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Home , Anatomy Act 1832, Body Worlds, Dissection, History of Animals

Anatomy and Through Time Emma Antle & Keeley Hatfield A of Anatomical Research and Dissection Overview: The History of Human Overview

● Prehistoric Times ● Ancient Egyptians; 3000-250 B.C. ● Chinese; 1500 B.C. ● Hippocrates; 460-370 B.C. ● ; 384-322 B.C. ● Herophilus; 330-260 B.C. & ; 315-240 B.C. ● ; 129-210 ● Mondino de Liuzzi; 1275-1326 ● ; 1452-1519 Overview

● Vesalius; 1514-1564 ● ; 1578-1657 ● Nicolaes Tulp; 1593-1674 ● ; 1769-1832 ● Henry Gray; 1827-1861 ● Anatomy Act; 1832 ● 20th Century Anatomy ● Gunther von Hagens; 1945-Present ● Major Dissection Bans Prehistoric Times Ancestors

It was known which part of an was beneficial for food, clothing or implements.

Using this knowledge comparisons were drawn to their own human bodies.

● Skin: protective covering and warmth ● Muscles: locomotion and major source of food ● Skeleton: frame; can be used to make weapons and tools Trepanation

Ancient surgical intervention in which a hole is drilled into a human’s skull.

Completed to…

● Treat intracranial diseases ● Release pressure due to buildup of ● Release evil spirits from the person Paleopathology

Division of science that is concerned with the pathological conditions of ancient human and animal remains.

● Skeletal remains: indicates age, injuries and disease ● teeth: indicates diet and dental conditions Ancient Egyptians; Year 3000-250 B.C. Paving the Road

Ebers and Edwin Smith Papyri: Where transcribed their notes for future knowledge

Mummification: Seven step process - the liver, , stomach and intestines were placed in canopic jars and “protected” by the four sons of Horus Discussion

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Event Code: 4251

QUESTION: What do you think Ancient Egyptians referred to as a “waste of space”?

A) B) C) Appendix D) Spleen Chinese; Year 1500 B.C. Comparing the Body to the Universe

Yin and Yang: A balance of Yin (negative, female energy), Yang (positive, male energy), and the Five Phases (earth, water, metal, fire, wood) - circulation in the arms and legs followed this pattern

Agriculture: As a country rooted in agriculture they compared the body to a plant - the forest of the body symbolizes the bodily functions - the flowering of the face meant a functioning body, while illness showed wilting, and fading Comparing the Body to the Universe

Da Shu (great numbers)

● Four limbs for the four seasons and directions

● Five zang (liver, gall bladder, heart, spleen, kidneys) for the five planets

● Twelve vessels circulating blood and air for the twelve rivers running

toward the Central

● Three hundred and sixty-five meridian sites for every day of the year Acupuncture

Using the 365 meridian sites

Needles were inserted in the skin about this path which qi (life-energy) flows through

This allows for the release of bad secretions and tissues of obstructions Hippocrates; Year 460-370 B.C. Founding Anatomy in ... The “Father of ”

The Hippocratic Ideal How Anatomy Could Help

Natural approach and treatment of Hippocrates believed physicians diseases, highlighting the importance should study anatomy, especially of understanding the patient’s health, the spine and the nervous system, independence of mind, and the need as it controls all functions of the for harmony between the individual, body. social and natural environment. He was the first who believed that “Healthy mind in a healthy body” this observation helps recognize the symptoms of each disease.

An important claim as dissection was forbidden in Greece at this time. Humorism

Hippocrates disciplined the Humoral Theory during his time

1. Blood 2. Choler/Yellow Bile 3. Phlegm 4. Melancholy/Black Bile Aristotle; Year 384-322 B.C. Pupil of . Teacher of Alexander the Great. Aristotle

Zoologist who accounted , Aristotle is often regarded as the and wrote several books including: “founder of ” due to his overall History of , , comparative approach and Generation of Animals, Motion of Animals, incorporation of anatomical and , Parva Naturalia, morphological description - his and De Anima scope is comprehensive, and his methods are rigorous and systematic Aristotle

● The extent of his knowledge of particular animals is enormous - never overlooking aspects of an animal’s life ● From the feeding habits of torpedo fish to the breeding behavior of catfish - his knowledge of many anatomical features seems possible only from direct observation and dissection ● Aristotle's description of the unusual placental structure of the smooth dogfish is a great example of this

Aristotle's reliance on animal analogies for some human anatomy, especially internal structure, produced mixed results Herophilus and Erasistratus Year 330-260 B.C. 315-240 B.C. Alexandrian Physicians

Herophilus (Father of Anatomy): known to be the first anatomist - was the first to perform systematic scientific dissection on a human cadaver

Erasistratus (Father of Physiology): Physician and anatomist credited with much of the understanding of the heart’s anatomy

Their work complemented one another, allowing for the founding of a School of Anatomy in Alexandria Galen; Year 129-210 Galen: Anatomy and Medicine His Theory Dominated for 1300 Years

● Greek physician, surgeon, and philosopher ● Galen’s invaluable insights come from treating the wounds of gladiators ● He was principally influenced by the then-current theory of humorism that had been advanced by Hippocrates ● Many of his anatomical descriptions were wrong because of his reliance on animal dissection, specifically of monkeys and pigs ● His reports remained uncontested until 1543 when Vesalius published his seminal work Pioneering Spinal Research

Based on his observations of animals, Galen pioneered a model for the study of the human spine.

His research allowed for an accurate description of the vertebral column and spinal cord - even describing nerves emerging from the spine.

Describes the consequences of spinal cord damage at different levels and dealing with spinal tuberculosis and the injuries of the spine and the spinal marrow.

Observed loss of sensation and paralysis of all muscles supplied by nerves originating from the spinal cord following complete resection below that level. Understanding Blood

Galen had a clear understanding of how important the pulse is and that blood moved around the body.

Yet, he did make some mistakes.

He thought that:

The liver made blood for the veins and the heart made blood for the arteries. Mondino de Liuzzi; Year 1275-1326 “Lesson in Anatomy”

Italian physician, anatomist, and professor of surgery

His major work, Anathomia corporis humani, is considered the first example of a modern dissection manual and the first true anatomical text.

When dissection of a cadaver become a norm in the study of anatomy in the 14th century, Anatomia was used as a handbook to guide the process It was the most widely used anatomical text for 250 years.

The book follows a description of organs in the order they appear during the dissection process.

Yet, this work is not without errors. For example, he attempts to reconcile the teachings of Galen and Aristotle when he describes the heart, giving an incorrect conclusion. Dissection Method

His were guided by his adherence to a tripartite division of the . Theorizing the body was comprised of three distinct containers:

1. Skull; superior ventricle which enclosed the “animal members” 2. Thorax; middle ventricle which contained “spiritual members” such as the heart and lungs 3. Abdomen; inferior ventricle, which contained “natural members” including the liver and other visceral organs

From this he asserted that the abdomen should be dissected first because its organs are the “most confused and least noble” Leonardo Da Vinci; Year 1452-1519 Artistic Form of Anatomical Structures Anatomical Sketches

Areas of interest included art, writing, inventing, engineering, mathematics, and more...

As a successful artist, he was given permission to dissect human corpses at in Florence, Milan, and Rome.

He quickly became a master of topographic anatomy; 240 detailed drawings and 13,000 words, showing structural relationships of various body organs.

Drew the heart and vascular system, the sex organs, various internal organs, and one of the first scientific drawings of a in utero.

His work was far ahead of the time, and if it had been published, it would have made major contributions to medical science. Models in Anatomy

● Made wax casts of ventricles of the brain to study its structure ● Constructed models of the heart valves ● Used water and grass seed to watch how liquid would flow through ; Year 1514-1564 Illustrating the Human Body Surgery and Anatomy

● Flemish physician, anatomist and author ● At the time, this branch of medicine was regarded with little importance ● Vesalius believed surgery had to be grounded in anatomy ● He performed many dissections himself, and would create charts of the blood and nervous system for his students to follow ● Vesalius also wrote a pamphlet on bloodletting which was supported by his knowledge of the blood system De Humani Corporis Fabrica

● At age 28, Vesalius published De Humani Corporis Fabrica ● The book was based mainly on human dissection, and transformed anatomy into being a concept that relies directly on human dissection ● After this, Vesalius left anatomical research to take up medical practice William Harvey; Year 1578-1657 Double

Known for discovering the double circulatory system.

He was the first person to completely describe the systemic circulation and properties of blood being pumped from the heart to the body.

He understood that for every one circuit of the body blood flows:

heart → lungs → heart → rest of body Witches

● William Harvey was often asked to examine women who were accused of being witches ● He was asked to examine them for suspicious supernatural marks ● Upon examination he thought the marks looked normal ● He saved many lives when he voiced his disagreement Nicolaes Tulp; Year 1593-1674 Dr. Nicolaes Tulp Career as a Physician

Early Life ● In 1628, Tulp was appointed Praelector Anatomiae at the Amsterdam Guild of ● Dutch surgeon and mayor of Amsterdam Surgeons ● Well known for his upstanding moral ● Wrote the first pharmacopoeia - a book character and as the subject of the containing directions for the famous painting “The Anatomy Lesson” identification of compound ● Studied medicine 1611-1614 ● Gave yearly anatomy lessons performed on victims of public hanging The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Nicolaes Tulp Georges Cuvier; Year 1769-1832 Georges Cuvier and the Concept of Founder of Paleontology

Georges-Leopold-Chretien-Frederic-Dagobert (Georges Cuvier)

● Published a book called Lessons in Comparative Anatomy ● Instrumental in establishing the fields of comparative anatomy and paleontology through his work with ● Expanded Linnaean taxonomy to include his findings ● Opposed Henry Gray; Year 1827-1861 Textbook of Human Anatomy Published 1858 Henry Gray

● Gray’s Anatomy was first published in 1858 by Henry Gray and aimed to cover the entire human body and all of its systems ● One of the most influential anatomy textbooks ever published ● Future editions became more and more exhaustive in an attempt to make the book completely comprehensive ● Newest edition has trimmed the info to be more concise and applicable to students

Dr. Vandyke Carter

● Illicit removal of corpses from graves/ ● Sold to medical schools for anatomy study ● Prior to the Anatomy Act of 1832 in Britain, the taking of corpses from graves was not considered illegal, as the corpse had no legal standing ● Body snatchers included: ○ medical students themselves ○ con artists who claimed bodies of the poor ○ amateurs who stumbled upon a fresh grave ○ murderers who produced corpses ○ professional body snatchers Precipitation of the Anatomy Act of 1832 Enactment of the Anatomy Act 1832

Official Enactment 1880s Body

● The combination of body snatchings, ● This act first allowed medical schools to , and riots let to take unclaimed bodies of the poor and the enactment of the Anatomy Act in ill Britain in 1832 ● Later was amended to require family ● Similar acts came about in North permission America in subsequent years ● The implementation of body embalming ● These acts recognized the need for (1880s) allowed medical schools to keep bodies for medical education/research bodies for months, leading to the demise of body snatching 20th & 21st Century Anatomy Important Events of the 20th Century

German Anatomical Society - BNA approved 500 anatomical terms used in teaching and publications

International Congress of Anatomists (1960) - passed a resolution to eliminate proper names (eg. Stensen’s Duct) for the use of more descriptive names (eg. Parotid Duct) instead

Divisions of anatomy were well-established Divisions of Anatomy

Gross Anatomy - oldest division; use of cadaver anatomical structures seen via the naked eye

Surface Anatomy - surface features of the body

Microscopic Anatomy - structures <0.1mm in size that can be seen with the aid of the microscope (further divided into cytology and histology)

Radiological Anatomy - structures seen as radiopaque via x-rays to provide greater contrasts (radiography, CT scan, MRI scan, PET scan, DSR scan) Microscopic Anatomy

Cytology Histology Radiological Anatomy

MRI Scan PET Scan Radiological Anatomy

CT Scan DSR Scan Dr. Gunther von Hagens; Year 1945-Present Dr. Gunther von Hagens Invention of

● Entered in 1965 at the ● In 1992, von Hagens married Dr. University of Jena Angelina Whalley who helped him ● In 1975, while working as a design the BODY WORLDS resident/lecturer in , von exhibition Hagens pioneered an invention that halts ● A year later he founded the the of the body after Heidelberg-based institute for , preserving it for eternity - Plastination - offers plastinated plastination specimens for educational use and ● Used reactive polymers for BODY WORLDS ● Patented the method and dedicated the ● To date, the exhibitions have been rest of his life perfecting the technique viewed by 46 million people in over 119 cities BODY WORLDS - Original Exhibition of Real Human Bodies BODY WORKS at Memorial University Faculty of Medicine

Discussion

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Event Code: 4251

QUESTION: Do you think it is appropriate to plastinate human bodies for display?

A) Yes B) No Major Dissection Bans

Dissection Bans

Argentina, 1987: Dissection was banned from being performed in schools

Italy, 1992: A number of Italian laboratory workers campaigned for the law to recognize the legal right of conscientious objection - resulted in Italian Law 413 which permits workers to refuse involvement in animal experimentation

Slovakia, 1995: Dissection was banned from all primary/secondary schools

India, 1996: The High Court of Delhi bans animal dissections

Israel, 1999: Ban on all animal experimentation in schools What do you think…… Ethical? Unethical? Necessary? Discussion

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Event Code: 4251

QUESTION: Do you think animal dissections should be banned?

A) Permitted at graduate level but not undergraduate or high school B) Permitted at graduate and undergraduate level but not high school C) Permitted at all levels D) Banned at all levels References

❖ https://headlines.peta.org/teachkind-dissection-feature-2/

❖ http://humanbiologylab.pbworks.com/w/page/86795731/Doris%20Dissection%20Position%20Statement

❖ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomy_Act_1832

❖ https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21509810

❖ http://www.angelfire.com/wi/egypt/mummy2.html

❖ https://www.bodyworldsvital.com/about-us/gunther-von-hagens/

❖ https://www.sesp.northwestern.edu/docs/publications/6074956944509ac426aaa6.pdf

❖ https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4263393/

❖ https://www.britannica.com/topic/body-snatching#ref1179705

❖ https://medium.com/@alanjordan/anatomy-and-dissection-through-the-ages-9ebb492bf7dc

❖ https://paleopathology-association.wildapricot.org

❖ http://www.bbc.com/earth/story/20160826-why-our-ancestors-drilled-holes-in-each-others-skulls

❖ https://mysendoff.com/2011/09/the-anatomy-act-of-1832/

❖ https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/%28SICI%291097-0185%2819990415%29257%3A2%3C58%3A%3AAID-AR6%3E3.0.CO%3B2-I

❖ http://streetanatomy.com/2007/03/22/henry-gray-the-man-behind-anatomy/ References

❖ http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/galen.shtml

❖ http://broughttolife.sciencemuseum.org.uk/broughttolife/people/henrygray

❖ http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/history/cuvier.html

❖ https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3944418/

❖ http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/vesalius_andreas.shtml

❖ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pharmacopoeia#/media/File:Zh_pharmacopoeia_2.JPG

❖ https://medium.com/@alanjordan/anatomy-and-dissection-through-the-ages-9ebb492bf7dc

❖ http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/harvey_william.shtml

❖ https://www.biographyonline.net/scientists/william-harvey.html

❖ http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0004-282X2015000200155

❖ Alexander J. 1970. Dissection versus prosection in the teach of anatomy. J Med Educ 45: 600-606.

❖ Ghosh SK. 2015. Human cadaveric dissection: a historical account from ancient Greece to the modern era. Anat Cell Biol 48: 153-169.

❖ Hurren ET. 2016. Dissecting the Criminal Corpse: Staging Post-Execution Punishment in Early Modern . Palgrave Macmillan.

❖ Staden HV. 1992. The discovery of the body: human dissection and its cultural contexts in ancient Greece. Yale J Biol Med. 65: 223-241.