The Sacred Space of Womanhood: Mothering Across the Generations 1 Mothering…

The Sacred Space of Womanhood Mothering Across the Generations A National Showcase on First Nations, Inuit, and Métis Women and Mothering

NATIONAL COLLABORATING CENTRE CENTRE DE COLLABORATION NATIONALE FOR ABORIGINAL HEALTH DE LA SANTÉ AUTOCHTONE The Sacred Space of Womanhood: Mothering Across the Generations 1 Mothering…

…is fundamental to all beings. …involves nurturing and raising children. …extends far beyond biology and bodies. …is the act and practice of love and the passing on of knowledge. …occurs across multiple times and spaces. …is political. …is life.

1.0 Introduction behavior and establish lifestyle patterns Health Council of Canada, 2011; Ing, that not only determine their children’s 2006; Simpson, 2006). The enforced, large- Mothering involves nurturing and raising future development and capacity for scale removal of Aboriginal children from children. Mothering also includes a health, but shape societies (World Health families and communities, first through complex combination of multifaceted Organization, 2005, p. 7). residential schools then through Child roles and practices that differ between Welfare policies beginning in the 1950s communities and populations of people In Canada, the transmission of language, and continuing today, have fragmented 1 around the globe. The World Health customs, and culture by Aboriginal family relationships and interrupted the Organization report (2005), Make Every women in their role as mothers, transmission of cultural practices across Mother and Child Count, highlights the grandmothers, sisters, aunts, and generations (Anderson, 2011, Ing, 2006). strong connections between mothering daughters has a protective influence on Despite these devastating impacts, the and the health and well-being of children, healthy child development and is a source resiliency of Aboriginal peoples is evident families, communities, and cultures: of strength, resiliency, and transformation in the vital role of women and mothers in (Lavell-Harvard & Lavell, 2006). The Aboriginal societies and in the resurgence Children are the future of society, and transmission of teachings and cultural of traditional and contemporary their mothers are guardians of that practices across generations of women teachings and practices around future. Mothers are much more than has traditionally ensured the strength mothering and child rearing. Strength caregivers and homemakers, undervalued and continuity of Aboriginal societies. to move forward as healthy individuals, as these roles often are. They transmit the However, this transmission has been families and communities is inextricably cultural history of families and deeply disrupted by assimilationist linked to Aboriginal women, mothers, communities along with social norms and colonial policies and interventions in the grandmothers and aunties as the bearers of traditions. Mothers influence early lives of Aboriginal peoples (Cull, 2006; future generations.

1 The term Aboriginal is used to refer to First Nations, Inuit and Métis peoples. These groups are distinct from each other with unique histories, languages and cultures and there is also significant diversity within groups. Due to availability of information, much of the material in this paper relates to First Nations. When possible, Inuit and Métis specific information has been included. 2 Mothering is not limited to relationships ourselves as mothers, models for our 2.0 Contextualizing Aboriginal between a female parent and her biological children how to live as Anishinaabeg Mothering offspring. Mothering, as a relationship and people. I believe the way we mother is the practice, is a social and cultural act that way we inoculate our children against Prior to European contact, Aboriginal occurs between multiple configurations of consumeristic throw-away culture, the women held positions of esteem in people of many generations – individually fear and self-doubt of colonialism, and their communities and were valued for and communally. This is something provide them with the skills, knowledge, their role as life-givers and mothers Indigenous peoples have always known, and courage to bring about this (Bédard, 2006; Cull, 2006; Simpson, celebrating extended families and lauding transformation. Mothering is the way we 2006). Women’s ability to bring life into the wisdom of matriarchs as it applied nurture our children with Indigenous the world was sacred and First Nations and was transmitted to all the younger interpretations of our teachings, and this women were respected as the centre of the generations of a community. Mothering, transformation begins with birth (p. 27). Nation for this reason (Monture-Angus, understood in this way as a complex 1995 in Udel, 2001). Many Aboriginal web of relational practices, was and is Despite the diversity of experiences societies were matrilineal or egalitarian fundamental to life. This is perhaps of Aboriginal motherhood, there is a (Cull, 2006) and “[w]omen were also why mothering has often been so shared reality of being different from the honoured and respected by our nations threatened while simultaneously holding dominant culture: “Aboriginal people for our contributions, for our power and the potential for (re)building the inherent generally, and Aboriginal mothers for our responsibilities as nourishers” strengths in our communities. specifically, are distinguished from other (Simpson, 2006, p. 27). Although in many Canadians by particular legal statuses and Aboriginal societies women contributed Aboriginal mothering is recognized as historical, social, and cultural experiences” heavily to subsistence food gathering, extending beyond the biological act of (Lavell-Harvard and Lavell, 2006, p. 2). child rearing, household work and care giving birth and involving a multitude This experience of being distinct from of elderly, the gendered division of labour of roles and relationships across times, the dominant culture “has a significant was equally valued and flexible (Fiske, spaces and generations. Nevertheless, as impact on our ability to mother as we 1992; Royal Commission on Aboriginal editors of a book on Aboriginal mothering see fit, according to our own values, and Peoples [RCAP], 1996b). Mothering roles Lavell-Harvard and Lavell (2006) traditions” (Ibid, p. 2). were central to women’s social position contend, despite their years of experience and women who “successfully raised their as Aboriginal mothers, articulating This paper provides background and families and provided care and nurturing an adequate definition of “Aboriginal context on Aboriginal mothering for a to the needy became influential as family Mothering” remains difficult. For them, two-day national showcase, The Sacred spokespersons” (Fiske, 1992, p. 202). this is in part because of the challenge of Space of Womanhood: Mothering Across describing the multiplicity of experiences the Generations, hosted by the National With colonization came complex changes of Aboriginal mothers through a non- Collaborating Centre on Aboriginal to women’s roles within Aboriginal Aboriginal language that is inherently Health taking place January 24-25, 2012 communities (Cull, 2006; Fiske, inadequate in capturing Aboriginal in Ottawa, Ontario. The paper begins by 1992; Lavell-Harvard & Lavell, 2006). worldviews and values (Lavell-Harvard contextualizing Aboriginal mothering, Catholicism undermined and eroded & Lavell, 2006). For Bédard (2006), followed by a description of teachings Indigenous women’s healing practices, daughter of an Anishinaabe mother and and practices related to mothering and perceptions of menstrual powers, and French Canadian father, and a scholar, how these have been transmitted across birth rituals (Fiske, 1992). Western painter and craftswoman, “being a generations of women. This section follows patriarchal ideals of motherhood include mother and grandmother is about family, the different stages of becoming and being the ideas that “only biological mothers spirituality, and relationships” (p. 74), and a mother including: family planning, can properly care for children; mothering Anishinaabe mothering and motherhood pregnancy, birth, caring for infants, and is a 24 hour a day, seven days a week “includes concepts of lifegiving, parenting children. This is followed by a commitment; a child’s needs come before fostering, adoption, raising-up, aunties, brief overview of some of the issues facing the mother’s; (and) mothers must rely on and grannies” (p. 67). Simpson (2006) Aboriginal mothers today, including the experts for advice…” (Gosselin, 2006, articulates the wide reaching impact that decisions about early childhood programs p. 198). This ideal is unattainable for most mothering can have on children’s identity and their utility to mothering. The paper caucasian, middle-class, heterosexual and their ability to resist the influences of concludes with some considerations and women; those who do not fit these western culture when she says that: strategies for building on community socionormative parameters find their strengths to support Aboriginal mothering [T]he way we mother is incredibly mothering under additional and constant in contemporary society. important, because the way we conduct scrutiny and regulation (Gosselin, 2006,

The Sacred Space of Womanhood: Mothering Across the Generations 3 Cull, 2006). These values and ideals experiences of poverty, mental health a sacred purpose. It is inherent in and give little credence to the historical issues, addictions, and domestic violence connected to all of nature, to its creatures context of Aboriginal motherhood and (Health Council of Canada, 2011). and to human existence” (p. 14). The particularly its importance to passing on For those who experienced trauma in sacredness of knowledge and its relation knowledge to future generations. Today, residential schools, their ability to show to all of nature is echoed in the Royal Aboriginal mothering occurs within a affection and to nurture, both critical Commission on Aboriginal Peoples context of historic and ongoing colonial aspects of mothering, was deeply impacted [RCAP] (1996a) report: policies and practices, is under scrutiny (Ing, 2006). The removal of children Children in Aboriginal cultures are by a patriarchal and racialized society from their homes and communities by prepared from birth to learn and respect with particular values and ideals about the child protection system and their teachings about spiritual reality and the “good” motherhood and mothering, and placement in primarily non-Aboriginal responsibilities of human beings to includes a combination of traditional and homes began in the 1950s and continues maintain the order of the universe. The contemporary influences. today. This process has been described as obligation of human beings to adapt to the “so extreme that it has been identified as natural order is put into perspective by the an act of ‘cultural genocide,’ as defined by observation that human beings were the international law” (Cull, 2006, p. 144). Prior to European contact, last to emerge in the order of creation and Despite the resistance by Aboriginal they are the most dependent of all people to the removal of their children, Aboriginal women held creatures on the sacrifice of plant and the “esteemed bond between Aboriginal animal life for their survival. […] The mothers and their children has been positions of esteem in their obligation to reflect on their responsibilities under attack for over five generations, is reinforced in stories […] (p. 602). communities and were the cumulative effects of which are largely non-quantifiable but undeniably Mothers, along with other family and devastating and unjust” (Cull, 2006, valued for their role as life- community members, play a key role p. 144). One of the results has been in perpetuating this relational way of to interrupt “the socialization process givers and mothers. being by accepting responsibility to teach involved with exposing children and their children knowledge that has been youth to Aboriginal parenting practices” passed intact through the generations, Teachings passed from generation to (Ibid, p. 144). Rebuilding knowledge of knowledge that ensures balance and generation prepared girls to grow into language and traditions, pride in culture, harmony. Children are inculcated with the mothers. However, colonial policies and self-determination are of critical responsibility to learn. and interventions have deeply disrupted importance to individual and community this intergenerational transmission of health. An important part of this involves Many believe that knowledge is knowledge (Cull, 2006; Health Council “moving forward by building on traditions embedded, transmitted and created in of Canada, 2011; Simpson, 2006). that kept our people healthy in the past language (Battiste, 2002; Gardner, 2000; Residential schools deprived generations […] that once ensured gender equity, Williamson, 2000). Witherspoon (1977) of Aboriginal children of their family, recognized the sanctity of women and argues that, “this world was transformed community, culture, language and children and protected against abuse” from knowledge, organized in thought, traditional parenting role models (Cull, (Anderson, 2006, p. 23). Taken together patterned in language and realized in 2006; Health Council of Canada, 2011; these ideas suggest that mothering is speech […] language is not a mirror of Ing, 2006). With the replacement of fundamental to the transmission of reality; reality is a mirror of language” traditional family life by institutional knowledge and the health and strength of (p. 175). This power of language with experiences that were often characterized communities. its connection to the past and its role as by harsh punishment and outright repository and transmitter of Indigenous physical, psychological and sexual abuse, 3.0 Transmission of Knowledge: knowledge is enhanced in the act of children grew up to struggle with their speaking. Orality is a concept that includes role as mothers and parents (Health Mothering Across the processes such as storytelling, ceremonies Council of Canada, 2011). Children Generations including dances and songs, and symbols who were abused and shamed for their like the medicine wheel and sacred tree. Aboriginal identity and culture in One cannot discuss knowledge It is in these processes that knowledge residential schools often become parents transmission without first discussing exists and emerges. Stories, ceremonies, who had difficulty forming healthy knowledge. Battiste (2002) writes that symbols, rituals and protocols embedded relationships with their partners and “knowledge is not secular. It is a process in a context of language and orality have children, which frequently resulted in derived from creation and as such, it has persevered through time to today.

4 Aboriginal knowledge systems are the the community. Historians have noted Interviews with Métis midwives, health foundations upon which cultures are that nineteenth-century Cree women professionals, Elders and parents revealed built. The passing on of knowledge is at of the Prairies usually had four children the importance of young people planning the heart of cultural survival in the same while mixed-race families usually had pregnancies (Métis Centre of National way mothers are at the center of children’s eight to twelve, increasing in the mid- Aboriginal Health Organization healthy development and the building of nineteenth century with the end of the [NAHO], 2010). A quote by one nations. Traditional teaching and learning buffalo hunt years and the onset of more participant highlights the need to be ready methods were congruent with Aboriginal sedentary lifestyles (Anderson, 2011). A for the challenges of motherhood and the knowledge systems. For example, Métis woman quoted in Anderson (2011) need to be prepared: traditionally, roles and responsibilities as remembers that “the old women I have Young women need to really think about future mothers were taught to Aboriginal known said that ‘long ago’ we never had whether they’re prepared to look after this girls from an early age by other women more children than we could grab and run child, and how they’re going to educate through stories, observation, games and with if there was a battle” (p. 41). There is and bring this child up. It’s very difficult ceremony. Grandmothers and Elders evidence that family planning medicines to be a parent anyway, you know, whether told their life stories and young women (fertility medicines, contraceptives and you’re prepared [or not]. You don’t want were encouraged to share their stories abortifacients) were historically used by to get caught up in this responsibility and too, which prepared children for their Indigenous women to ensure the survival not be prepared. (Métis Centre of future and to be the teachers of the next of the people (Ibid.). Additionally, young NAHO, 2010, p.10). generation (Greenwood, Gottfriedsen, women were taught self-respect in relation & Marchand, 1995). By observing Elders to fertility as captured in the words of an Today, in the context of declining rates of and other family members, girls learned Elder quoted in Greenwood, Gottfriedsen teen pregnancy across Canada, the fertility the skills they would need as women, for and Marchand (1995): of First Nations teenage girls is seven example picking berries, weaving baskets, Young women were taught many things. times higher than that of other Canadian keeping house and caring for children The most important thing they were teenagers (Guimond & Robitaille, (Ibid.). Girls were trained from childhood taught was to have pride in their bodies 2008) and Nunavut has the highest teen for their role as a mother through games and to be proud to be a woman. They pregnancy rate in Canada (although these such as playing with dolls (Ibid.). were taught to respect their bodies, numbers do not distinguish between because their bodies were the “givers of Inuit and non-Inuit) (Archibald, 2004). These traditional practices were abruptly life” [...]. These things were taught to Teen pregnancy is a complex issue and interrupted by the colonial experience. them about the time they were becoming there are many inter-related influences In this disruption role models were young women, when their bodies were which may include limited access to distorted, new knowledge was inserted, beginning to change. (p. 22). relevant information, contraception and and the natural order of being changed. other health resources (Aboriginal Sexual As identified in the previous section, Health, n.d.), as well as substance use and emphasis on rebuilding knowledge sexual abuse/exploitation (Archibald, of language and traditional processes, Rebuilding knowledge of 2004). Generally, early motherhood including the support of Aboriginal increases an Aboriginal woman’s mothers and children, becomes paramount language and traditions, vulnerability and risk for multiple social in ensuring the health and well-being disadvantages and therefore has impacts of individuals and nations. Yet despite pride in culture, and self- on children and communities (Guimond these devastating changes, women’s ways & Robitaille, 2008). It is important to of knowing, traditions, and ceremonies determination are of critical recognize, however, that teen pregnancy related to mothering continue today itself is not a problem as much as the and are used to teach women and girls importance to individual surrounding circumstances, for example, their responsibilities as women (Bédard, poverty, single parenthood, dropping out 2006). What follows in this section is a and community health. of school, depression, and lack of social description of key stages of becoming support (Archibald, 2004). Authors Big and being a mother with an emphasis on Later rising birth rates seem to be Eagle and Guimond (2009) identify traditional teachings and practices. connected with the adoption of reproductive and sexual health in First Christianity and more sedentary lifestyles. Nations communities as “fundamental to 3.1 Family Planning and Fertility However, many Aboriginal societies restoring balance between First Nation Traditionally, Aboriginal women exercised have held on to knowledge of family men and women and further improving various family planning practices to planning well into the twentieth century the well-being of all” (p. 60). support the well-being and survival of (Anderson, 2011).

The Sacred Space of Womanhood: Mothering Across the Generations 5 3.2 Celebrating Pregnancy what she sees, feels, does, thinks, and hears During pregnancy, mothering involves (Goforth, 2003), for example: healthy choices to ensure that infants have In many Aboriginal Once the old people knew the young the best start in life. This was the case for Mother was pregnant, she was given the traditional Aboriginal societies, just as it cultures, women were most attention – loving, caring attention. is the case in contemporary Aboriginal She wasn’t allowed to see anything that communities. Pregnancy in Aboriginal taught to take care of was unpleasant, like spilled blood, a communities was accompanied by smashed finger, whatever. She wasn’t their mental, emotional celebration and ceremony in preparation allowed to go to a funeral where there was for new community members. A a lot of crying. She was only allowed to see and spiritual selves along Saulteaux Elder describes how in the nice things, like singing and dancing. The past, the whole community celebrated old people strongly believed that whatever with their physical state pregnancy: happened to the young Mother also Everybody knew about it. Everybody happened to her unborn child (Woman during pregnancy. wanted to be part and parcel of that child Elder’s words in Greenwood, Gottfriedsen, within that womb. [The child] had to & Marchand, 1995, p. 22-3). Aboriginal Health Organization have a sense of belonging through the [NAHO], 2008). Eating right and staying mother, and the woman had to have a Eating well and staying physically active active during pregnancy was thought to sense of pride because she was contributing were also common practices for pregnant promote the natural process of a healthy to the life of the community. She was women. Anderson (2011) spoke with childbirth as described in the following bringing in new life, and she was treated Hudson Bay Cree Elders who talked Elder’s words: special (Anderson, 2011, p. 43). about encouraging pregnant women to be active and how rising early during It is said child birth is like a flowing river, Pregnant women were considered pregnancy prepared a new mother for it is so beautiful and easy when the time medicinal women because of the new her work ahead. Although remaining comes if you look after yourself and your life they carried and were honoured as a physically active during pregnancy was baby…Eating right is very important… bridge between the spirit life and life on encouraged, it was also important that Your body’s whole universe will react if earth (Anderson, 2011; Simpson, 2006). this was in moderation, as captured in the you keep putting bad foods into it Traditional Métis views of pregnancy following quote: (Woman Elder’s words in Greenwood, were that it was a sacred time and a time Gottfriedsen, & Marchand, 1995, p. 23). The main thing in the family circle is to of reflection (Métis Centre of NAHO, have strong, healthy children so she was 2010). The baby’s spirit was thought In addition to taking care of one’s mental, careful about what she ate, and about the to choose its parents and would wait emotional and physical selves during exercise she got. She drank a lot of good sometimes for many lifetimes before pregnancy, ceremonial practices addressed medicines, a lot of broth and she did not entering into the world (Métis Centre the spiritual side of new life. An older overdo herself (Woman Elder’s words in of NAHO, 2010). Community support, ceremonial practice described in Anderson Greenwood, Gottfriedsen, & Marchand, particularly from other women sharing (2011) depicts the multiple roles of 1995, p. 22-3). the “knowledge that women have over women in a new mother’s pregnancy: the generations,” was an important aspect Anderson (2011) describes a long list of of prenatal care in Métis societies (Métis With the first movement of the baby, my food “taboos and prescriptions” and their Centre of NAHO, 2010, p. 10). mother-in-law said that’s when the consequences that were documented by an midwife used to get an old lady who was a anthropologist, Inez Hilger, in Chippewa In many Aboriginal cultures, women little pipe carrier and two other elderly Child Life and Its Cultural Background. were taught to take care of their mental, ladies; four of them. They would take the According to Hilger’s observations, emotional and spiritual selves along with girl out to a clean place. They used to put both father and mother must follow the their physical state during pregnancy her on the ground, just her and the prescriptions or the physical state and/or (Anderson, 2006). Many cultural ground; mother earth, so that she’s personality of the baby would be affected teachings describe how a woman should touching nature. And there, two old (Anderson, 2011). Similarly, pregnant be in good physical and mental health ladies would sit on one side and the other Inuit women observed particular food before she conceives, and that she should ones on the other side. “And then,” [my practices and increased their intake of give up bad habits because the unborn mother-in-law] said, “they used to smoke caribou, char, muktuk, and seal while child is affected not only by the physical their little pipe, and then pray, meditate reducing intake of berries and abstaining environment of the woman, but also by and then talk to the mother. Then after from eating any aged food (National that they would put their hands on the

6 mother’s stomach. It was a bare tummy, recruitment and retention of health In many First Nations societies, birthing they used to put their hands there and care practitioners in Canada’s rural and was a woman-centred process while in pray for the mother and the baby. That’s remote communities (NAHO, 2008; others, family and community members the time they spoke to the baby (p. 43-44). Lalonde, Butt, & Bucio, 2009). Aboriginal of both genders played important roles midwifery initiatives are beginning to (NAHO, 2008). Sometimes this depended Pregnancy protocols focused on address some of these issues by providing on who was available and if there were any protecting and enhancing the emotional, culturally appropriate maternal care and perceived problems during labour (Ibid.). spiritual, mental and physical health facilitating births within communities (see There was a time when all communities of the mother and child (Ibid.). The NAHO, 2008 for an overview of current had a midwife who assisted with the vigilance practiced by pregnant women initiatives). ceremonial and physical aspects of birth was believed to be part of the training and and passed down these skills through the discipline that would support both her 3.3 Reclaiming Childbirth generations (Ibid.). Some First Nations and her baby in living a long and healthy Birth is a sacred event in Aboriginal women gave birth alone or with the help life (Ibid.). cultures, as it is in most cultures around of only their husband out of necessity, like the world. Newborns are welcomed with the nomadic Cree, for example, if they Today, many Aboriginal women much celebration and wonder and have were out on a trap line when labour began experience challenges accessing prenatal a transformative impact on the woman (NAHO, 2008; Anderson, 2011). Men care. This is in part due to the troubled giving birth, as well as the family and helped their wives give birth in some Inuit history of colonialism, racism and cultural community as a whole (Lalonde, Butt, societies as well, assisted by women called insensitivity within the Western medical & Bucio, 2009), as exemplified in the Sanaji (in some Inuktitut dialects) who system (Browne & Fiske, 2001; de Leeuw following words of Mohawk midwife were the first to touch the baby and also et al., forthcoming). The disruption of Katsi Cook: bestowed skills and characteristics on the intergenerational knowledge transmission newborn (NAHO, 2008). In contrast, in Our bodies as women are the first related to maternal health has increased the Mittimatalik (Pond Inlet) area, Inuit environment of the baby coming, and the reliance on Western medical practitioners; women traditionally gave birth alone in responsibility of that is such that we need however many Aboriginal communities, their dwellings, monitored and guided by to reawaken our women to the power that particularly those in rural and remote instructions given from people outside is inherent in that transformative process areas, do not have access to consistent (Ibid.). Miq’kmaq women gave birth in that birth should be (quoted in Anderson, and culturally appropriate care (NAHO, specially constructed tents removed from 2006, p. 25). 2008). There are ongoing problems with

The Sacred Space of Womanhood: Mothering Across the Generations 7 the community and in good weather, in the midwife would stay with the family negative impact on the health of mother the open air of the forest (Ibid.). for a time prior to and after the birth and infant, and affects women’s adaptation to attend to the mother (Ibid.). Often to motherhood (Lalonde, Butt & Bucio, Ceremony played a role in the sacred women from the community provided 2009). Another result is that young event of childbirth. For example, some assistance during the postpartum period, women are not exposed to childbirth traditional Métis ceremonial practices especially with more demanding work like and the stories told about birth are now used during birth and labour included cleaning and laundry (Ibid.). Midwives focused on the experience of birthing in having a drummer, holding a smudging would often make regular visits to new medical settings surrounded by strangers ceremony before and after the birth, and mothers to make sure that mother and (Archibald, 2004). This has an effect of giving the new baby a cedar bath (Métis baby were healthy and that breastfeeding removing pregnancy and childbirth from Centre of NAHO, 2010). A Métis Elder was going well (Ibid.). the “constellation of issues falling within attending one woman’s birth offered women’s traditional knowledge base” prayers and gave the newborn a welcoming (Ibid., p. 7). ceremony by placing a rock in the infant’s hand to “ground them so that they would Ceremony played a role To address this situation, Aboriginal feel safe here” (Métis Centre of NAHO, in the sacred event of midwifery training programs have been 2010, p. 14). Birth ceremonies in Inuit established in some provinces, including societies included “a specific blessing childbirth. Ontario, British Columbia and Manitoba, or wish for life” given to the child by a that combine traditional practices with person who attended the birth and “was technical knowledge (Lalonde, Butt & accompanied by an amulet or small token Today, many urban Aboriginal families are Bucio, 2009). Some communities now that was sewn into the child’s various not able to access culturally appropriate have birthing centres that allow women parkas throughout life and retained as a maternal health care. For example, to stay in their communities for the birth special keepsake” (National Collaborating interviews with Mi’kmaq women about of their babies, for example the Rankin Centre for Aboriginal Health [NCCAH], their childbirth experiences with non- Inlet Birthing Centre (Lalonde, Butt & 2010a, p. 2). For Aboriginal families, Aboriginal health care professionals at Bucio, 2009). Other health centres are creating a bond between the new mother a tertiary care centre 45 minutes from successfully incorporating Aboriginal and infant was an important part of their community revealed themes of traditions and ceremonies into health childbirth and Elders played a role in feeling misunderstood, undermined, and care, for example: Sioux Lookout Meno facilitating this, as described in the disrespected (Whitty-Rogers, Etowa & Ya Win Health Centre, serving the people following quote: Evans, 2006). For remote communities, in 28 First Nations communities and it has become routine to evacuate four municipalities in northern Ontario; When a young Mother was ready to give Aboriginal women to urban centres at All Nations’ Healing Hospital in Fort birth, the old people knew about it. They week 36 of pregnancy where the facilities Qu’Appelle, Saskatchewan; and Yukon’s would prepare to help create the bond are available to provide a safe birth for Whitehorse General Hospital. between Mother and child. When a mothers and newborns (Lalonde, Butt young Mother had her baby the first thing & Bucio, 2009). This is in stark contrast 3.4 Nurturing Babies they did was to put the baby on the to how births used to take place in many Within some Aboriginal worldviews, Mother’s stomach and she massaged the Aboriginal communities surrounded by children are a gift on loan from the baby. That was creating the bond between midwives, family and community. For Creator, not owned by the parents Mother and child. After that they cleaned the Inuit and other remote Aboriginal (Goforth, 2003; Simpson, 2006). Many the baby and gave her back to her Mother communities, medical professionals Aboriginal societies perceived children (Woman Elder’s words in Greenwood, have taken over the role that family to arrive in the world in perfect harmony Gottfriedsen, & Marchand, 1995, p. 24). and community members used to have and embody innate wisdom because they in childbirth and the vast majority of had close ties to the spirit world (Ibid.). Postnatal care often included traditional births occur outside of communities An example of the close connection medicines such as tonics to rebuild the (Archibald, 2004). When women are infants had with the spirit world is mother’s strength (Anderson, 2011) or evacuated, fathers, grandfathers and reflected in the Inuit belief that the spirit broths to stimulate lactation, as with the extended families are prevented from of deceased Elders re-enter the world Anishnaabe (NAHO, 2008). Some women sharing in the birth of babies which has through newborns, who then embody went back to work soon after giving birth, a negative impact on bonding from the characteristics of that person (NAHO, while others were told it was best to stay in start (NAHO, 2008). The stress and 2008; NCCAH, 2010a). Because of these bed for the first six weeks and be cared for isolation that women experience with perspectives, Aboriginal parents treated by relatives (Anderson, 2011). Sometimes separation from social supports has a their children with great respect and

8 consideration (Goforth, 2003; NAHO, the baby an excuse not to go if a spirit the breast was thought to transfer from 2008; NCCAH, 2010a). Aboriginal should come to take them. Some Cree tie a the mother “all the things she has learned, children were not considered helpless black string around the infant’s wrist to and all her good thoughts […] into the and in need of control, but rather as ward off malevolent spirits, or set a small system of the baby” (Morey & Gilliam, independent spiritual beings with much to stick beside the sleeping infant so they can 1974 quoted in Goforth, 2003, p. 17). In teach their parents (Simpson, 2006). defend themselves. The soft spot is also a earlier times, some Aboriginal societies significant reminder of the baby’s breast-fed children until at least two years In older times, the “concern over the borderline status. Algonquian and old and sometimes until they were four fragility of new life” motivated the Haudenosaunee peoples say that this or five (Anderson,2011 ). For example, creation of many protocols and customs opening on the baby’s head represents breastfeeding was the norm for Inuit and to protect the new baby (Anderson, openness to the spirit world. The baby is children were often breastfed beyond their 2011, p. 56). Care for newborns began still connected to that world until that soft toddler years (NCCAH, 2010b). with ceremonies and customs related to spot closes (Anderson, 2006, p. 21). the treatment of placentas and umbilical cords (See Anderson, 2011, p. 50-52; Physical care of infants included many Many Aboriginal societies Métis Centre of NAHO, 2010, p. 13). The different practices with a theme of placenta was considered sacred and carried providing a sense of security and comfort perceived children to arrive life while the umbilical cord signified through swaddling and close contact the connection between the child, her with the mother (Ibid.). Moss bags and in the world in perfect relations and the earth (Anderson, 2011; cradleboards were methods traditionally Métis Centre of NAHO, 2010). The used by First Nations and Métis mothers harmony and embody period immediately after birth was filled that allowed babies to be kept close and with ceremonies and celebrations. Elders secure and helped foster a bond between innate wisdom because had an important role in connecting with mother and child, as described in the the new life from the start (Anderson, following quote from an Elder: they had close ties to the 2011). An important responsibility of In the Secwepemc culture the Mother had Elders was to give a “spirit name” to spirit world.. a basket prepared for the child. It was a the baby, which was considered both big birch bark cradle basket with laces. sacred and significant (Ibid.). Naming 3.5 Raising Our Children The mother wrapped her baby, put her in was thought to establish “a connection Traditional Aboriginal parenting was the cradle and laced her in. The baby between [E]lders and infants; those characterized by patience, kindness and could not move at will. The baby would who were closest to the doorways of the lecturing (Goforth, 2003). Children cry for two or three days, because she spirit world in terms of coming into this learned by observation, so modeling didn’t want to be disciplined. That is how world and preparing to leave it” (Ibid., p. behaviours and skills by adults and older we taught self-discipline right from day 54). For Métis societies, Elders were also children were central to traditional one in the birch bark cradle. Eventually involved in naming babies which included childrearing (Ibid.). However, approaches the little baby learned that it had to be recognizing the “sacred vibration” that were diverse across Aboriginal societies; bound in the cradle, because as soon the babies are born with and giving them gifts for example, Inuit teach their children Mother could get up she had to take part that will “walk with them” through life based on their perceived aptitudes, in the family’s survival, picking berries, (Métis Centre of NAHO, 2010, p. 14). interests, learning styles and the needs of gathering foods, tanning hides. She Many traditional parenting customs the group and in this way, training is not packed her baby around in the birch bark related to protecting the spirit of the necessarily gender specific (NCCAH, cradle; everywhere she went her baby was infant, some of which continue to be 2010a). Inuit girls might become respected with her. When you care for a child like practiced today, for example: hunters and boys could do housework this, the child automatically becomes and sewing (roles that are not gender It is deemed particularly dangerous to obedient and loving towards its parents. norms in Euro-western cultures) (Ibid.). take the newborn into environments The child knows it’s loved and protected Traditional values taught to Aboriginal where she or he might come into contact (Woman Elder’s words in Greenwood, children related to self-discipline, doing with negative energy, or where there may Gottfriedsen, & Marchand, 1995, p. 24). for others, valuing, respect, and sharing be spirits waiting to take the baby back. (Greenwood, Gottfriedsen, & Marchand, This is why babies do not attend wakes. Breastfeeding was an important part 1995). One young Aboriginal mother Some Aboriginal peoples put holes in a of infant care for nutrition and for describes how she teaches her daughter the newborn’s moccasins as a protective establishing a bond between mother and value of respect the way her grandmother measure. Western Cree say that this gives infant (Anderson, 2011). Feeding from taught her:

The Sacred Space of Womanhood: Mothering Across the Generations 9 I talk to my daughter about caring and Childhood and youth involved both member of the community and took place kindness towards her friends. I say, “If you play and work in preparation for adult around the time babies took their first act in this way how do you think your responsibilities. The principles of steps. The practice symbolized the roles friends are going to feel?” I always try to independence and interdependence were they would find themselves fulfilling later teach her empathy so that she becomes fostered during this time, and children in life. Flannery described in a 1962 article respectful of other people. I learned these were given a lot of freedom while also how the James Bay Cree communities values from my [g]randmother. She used maintaining responsibilities to family and celebrated the first steps of a little girl: to ask us the same kind of questions. community (Anderson, 2011). Children When the first walking-out ceremony was (Young Mother’s words in Greenwood, learned the natural consequences of for a little girl, she was equipped with a Gottfriedsen, & Marchand, 1995, p. 16). their actions under the careful watch miniature wooden kettle-hook and axe. of caring adults (Simpson, 2006). In She walks towards a pack of firewood in Aboriginal cultures, it was important which there was a small amount of meat. for children to learn self-discipline as The practices of Aboriginal Brought this to the oldest woman, who well as independence and autonomy, took the pack from her back and the wood because some circumstances required it, mothering today are was used to cook the meat. The meat was for example if enemies might be nearby then given to the oldest man who put a children had to keep quiet and still undertaken in a context bit in the fire with a short informal prayer (Anderson, 2011). Chippewa women that the child may have a long life…then never allowed a baby to cry for this reason, of colonization and its meat from the feast is distributed, the old and children were taught to stay quiet in man eating first and rubbing grease on many destructive effects, but the evenings with a “game of silence” in the child’s head (Flannery, 1962 in which the child with the most self-control Anderson, 2011, p. 62-63). also within a resurgence won a prize” (Ibid.). In contrast to traditional Aboriginal of cultural teachings and Celebrating life transitions was common mothering, Aboriginal motherhood in Aboriginal communities. A once today is under “the pervasive, critical empowerment for many widespread ceremony to celebrate glare of the state” (Cull, 2006, p. 141). children’s transition from infancy to The negative stereotype of Aboriginal Aboriginal people, families toddlerhood was known as “walking- mothers constructed by the dominant out” (Ibid.). This ceremony marked the society portrays them as inherently “unfit” and communities. beginning of a child as a contributing

10 instead of as women who, for the most and communities. Remembering and part, “successfully manage motherhood recovering traditional ways of knowing against enormous odds” (Ibid., p. 141). and being occurs alongside and within Bridging worlds involves a Anderson (2011) notes that the contemporary Western society. Aboriginal “[d]ifferences between Indigenous mothering must bridge these two worlds re-centering on history and childrearing techniques and European to help their children find a balance. In the approaches were so profound that, two words of a Shuswap Elder: traditions so that living in and a half centuries after the Jesuits first […] we cannot live in the past, history the dominant society does made their observations, Euro-western moves forward. We move forward but we observers continued to express both take with us the beliefs and values of the not disrupt connections curiosity and judgement on this matter” past. These are the beliefs and values of (p. 66-67). This may be reflected in the our people, that our people lived by with cultural identity. overrepresentation of Aboriginal children (quoted in Greenwood, Gottfriedsen, & in out-of-home care (foster care, group Marchand, 1995). care, and institutional care) (Trocmé, N., In contemporary society, families are Knoke, D., & Blackstock, C., 2004). The more geographically dispersed as some Through reconnecting with cultural most common form of child maltreatment members leave their communities and practices and teachings, Aboriginal for Aboriginal children reported to move to urban areas for employment mothers have a powerful role to play in protection agencies in Canada is neglect, and educational opportunities as well as moving towards wellness and healing. for which poverty, substance misuse and a better quality of life (Ibid.). This has Both traditional parenting programs and poor housing are key contributing factors shifted the traditional family network of early childhood programs have a role to (Roy, Black, Trocmé, MacLaurin, & care and support to a greater focus on the play in supporting Aboriginal mothers and Fallon, 2005). Child protection agencies nuclear family structure. Unfortunately, the wellness of families and communities. measure and judge Aboriginal women by extended families may no longer be the the standards of a dominant, caucasian, source of strength and support they 4.1 Bridging Two Worlds middle-class, nuclear family ideal once were (Ibid.). This reality impacts Aboriginal people living in a larger society (Cull, 2006). A mother’s vulnerability the transmission of knowledge from have learned to adapt by taking the best of to state observation and intervention generation to generation. However, both worlds and using a combination of increases the more she deviates from making connections between knowledge traditional and contemporary parenting that norm (Ibid.). To understand the holders and those seeking connection practices (Goforth, 2003). significance of the entrenched negative with their culture will help to bridge that stereotype of Aboriginal mothers, one gap (Métis Centre of NAHO, 2010). In the words of a Sto:Lo Elder, “In order needs to put collective experiences Simpson (2006) reaffirms the importance for a person to survive, especially in of Aboriginal women into historical of connecting with older generations to these young peoples’ day and age, they context: “the legacies of the Indian Act learn traditional teachings: have to learn to put the two together of 1876, assimilation initiatives, the and be successful in doing it” (quoted in Our grandmothers tell us that the residential school system, the eugenics Greenwood, Gottfriedsen, & Marchand, answers lie within our own cultures, ways movement, landmark legal decisions, 1995, p. 5). For children to be strong in of knowing and being, and in our and child protection policies have all the larger society, a strong sense of identity languages. When I listen to them talk served to nurture and sustain the negative and self-worth is required, which as about pregnancy, childbirth, and stereotype of Aboriginal mothers” Goforth (2003) explains in the following mothering, I hear revolutionary teachings (Ibid., p. 141). Yet in contemporary quote, is rooted in traditional beliefs and with the potential to bring about radical realities, this is beginning to change. accompanied by contemporary skills: changes in our families, communities, and nations (p. 26). 4.0 Contemporary Context of As a community we must get back to the Aboriginal Mothering spiritual orientation and encourage Bridging worlds involves a re-centering healing ceremonies, rituals and rites of on history and traditions so that living passage for youth. We need to make a The practices of Aboriginal mothering in the dominant society does not disrupt connection between our children and today are undertaken in a context of connections with cultural identity. Elders. We need to use our traditional colonization and its many destructive beliefs wherever we can, but also use effects, but also within a resurgence of 4.2 Striving for Wellness contemporary skills, which will assist our cultural teachings and empowerment Many Aboriginal families and children to be successful in the for many Aboriginal people, families communities are striving for optimal mainstream society (p. 19). health and well-being, which involves the

The Sacred Space of Womanhood: Mothering Across the Generations 11 process of reclaiming and reconstructing to their clan, bloodlines and community daughter differently?” …Since I had traditional mothering practices. As (Ibid.). Greenwood, Gottfriedsen, Carrie, I have done a lot of personal Goforth (2003) states, “I believe that and Marchand (1995) found in their growth, a lot of teaching myself about bringing forward the knowledge of the interviews of Aboriginal young mothers spirituality, raising children and living past will assist Aboriginal families of that they placed a high value on finding healthier. I surround myself with people today to achieve a path towards healing. their identity by learning their Aboriginal who care about me, people who love me Our ancestors displayed great wisdom culture and sharing it with their children, and people who support me. Seeing Carrie in preparing the individual for life” for example: grow differently than how I was raised is (p. 17). For example, there is a movement my reward. (Young mother’s words in Up until two years ago I had no idea what underway by Inuit Elders in Nunavut to Greenwood, Gottfriedsen, & Marchand, being an Indian meant. I had no identity. return to Inuit cultural values and beliefs 1995, p. 11-12) I would like to make sure Matt has an in childrearing practices (NCCAH, identity. I want Matt to know his culture 2010b). They advocate a return to 4.3. Traditional Parenting Programs even if he doesn’t have a status card. I am “inunnguiniq: caring for children in ways Aboriginal mothering today can involve learning about my culture through a that will build their cultural strengths and bridging contemporary and traditional youth group where we learn crafts like sense of belonging and personal direction” worlds and re-discovering and reclaiming basket making and beading. I know a (NCCAH, 2010b, p. 7). In many cases cultural teachings in support of healthy little Okanagan and as time goes on I will for Aboriginal people, the re-discovery of children, families and communities. These learn more. I want to teach Matt these cultural teachings takes effort because the can be challenging tasks when formerly things and take him to pow-wows so he transmission of knowledge has been so cohesive community structures are often can learn about his culture. He won’t be disrupted by colonial interventions, as a geographically dispersed and perhaps lost like I was. (Young mother’s words in Saulteaux Elder describes in the following not the supportive networks they once Greenwood, Gottfriedsen, & Marchand, passage: were. The disruption of intergenerational 1995, p. 12). teachings leaves many contemporary We never had any doubt that women were Aboriginal mothers seeking cultural the centre and core of our community and Many Aboriginal families may not be knowledge in which to ground their our nation. No nation ever existed ready to apply traditional childrearing mothering practices. Traditional without the fortitude of our grandmothers, practices because they are facing parenting programs have begun to and all of those teachings have to be significant barriers to meeting their basic address some of the gaps that exist. For somehow recovered. And it will be up to needs or are perhaps struggling with example, Métis Family Services of Surrey, these young people […] young women that mental health and substance use issues as BC provides a Personal Healing and are just digging up and going around – a result of intergenerational traumas from Parenting Program that shares parenting they’ve got to dig up the medicines, to heal colonial interventions (Goforth, 2003). histories of Elders, mothers and fathers, the people. And the medicines, in this case, Others are able to use the opportunity and builds self-esteem, spiritual growth, are the teachings. They’ve got to dig them of being a parent to grow and heal from and traditional parenting skills (Métis up! You’ve got to find them (quoted in difficult childhood experiences. One Family Services, n.d.). Kla-how-eya Anderson, 2011, p. 3). young Aboriginal mother describes how Aboriginal Centre of Surrey Aboriginal she views her responsibility to overcome Cultural Society [SACS] also in Surrey, In some circumstances, practices and the challenges she faced in childhood BC, provides an Aboriginal Parenting ceremonies have been renewed or to provide a different experience for her Program that includes therapy and parent even re-invented for contemporary daughter: skill development for individuals, families life. For example, in Nak’azdli, a small I have a responsibility to my daughter and couples (Kla-how-eya Aboriginal Dakelh community in northern British that goes beyond just meeting her basic Centre of SACS, n.d.). A third example Columbia, a baby welcoming ceremony needs. It’s a social, emotional, spiritual is from Blue Quills First Nations College was introduced by a local nurse and other and physical commitment to another located in St. Paul, AB, which offers as members of the health team and has now human being…I made that commitment part of a larger program, an Aboriginal been an annual event for over a decade (de and I am going to deal with it. In the past Parenting/Enhancing Family Self-Esteem Leeuw & Swanky, 2011). In coordination four years, my life has been about workshop that draws on traditional with the renewal of life each spring, the learning things that I never learned when Aboriginal parenting and contemporary community gathers to welcome the newest I was growing up. I came from a home literature to teach parents a “proactive generation as each baby is introduced that was dysfunctional. I had to make a problem solving process” to raising to the Elders and community members decision…“do I want to carry that on with children (Blue Quills First Nations (Ibid.). This practice strengthens cultural my daughter? If not, how do I raise my College, n.d.). ties and relations by connecting each baby

12 4.4. Early Childhood Programs parents and families in the design and Early childhood programs, like parenting development of the children’s program Aboriginal mothering programs, play a role in supporting as well as in the administration of the children, mothers and families. One program itself (Greenwood, 2009). today can involve bridging of the most significant goals of early Regional gatherings also foreground childhood programs serving colonized parents as the teachers of their children contemporary and Indigenous children, including and are designed to support families Aboriginal children, is to prepare them to through networking and knowledge traditional worlds and re- be successful in their own communities sharing. Testimonials of parents, and as well as in broader society. Just as mothers in particular, spoke of learning discovering and reclaiming mothering has a role to play in this goal, the language with their children in the so too do formalized early childhood childcare setting and of then taking cultural teachings in programs. With the change of mothers’ those learnings home (Ibid.). These early roles, and shifts in the very functioning childhood programs support mothers support of healthy children, of family, precipitated by the onslaught in the care of children and also offer of colonization, subsequent learning them places of learning. Through these families and communities. that once took place in families and practices, early childhood programs communities is now, in many cases, become political sites for fostering cultural Aboriginal peoples. Early childhood taken over by formal education systems and linguistic renewal and rejuvenation. programs have a role to play in this. and early childhood programs. Early Early childhood programs and the act of childhood settings, in addition to being mothering are political. The attack on the Early childhood programs play a key role sites of learning for children, have the structure of Aboriginal families through in supporting the social and political potential to be places of learning for colonial assimilation strategies is discussed aspirations of Aboriginal mothers, parents, especially mothers. earlier in this paper, but the need to families and communities. Programs reiterate the immoral and unpractical anchored in Indigenous knowledge, Early childhood programs offer mothers imperative of these strategies is necessary situated in community, developed and (parents and guardians) opportunities to considering the long term effects of these implemented by parents and families, learn strategies for successfully negotiating attacks on the transmission of knowledge and employing holistic approaches multiple worlds and for laying the from one generation to the next and the to the care of children are central to foundations of the continued renewal subjugation of communities and nations. successful early childhood programs and rejuvenation of distinct ways of Therein lies why cultural and linguistic for Aboriginal children and families. knowing and being. The Kohanga Reo in maintenance, revival, and rejuvenation Programs developed in this manner New Zealand, for example, engages with becomes critical to the survival of build upon the strengths and resiliency

The Sacred Space of Womanhood: Mothering Across the Generations 13 of individuals and communities, a desire Integrating locally specific Aboriginal References for self-determination over their lives and knowledge and traditions into programs that of their children, and a responsibility and practices requires multiple levels Aboriginal Sexual Health. (n.d.) Retrieved to prepare each generation for their roles of change. For example, in order for a on December 9, 2011 from http://www. and responsibilities (to themselves and children’s program to include Aboriginal aboriginalsexualhealth.ca. their collective) in the future. specific content, the caregivers must be Anderson, K. (2006). New life stirring: Mothering, provided training. This means that early transformation and Aboriginal womanhood. In D. The practical realities of implementing childhood education programs must Lavell-Harvard & J. 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Retrieved August 7, 2003 from http://www.ainc-inac.gc/pr/ 5.0 Conclusion traditional practices; and including pub/krw/ikp_e.html. training for medical practitioners, This paper discussed five topics related to especially child and maternal health care Bédard, R.E.M. (2006). An Anishinaabe-kwe ideology on mothering and motherhood. In D. mothering: family planning, pregnancy, practitioners, so that Aboriginal mothers have access to culturally appropriate care. Lavell-Harvard & J. Lavell (Eds.), Until our hearts are birth, caring for infants, and parenting on the ground: Aboriginal mothering, oppression, We encourage you to think of additional children as well as some issues faced by resistance and rebirth, (pp. 65-75). Toronto, ON: mothers in the contemporary context ways to build on the strengths of your Demeter Press. and the role of traditional parenting and community to renew and support the early childhood programs. Several areas central role of mothering in healthy Big Eagle, C., & Guimond, E. (2009). Reproductive children, families and communities. health of our young women and community of current development were identified development. In G. Valaskakas, M. Dion Stout, & that are making strides in building E. Guimond (Eds.), Restoring the balance: First Aboriginal knowledge and teachings into This paper provided an overview of Nations women, community, and culture (pp. 53- programs and practices. For example, Aboriginal mothering as complex and 61). Winnipeg, MB: University of Manitoba Press. Aboriginal midwifery programs have been multi-faceted teachings and practices established in several provinces and are throughout the stages of becoming Blue Quills First Nations College. (n.d.). Restoring balance: Moving full circle from trauma to training midwives to provide culturally and being a mother. It has identified some cultural understandings related to celebration: A wellness journey. St. Paul, AB: Blue appropriate maternal care and facilitate Quills First Nations College. Retrieved on January 4, births within communities (Lalonde, Butt motherhood and examined ways that 2012 from http://bluequills.ca/restoring__balance. & Bucio, 2009; NAHO, 2008). Traditional teachings have been transmitted across the htm#Parenting. parenting programs are beginning to generations. Despite the many destructive incorporate traditional teachings with influences of colonial interventions on Browne, A.J., & Fiske, J-A. (2001). First Nations women’s encounters with mainstream health care contemporary practices to support parents Aboriginal people’s lives, families and communities, cultural teachings continue services. Western Journal of Nursing Research, 23(2), and mothers in their task of raising 126-147. children in two worlds with a grounding to be transmitted across generations in in Aboriginal culture. ways they have always been and in new Cull, R. (2006). Aboriginal mothering under the and constantly evolving ways. Mothers State’s gaze. In D. Lavell-Harvard & J. Lavell (Eds.), Strategies for incorporating Aboriginal and the practices of mothering are central Until our hearts are on the ground: Aboriginal and crucial to these transmissions and mothering, oppression, resistance and rebirth, (pp. beliefs and values into the various areas 141-156). Toronto, ON: Demeter Press. of mothering will be multi-faceted and resurgences. following are some considerations.

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Canada’s Indian residential schools CISNeglect27E.pdf. or undertake an assessment of knowledge gaps. and their impacts on mothering. In D. Lavell- We would like to acknowledge our reviewers for Harvard & J. Lavell (Eds.), Until our hearts are on Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples. (1996a). their generous contributions of their time and the ground: Aboriginal mothering, oppression, Looking forward, looking back. Report of the Royal expertise to this manuscript. The authors would resistance and rebirth, (pp. 157-172). Toronto, ON: Commission on Aboriginal Peoples, 1(3). Ottawa, also like to thank all of those who contributed Demeter Press. ON: Indian and Northern Affairs, Government of insights and comments along the way. Canada.

The Sacred Space of Womanhood: Mothering Across the Generations 15 sharing knowledge · making a difference partager les connaissances · faire une différence ᖃᐅᔨᒃᑲᐃᖃᑎᒌᓃᖅ · ᐱᕚᓪᓕᖅᑎᑦᑎᓂᖅ

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