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this light was necessary for vision (11, on the Brain 13, 14). This idea that the eye contains light became the basis of theories of vi- CHARLES G. GROSS sion that persisted beyond the Renais- sance. Indeed, Alcmaeon’s idea of light in the eye was only disproved in the mid- dle the Aristotle argued that the was the center of sensation and movement. By contrast, of eighteenth century (15). his predecessors, such as Alcmaeon, and his contemporaries, such as the Hippocratic Among the other pre-Socratic philos- doctors, attributed these functions to the brain. This article examines Aristotle’s views on opher-scientists who adopted and ex- brain function in the context of his time and considers their subsequent influence on the panded on Alcmaeon’s view of the func- development of the brain sciences. The Neuroscientist 1:245-250,1995 tions of the brain were Democritus, Anaxagoras, and Diogenes (10, 13, 14, KEY WORDS Aristotle, , Greek science, Localization of function 16). Democritus developed a version that became very influential because of its on Plato. Democ- Aristotle’s name is invariably linked to ence of Aristotle on the subsequent de- impact Specifically, philosophy; indeed, for centuries, he velopment of the brain sciences. ritus taught that everything in the uni- verse is made of atoms of a was known as &dquo;The Philosopher.&dquo; Figures 1 and 2 provide some orienta- up particular size and The mind, However, he was also the leading bi- tion in time and space for this article. shape. psyche (soul, vital is made of the ologist of classical antiquity and one of principle) up lightest, the greatest biologists of all time. He Alcmaeon of Croton most spherical and fastest moving at- oms. Although the psychic atoms are is usually considered the founder of Formal science, the idea that the uni- the first dispersed among other atoms throughout comparative , embry- verse is a complicated mechanism work- the first the first the body, they are much more numerous ologist, taxonomist, ing according to fixed laws that could be evolutionist, the first in the brain. Slightly cruder atoms are biogeographer, understood through human reason, be- and the first student of ani- concentrated in the heart, making it the systematic gan with the pre-Socratic philosopher- center of emotion, and still cruder ones mal behavior ( 1-4, but cf. 5). Not only scientists Thales, Anaximander and An- are located in the liver, which conse- was he important to the development aximenes in sixth-century BCE Miletus, of but was im- quently is the seat of lust and appetite. , biology very a Greek city in Asia Minor (1, 9). By the in his own as a This trichotomy developed into Plato’s portant development middle of the fifth century, there were thinker. Over a of his hierarchy of the parts of the soul in quarter writings three major centers of Greek medical were on and his which there is no question about the su- biology, biological science: Croton, in what is now southern work was crucial in him premacy of the brain. As he put in the distancing Italy, Agrigentum on the south coast of from his teacher, Plato Timaeus (17), &dquo;It is the divinest part of (6-8). Beyond modem Sicily, and Cos, an island off was a true us and lord over all the rest.&dquo; Then, in biology, he universal ge- modem Turkey. The oldest of these with ’s medical the three nius, writing permanent impact medical centers was in Croton, and its theorizing, on such as became the three of subjects logic, metaphysics, most famous member was Alcmaeon. soul-parts pneumas art, theater, economics, humoral that dominated med- psychology, Croton was also the site of the Pythag- and His ical for so many centuries ( 18,19). politics. formerly dominating orean brotherhood, and there seems to thought Alcmaeon’s view of the he- influence on the physical and biologi- have been considerable interaction be- However, cal has dis- of the brain was not universal sciences, however, largely tween the Pythagoreans and the medical gemony appeared in the last several centuries. school ( 10-12). among the pre-Socratic philosopher-sci- Aristotle’s most entists. For the Perhaps egregious Alcmaeon was the first writer to example, Empedocles, scientific error fell in the domain we member of the medical center at champion the brain as the site of sensa- leading now call neuroscience: he that the blood was systemati- tion and cognition. He also seems to Agrigentum, taught denied the role of the the medium of and the cally controlling have been the first practitioner of ana- thought, degree brain in sensation on and movement, giv- tomic as a tool of intellectual of depended the compo- this function to the heart. ing, instead, inquiry. His most detailed sition of the blood (14, 16). Thus, for I consideration of this the heart was the central of begin enigma by and theories were on the senses, partic- him, organ summarizing the views on brain func- ularly vision. Alcmaeon described the intellect and the seat of . tion held the Greek The idea of the heart as the by philosopher-sci- optic , noted that they &dquo;came to- general entists before Aristotle. Then, the ar- gether behind the forehead&dquo; (which is seat of intelligence and emotion was not and evidence Aristotle guments put why, he opined, the eyes move together) new. It had been held in many earlier forward for his curious views are pre- and suggested that they were &dquo;light- cultures such as the Egyptian, Mesopo- sented. I examine the influ- Finally, bearing paths&dquo; to the brain. He removed tamian, Babylonian, and Indian (20, 21). and dissected the eye, and observed that It is reported to be common among non- From the Department of Psychology, Pnnceton it contained water. Observations of what literate cultures as well (20), as illus- New , Pnnceton, Jersey. are now called phosphenes after a blow trated by the oft-quoted remark of a Address reprint requests to: C. G. Gross, Dept. to the led him to conclude that the Pueblo chief to C.G. &dquo;I know of Psychology, Pnnceton University, Pnnceton, NJ eye Jung (22), 08544. eye also contained light (fire) and that you white men think with the brain. That

Volume 1, Number 4, 1995 245 Copyright © 1995 by Williams & Wilkins ISSN 1073-8584 Fig. 1. accounts for your shortcomings. We red pre-Socratic thinkers in general, they re- functions of the brain, he is equally men think with the heart.&dquo; Ancient Chi- jected supernatural causes of disease and clear: nese had rather more compli- sought natural explanations through ob- It ought to be generally known that the cated views than the relatively simple servation and extended case studies (1, source of our pleasure, merriment, heart-centered ones of other ancient 10, 12). Similarly detailed accounts of laughter, and amusement, as of our , cultures, but it also disease were rare until after thoroughly ignored processes pain, anxiety, and tears, is none other the brain In the role of the (23, 24). fact, the and even then tended to than the brain. It is specially the organ brain in perception and cognition did not be advertisements for the skill of the which enables us to think, see, and hear, enter Chinese thought until the Jesuit rather than empirical studies. and to distinguish the ugly and the beau- Matteo Ricci’s treatise (in 1595, in Chi- The Hippocratic work of greatest rel- tiful, the bad and the good, pleasant and It is the brain nese) on the art of memory, which he evance to brain function is the famed es- unpleasant.... too which is the seat of madness and delir- wrote as part of his campaign to convert say &dquo;On the Sacred Disease&dquo; (27), ium, of the fears and which assail the scholar class (25). which is epilepsy. The work, probably frights us, often by night, but sometimes even designed as a lecture for laymen, opens The Hippocratic Doctors by day; it is there where lies the cause with an homage to reason and the rejec- of insomnia and sleep-walking, of The third center for the great teaching tion of superstition: thoughts that will not come, forgotten and practice of medicine in the fifth cen- duties, and eccentricities. tury BCE was the island of Cos, and its I do not believe that the Sacred Disease he neither the dia- most famous member was . is any more divine or sacred than any Furthermore, states, The first large body of Western scientific other disease, but, on the contrary, has phragm nor the heart has any mental writings that have survived is the Hip- specific characteristics and a definite functions, as some have claimed: ’new- cause.... of these takes in pocratic corpus. Although there is no ther organs any part It is that those who first which are question that Hippocrates was a real his- my opinion mental operations, completely called this disease ’sacred’ were the sort torical figure, it is not clear which of the undertaken by the brain.&dquo; of we now call witch-doctors, called were actu- people What then is the cause of epilepsy, the writings Hippocratic faith-healers, quacks, and charlatans. written him (26). The so-called sacred disease? He goes on to ally by Hippo- These are exactly the people who pre- cratic consists of more than 60 say that it attacks only the phlegmatic, corpus tend to be very pious and to be particu- which in those with an excess of phlegm or treatises, vary enormously style larly wise. By invoking a divine element level were mucus. and technical and which not they were able to screen their own fail- written by one author, or even in one ure to suitable treatment and so give Should ... routes for the passage of called this a ’sacred’ to conceal period. malady phlegm from the brain be blocked, the Unlike Alcmaeon and the Croton their of its nature. ignorance discharge enters the blood-vessels ... the doctors School, Hippocratic did not this causes aphonia, choking, foaming at practice dissection and their knowledge The author has no doubt that the brain is the mouth, clenching of the teeth and of anatomy was slight. However, like the the seat of this disease. As to the general convulsive movements of the ; the

246 Greek medical and social practice in sev- Now let us turn to Aristotle’s views on eral ways (28). In its original form, it the brain, which have embarrassed and forbids both suicide and , but, in puzzled historians and scientists from fact, neither was censured or illegal in Galen of Pergamum, who &dquo;blushed to Hippocratic times, or more generally, in quote&dquo; them (19, 29, 30). Aristotle be- classical Greece and Rome. The oath lieved that the heart and not the brain was also forbids . Although surgical the center of sensation and movement: intervention was not common, it was def- And of course, the brain is not respon- used the doctors initely by Hippocratic sible for any of the sensations at all. The to drain pus, set fractures, and reduce correct view [is] that the seat and source dislocations. Finally, Hippocratic doc- of sensation is the region of the heart tors, like most others before and after, (PA656a, see Box). taught for a fee despite the oath’s in- ... the motions of pleasure and pain, and junctions against such practices. The so- generally all sensation plainly have their source in the heart called seems to have (PA666a). ... all sangumeous animals possess derived from a much later secret neo-Py- a heart, and both movement and the thagorean sect that was antisuicide, anti- dominant sense perception originate abortion, and antisurgery. The oath may there (SW456a). then have become with the rise popular ... in all sanguineous animals the of Christianity, because the Church was supreme organ of the sense-faculties lies opposed to suicide and abortion, and in the heart&dquo; (Y0469a). with the of medicine from the separation Table 1 summarizes Aristotle’s &dquo;lower craft&dquo; of argu- surgery. ments for the heart and against the brain as the center of sensation and movement. Aristotle on the Brain and Aristotle was well aware of the earlier Heart claims for the dominance of the brain as Aristotle was bom in 384 BCE in Sta- opposed to the heart, such as those of geira to a medical family. His father, Alcmaeon, Plato, and Hippocrates, and who had been personal physician to repeatedly argues against their &dquo;falla- Amyntas II, King of Macedonia (father cious&dquo; views (PA656a,b). For example, of Philip II), died at a young age, and he claims his predecessors say that the Aristotle’s early education was probably scarcity of flesh around the brain is in or- provided by his father’s fellow physi- der for sensation to get through. But, Ar- cians. In those days, as now, a well-ed- istotle answers that the fleshlessness is in ucated physician needed some general accordance with the cooling function of culture, so at the age of 17, he was sent the brain and furthermore, the back of the off to Plato’s Academy in Athens. He head is also fleshless, but there are no stayed there for 20 years and never did sense organs there. They also mention begin his medical training. that the sense organs are placed near the Fig. 2. When Plato died in 347, his nephew brain, but Aristotle gives a number of al- took over the academy, and Aristotle left ternate reasons for that. For example, the Athens with some friends for the island of eyes face frontward so that we can see eyes are fixed, the patient becomes un- Lesbos and the mainland where the line we are and &dquo;... conscious and, in some cases, passes a adjacent along moving, stool. he apparently spent much time studying it is reasonable enough that the eyes marine biology. Philip then appointed him should always be located near the brain, These extracts from &dquo;On the Sacred Dis- private tutor to his son, Alexander, until, for the brain is fluid and cold, and the ease&dquo; typify the best of Hippocratic at age 16, Alexander became regent of sense organ of sight is identical in its na- medicine: a total absence of superstition, Macedonia and had little time for further ture with water.&dquo; The ears are located on accurate clinical description, ignorance academic studies. Aristotle returned to the sides of the head to hear sounds from of anatomy and a physiology, which is Athens in 335 and founded a new school all directions. In any case, there are ani- largely an absurd mixture of false anal- and research center, the Lyceum. It re- mals who hear and smell and don’t have ogy, speculation, and humoral theory. ceived financial support from Alexander these organs in their head. Furthermore, Perhaps the entire history of medicine who, according to Pliny, also sent it bio- there are sense organs in the head because can be viewed as the narrowing of the logical specimens as he proceeded to con- the blood is especially pure in the head gap between the medical empiricism quer the known world. Thirteen years later region, which makes for more precise characteristic of the School of Cos and and a few months before his , Aris- sensation. the knowledge of structure and mecha- totle was driven from Athens by the ascent Galen and many subsequent historians nism sought by the School of Croton. of anti-Alexandrian factions. Aristotle, or of medicine are somewhat unfair in Finally, it should be noted that the so Diogenes Laertius, and other ancient claiming that Aristotle simply dismissed &dquo;Hippocratic Oath&dquo; not only had no authorities tell us, was small, lisping, sar- the brain as cold and wet. Rather, for Ar- connection with the Hippocratic school, castic, arrogant, elegant, and happily mar- istotle, the brain was only second to the but is quite deviant from mainstream ried (1, 10). heart in importance and was essential to

247 Table 1. Aristotle’s Arguments for the Heart and against the Brain as the Center for Sensation and Movement

the functioning of the heart. The heart to- which are intrinsically cold (PA653a). In none to have been made without a func- gether with the brain formed a unit that order that the brain is not completely tion to perform. Rather, he believed the controlled the body. The heart, which is cold, it receives a moderate amount of brain to play an essential, although sub- naturally hot, he argued, &dquo;must be coun- heat from branches of the aorta and the ordinate, role in a &dquo;heart-brain&dquo; system terbalanced, in order to attain the mean, vena cava that end in the membrane that that was responsible for sensation; in- the true and the rational position. Thus, surrounds the brain (PA652b). When the deed, man’s superior intelligence is the brain, which is naturally cold, tempers brain cools the hot vapor reaching it credited to his large brain. the heat and seething of the heart from the heart, phlegm is produced. This Although Aristotle may have not ig- (PA652b). idea that the brain produces phlegm is nored the brain quite as much as is often also found in &dquo;The Sacred Disease,&dquo; as claimed, it remains he For if the brain be either too fluid or too puzzling why noted above, and is fossilized in our own made such a error and took such solid, it will not perform its office, but startling term from the a view from in the one case will freeze the blood and ’pituitary,&dquo; coming Latin different Alcmaeon and the in the other will not cool it at all, and &dquo;pituita,&dquo; which means phlegm. Man’ss Hippocratic doctors, and above all from thus cause disease, madness and death. brain, according to Aristotle, is the larg- his teacher Plato. Aristotle had adduced For the cardiac heart and the center of est and moistest brain for its size anatomical, physiological, comparative, life is most delicate in its sympathies and (HA494b, PA653a). This is because in embryological, and introspective evi- is sensitive to the immediately slightest man, the heart is hottest and richest and dence for his view of brain function. But change or affection of the blood or the must be counterbalanced, for man’s su- there was an essential absent. outer surface of the brain (PA653b). approach perior intelligence depends on the fact This was the clinical approach, the study Aristotle gave the following explana- that his larger brain is capable of keeping of the brain-injured human. The two tions for the cold nature of the brain: 1) the heart cool enough for optimal mental champions of the hegemony of the brain, the blood which it contains in its vessels activity (PA648a,650b-51a). (Woman’s Alcmaeon and Hippocrates, were both is thin, pure and easily cooled (SS444a); brain is smaller than man’s [PA653b], a practicing . The evidence that 2) the vessels on and in the brain are very view of Aristotle’s that persisted much both had given in support of their opin- thin and permit evaporation, cooling the longer than his view of the mental func- ions was strictly clinical. Because there is brain (SW458a); and 3) when the brain tions of the heart.) Thus, Aristotle did no evidence of systematic on is boiled and the water in it evaporates, not merely dismiss the brain as cold and the brain and until Galen hard earth is left, indicating that the brain wet. Indeed, it would have been unlike in the second century, the accidents of na- is made of water and earth, both of him to dismiss any organ, for he thought ture were the only sources of information

Box 1: A Note on Classical Sources All the works of the pre-Socratic philosopher-scientists are PA, Parts of Animals, trans. A.L. Peck, Harvard, Cam- lost. All we have are extracts collected by the ancient dox- bridge, 1955. ographers. These were assembled by H. Diels at the beginning SS, On Sense and Sensible Objects in Parva Naturalia, of the century and translated into English by Freeman (14). trans. W.S. Hett, Harvard, Cambridge, 1957. Aristotle’s works here, and more generally, are cited by SW, On Sleep and Waking in Parva Naturalia, trans. W.S. the page numbers given by I. Bekker in the nineteenth cen- Hett, Harvard, Cambridge, 1957. tury. I use the following abbreviations for individual works: YO, On Youth and Old Age in Parva Naturalia, trans. W.S. Hett, Harvard, Cambridge, 1957. GA, Generation of Animals, trans. A.L. Peck, Harvard, Cambridge, 1942. Von Staden (37) has collected and translated the frag- HA, , trans. A.L. Peck, Harvard, Cam- ments of Herophilus, and Dobson (38) has done so for Er- bridge, 1965. asistratus. Other ancient sources are given in the references.

248 about what the brain did. It is hard to con- the subsequent development of the study stead stressed the importance of brain ceive of Aristotle, in the course of his of the brain. At the most general level, tissue itself. (The stoic philosophers, par- strictly zoological observations and dis- his stress on the importance of dissection ticularly Chrysippus, did continue to insist sections, coming across evidence strongly coupled with his prestige encouraged on the dominant role of the heart [30]. The contradicting his view of the brain and others to perform anatomical studies localization of the Aristotelian psycholog- heart. It seems clear that he never dis- (11). More specifically, he played sev- ical functions in three spherical ventricles sected a human, and of the 49 animals he eral roles, albeit indirect ones, in the was a later, strictly medieval religious con- did dissect, from elephant to snail, the founding of the great Museum at Alex- struction, neither classical nor scientific, majority were cold blooded (31), as were andria, and it was here that systematic and began about 600 years later with Ne- the two, chameleon and turtle, that he ob- human neuroanatomy began. The mu- mesius, Bishop of Emesa [40-42]. Its re- viously vivisected (HA503b, Y0486b). seum was founded at the end of the verberations continued well into the nine- These did indeed have &dquo;cold and wet&dquo; fourth century BCE by Ptolemy I, the teenth century [43]). brains, and the connections of the sense first Greek ruler of , one of Alex- The immediate cause of the extraor- organs with the heart might have seemed ander’s generals and his friend from dinary surge of interest in anatomy in more prominent than those with the brain. boyhood. It was a vast state-supported second-century was that it On the other , he dissected enough institute for research, perhaps like some was the first time and place where sys- vertebrate brains to describe the two cov- combination of the National Institutes of tematic and open dissection of the hu- ering membranes (HA494b, 495a), the Health and the Institute for Advanced man body could be performed. Previ- two symmetrical halves (PA669b), and a Study. More than a hundred professors ously, anatomical dissections had been &dquo;small hollow&dquo; in the middle (HA495a), lived communally and had their salaries performed only on animals. The Greek perhaps the lateral ventricles. Finally, it and expenses paid. The museum in- reverence (and dread) of the dead human should be noted that Aristotle never lo- cluded lecture and study rooms, an as- body had made its dissection quite im- calized such psychological faculties as tronomical observatory, a zoo, a botani- possible. What made Alexandria differ- imagination, reasoning, or memory in the cal garden, and dissecting and operating ent ? A number of factors seem to have heart or any place else, but viewed them rooms (34, 35). Its huge library was named come together (34, 37, 39). One was that as activities of the whole organism. a Wonder of the Ancient World (36). Herophilus and had the full Despite (or, perhaps, because of) his In several ways, the museum was support of a totalitarian regime deter- father’s profession, Aristotle at no time a continuation and expansion of Aristotle’ss mined to glorify itself through the seemed interested in medicine or , the Lyceum (10, 34). First, its achievement of its scientists. As absolute writing. Indeed, medicine appears to be founder Ptolemy I had been a young pupil rulers in a foreign land, the Ptolemys one of the few things that this polymath of Aristotle, along with Alexander. Pre- brought few inhibitions with them. A was not interested in. And, in the fourth sumably, Aristotle stressed biology in their second factor must have been that dis- century BCE, the study of tutorials because that was his major inter- section of the for the pur- injury was the most likely way of getting est at the time. Second, Demetrius and poses of mummification had been prac- a &dquo;more correct&dquo; view of the brain than Strato, who were both students of Theo- ticed in Egypt for centuries, and, thus, Aristotle had. In fact, one of the few phrastus, Aristotle’s long-term collabora- the general cultural background of Egypt places where he approaches a correct tor and his successor as head of the Ly- undoubtedly helped make human dissec- view of brain function is in the rare ’clin- ceum, were called to Alexandria by tion possible. However, it is very un- ical&dquo; above in that the Greek anatomists had passage quoted (PA653b), Ptolemy to advise him on the organization likely any which he that mental disease fol- contact with the as suggests of the museum. (Ptolemy tried, unsuccess- Egyptian embalmers, lows from a malfunctioning of the cool- fully, to hire himself). Third, the social gap between the Greeks in Al- functions of the brain. Six hundred exandria and the natives ing the core of the library’s collection is surrounding years later, Galen’s observations of hu- thought to have been gathered by Deme- them seems to have been enormous (34). man head led him to the Another factor have been the injuries perform trius, at least in part, from Aristotle’s own may first recorded experiments on the brain collection. As Strabo, the first-century his- changes in philosophical attitudes to- (using piglets) (32), and his observations torian and geographer, later put it, &dquo;Aris- ward dying and the human corpse that of of led were common this time spinal injuries gladiators directly totle taught the kings of Egypt how to or- becoming by to his brilliant series of on After Aristotle had that experiments ganize a library&dquo; (36). (44). all, taught the effects of cord transection after death the was no more than a spinal (33). Thus, it was in the shadow of Aristotle body Even it is often clinical frame without or today, primarily that the great museum anatomists, Hero- physical feeling rights. data that on animal The of the Alexandria- inspire experiments philus and then Erasistratus, began the sys- uniqueness brains. Aristotle was a nexus is revealed the fact &dquo;pure&dquo; biologist, tematic study of the structure of the human anatomy by not an and in his the that not was human dissection applied one, day, body, particularly of the nervous system. only prac- of academic was ticed first in but Alexandria methodology biology They provided the first detailed, accurate Alexandria, incapable of yielding the correct view of description of the human brain, including was the first and virtually the only place the brain’s role. the ventricles (37-39). Herophilus and Er- where human vivisection was systemat- asistratus and Western scientists thereafter ically performed for scientific purposes Aristotle and the Birth of (37, 39). As Celsus, the Roman historian had no question about the dominant role Human at the of it Neuroanatomy of the brain in sensation, thought, and medicine, put (37): Alexandrian Museum that the movement. Herophilus claimed It is therefore necessary [for medical stu- Despite his fallacious views of brain fourth ventricle was the &dquo;command cen- dents] to dissect the bodies of the dead function, Aristotle actually facilitated ter,&dquo; a view rejected by Galen, who, in- and examine their viscera and intestines.

249 Herophilus and Erasistratus, they say, Greece. Cambridge: Harvard University ical works of Hippocrates. Oxford: did this in the best way by far when they Press 1959. Blackwells 1950:179-189. cut open men who were alive, criminals 2. Needham J. A history of . Cam- 28. Edelstein L. The Hippocratic oath: Text, out of prisons, received from kings. And bridge: Cambridge University Press 1959. translation and interpretation. In: Temkin while breath still remained in these crim- 3. Mayr E. The growth of biological thought. O, Temkin C, editors. Ancient medicine, Harvard inals, they inspected those parts which Cambridge: University Press 1982. selected papers of Ludwig Edelstem. Bal- 4. Nordenskiold E. The of timore : Johns Press 1943:3-63. nature previously had concealed ... history biology. Hopkins New York: Tudor 1928. 29. Clarke E, Stannard J. Aristotle on the Nor is it cruel, as most people maintain, 5. Medawar PB, Medawar JS. From Aris- of the brain. J Hist Med that remedies for innocent people of all anatomy totle to Zoos. Cambridge: Harvard Uni- 1963;18:130-148. times should be sought in the sacrifice versity Press 1983. 30. Galen. On the doctrines of Hippocrates of people guilty of crimes, and only a 6. Grene M. A portrait of Aristotle. Lon- and Plato. DeLacy P, trans. Berlin: Aka- few such people at that. don : Faber and Faber 1963. demie-Verlag 1978-84. 7. Gotthelf Lennox editors. 31. Lones TE. Vivisection of humans was never sys- A, JG, Philosoph- Aristotle’s researches in nat- tematically practiced (until the Third ical issues in Aristotle’s biology. Cam- ural science. London: London West again bndge : Cambridge University Press 1987. Newman 1912. Even the dissection of human ca- Reich). 8. Devereux D, Pellegrin P, editors. Biolo- 32. Galen. On anatomical procedures, the later davers in the was disappeared West until it gie, logique et métaphysique chez Aris- books. Duckworth WLH, trans. Cam- revived in the new medieval , totle. Paris: Editions CNRS 1990. bridge : Cambridge University Press 1962. and then initially only for forensic, not 9. Schrodinger E. Nature and the Greeks. Cam- 33. Galen. On anatomical procedures, the medical or scientific, purposes (18). bridge: Cambridge University Press 1954. surviving books. Singer C, trans. Oxford: 10. Longrigg L. Greek rational medicine: phi- Oxford University Press 1956. The Legacy of Aristotle’s Views losophy and medicine from Alcmaeon to 34. Fraser PM. Ptolemaic Egypt. Oxford: on the Brain the Alexandrians. London: Routledge 1993. Oxford University Press 1972. 11. Lloyd GER. Alcmaeon and the early his- 35. Farrington B. Greek science, vol. II. The- The debate between Aristotle’s advo- tory of dissection. Sudhoff’s Archiv fur die ophrastus to Galen. Harmondsworth: cacy of the hegemony of the heart and Geschichte der Medizin 1975;59:113-147. Penguin 1949. Alcmaeon’s championing of the brain, 12. Sigerist H. A history of medicine, vol. II. 36. Canfora L. The vanished library. Ryle M, Hindu and particularly as transmitted through Pla- Early Greek, Persian medicine. trans. Berkeley: University Cal. Press 1990. to’s Timaeus, continued in the Arab Oxford: Oxford University Press 1961. 37. Von Staden H. Herophilus. The art of 13. On the senses. In: Stratton medicine in Alexandria. Cam- world and then in medieval and Renais- Theophrastus. early GM, trans. Theophrastus and the Greek bridge : Cambridge University Press 1989. sance Europe (45). A common resolu- physiological psychology before Aristotle. 38. Dobson JF. Erasistratus. Proc Royal Soc tion was to combine the two views. For London: Allen and Unwm 1917:67-151. Med 1926-7;20:825-32. example, the great Arab Aristotelian and 14. Freeman K. The pre-Socratic philoso- 39. Longngg J. Anatomy in Alexandria in physician Ibn Sina () did this phers. Oxford: Blackwell 1954. the third century B.C. Br J His Sci by placing sensation, cognition, and 15. Grüsser O-J, Hagner M. On the history 1988;21:455-488. of deformation and the idea 40. W. Medieval and Renaissance con- movement in the brain, which in turn he phosphenes Pagel of internal light generated in the eye for tributions to the knowledge of the brain believed was controlled the heart by the purpose of vision. Doc Ophthalmol and its functions. In: The history and phi- (46). Similarly, according to the thir- 1990;74:57-85. losophy of knowledge of the brain and teenth-century Hebrew encyclopedist 16. Beare JI. Greek theories of elementary its functions. Springfield: Charles C Tho- Rabbi Gershon ben Shlomoh d’Arles cognition from Alcmaeon to Anstotle. mas 1958:95-114. (47), &dquo;the brain and heart share func- Oxford: Clarendon Press 1906. 41. Nemesius. On the nature of man. In: Tel- 17. Plato. Timaeus. Cornford trans. fer trans. of Jerusalem and Ne- tions so when one ... is the FM, W, Cyril missing, New York: Bobbs-Merrill 1959. mesius of Emesa. Westmin- other alone continues its activities ... Philadephia: 18. Singer C. A short and ster Press 1955:224-453. virtue of their As by partnership.&dquo; physiology from the Greeks to Harvey. 42. Gross CG. Early history of neuroscience. Scheherazade (48) tells it on the 439th New York: Dover 1957. In: Adelman G, editor. Encyclopedia of night (through Richard Burton), when 19. Galen. On the usefulness of the parts of neuroscience, vol. 2. Boston: Birkhauser the Caliph’s savant asks the brilliant the body. May M, trans. Ithaca: Cornell 1987:843-846. slave girl Tawaddud, &dquo;Where is the seat University Press 1968. 43. Gross CG. The minor and 20. Keele KD. of Oxford: man’s in nature. of she &dquo;Allah pain. place Hippocampus understanding?&dquo; answers, Blackwell 1957. 1993;3:403-415. casteth it in the heart whence its illustri- 21. Sigerist H. A history of medicine, vol I. 44. Edelstein L. The history of anatomy in ous beams ascend to the brain and there Primitive and archaic medicine. Oxford: antiquity. In: Temkin O, Temkin C, edi- become fixed.&dquo; And Portia’s song in the Oxford University Press 1951. tors. Ancient medicine, selected papers Merchant of Venice (49) asks: 22. Zimmer HR. Hindu medicine. Baltimore: of Ludwig Edelstein. Baltimore: Johns Johns Hopkins Press 1948. Hopkins Press 1943:247-301. Tell me where is fancie bred, 23. Huang Ti nei ching su wên. The yellow 45. Clarke E. Aristotelian concepts of the Or in the heart or in the head. emperor’s classic of . form and functions of the brain. Bull Hist Acknowledgements Veith I, trans. Baltimore: Williams & Med 1963;37:1-14. Wilkins 1949. 46. Avicenna. . Gruner I thank Maggie Berkowitz (then Angus) 24. Porkert M. The theoretical foundations OC, trans. London: Luzac and Co. 1930. and also G. Berman, J. Cooper, M.F.A. of Chinese medicine. Cambridge: MIT 47. Schlomoh d’Arles GB. The gate of Graziano, N. 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