Points of View: Inuit Women's Perceptions of Pollution

Christine Egan

Department of Community Health Sciences, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada

Abstract: Inuit women's perceptions of health risks from potential contamination in the arctic food chain were investigated in 1995 through in-depth interviews with 47 women in a Canadian arctic community. This number represents 34% of the eligible participants in the population of the research community. Many of these Inuit women suggest that pollution can appear in a variety of forms, from drug and alcohol consumption to visible air and water contaminants to possible invisible contaminants in arctic wildlife. Concepts of pollution-starting with the individual body and extending to the body politic-are influ­ enced by a complex of sociocultural factors arising from historical and contemporary community life. Keywords: Canada; Inuit; Women's health; Risk perception; Cultural values; Contaminants; Subsistence foods

1 2 It has been well established · that pollut­ concentrations of organochlorines are found in ants from many areas of the world are carried the fatty tissues of beluga, walrus, narwhal, and by the atmosphere and ocean currents and pre­ to a lesser degree in seals. 5 High levels of mer­ cipitated in the arctic environment, where they cury have been found in the meat of beluga are ingested by benthic organisms. There they whales and fish and in the liver of marine mam­ are biomagnified up the food chain finally to be mals; however, it has been noted that there has consumed by humans. Inuit prefer to consume been a decrease in mercury exposure over the Native foods over store-bought foods, and to­ last 10 years. Cadmium is found in high con­ day they still rely on local food resources for centrations in the liver of marine mammals, al­ approximately 50% of their diet. 3 In this study though its main uptake is from cigarette smok­ Inuit women were clearly eager to maintain ing. Investigations into its role in the rise of their current level of Native food consumption blood pressure have not yet indicated a causal in spite of cautions in the local media regarding relationship.6 its safety.4 This paper will illustrate several In spite of these high levels of contaminants points of view offered by these Inuit women being detected in the arctic food chain, at the regarding various contemporary types of pollu­ present time Inuit are not being advised to aban­ tion in their community. don their indigenous foods because definitive Elevated levels of contaminants such as adverse health effects due to long-term inges­ heavy :netais and organochlorines have been tion of detected contaminants have not yet been found in some Inuit as well as in marine and determined. In fact, some researchers believe terrestrial mammals and fish in the Canadian that the current levels of environmental contami­ Arctic. For example, blood levels of polychlo­ nants identified in the Arctic are likely to pose rinated biphenyls (PCBs) in one study were very low health risks.7 Most importantly, the': found to be 6 to l 0 times higher among Inuit in are many recognized health benefits, both physi­ a Northern Quebec community than those mea­ cal and mental, arising from traditional socio­ sured in the gmeral population of Quebec. In cultural practices associated with the pursuit and addition, the mean levels of PCBs in the milk consumption of Native foods; these vital ingre­ fat of breast-feeding Inuit women in Northern dients are the essence of Inuit culture. Quebec were estimated to be five times higher Apart from the superior nutritional quality 8 9 than mean levels found in non-Native women of indigenous Inuit foods, · other benefits .re­ across Quebec. These levels are related to the volving around their consumption relate to ~m­ quantity of Native food consumed; the highest portant cultural values involved in food shanng

550 96 Circumpolar Health as well as in the significance of the hunt. In my tic animals for a long time and, so far. Inuit have study I asked women, "How would you feel if experienced no ill effects. you could not eat Inuit fooHunting activities Qallunaq foods. Some of these chemicals they have already been eroded (with the imposition presume could be cancer-causing agents; and of quotas), resulting in the loss or reduction in cancer was described as the most feared disease. the availability of some foods. Loss of confi­ Among Alaska Natives. cancer is reported as dence in the safety of familiar foods is a prob­ "bewildering"-having its roots in sorrow and lem that many Inuit clearly do not want to face fear. 7 unless it is unavoidable. Only when it becomes In some areas in Northern Canada, social apparent to the people themselves that serious repercussions due to fear of the possibility of choices must be made will they contemplate contaminants in the food chain have already such a loss. been noted. These include disruption in food Among all the Inuit women with whom I exchange networks and changes in nutrition spoke in this community and the 18 I spoke with patterns, confusion regarding possible causes of in a Nunavik village in 1994, it emerged that, in current or new health problems, and anxiety due general, the older women are more in favor of to loss of control over social and health is­ continuing to eat their traditional foods-and sues.11·12 In turn, these consequences may lead hold this view regardless of advice from to the tertiary effects reported by Wheatley8 of s>allunaaq. Many younger women with grow­ violence, suicide, and drug and alcohol abuse. mg children said that they would continue to As explained by Grondin and his colleagues, 11 eat traditional foods themselves, but would not actual risks or perceptions of environmental give it (or would hesitate to give it) to their chil­ health risks add to the burden of current health dren. Some of the youngest mothers, who were and social problems due to all causes and serve breast feeding, said that they would refrain from to reinforce the issue of loss of control. A ho­ eating any traditional foods that could possibly listic examination of the effects of contaminant be contaminated. Many of these youngest discourse must encompass all dimensions of women greatly enjoyed Qallunaq foods, but of health, including feelings of well-being (in its the 47 women in the study, 45 preferred eating broadest sense) and self-identification of cur­ Inuit foods. Some women suggested that PCBs rent concerns in the community. Substance and other contaminants might have been in arc- abuse is already present to an alarming degree in many Northern regions. and this was actu-

96 Circumpolar Health 551 ally the most salient risk identified in my recent they would believe what the scientists said be­ research study. cause they are the experts, and five women said All of the women with whom I conducted that they would probably believe them, if they in-depth interviews reported that drug abuse was could also see evidence of contaminants for the worst problem in the community, a cause of themselves. "Being Inuk we can tell if an ani­ worry for many people, or a dangerous behav­ mal is sick" was a common response to my in­ ior. I was told that drug use was more prevalent quiry concerning the risk of eating a potentially than the drinking of alcohol in this dry commu­ contaminated arctic animal. nity, and everyone felt that the former was the Although not immediately apparent, Native worse of the two evils. Excessive drug use was perceptions of health risks-including those due couched in terms of loss-particularly in los­ to pollution-are culturally grounded in poli­ ing (in the sense of not being able to reach) their tics and economics. Understandings of risks of sons and daughters who frequently use drugs pollution, as well as the distribution of blame, and ignore traditional pursuits or family respon­ are profoundly influenced by lived social expe­ sibilities. There are no detailed statistics for rience and contemporary politics. Perception substance abuse in this community, but a sur­ of risk is not an objective reality, and individu­ vey conducted in 1992 among Nunavik Inuit als tend to transfer the relevant part of their de­ revealed that 43% of the population aged 15 and cision making to the institutions in which they over were current users of illicit drugs. This live. 15 In one study, blatant acceptance of risk figure is more than twice the rate of 18% in this is demonstrated by a Native fishing guide whose same population who admitted to being users blood levels of methylmercury were signifi­ the previous year. 13 The alarming increase in cantly high but who continued to eat "shore drug use in many Northern communities and its lunches of mercury-contaminated fish" because sociocultural consequences is perceived by these his economic survival depended on his continu­ Inuit women as the real pollution problem. In ing as a guide. 10 Besides, if fish (or other local fact, I was told, "Contaminants are the last thing food resources) cannot be eaten, what would we worry about." they be replaced with?16 This question has been Although they do not think it is an issue answered, to a large extent, by Natives provid­ yet in their community, all of the Inuit said that ing accurate information to researchers inquir­ 3 8 they would like more information about con­ ing about changes in food patterns. • Fre­ taminants. In addition, they would like help in quently, indigenous protein sources tend to be managing more urgent, obvious, or threatening14 replaced with less nutritious (and cheaper) store­ problems that they can identify themselves. For bought carbohydrate foods. example, after admitting to an escalating drug The social construction of risk is necessar­ problem in the community, many suggested that ily influenced by the particular cultural context a youth counselor might be beneficial. This type in which the risk is embedded.17 This was of grass-ro!)ts 1ccognition does not require sci­ clearly evident in the Inuit's willingness to take entists with specialized investigative skills. In (what some might consider) a risk, if it were fact, it has been noted that often the broader learned (hypothetically) that some arctic animals social, economic, and psychological factors are were found to have sufficiently high concentra­ not considered in some scientific studies. 14 tions of contaminants to warn against their con­ Most responses to my question asking Inuit sumption. I was informed by many Inuit women women if they thought that most things could that unless they had seen for themselves ape~­ be proven scientifically were in the negative. son becoming sick from eating seals contanu­ Many women told me that if scientists told them nated with PCBs, they would not refrain from that high levels of (invisible) PCBs were dis­ eating seals that were estimated to have a I% covered in arctic animals and advised them that risk or even a 50% risk of being contaminated. they should not continue to eat these food re­ Inquiry into an understanding of pro?a­ sources, they would not believe them unless they bilism by Mary Douglas 15 reveals the inclus!on could see the evidence. Two women said that of three principles: randomness, statistical 1m-

552 96 Circumpolar Health portance, and sampling variability. Probabilis­ to an in-depth interview with an unfamiliar re­ tic principles, however, are heavily culture searcher. In qualitative research methodology. bound, and unfortunately, the Western culture­ it is the subject's interpretation of social reality blind tradition of thinking about judgment and that is being sought 19 and this material is not choice fails to take account of cultural influ­ usually accessible in survey research. Since any ences. Inuit have a long tradition of hunting for environmental monitoring program (as advo­ 7 food and many have experienced hunger; they cated by Middaugh ) should be part of an over­ understand about random events in such an en­ all commitment to help improve the health and vironment. They would disregard inferences well-being of arctic peoples, salient concerns from very small samples (such as a few seals expressed by them should be accorded signifi­ showing high levels of contaminants), as their cance. This can, in part, be achieved by enhanc­ own samples are derived from lifetime experi­ ing the listening skills of researchers and at­ ences. Culturally learned assumptions are in­ tempting to discover the emic perspective. stitutionalized (and thus politicized) and these Gaining trust and respect as a researcher in an institutions become the "decision processors"15 Inuit community is a lengthy process, but the whereby some choices are more favored than validity of results benefits all concerned. others. Cultural theory, as advocated by Mary Douglas, 15 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS is a way of thinking about culture that This research was made possible in part by draws the social environment systemati­ Health Canada through a National Health Re­ cally into the picture of individual choices search Development Program (NHRDP) re­ ... [and] provides a method of analyzing search training grant, and by funding from the public debates as positions taken in a con­ Northern Scientific Training Program. flict between cultures. All of the Inuit I interviewed expressed a REFERENCES desire for contaminant research to continue and 1. Arctic pollution: how much is too much? North­ were willing to cooperate and collaborate. In ern Perspectives. 1990:9:24-27. order to generate an informed decision making 2. Barrie L, Gregor D. Hargrave B, Lake R, Muir process which will integrate Inuit concerns and D, Shearer R. Arctic contaminants: sources. oc­ priorities, community residents must be asked currence and pathways. Science of the Total to help in the development of research proto­ Environment. 1992;122:1-74. cols; their understandings are critical to risk 3. Egan C. Nutritional and sociocultural advan­ management efforts in the Arctic. Solid alli­ tages of consuming traditional foods in an Inuit community. Unpublished master's thesis. ances between researchers and Native groups Hamilton: McMaster University. 1990. are being established in some areas of the Arc­ 4. Bell J. Poison in the land. Nunatsiaq News. tic by the successful integration of traditional 1995;May 19:7. ecological knowledge with data gathered by re­ 5. Dewailly E. Ayotte P. Careau H. Bruneau S. searchers from the fields of health, social sci­ Grondin J. Temporal and spatial trends of hu­ ence. and the environment. 10· 11 man exposure from food chain contaminants in 14 18 Some researchers · report that many Inuit the Canadian Arctic. Arctic Medical Research. are worried about the results of studies concern­ 1994;53(2): 359-363. ing contaminants in the arctic food chain. They 6. Luoma P, Nayha S. Pyy L. Hassi J. Blood cad­ recommend that effective risk communication mium and blood pressure in reindeer herders necessitates the researcher becoming cognizant living in Northern Finland. Arctic Medical Re­ of the local people's perceptions of risk. Many search. 1994:53(2):376-377. of my informants declared that they prefer to be 7. Middaugh J. Implications for human health of Interviewed by someone already known to arctic environmental contamination. Arctic Medical Research. 1994:53(2):378-383. them-someone they could trust. Some admit­ 8. Mackey M. The impact of imported foods on ted that it was more difficult to reveal details to the traditional Inuit diet. A.retie Jfedical Re­ a stranger and, in fact. they might not consent search. 1994:-ni l J: 128-133.

96 Circumpolar Health 553 9. Morehouse K. Alaska Native diet and nutri­ 15. Douglas M. Risk and blame. London: Rout­ tion: an ethnohistoric view. Master's thesis. ledge, 1992. Fairbanks: University of Alaska, 1981. 16. Wheatley M. Aboriginal health and the envi­ 10. Wheatley B. A new approach to assessing the ronment. Arctic Medical Research. 1994;53(2): effects of environmental contaminants on Ab­ 265-267. original peoples. Arctic Medical Research. 17. Fitchen J, Heath J, Fessenden-Raden J. Envi­ 1994;53(2):386-390. ronmental stress. Pages 31-54 in D Stokols and 11. Grondin J, Dewailly E, Bruneau S, Ayotte P. V Covello, eds. The social and cultural con­ Multidisciplinary health research on contami­ struction of risk. New York: Reidel, 1987. nants in the Arctic. Arctic Medical Research. 18. Bruneau S, Grondin J. Development of risk 1994;53(2):367-371. communication activities and research in 12. Freeman M. The nature and utility of traditional Nunavik. Arctic Medical Research. 1994;53(2): ecological knowledge. Northern Perspectives. 356-358. 1992;20( 1):9-12. 19. Silverman D. Interpreting qualitative data. 13. Jette M, ed. Sante Quebec, a health profile of London: Sage, 1994. the Inuit. Montreal: Government of Quebec, 1992. Correspondence: 14. Usher P, Baikie M, Demmer M, Nakashima D, Christine Egan Stevenson M, Stiles M. Communicating ubout Department of Community Health Sciences contaminants in country food: the experience University of Manitoba in Aboriginal communities. Ottawa: Inuit Ta­ 750 Bannatyne Avenue pirisat, 1995. Winnipeg, Manitoba R3E OW3 CANADA

554 96 Circumpolar Health