, minerals, and other biological organisms that people have used to maintain a livelihood in the boreal and cold temperate forest regions. Many ethnog- 1 Ph.D. Student, Natural Resources Institute, raphies also include detailed information on University of Manitoba, and a founding member, the role of such biological organisms in the The Taiga Institute for Land, Culture and processes of nutrition, manufacturing, Economy, Suite A, 150 Main Street South, trade, rituals, ceremonies, and healing. Kenora, Ontario, Canada, P9N 1S9; Phone: 807- Some ethnographies also provide informa- 468-9607; e-mail: [email protected]. tion on the ways by which peoples of the 2 Research Scientist, Canadian Forest Service, boreal and cold temperate forest regions 1219 Queen Street, Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario, steward individual species and their local Canada, P6A 5N7; Phone: 705-949-9461 ext. environments. Finally, many ethnographic 2173; e-mail: [email protected]. studies have discussed the market struc- 3 Project Leader and Research Forester, U.S. tures through which NTFPs are traded and Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, North the sociological dimensions of harvesters Central Research Station, 1831 Highway 169 and marketing cooperatives. Many contem- E., Grand Rapids, Minnesota, 55744, USA; porary journals contain discussions of Phone: 218-326-7109; e-mail: cultural and social processes critical to a [email protected]. fuller understanding of NTFPs. 1 NTFP Conference Proceedings

2. Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK) forest management policy in North America is perceived as novel; however, this is due Traditional Ecological Knowledge is a broad to a lack of knowledge about the history of term that can be used to capture diverse minor forest product policy and manage- sets of interests including: people’s percep- ment in the temperate forests of northern tion, ordering, and naming of the environ- India, and other European countries. Ideas ment and its components (“new ethnogra- on how NTFP can be included in forest phy”); people’s understanding of individual policy and management are starting to components of the environment show up in forestry journals such as the (ethnobiology, ethnoforestry (http:// Forestry Chronicle (http://www.cif-ifc.org/ www .inef.org), ethnobotany, ethnozoology, chron.html) and the Journal of Forestry ethnopedology, etc.); and people’s under- (http://www.safnet.org). standing of the relationship among the components of the environment and related 5. Biology and Ecology of Forests stewardship practices (ethnoecology) (Berkes 1999, and in this volume; Berkes The biology and ecology of forests have and Davidson-Hunt, in this volume; Turner largely focused on the timber species found 1995, and in this volume). Although this in the forest. However, forest research has area of study has usually focused on “local recently begun to focus on the trees, peoples” in relation to components of the shrubs, herbs, fungi, animals, insects, and environment, it has also looked at biochem- the physical characteristics of forests and istry to ascertain the nutritional status of the interactions between the components. species that people consume (Kuhnlein et As the focus on the biology of forest organ- al. 1982) and the medicinal properties of isms has broadened, and an ecological species that people use for healing (Marles approach to the inventory of forested lands et al. 1999, and in this volume; Turner and has begun, this area of research has Hebda 1990). Many examples of this type of started to generate information that is research relevant to the renewed interest in directly relevant to our understanding of NTFP can be found in the Journal of NTFPs. Journals such as Conservation Ethnobiology (http://www.ethnobiology.org) Ecology (http://www.consecol.org/Journal) and in a recent issue of Ecological Applica- and Ecological Applications, along with the tions (http://www.esa.sdsc.edu/esapubs/ forestry journals previously mentioned, are Applications_main.htm) devoted to the starting to carry research that has direct theme of TEK (Ecological Applications. 10(5). implications for our understanding of the biology and ecology of NTFPs. 3. Economic Botany 6. Forest Products Research Economic botany is interested in the use of plant species by human communities since An extensive set of literature has examined the late 1800s. The Journal of Economic the chemical constituents of tree, shrub, Botany (http://www.econbot.org) provides and herb species for use in commercial an extensive source of information on applications. This extends back to some of specific plants that have been used in the the early work on latexes, saps, resins, and past or have commercial potential. oils as well as more recent work on the pharmacological properties of medicinal 4. Forest Management and Policy plants. This type of work is being reported in journals such as the Journal of Forest management has largely been asso- Ethnopharmacology (http:// ciated with the management of timber www.ethnopharmacology.org) and is carried resources. However, a recognition of the out at research centers such as the Natural importance of NTFPs can be found as far Resources Research Institute in Duluth, back as the late 1800s when the British Minnesota, USA (http:// colonial government of India included www.nrri.umn.edu). minor forest products in its forest management plans. The inclusion of NTFPs in

2 7. Business Organization and Marketing Institute in 1998 (Lund et al. 1998). Along with these broad overview reports, numerous other The success of NTFP businesses is often reports were being released that detailed work related to the structure of the organization on specific NTFPs, such as the Ambio Special and the ability to plan marketing strategies. Report #9 on chanterelle mushroom harvesting This area has remained relatively unex- in the Pacific Northwest (Liegel et al. 1998). plored, but it does draw on previous work on harvesters’ cooperatives, market struc- As forest managers were trying to catch up ture of other small-scale forest products with what people were harvesting from public (i.e., rubber in the tropics), fair trade, and forests, the impacts of harvesting on forest marketing of other natural products. This ecology and the potential benefits of harvesting, type of work is being reported in many of NTFP harvesters and businesses were harvest- the aforementioned journals, but much of ing, processing, and exporting NTFPs. Many the work has been done by private research agencies were also promoting NTFPs as a tool or economic development organizations for economic development in regionally de- such as The Taiga Institute (http:// pressed forest community economies or as a www.taigainstitute.org). means to reconcile biodiversity conservation and economic development. One agency that In the 1980s and 1990s, many of these diverse has been actively exploring the commercial strands of interest began to be drawn together potential of NTFPs for forest communities is the under the umbrella term of NTFP. One of the Model Forest Program, funded in part by the earliest inventories of NTFPs for boreal and Canadian Forest Service. Such reports have cold temperate forest was that undertaken by been prepared by the Prince Albert Model Christine and Robert Prescott-Allen in 1986 Forest in Saskatchewan (Mater Engineering (Prescott-Allen and Prescott-Allen 1986). They 1993); the Manitoba Model Forest (Mark undertook an extensive examination of “wild” Mitchell and Associates 1995); the Lake Abitibi species in relation to the North American Model Forest in northeastern Ontario (Arborvi- economy. By the 1990s, many reports were tae Environmental Services Ltd. 1997); and the emerging that examined the commercial har- Western Newfoundland Model Forest (Freeman vest of a number of different forest species. 1995). These reports provide an important They were largely based upon the mushroom, source of information on NTFPs across the bough, and berry harvesting of the Pacific western and eastern boreal forests in Canada. Northwest rainforest. Much of this work has Numerous other studies have also reported on been recently compiled in an annotated bibliog- the commercial potential of NTFPs from other raphy put out by the Pacific Northwest Re- cold temperate and boreal forest regions: search Station of the USDA Forest Service (von Minnesota (Mater Engineering, Ltd. 1994); the Hagen et al. 1996). In Canada, a similar inter- North Shore of Lake Superior (D.C. Brubacher est in NTFPs arose in British Columbia due to and Associates 1998); British Columbia (Wills the harvest of mushrooms and boughs from and Lipsey 1999); and north central Ontario B.C.’s public forests. This led to an overview of (Duchesne 1995). Other reports have attempted the NTFPs harvested from B.C. forests in 1995 to provide basic NTFP business organization (De Geus 1995). In this report it was estimated and marketing information (Freed 1995, 1996; that over 200 different botanical species are Thomas and Schumann 1993); impact of actively harvested from B.C. forests. A similar harvesting (Robbins 1998, Wood Sheldon et al. report was also recently released for Ontario 1997); the relationship between NTFP harvest- which again identifies the range of species ing and biodiversity conservation (Vance and harvested from Ontario’s public forests Thomas 1997); and national or regional “guess- (Mohammed 1999, and in this volume). Marla timates” of the value of NTFP harvesting Emery (Emery 1998, and in this volume), of the (Duchesne et al. 2000, and in this volume; USDA Forest Service, also undertook a detailed Schlosser and Blatner 1995; Schlosser et al. study of NTFP harvesting by households in the 1995). Best current guesstimates for NTFP Upper Peninsula of Michigan. In Europe, a commercial value are $241 million for Canada similar interest was emerging for boreal and (Duchesne et al. 2000) and $200 million for the cold temperate forests and which was summa- Pacific Northwest (Schlosser et al. 1991, 1995). rized in a report issued by the European Forest Value estimates for NTFPs are beset by a

3 NTFP Conference Proceedings number of difficulties and thus our use of the coalesce a diverse set of interests in an attempt term guesstimate.4 By the mid-1990s it was to reveal those “invisible” values and include apparent that the concept of NTFP was being them within an integrated forest management used to describe a set of forest harvesting approach. This brought together an unlikely set activities in boreal and cold temperate forests of characters. Forest managers were inviting that, as Marla Emery (1998) described it, were anthropologists, ethnobotanists, botanists, previously “invisible.” mushroom harvesters, berry harvesters, medicinal plant harvesters, chemists, economists, NTFPs did not just begin to be harvested, and various other researchers and harvesters marketed, and studied in the 1980s and 1990s to workshops and conferences. The concept of in the boreal and cold temperate forest regions. NTFP became an exciting area within which to In fact, as we noted previously, there was a lot work because traditional academic boundaries of research being undertaken over the past and the boundaries between research, practice, couple of hundred years on NTFPs within business, and management became blurred. discrete academic and research domains. An Harvesters and NTFP business people often exploration of this research demonstrates that knew the biology, ecology, and marketing of people have always held a diverse set of values specific forest species better than research in relation to the forest and actively harvested a scientists. Chemists knew that some plants in variety of organisms for commercial and do- the boreal forest had constituents of commer- mestic purposes. Unfortunately, those values cial value. Forest managers did not always have not always been recognized or respected have a clear sense of the importance of com- in the process of forest management. However, mercial and/or non-commercial harvesting as the concepts of ecosystem management and activities for the livelihoods of Aboriginal and integrated forest management became more other peoples. However, this set of people rarely accepted, forest management agencies in both have the chance to exchange ideas on more the United States and Canada were required to than a regional basis or across the divide consider a broader range of values for forest between academics, managers, and harvesters. management. The NTFP concept appeared to This was the intent of the conference held in Kenora during October 1-4, 1999. We wanted to bring together a non-traditional mix of researchers, forest managers, NTFP harvesters, Aboriginal peoples, business people, marketers, 4 Suffice it to say that there are two main and anyone else interested in NTFPs, local problems that beset attempts at valuation of livelihoods, and integrated forest management. NTFPs. (1) Quantity of harvest: Some commercial The papers that follow in this volume reflect the NTFPs do have market prices but it is difficult to breadth of interest that the concept of NTFP estimate the size of the harvest because the can bring together. This leads us to consider a quantity bought and sold is not tracked through definition of NTFP and the type of themes official markets. NTFPs that are not used com- currently included in the concept of NTFP. mercially are not tracked through any measure of household consumption; (2) Market price: Some NTFPs used for household consumption PROBLEMS OF DEFINITION are not bought and sold in a commercial market; therefore an imputed price must be determined. NTFP has proved to be difficult to define due to Furthermore, many people who harvest NTFPs some of the blurred boundaries between timber for spiritual, pleasure, or other non-market and non-timber products as well as the under- values would not agree that the market price lying difficulty in defining a forest. Most at- represents the value of their harvesting activi- tempts at definition deal with three specific ties. The quantity question can be overcome problems: (1) Scale of Industry, (2) Goods and/ through detailed household studies on a re- or Services and, (3) Origin of Product. gional basis, for example, Emery (1998), Godoy and Bawa (1993), Godoy et al. (1993, 2000), (1) Scale of Industry Schlosser et al. (1991). The question of market or imputed value is a more difficult problem. See The broadest definition of NTFP would Jenne H. De Beer and Melanie J. McDermott include all biological materials harvested (1996) for a thorough examination of this prob- from forests for human use. The distinction lem. between timber and non-timber has been 4 used in an effort to distinguish between is excluded while a chanterelle harvested different scales of enterprises that are from a natural regeneration, post-fire jack harvesting biological materials from forests pine stand is included? Are Ericaceous (De Beer and McDermott 1996). As species (e.g., Vaccinium sp.) harvested after Duchesne et al. (2000) report, the NTFP mechanical disturbance excluded while all industry is only 0.4 percent (241 M) of the Vaccinium sp. harvested following a fire size of the timber industry (58.7 B) in disturbance or from a mature forest in- Canada. Non-timber forest products are cluded? Are species from managed “wild- usually harvested by individual harvesters, lands” included while the same species households, or small cooperatives. Buying, from managed tree plantations excluded? processing, marketing, and exporting are Ultimately, we suggest, that these distinc- usually undertaken by small firms (i.e., tions will not prove viable as a means of <$1 million gross sales/year) versus large forest classification and will create more multinationals. This is one of the greatest problems than solutions for a definition of sources of confusion because the use of NTFP. The concept of NTFP has been left trees for the small-scale production of purposely broad so that all biological crafts, log houses, and/or domestic con- species gathered from a variety of ecosys- sumption is often included in the concept of tems have been included while those grown NTFP. as agricultural crops have been excluded.

(2) Goods and/or Services? As can be seen, there is probably no agreed upon definition for NTFP at this time. We have Another question to consider is whether tended to support a loose definition of NTFP NTFPs include only products (i.e., goods) or due to the evolving nature of the concept and both products and services (i.e., non- the potential to bring together a diverse set of market values). Lund et al. (1998) provided interests and experiences to the idea of inte- a detailed discussion on this point and grated forest management. Our preferred term, chose in the end to use the term non-wood at this time, would be non-timber forest re- forest resources, thereby including all sources, recognizing that the scale of harvest- products, services, personal use values, ing activity is an important consideration while aesthetic values, tourism values, and other including a diverse set of interests and values values of forest lands, but excluding all in forest management. However, as pointed out wood products. In another example, the above, the concept of NTFP has become well concept of NTFP has been broken into two established and has been able to integrate the product categories: (1) Special Forest diverse set of values and interests necessary to Products, which are derived from trees and move toward integrated forest management. In are regulated; and (2) Botanical Forest essence, the concept of NTFP refers to a consid- Products, which are not derived from trees eration of the interests, values, and activities of and remain unregulated (De Geus 1995). At people who have largely been excluded from this point, there is no clear agreement on forestry research, planning, and management. whether NTFPs should be narrowly defined In sum, we would suggest a broad definition as only products or more broadly referred of NTFPs as those biological organisms, to as resources. excluding timber, valued by humans for both consumptive and non-consumptive purposes (3) Origin of Product found in various forms of forested landscapes. In the future, as we move toward Another question that has been raised is integrated forest management and the diverse whether non-timber forest products are set of interests, values, and activities are only those biological resources that origi- integrated into forest management planning, it nate from within natural forests. This raises may be possible to move toward a holistic a whole different set of questions as to how vision of forested landscapes and abandon the a natural forest is defined and whether the current emphasis on NTFPs. At this point, concept of NTFP should be tied to such a however, we still see more prospects in the definition. Intractable and thorny questions integrating ability of the NTFP concept than in arise such as whether a chanterelle har- other concepts that have attempted to move vested from a planted jack pine plantation toward integrated forest management.

5 NTFP Conference Proceedings

THE RANGE OF NTFPS Decorative and Aesthetic Products Christmas trees Gina Mohammed (1998:2; and in this volume) Cone crafts provided a set of NTFP categories that give a Bark crafts useful overview of the types of products that Wood crafts can be included in the concept of NTFP. This Carvings set of categories, and the types of products they Floral arrangements include, is replicated below. We have added one Wreaths, garlands, swags category to maintain consistency: non-con- Natural dyes sumptive products. In all categories, the use of the product may be commercial or it may be for Environmental Products personal consumption, aesthetic, or other non- Biofuels market values as suggested in our final cat- Biopesticides egory. Recycled products

Food Products Landscape and Garden Products Berries Landscape trees Beverages Shrubs Essential oils Wildflowers Flavoring agents Grasses Herbs and spices Mulches Honey Soil amendments Maple/birch saps - syrups, sugars, taffy, butters Non-consumptive NTFPs Mushrooms Natural and cultural heritage tourism Nuts and education Seeds Biodiversity conservation Teas Healing ceremonies Vegetables Recreation Water quality Materials and Manufacturing Products Adhesives Alcohol TOPICAL ISSUES OF NTFP Candles Cloth While NTFP incorporates a diversity of inter- Essential oils ests, values, and activities, we identified three Fragrances current issues that appeared to be important at Incense this time and that we incorporated into the Lignosulfonates conference. These three issues were: (1) NTFP Resins and economic development, (2) the biology and Specialty wood products ecology of NTFP, and, (3) NTFP markets and Stuffing material enterprises. Thread and rope Turpentine (1) NTFP and Economic Development

Health and Personal Care Products NTFPs are often cited as providing the Aromatherapy oils potential for economic development in areas Cosmetics where the forest industry is in decline or Drugs the number of jobs provided by the forest Essential oils industry is shrinking due to technological Herbal health products shifts (Clapp 1998). NTFPs, along with Nutraceuticals ecotourism, are also often promoted as a Perfumes and fragrances means to reconcile economic development Pet care products with biodiversity conservation (Vance and Shampoos Thomas 1997). However, we need to be Soaps careful of the potential that NTFPs offer

6 forest communities for economic develop- Other people would not see NTFPs as a tool ment. Ricardo Godoy’s detailed studies of for economic development but would see NTFP harvesting in the tropics demon- them as critical to their way of life. For strated that the value of NTFP harvests is instance, many First Nations people in not always sufficient to offset the loss of Canada may not see much potential eco- income from timber harvesting (Godoy and nomic benefit from NTFPs but do see the Bawa 1993; Godoy et al. 1993, 2000). ability to harvest medicines, berries, barks, Although Godoy does not suggest that and other things from the forest as integral timber harvesting is the only option for to their way of life. Medicines are important forest communities, he does say that for healing processes; some barks and plant offering NTFP enterprises and/or species are integral to healing ceremonies ecotourism will not necessarily provide while the ability to gather together in berry enough benefits to forest communities to harvesting camps is necessary for the offset the losses from giving up timber maintenance of a collective identity. While harvesting. He suggests that communities economic development is an important will also need to receive monetary compen- consideration of NTFP, we should remember sation for the loss of timber harvesting that commercial utilization is not the only benefits. It is clear that NTFPs are not a activity that gives value to NTFP. replacement for a timber industry. A key purpose of this conference was to While some NTFPs do emerge to become explore the commercial potential of NTFPs large industries, the role that NTFPs seem and the different perspectives of First to play more often in economic development Nation and other harvesters toward com- is that they provide supplemental income mercialization. for regions that are experiencing declining levels of employment (Emery 1998, McClain (2) The Biology and Ecology of NTFPs et al. 1998). The people who benefit from the harvest of timber are not always the NTFPs are often considered to be the black same as those who benefit from the harvest box of integrated forest management. While of NTFPs. In some cases, people who live in we have reams of data on the growth and areas where the employment provided by yield of many tree species, we know very the forest industry has declined and who little about the ecology and biology of don’t want to leave an area to which they shrubs, herbs, and fungi that are found in are attached explore NTFPs as a way to forest ecosytems. The biology of NTFPs supplement their income. In other cases, would include such questions as what people who have not been able to obtain factors control their distribution and their access to forest industry employment establishment, what physiological and harvest NTFPs as a way to supplement morphological aspects control their useful- small incomes. NTFPs are often marginal ness and/or potency as NTFPs, as well as forest resources but are extremely impor- how these factors control the sustainability tant sources of income for the people who of their harvest. harvest them. In some cases it may be possible to foment the emergence of har- The ecology of NTFPs focuses on where vester cooperatives and local processing NTFPs occur within forested landscapes in facilities (i.e., value-added enterprises) as a space and time. We have found that many means of economic development. In this NTFP harvesters have a greater sense of the case, certification becomes an important ecology of NTFPs then do many research consideration for NTFP enterprises (see scientists. This is an area where the active Patrick Mallet, this volume). However, the collaboration between research scientists absence of such infrastructure and/or and harvesters may reap great dividends. formal organizations does not mean that As forest inventory science has begun to NTFP harvesting is not playing a significant move away from timber-based inventory role in terms of local economies and liveli- systems toward systems of ecological land hoods (see Alexander, Chapeskie, Greet, classification, which include shrub and this volume). herb species, it has become possible to use this research to understand the ecology of NTFPs. There are two important issues 7 NTFP Conference Proceedings

regarding the location of NTFPs in space examine their biology and ecology. Fortu- and time: (1) not all NTFPs occur in mature nately, a lot of research undertaken for the forests as is often assumed, and (2) while broader purposes of forest biology and many NTFP species occur across a great ecology may be amenable to answering range of forest types, they are often more critical questions about NTFPs. For in- abundant in some types than others. By stance, the ecological land classification of understanding the ecology of NTFPs, we Ontario has made it possible to estimate, may actually be able to influence the with a probability of error, whether an NTFP abundance of NTFPs within the forest will occur in a particular forest type at a landscape through a variety of different given age. It has also become possible to management techniques. For instance, it identify where an NTFP may occur across may be possible to undertake prescribed the landscape. In other words, an inventory burns of logging residue in such a way as system undertaken for forest land manage- to stimulate berry production on certain ment can be used for rapid NTFP inventory soil types. From a spatial point of view, we and assessment without the need for an may be able to recognize especially rich extensive biometric survey of NTFP. There is mature forest habitats for specific NTFPs also the potential for close collaboration and ensure that they are not completely cut between harvesters and scientists in this out. From a temporal point of view, we may regard. Many harvesters know with great be able to identify early post-disturbance intimacy the type of habitat preferred by vegetative communities that provide specific certain NTFPs so that NTFP habitat profiles NTFPs and ensure that they are not can be constructed for a given NTFP. This sprayed with herbicides. It is possible to habitat profile can then be matched against use the ecological processes to change the ecological land classification profiles to spatial and temporal distribution of NTFPs determine where the NTFPs may occur for the benefit of local economies and across the landscape. Given that it is livelihoods—something that Aboriginal unlikely that much primary research will be peoples of boreal and cold temperate forests done on NTFPs, these types of collaboration have known and practiced for a long time for mutual benefit allow for exciting new (Berkes 1999, Johnson 1994, Lewis and paradigms of biological and ecological Ferguson 1988, Turner 1999). research to emerge.

Similar statements can be made about the Exploring the current state of the biological physiological, morphological, and anatomi- and ecological knowledge of NTFPs was also cal aspects of NTFPs. There has been little a key purpose of this conference as well as work in the northern forest directly related examining the potential for collaboration to the underlying plant biology of NTFP between researchers, harvesters, and production. However, there is much infor- entrepreneurs (see Flaster; Marles; Turner; mation on plant growth and development in Huang and Barl; Duchesne et al.; Nauertz general that is very relevant to NTFPs and and Zasada, in this volume). their sustainability. As harvesters often know more about the ecology of NTFPs, the (3) NTFP Markets and Enterprises same can be said about harvesters’ knowledge about NTFP biology. NTFP harvesters In a study by D.C. Brubacher and Associ- often know much about the limits of har- ates (1998), it was found that one of the vest as they relate to the potential for future dominant market structures for NTFP production. Collaboration among scientists consisted of many harvesters selling to and harvesters offers many productive regional buyers, who in turn sell to central- opportunities for increasing our under- ized processors and exporters. They found standing of the biology of NTFP and their very few examples in which the processing sustainable harvest. and marketing of NTFPs were handled by local enterprises. One of the conclusions As previously noted, NTFPs are often con- reached by the authors was that the market sidered to be marginal resources. Therefore, structure was a reflection of the “patchy” except for those NTFPs that have unusually nature of many NTFPs. The boreal forest is high market value, it is unlikely that large noted for the cyclical nature of biological research programs will be established to species across time and their uneven 8 distribution in space. A mushroom harvest this type of NTFP, processing and marketing may be excellent one year and non-existent often become the limiting factor as demand the next; the harvest may be excellent in may exceed supply. one region and non-existent in another. Harvesters, buyers, and processors of these Based on the presentations made by NTFP types of resources tend to be mobile or able businesses, such as Frontier Natural Products to switch their harvesting effort from one Cooperative (http://www.frontierherb.com) and resource to another in different years. This Winter Woods (http://www.winterwoods.com), makes it difficult to build a processing it is apparent that more attention should be facility or establish exporting enterprises, given to the relationship between the biology/ both of which require a consistency of ecology of NTFPs and the appropriate form of harvest from year to year: a finding that is organizational structure to ensure successful well known to those who have worked with NTFP enterprises (see Letchworth, Cameron, the marketing of agricultural products. In Krantz, and Polson, in this volume). NTFPs light of this ecological characteristic of characterized by widely fluctuating yields from many NTFPs, harvesters and regional year to year require an organizational structure buyers tend to have little capital investment that follows one of two strategies: (1) mobility, in their harvesting activities. In addition, the ability to move to areas of abundant har- NTFP processors and exporters, by neces- vest or purchase from a large catchment area, sity, acquire NTFPs from a large catchment or (2) diversity, the ability to switch harvest area. If mushrooms are good in Newfound- effort from one product to another depending land one year, they will buy from there; if upon the year. In the former, there is an em- good in B.C. then they will buy from there. phasis not to sink capital into a regional center. The patchy nature of many NTFP resources Processing and marketing are carried out from requires that harvesters, processors, and a more centralized location that can draw upon brokers not be attached to a particular harvesting and brokering operations that span region so that they can obtain a livelihood the great northern forest. Access to markets or meet the demands of their markets. D.C. and transportation networks require that the Brubacher and Associates (1998) found processing occurs near the market as opposed that the ability to provide, or access, a to a regional center. This provides a successful consistent supply of an NTFP was often the model of an NTFP enterprise, but it does not limiting factor for NTFP enterprises. offer many possibilities for regional value- added enterprises although it can support NTFPs in boreal and cold temperate forest are smaller harvesting and brokering operations often patchy; however, not all NTFPs are as located in northern forest communities. The patchy as others. For instance, wild rice/ diversity strategy requires that the enterprise manomin (Zizania sp.) has been able to support invest in intellectual capital because it will local harvesting cooperatives with their own need to have a broad knowledge of the ecology processing and exporting enterprises in many and markets of many different NTFPs. This boreal forest regions. An example of this was model offers more possibilities for regional provided at the conference in a presentation economic development although the type of and display by Kagiwiosa-Manomin of north- enterprises that result will probably be small western Ontario (http://www.manomin.on.ca). family businesses that support a network of While the yields may vary from year to year, harvesting as opposed to large processing they do not have the same dramatic swings as facilities. The model that offers the most poten- is evident for some fungus and berry species. tial for regional economic development are The surplus from some years can also be easily those NTFPs that can be harvested from year to stockpiled for years in which the harvest is not year within a region at levels that can sustain a abundant. Other NTFP products that exhibit buying, processing, and marketing capacity. In this profile are the maple and birch syrups all cases, the ability to transform the raw (Acer sp., Betula sp.), boughs, essential oils, product into something with enhanced storage and resins. NTFPs with this ecological profile properties is needed to smooth out the effect of may be able to provide consistent yields and/or cyclical NTFP yields and offer their customers storage characteristics to support non-mobile the same quantity and variety of products from harvesting, processing, and marketing enter- year to year. The conference provided an oppor- prises along with the inversion of capital. For tunity for researchers, harvesters, processors,

9 NTFP Conference Proceedings and marketers to understand the linkage Brubacher, D.C. and Associates. 1998. Non- between the biology, ecology, and marketing of timber forest products from the eastern NTFP. boreal and Great Lakes/St. Lawrence forest zones. Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario: Finally, the conference also explored some new Mitigaawaaki Marketing Cooperative. ways in which NTFPs are being used to support people’s livelihoods in the northern forest. In Clapp, R.A. 1998. The Resource cycle in for- Canada there is an increasing market for estry and fishing. The Canadian Geogra- natural and cultural heritage tourism. For pher. 42: 129-144. example, whale watching on the north shore of the St. Lawrence River in Quebec has grown to De Beer, J.H.; McDermott, M.J. 1996. The a $1 million per year industry, and visits to economic value of non-timber forest prod- Canada’s National Parks Network have been ucts in southeast Asia. Amsterdam: Nether- increasing at the rate of 4 percent per year. lands Committee for IUCN. Brokenhead First Nation in Manitoba described how they have created a small business called De Geus, N. 1995. Botanical forest products in the Brokenhead Ojibway Historic Village British Columbia: an overview. Victoria, (BOHV) (http://www.manitobamodelforest.net), B.C.: Integrated Resources Policy Branch, which takes people on excursions to view the British Columbia Ministry of Forests. natural and cultural heritage of a region. BOHV and the Mi’gMag Aboriginal Heritage Garden, Duchesne, L.C. 1995. Commercial potential of located in Eel River First Nation, New wild mushroom harvest in Renfrew County. Brunswick, also described how they have Unpublished report. created infrastructure, such as teaching centers or botanical gardens, which offer work- Duchesne, L.C.; Zasada, J.C.; Davidson-Hunt, shops and interpretive tours so that people can I. 2000. Nontimber forest product industry learn about the northern forest and how to in Canada: scope and research needs. The turn plants into things such as medicines and Forestry Chronicle. 76: 743-746. crafts. Other participants, such as Eel Ground First Nation in New Brunswick, stressed that Emery, M.R. 1998. Invisible livelihoods: non- NTFPs are not just inputs to production pro- timber forest products in Michigan’s Upper cesses or only the potential base of many Peninsula. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers permutations of ecotourism enterprises, but University. Ann Arbor, MI: UMI Dissertation also an integral part of a way of life and other Services. Ph.D. dissertation. personal use values for which the term product does not comfortably apply. Freed, J. 1995. Special forest products: past, present, future. International Journal of Ecoforestry. 11: 62-67. LITERATURE CITED Freed, J. 1996. Setting personal harvesting Arborvitae Environmental Services, Ltd. 1997. education goals (or How to become a trust- Commercialization of special forest prod- worthy special forest product harvester). ucts in the LAMF and Region. Final Project International Journal of Ecoforestry. 12: Report. Assessment of commercialization 211-213. potential of wild mushrooms, aromatic oils, and decorative twigs and branches. Freeman, T. 1995. Economic opportunities in Iroquois Falls, Ontario: Lake Abitibi Model non-timber and value-added forest prod- Forest. ucts in the western Newfoundland model forest. Corner Brook, Newfoundland: Berkes, Fikret. 1999. Sacred ecology: tradi- Western Newfoundland Model Forest Corpo- tional ecological knowledge and resource ration. management. Philadelphia, PA: Taylor and Francis. Godoy, R.A.; Bawa, K.S. 1993. The economic value and sustainable harvest of plants and animals from the tropical forest: assump- tions, hypotheses, and methods. Economic Botany. 47: 215-219. 10 Godoy, R.; Lubowski, R.; Markandya, A. 1993. Mitchell, Mark and Associates. 1995. The A method for the economic valuation of harvest, marketing and availability of non-timber tropical forest products. Eco- special forest products in the Manitoba nomic Botany. 47: 220-233. model forest. Project: 95-4-09. Pine Falls, Manitoba: Manitoba Model Forest. Godoy, R.; Wilkie, D.; Overman, H.; Cubas, A.; Cubas, G.; Demmer, J.; McSween, K. 2000. Mohammed, G.H. 1999. Non-timber forest Valuation of consumption and sale of forest products in Ontario: an overview. For. Res. goods from a Central American rain forest. Infor. Pap. 145. Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario: Nature. 406: 62-63. Ontario Forest Research Institute.

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McLain, R.; Christensen, H.; Shannon, M. 1998. When amateurs are the experts: amateur mycologists and wild mushroom politics in the Pacific Northwest, USA. Society and Natural Resources. 11: 615- 626. 11 NTFP Conference Proceedings

Turner, N.J. 1999. “Time to burn”: traditional von Hagen, B.; Weigand, J.F.; McLain, R.; use of fire to enhance resource production Fight, R.; Christensen, H.H. 1996. Conser- by Aboriginal peoples in British Columbia. vation and development of nontimber forest In: Boyd, R., ed. Indians, fire and the land products in the Pacific Northwest: an in the Pacific Northwest. Corvallis, OR: annotated bibliography. Gen. Tech. Rep. Oregon State University Press: 185-218. PNW-375. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific North- Turner, N.J.; Hebda, R. 1990. Contemporary west Research Station. use of bark for medicine by two Salishan native elders of southeast Vancouver Is- Wills, R.M.; Lipsey, R.G. 1999. An economic land, Canada. Journal of strategy to develop non-timber forest Ethnopharmacology. 29: 59-72. products and services in British Columbia. Forest Renewal BC Project No. PA97538- Vance, N.C.; Thomas, J., eds. 1997. Special ORE. Victoria, B.C.: Science Council of forest products: biodiversity meets the British Columbia. marketplace. Gen. Tech. Rep. WO-63. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Wood Sheldon, J.; Balick, M.J.; Laird, S.A. Agriculture, Forest Service. 1997. Medicinal plants: can utilization and conservation coexist? Advances in Eco- nomic Botany, Volume 12. Bronx, New York, NY: The New York Botanical Garden.