American Journal of Infection Control 40 (2012) 35-42 Contents lists available at ScienceDirect American Journal of Infection Control American Journal of Infection Control journal homepage: www.ajicjournal.org Major article Infection control through the ages Philip W. Smith MD a,*, Kristin Watkins MBA b, Angela Hewlett MD a a Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Internal Medicine, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE b Center for Preparedness Education, College of Public Health, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE Key Words: To appreciate the current advances in the field of health care epidemiology, it is important to understand History the history of hospital infection control. Available historical sources were reviewed for 4 different Hospitals historical time periods: medieval, early modern, progressive, and posteWorld War II. Hospital settings Nosocomial for the time periods are described, with particular emphasis on the conditions related to hospital infections. Copyright Ó 2012 by the Association for Professionals in Infection Control and Epidemiology, Inc. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. Approximately 1.7 million health careeassociated infections One of the few public health measures was the collection of (HAIs) occur in the United States each year.1 Hospital infection bodies of plague victims. The bodies were left in the street to be control programs are nearly universal in developed nations and have picked up by carts and placed in mass graves outside of town.3,4 significantly lowered the risk of acquiring a HAI since their inception Other infection control measures included hanging people who in the mid 20th century. As we debate the preventability of HAIs, as wandered in from an epidemic region into an uninfected area, well as the ethical and logistic aspects of patient safety, it is impor- shutting up plague victims in their homes, and burning clothing tant to recall the historical context of hospital infection control. and bedding.5 Public health infectious disease contexts are relevant to hospitali- In 1532, during the reign of Henry VIII, the plague was active zation, and we examine 4 time periods in the last half-millennium: throughout England and was especially severe in London. The king medieval, early modern, progressive, and posteWorld War II. For was advised to travel by waterway from London to escape the each time frame, hospitalization-associated infectious diseases are disease. On the order of the Privy Council, the Mayor of London discussed, and a hypothetical infection control agenda is presented. wrote what is believed to be the first bill of mortality,6 an important The selection of time periods is arbitrary but is designed to provide public health precedent. In the 16th century, public health laws a representative overview of infections in hospitals through the started to appear throughout Europe.7 centuries. In addition to plague, epidemics of smallpox, influenza, dysen- tery, and typhus were frequent.3 “English sweating sickness,” an unknown Medieval febrile disease, was usually fatal.8 Smallpox had MEDIEVAL ERA (5TH TO 15TH CENTURIES) a mortality rate of 20%-60%, and many survivors lost their sight. In some towns there were not enough survivors to bury the dead or Public health in the medieval era harvest the crops. Infectious diseases strongly impacted life in medieval times.2 Bubonic plague killed about one-third of all people in Europe Hospitals in the medieval era between 1347 and 1350; some towns were abandoned after losing two-thirds of their population in a single year. A 1471 outbreak The first European hospitals were established in the 12th killed 10% of the British population. Recurrent but less severe pla- century by religious orders. During the Middle Ages, hospitals were gue epidemics persisted up to 1650. called “spittle houses” and provided care for the sick, insane, and destitute.9 Persons of means preferred to receive care at home.10 * Address correspondence to Philip W. Smith, MD, Division of Infectious Diseases, These hospitals were usually small and located outside the city University of Nebraska Medical Center, 985400 Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68198-5400. walls, and had large burial grounds. In the 13th century, there were E-mail address: [email protected] (P.W. Smith). thousands of hospitals for the isolation of leprosy patients (lepro- Conflict of interest: None to report. saria) in Europe. These were later converted to “pest houses” to 0196-6553/$36.00 - Copyright Ó 2012 by the Association for Professionals in Infection Control and Epidemiology, Inc. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.ajic.2011.02.019 36 P.W. Smith et al. / American Journal of Infection Control 40 (2012) 35-42 provide care for plague patients.11 Some hospitals were built over waterways that were used as sewers.12 In medieval times, hospitals were hazardous places (Fig 1). Epidemic infections killed large numbers of hospital patients during this period. Hospital infection and death rates were high. When a sick person entered a hospital, his or her property was disposed of, and in some regions a requiem mass was held, as if he or she had already died.7 In addition to smallpox and plague, “hospital fever” (louse-borne typhus), typhoid, and dysentery killed large numbers of patients. Surgery was generally performed by barber/surgeons with primitive surgical instruments using no asepsis or anesthesia. Postoperative mortality rates of 60%-80% were common, with most deaths due to so-called “hospital” (streptococcal) gangrene. Wound infection rates were also high because of unsanitary conditions and the use of cautery. As described in a medieval surgery text, cautery involved restraining the patient while a burning iron was pushed 13 Fig 1. Hôtel Dieu, Paris, circa 1500. The comparatively well patients (on the right) were into the wound until it reached bone. Alternatively, a boiling separated from the very ill (on the left). mixture of oil and treacle (a medicinal compound) was poured into wounds. Not surprisingly, patients experienced great pain and Problem of vermin in beds. Hospitals were extremely swelling around wound edges.4 unsanitary. Clean sheets were not the norm, and patients were Ground rabbit fur and mummy powder, the ground remains of expected to bring their own blankets and linens with them. In mummies, were the most popular wound dressings, and attempts St. Mary’s Bethlehem hospital in London, a herd of pigs was left at asepsis were crude. Medicine consisted of herbs and various free to root round the facility.15 Mattresses were made of straw, substances given by mouth, by enema, or topically. Typical ingre- and bed coverings were animal furs that were cleaned annually dients requested by pharmacies included snake flesh, laurel berries, at best. These served as traps for all types of vermin, which sheep dung, lye, cow kidney, antimony, alum, and earthworms.13 occupied the beds with patients. Hospital stench: windows. The air in the sick wards was foul, so much so that attendants held vinegar-saturated sponges Hospital infection control in the medieval era over their noses and mouths to combat the odors. Beds in medieval wards usually were placed under windows, which Although knowledge regarding the cause and spread of disease had the disadvantage of extreme cold in winter, but did provide did not come about until the latter half of the 19th century, here we some fresh air and relief from the fetid aromas.7 present a hypothetical Infection Control Committee (ICC) agenda to Policy for corpse removal. The prompt removal of corpses, create a framework to help contemporary infection preventionists which we take for granted, would have been a radical idea at to understand historic problems. This hypothetical medieval ICC that time. Several accounts describe bodies that had been dead agenda might have included the following items: for 24 hours or longer and in a state of rigor mortis occupying a bed with multiple living patients.7,9,14 Review of infections and mortality. A listing of hospital infections would have included many feared diseases, including pneumonic plague, smallpox, tuberculosis (TB), diphtheria, and EARLY MODERN ERA (1500-1800) typhus. The ICC also might have noted a formidable hospital infection rate (90%), clean wound infection rate (80%), and Public health in the early modern era hospitalization-associated death rate (40%-70%), which were typical of the times. Although the plague was no longer a major public health Surveillance denominator: beds or patients? Any good concern, infectious diseases remained the leading cause of death in hospital epidemiologist is concerned with denominator data, Europe and the United States. In 1793, a yellow fever epidemic was but this would be a difficult figure to grasp in the 15th and 16th responsible for the deaths of 10% of the population of Philadelphia, centuries, because in many cases multiple patients occupied as well as 10 of its 80 physicians.16 Smallpox killed 400,000 people a single bed.7,10,14 Accounts describe up to 6 persons in a bed, per year in Europe, and measles killed at least as many people as including a patient with febrile typhus occupying a bed with smallpox. The early 1800s saw massive outbreaks of cholera, a mother in labor and a child next to a patient with TB who was particularly in urban centers.17 One-half to one-third of infected constantly coughing.11 patients died.18 Typhus caused epidemics with a 10% mortality rate; Staffing problems: plague. Hospitals were difficult to staff, typhoid fever and dysentery were other common causes of and in many cases inmates assisted patients. The plague deci- outbreaks. Life expectancy at birth was 19-33 years.19 mated the population, including hospital staff. The position of The only available treatments were purges, emetics, calomel infection control nurse (ICN) would have turned over (a tincture of mercury), opium, quinine, and bloodletting.