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Home , Ecoforestry, Forest management, Regeneration (ecology)

ernment NZJ. For. Sci. 21 (2/3): 165-179. try. Research Institute Contract There is a good deal of evidence that a Delamore, R. 1994. High-country : a Report, FWE 91/4, FRI, Christchurch. prosperous, growing economy provides conservation perspective. NZ For. 38(4): 5- Maclaren, P. In press. Environmental effects of - a review. New Zealand Insti­ many environmental benefits. Similarly, 9. Hunter, LR., W.J. Dyck, C.A. Mees, and K. tute of Forestry Handbook, 1995. prosperous, growing industries also pro­ Carr. 1988. Site degradation under intensi­ Ministry of Forestry. 1994. South Island high- vide environmental benefits. The forest fied forest harvesting: a proposed classifi­ country forestry design. Ministry of industry can afford the additional costs of cation for New Zealand. IEA/BE Project Forestry Publication; 36 p. protecting the environment and, over the A3 (CPC 10), Report No. 7, July 1988. O'Loughlin, C.L. 1994. The forest and last decade, the industry has managed its Hunter, LR., B.E. Rodgers, A. Dunningham, quality relationship. NZ For. 39(3): 26-30. plantations and many of its -pro­ J.M. Prince, and A.J. Thorn. 1991. An atlas O'Loughlin, C.L. In press. Forestry and hydrol­ cessing plants in a way which takes the of radiata pine nutrition in New Zealand. ogy. New Zealand Institute of Forestry protection of the environment into FRI Bull. No. 165. Forest Research Insti­ Handbook, 1995. account. The industry is not perfect in an tute, Rotorua. Payton, I. 1990. Canopy dieback in rata-kamahi . What's New in Forest Research No. environmental and ecological sense but, Handiside, J. 1994. Protecting the monocul­ ture, in NZ Forestry - A Sus­ 186. FRI Publication. backed by a world-renowned forest and tainable . NZ Institute of Forestry Rosoman, G. 1994. The Plantation Effect - an wood-process research facility, the indus­ Inc. Publication, April, 1994. review of the environmental try is becoming more sophisticated, tech­ Hawke, M.F. and M.B. O'Connor. 1992. effects of exotic monoculture planta­ nically competent and environmentally pH and nutrient levels at Tikitere Agro­ tions in Aotearoa/New Zealand. aware as it expands its contribution to the forestry Research Area. NZJ. For. Sci. Smith, CT. 1994. Is plantation forestry good national economy and strives to ensure it 23(1): 40-48. or bad for ? NZ For. 39(2): 19-22. remains environmentally and ecologically Hoare, R.A. and L.K. Rowe. 1992. Water qual­ Taylor, A. 1994. Biological time bomb threat­ sustainable. To assist the forest industry to ity. Pp 207-228, in of New Zealand ens our forests, in The Evening Post, meet the goals a set of cri­ (Ed. M. Paul Mosley), NZ Hydrological Wednesday, November 30, 1994. teria is required against which the perfor­ Society Inc. Publication, Wellington, 431 p. Veblen, TT. and G.H. Stewart. 1982. The Ledgard, N.J. and E.R. Crozier. 1991. Guide­ effects of introduced wild animals on New mance of the forest industry can be lines for the control and management of Zealand forests. Annals of the Assoc, of judged. Furthermore, there is a need for a wilding in the Canterbury high coun­ American Geographers, 72(3): 372-397. sound and comprehensive forestry sus­ tainability/environmental policy which clearly outlines the requirements of Gov­ ernment with respect to forestry and pro­ tection of the environment. To return to the little girl saga in the Ecoforestry - towards a introduction, her claims about the of God and Rosoman's claims about the unsustainability of New Zealand's forest industry do differ in one vital respect. responsible plantation industry There is little sound evidence to refute the girl's claims but Rosoman's unsustain­ Grant Rosoman* ability claims are full of more holes than the cheese the little girl intended to put on the church collection plate. Introduction offer a full comparison of the plantation Tlie language of sustainability is seduc­ industry with other primary industries. References tive. It has become the oil of any debate Furthermore, the review clearly states in Allen, R.B., K.H. Piatt and R.E.J. Coker. 1994. over the use of natural . The bom the subtitle and the introduction that Understorey species composition patterns plantation industry has been quick to economic and social aspects were not in Pinus radiata D. Don stands on the cen­ adopt the language of sustainability to pro­ included. In this issue of NZ Forestry, tral North Island Volcanic Plateau, New vide itself with a wholesale green endorse­ Colin O'Loughlin bases much of his case Zealand. NZJ.For.Sci. 24(1). ment. Examples include Shirley (1992), against The Plantation Effect on the basis Anstey, C, S. Thompson, and K. Nichols. Forestry Insights (1994), and by nearly that it is "very selective". The scope and 1982. Creative Forestry. NZ Government half the key industry people asked to com­ environmental focus of the Greenpeace Printer. ISBN 0-477-06902.9. ment in a forest industry magazine (NZ review was clear. You will read in this Bain, J. 1981. Forest Monocultures - how safe issue of NZ Forestry how O'Loughlin are they? An entomologist's view. NZJ. of Forest Industries 1994). Yet where in the For. 26(1): 37-42. industry's rhetoric is the justification, a selectively chooses information to back Bain, J. 1993. Protecting the resource. NZFRI definition of what standards are being met, his case. Directions. Quart. Publ, of NZFRI, Roto­ and the monitoring and auditing which go We also make the point that The Plan­ rua, December 1993: 6-7. with it? In Greenpeace's review The Plan­ tation Effect sought to offer positive solu­ Carter, P.C.S. 1989. Risk assessment and pest tation Effect (Rosoman 1994), we sought tions as a path towards ecoforestry. detection surveys for exotic pests and dis­ to examine this suspicious 'greenwash', Greenpeace desperately wants trees and eases which threaten commercial forestry focusing on the environmental effects forests planted, but in a way that maintains in New Zealand. NZJ. For. Sci. 19 (2/3): using a -cycle analysis of the large- and restores , and recognises 353-374. scale monoculture plantation industry. the multitude of values that go with Chou, C.K.S. 1991. Perspectives of disease threat in large-scale Pinus radiata mono­ The intention of the review was to forests. Greenpeace believes that culture - the New Zealand experience. Eur. stimulate debate. We did not intend to users have responsibilities as stewards of J. For. Path. 21 (1991): 71-81. the land, and that this goes far beyond the Davis, M.R. and M.H. Lang. 1991. Increased simple maximisation of short-term profit. nutrient availability in topsoils under Forests Campaigner, Greenpeace New The plantation industry has itself chosen conifers in the South Island high country. Zealand, Private Bag 92507, Auckland. to apply the broad brush of sustainability

8 N.Z. FORESTRY FEBRUARY 1995 to itself, and as such The Plantation Effect of key animals and plants. In Westland it review focused on testing this through was recently recommended that exotic identifying unsustainable elements of the plantations within corridors be industry as a whole. allowed to regenerate or be restored to Following the negative hypothesis indigenous forest (Overmars et al 1992). approach adopted by science, it is possi­ As well, several plantation trees can ble to prove unsustainability with some invade neighbouring ecosystems, for certainty, but very difficult to prove sus­ example the problem in tainability. The broad brush assessment of the North Island's central plateau, and in the whole industry means that many good the eastern South Island high country. practices at the site level are buried. We Plantation managers will no doubt be offer a draft of criteria for responsible asking, "Why should we improve the bio­ management by the plantation industry diversity in the production landscape?, including important social aspects and the and if we choose to do so, how do we do key requirement of independent certifica­ it?" In answer to the first part, there are tion. several good reasons. As outlined above, Following is an elaborated summary of the landscape will need more than rem­ the Greenpeace review The Plantation nants to maintain indigenous Effect, including proposed ecoforestry into the future, and we have moral oblig­ solutions for responsible management. ations to future generations and the inter­ national community. There are many Plantation Influences on positive benefits of biodiversity for pro­ Biodiversity duction, including nutrient cycling, natural Biodiversity is the pinnacle of nature's pest management, and diversity is a com­ wealth. It is our green gold that we all rely ponent of sustainability. New Zealanders The black drain - Tarawera river polluted on. Diversity is considered a primary indi­ value our unique wildlife and the variety cator of health, stability and by organochlorine containing waste. Photo: Greenpeace New Zealand in the appearance of the landscape. resilience (O'Connor et al 1990). Here in The key to implementing a biodiver­ New Zealand we have an ethical obliga­ lowland forests in particular have been sity protection approach is a landscape3 tion to future generations and the interna­ seriously depleted in the landscape. Kauri assessment that identifies the protection tional community to protect and restore forests make up less than one per cent of and restoration needs, and recommends our indigenous biodiversity. This was their original range (Barton 1994). If we and plans for a network of protected recognised in the signing of the legally are to practise conservation, which is by ecosystems. This will be precautionary binding Convention for Biological Diver­ nature precautionary, there are not suffi- and allow for future ecological change, 1 sity . The protection of our unique biodi­ cient areas to maintain our animals, birds, and will be on a timescale of several hun- versity not only includes existing natural insects, reptiles, and our plants, in the long dred years. The key is a planning corn- areas but the restoration of an ecosystem term, especially genetic diversity within mitment, and it is accepted that in many network involving all land users. a species and evolutionary potential. areas depleted of natural systems it will Tree plantations in Aotearoa are now a The range of threats to our remaining take several decades to implement. major . They are generally planted natural forests is significant in the short There will be cries that this is imprac­ on soils that were formed under native term and further underlines the need for tical, will cost too much, and why the forests. Most new planting is now on pas­ precautionary planning to enable systems focus on plantations. However, what will ture land and planting trees will improve to respond to changing ecological condi- the cost to society be if we do not main- a site's biodiversity by increasing the ver­ tions. Climate research on future scenar­ tain our biodiversity? And this will tical complexity of the . The ios for our forests indicates that we may involve all land uses, not just plantations. industry took their responsibilitietiess for biobio-- need to think and plan even more laterally A priority area that is easily achievable for diversity protection seriously when most by establishing ahead of time, refuges and biodiversity protection is Streamside tarily preservation translocation of ecosystems zones. They can protect a multitude of val- agreeing to not clear indigenous forest or outside their current range2. ues and offer good connecting corridors in for tree plantations. Also the Compared to natural forests, large- the landscape. Rate relief for areas pro- simple act of growing wood that substi­ scale monoculture tree plantations are bio­ tected or restored is essential and has the tutes wood from destructively logged nat­ logically simple systems. This is support of conservation organisations. It ural forests will be contributing to particularly so of young plantation areas is common practice with the change in protection of global biodiversity. and can be attributed to plantation man- land use to subdivision for housing, to However, protecting existing forest agement practices such as large-scale restore and establish protected areas and remnants will not be enough to maintain clearfelling, aerial spraying, and short Streamside zones. our native plants and animals, Our rich rotations. It does depend to some degree Within the on whether the intention is to have a for- th< be 1 Signed by New Zealand at the Earth Sum­ est or an agricultural wood crop. Old plan- ried out to increase habitat diversity. mit in Brazil in 1992 and ratified in Decem­ tation stands can become valuable habitat These have been recently reviewed by ber 1993. for native species (Clout 1984). However, They 2 Neil Mitchell, cited in NZ Listener, Janu­ of greater significance is the threat that include: plantation edge management, ary 7, 1995, p 30-33. large blanket planting of one species poses leaving dying and dead wood, planting 3 Used here and throughout this article in an to biodiversity at the landscape level. mixtures or mixes of single species ecological sense, i.e. large-scale ecological Native ecosystem remnants become planting broadleaf and native trees, leav- unit, rather than simply visual as is nor­ islands, lacking in connections and corri- pockets mally associated with the term. dors, potentially preventing the movement that do not clearfell large areas, encour-

N.Z. FORESTRY FEBRUARY 1995 9 aging a diverse understorey, using longer from Medium Density Fibreboard (MDF) the increase indicating a likely net nutri­ rotations, and creating multi-age stands. and factories, and other wood ent loss from the system, and the possible processes include formal­ trend of whole tree harvesting, there is still Toxic Chemicals dehyde. Responsible plantation industry some way to go. It is generally accepted New Zealand is still discovering the long- practices involve the zero use and dis­ that most of the soil erosion at harvesting term impacts of chemical on charge of toxic chemicals. Discussion of is due to roading. Low-impact technology human health and the environment. Recent these toxic pollution aspects were not only such as Long Distance Cable (LDC) har­ research on chlorine-based substances selectively left out by O'Loughlin (1994)4 vesting systems that can haul logs up to a such as dioxin has found links to cancer in his review of The Plantation Effect but distance of 2.5 km, offer a good method and immune and reproduction system he went further by concluding "... over of reducing roading, and carrying out har­ damage (EPA 1994), even at minute, vir­ the last decade, the industry has managed vesting other than in large clearfells. tually unmeasurable levels. The large- ... many of its wood-processing plants in Legume trees, shrubs and herbs, organic scale exotic plantation industry is reliant a way which takes the protection of the fertilisers, alternating rotations of conifers on the use of toxic substances, including environment into account". with broadleaf trees,and acceptance of those that are chlorine-based. This totally lower yields on infertile soils will aid bal­ unsustainable practice has resulted in the Plantation Influences on Soil ancing nutrients. toxic pollution of the New Zealand envi­ and Water The carbon budget of plantations has ronment, with a yet to be counted cost to It is beyond doubt that trees can benefit received a lot of attention recently with the human health and life-supporting ecosys­ our soils and water. However, when these recognition of sequestration from the tems. trees become part of a plantation crop atmosphere. Planting plantations is being Toxic chemicals are commonly used there will be negative impacts. Manage­ touted as an alternative to use for weed and pest control in plantations, ment practices, particularly at harvesting reductions. However, what has been left as it is certainly the easiest and seemingly and on steep or sensitive soils, can out is that plantations are a short-term most cost-effective method available. Use degrade soil and water qualities. There are "green" carbon store, whereas fossil fuels of chemical fertilisers in plantations is plenty of examples of where this has are a long-term irreplaceable "brown" increasing. It takes the most environmen­ occurred (Rosoman 1994). Moreover, the sink. Also, the amount of fossil fuel car­ tally conscientious land user to not use any influences and impacts of exotic tree plan­ bon that is used by the plantation indus­ chemicals at all, especially during plant­ tations on soil biogeochemistry are still try is often ignored. Carbon budget ing, but it can be done. Also, some chem­ largely unknown. Conclusions cannot yet modelling for Greenpeace found that half icals are definitely worse than others, and be drawn, particularly over the implica­ of the sequestered carbon is lost after 100 the sensitivity with which they are applied tions for many nutrients and pH, and any years (Ford-Robertson 1994). will determine levels of pollution. How­ species effect.5 ever, the long-term environmental cost of This is not to suggest that the industry Risks of Plantations these chemicals, no matter how harmless is not concerned with soil and water qual­ Wisdom passed on and reaffirmed the chemical companies claim them to be, ity and nutrient declines. They will be through hundreds of generations is, as the is proving to be too high. having a profound influence on future proverb goes: "Don't put all your eggs in We have the legacy of hundreds of productivity and wood yield. There has one basket". Agriculture is learning that potentially toxic timber treatment sites all certainly been significant positive monocultures of genetically simplified around the country (Jackman 1992). It is advances in plantation management prac­ plants are vulnerable to pests and diseases. going to cost hundreds of millions to clean tices to maintain soil and . There are plenty of examples, mainly in these sites up. They are the result of not However, until monitoring and nutrient the tropics, of plantation monocultures acting in a precautionary way with a toxic budgets show a nutrient balance, zero soil suffering outbreaks of pests and diseases.6 substance, and of the necessity of modi­ loss from plantation practices, and main­ The plantation industry takes this threat fying a timber to perform in a way that it tenance of water quality throughout the seriously by committing resources to find­ is not naturally suited to. This problem rotation, can plantations be called "sus­ ing technical solutions and together with would not have occurred if naturally tainable"? the Government ensuring the necessary durable timber trees had been planted to With silt still commonly entering border control service. meet the market demand. Diversifying waterways at harvesting, fertiliser use on Native forest ecosystems involve a planting from the current monoculture, as many small growers are doing, will have the added benefit of phasing out the need CO2 stable with atmosphere CO2 burning or and decomposition decomposing and for toxic timber treatment. fossil fuels machinery fossil in herbicides fuel use As well, the and paper industry is CO2 incorporated fossil fuel for fossil fuels in into management processing fossil fuel for a major toxic polluter, as part of the life­ machine cycle ofthe plantation industry. For exam­ t harvesting ple, Tasman Pulp and Paper dumps 5-10 fo fo fo I tonnes per day of organochlorine conta­ j Harvesting | minated waste into the Tarawera River. I Establishment j The technology exists for paper to be made without the use or discharge of toxic chemicals. Toxic substances discharged

4 See this issue. carbon released from burning or rotting wood 5 This conclusion in The Plantation Effect products in waste seems to have been selectively ignored by O'Loughlin 1994 - this issue. 6 See Rosoman 1994 p 25-26. Figure 1: Carbon life-cycle of the tree-plantation industry.

10 N.Z. FORESTRY FEBRUARY 1995 complex of endemic "pests and diseases", and like plantations they are vulnerable to invading exotic . It is certain that we will have more insects and fungi arriving on our shores. However, it is unlikely that a new pest or disease will affect every species, and more habitats mean more possibilities for a natural predator. Diversity as a general principle therefore provides a degree of protection, and monocultures are inherently more vulnerable. It would be both commercial and ecological folly to ignore this risk. To put it more bluntly, the forestry industry has a gambling problem. Although they are already undertaking treatment, Greenpeace's suggested ther­ apy includes diversifying the planting to a range of species over a range of different sites from mainly one species and plant­ ing indigenous species, but Greenpeace is not suggesting abandoning radiata pine 7 altogether. Blanket desiccation spraying common Climate change is likely to alter eco­ Zealand logical conditions throughout New Zealand. This will put additional stress on world over are now demanding credible oversee the certification of wood products. long-term crops like plantations as well as 'green' products and a greater level of A set of Principles and Criteria for plan­ other systems. How many Cyclone Bola information and certainty with these pro­ tations is also currently under develop­ force winds can commercial plantations ducts. False 'greenwash' claims with no ment. stand? If pests and diseases thrive under accompanying standards, monitoring or warmer conditions, plantations may independent certification, will haunt those Summary and Conclusions become more vulnerable. that make them. As the environmental effects cited illus­ With the continued use of toxic chem­ To meet the "green" demand of the trate, the plantation industry's claims of icals by the industry, issues of liability international market place there is a pro­ sustainability are clearly not true. As an will emerge as the cost of the downstream liferation of standards and certification alternative Greenpeace offers ecoforestry effects is assessed. The toxic timber treat­ schemes. The Forest Stewardship Council solutions for a responsible plantation ment site issue is a good illustration of lia­ (FSC) a joint trade and non-govern­ industry which include: bility. Society's rising environmental mental organisation body - approved cri­ • the establishment of a protected consciousness will ensure that only teria and certification procedures for ecosystem network to protect our a clean" management and production tech- natural forests in August 1994, after two indigenous biodiversity, following a niques have a place in the future. years of drafting and consultations. landscape assessment, Greenpeace supports the FSC as a body to • the use of management practices that Standards and Certification A clear area of agreement between all stakeholders in the plantation industry is the need for standards. It is the only way that performance of plantation growers and wood processors can be measured. Criteria and the standards that follow from them will need to cover ecological, social, and economic aspects. As well, the process for developing them is critical, and for it to have any credibility it will involve the reaching of consensus of all the stakeholders. The natural progression from standards and the independent monitoring of them is certification of plantation and forest areas, wood-processing facilities, and finally the wood product. Credible certifi­ cation involves independent assessment and total transparency of information. Environmentally conscious consumers the

7 See Greenpeace Positive Solutions in The Indigenous regeneration management of black beech (Nothofagus solandri), Oxford, Canter­ Plantation Effect. bury. Photo: Greenpeace New Zealand.

N.Z. FORESTRY FEBRUARY 1995 ll encourage biodiversity in plantations, is available for $18 (incl. GST and P&P), conservation. Conservation Sciences Pub­ • diversification of species that are being from Greenpeace New Zealand, Private lication No. 3, Dept Conservation, Welling­ planted, including natives, Bag 92507, Auckland. ton. 328 p. • zero nutrient loss and soil erosion from Overmars, Fred B., David A. Norton, Colin M. References Miskelly, Colin F.J. O'Donnell, and Iain plantation operations, W. Buckman. (1992). North Westland • zero use and discharge of toxic chem­ Barton, Ian (1994). Managing kauri on the farm. NZ Tree Grower, Vol. 15 No. 4, Wildlife Corridors Research Programme - icals/pollution, and November, p 27-28. report to the Minister of Conservation. • independent monitoring and certifica­ Clout, M.N. (1984). Improving Exotic Forests West Coast Conservancy Technical Report tion of compliance with standards. for Native Birds. NZ Series No. 1. Dept of Conservation, Hoki­ It is acknowledged that the industry is 29(2). 193-231. tika. 72 p. already making progress towards these, in Agency (EPA) Rosoman (1994). The Plantation Effect - an particular the recognition that better (1994). Draft Reassessment of Dioxin. ecoforestry review of the environmental planning is needed, along with the devel­ USA EPA Washington. 9 vols 2000 p. Pub­ effects of exotic monoculture tree planta­ opment of standards. Adopting a precau­ lished for public comment Sept. 14. tions in Aotearoa/New Zealand. Green­ Forestry Insights (1994). The Environment. An peace report, with support from Canterbury tionary approach and planning for the long Maruia Society. 48 p. term is the key to protecting biodiversity. education kit for schools on the plantation forestry industry. 5 boxes. Shirley, Ken (1992). Earth Summit Report. A Greenpeace believes the plantation indus­ Ford-Robertson, Justin B. (1994). The carbon report presented to the United Nations Con­ try has responsibilities to society as a land balance of plantation forestry in New ference on Environment and Development user, and urges the recognition ofthe mul­ Zealand. An unpublished report for Green­ on behalf of the forest industries. tiple values of land and trees. For the peace NZ. Spellerberg, Ian F. and John W.D. Sawyer. industry to have credibility with environ­ Jackman, Gordon (1992). The Deadly Legacy (1993). Biodiversity in Plantations - mental organisations, the consumer and - a report on the toxic contamination of increasing levels and maintaining stan­ society, a genuine openness to address the New Zealand by the indiscriminate use of dards. A report to the Forestry Authority, issues and independent monitoring and pentachlorophenol (PCP), Greenpeace NZ. UK. Centre for Environmental Science, University of Southampton. 209 p. certification will be needed. New Zealand Forestry Industries (1994). Visions for forestry's future. February, p 47-63. Note: O'Connor, K.F., F.B. Overmars, and M.M. The Greenpeace review The Plantation Effect Ralston. (1990). Land evaluation for nature

Some thoughts on the indigenous crossroad and the paths of opportunity R.K. Gover*

Introduction logical systems" philosophy (Findley restricted only to the more robust forest This paper suggests firstly that the main­ 1990). Sustainable forest management can types, can afford to be conservative. It tenance of ecological viability of the only be considered within the constraints does not need to test the extremes of eco­ forests is the umbrella under which all of the need to maintain ecological viabil­ logical breakdown. A cautious approach management should be judged and per­ ity and integrity. Managers should know to the setting of forest management and mitted and, secondly, that the two diver­ the constraint levels, or "bench marks" at harvesting practice will go a long way gent concepts of indigenous timber which ecological viability can no longer towards maintaining forest viability until harvest and forest conservation are not be maintained. Not just tree flora but in the complex relationships of forest ecol­ necessarily incompatible: that is to say terms of all aspects of fauna and flora. ogy are further unravelled by research. that indigenous timber production is a These bench mark indicators are not legitimate use, but only if it is strongly easy to assess or understand, although I The Use of Geographic Informa­ based on the maintenance of the basic for­ believe that some significant work is being tion Systems est ecological system. done in selected forest types to understand In Papua New Guinea, where I currently It is time for both conservation and for­ change and, more importantly, the effects work for the CSIRO Division of Wildlife est managers to recognise this principle of change (R. Allen pers comm). and , we have just finished putting and to frame management regimes that do In effect this is the build up of forest together the Papua New Guinea Resource allow compatibility on selected forest fragility ratings and, when it is done in Information System (PNGRIS). It is a types in specific areas set aside for pro­ conjunction with other environmental fac­ geographic information system; that is, a duction. tors such as inherent , erosiv- database and associated mapping package ity, erodibility and others, it becomes a that covers the whole country. It pulls Working within Environmental strong decision-making and management together all the basic data Constraints tool. It can answer the questions such as that have been collected by CSIRO survey The vision of sustained yield indigenous "to harvest or not to harvest?" It can also since the early 1950s and matches them forestry must ''embrace the sustained eco- assist in matching forest management against population statistics, conservation techniques to identified environmental needs ranking and other administrative constraints. and spatially linked information. CSIRO, P.O. Box 2256, Boroko NCD, It should also be said that general for­ It is used by agriculturists, environ­ Papua New Guinea. est harvest, if harvest in the interim is mentalists and alike for develop-

12 N.Z. FORESTRY FEBRUARY J995