Marine Habitat Committee ICES CM 19991E:1 Ref.: ACME+C

REPORT OF THE

BENTHOS ECOLOGY WORKING GROUP

Kristineberg, Sweden 28 April-l May 1999

This report is not to be quoted without prior consultation with the General Secretary. The document is a report of an expert group under the auspices of the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea and does not necessarily represent the views of the Council.

International Council for the Exploration of the Sea Conseil International pour l'Exploration de la Mer

Palregade 2-4 DK-1261 Copenhagen KDenmark

TABLE OF CONTENTS Section Page

OPENING OF THE MEETING ...... 1 2 APPOINTMENT OF RAPPORTEUR ...... 1 3 TERMS OF REFERENCE ...... 1 4 ADOPTION OF THE AGENDA ...... 2 5 REPORT ON THE 1998 ICES ANNUAL SCIENCE CONFERENCE IN LISBON, PORTUGAL ...... 2 6 REPORT ON MEETING OF ACME AND OTHER MEETINGS OF INTEREST ...... 2 6.1 ACME Meeting ...... 2 6.2 ICES Working Group on the Effects of Extraction of Marine Sediments on the Marine Ecosystem (y.IGEXT) ...... 2 6.3 ICES Working Group on Introductions and Transfers of Marine Organisms (y.IGITMO) ...... 3 6.4 OSPARlICESIEEA Workshop on Habitat Classification and Biogeographic Regions and ICES Study Group on Marine Habitat Mapping (SGMHM) ...... 3 6.5 ICES Study Group on Marine Biodiversity (SGMB) ...... 3 6.6 ICES Benthos Dynamics Symposium, Crete, October 1998 ...... 4 6.7 ICES/SCOR Symposium on Ecosystem Effects of Fisheries (Montpellier, March 1999) ...... 4 6.8 Baltic Activities ...... 4 7 REPORT ON COOPERATIVE STUDIES AND OTHER STUDIES RELEVANT TO ICES (INCLUDING ACTION LIST OF 1998 BEWG MEETING) ...... 4 7.1 Databases ...... 4 7.2 Study of Hyperbenthic Populations ...... 5 7.3 Long-term Benthic Studies ...... 6 7.4 Monitoring Programmes ...... 7 7.5 Alien Species ...... 8 7.6 Coral Reefs ...... 8 7.7 Transport Studies ...... 9 7.8 Studies on Invertebrate By-catch ...... 9 7.9 North Sea Benthos Studies ...... 9 7.10 Sand Extraction and Dumping of Dredge Spoil...... 10 7.11 Other Studies ...... 12 8 NORTH SEA BENTHOS PROJECT ...... 12 9 MERITS OF (NEW) SAMPLING APPROACHES AND NEW SAMPLING DEVICES ...... 13 9.1 Mapping of Marine Benthic Habitats of Browns Bank (Southern Scotian Shelf) ...... 13 9.2 Mapping of UK Gravel Biotopes and an Examination of the Factors Controlling the Distribution, Type, and Diversity of their Biological Communities ...... 13 10 DEVELOPMENTS IN COMPUTER AIDS IN BENTHIC STUDIES (TAXONOMIC AND OPERATIONAL) .. 14 10.1 Identification Keys on CD-ROM ...... 14 10.2 BioMarViewer ...... 14 10.3 Identification Keys on Epibenthos ...... 14 11 ADVICE ON QUALITY ASSURANCE PROCEDURES FOR BENTHOS STUDIES ...... 14 11.1 Review of Standard Operating Procedures ...... 14 11.2 Review of Case Studies ...... 15 11.3 Inventory of National Guidelines ...... 17 12 GENERAL GUIDELINES ON QA FOR BIOLOGICAL MONITORING (REQUEST FROM SGQAE) ...... 17 13 GUIDELINES FOR EPIFAUNAL SAMPLING AND COMMUNITY DESCRIPTION OF EPIBIOTA ...... 17 14 ANALYSIS OF THE IMPACT OF NORTH ATLANTIC OSCILLATIONS (NAO) ON BENTHIC POPULATION PARAMETERS ...... 18 14.1 Causal Relationships in Long-term Changes of Benthos in Gullmarsfjorden, western Sweden ...... 18 15 CONTRIBUTION TO THE MARINE HABITAT COMMITTEE [MHC] STRATEGIC PLAN ...... 18 16 ANY OTHER BUSINESS ...... 19 16.1 Joint Meeting with WGFTFB ...... 19 16.2 New Chair ...... :...... 19 16.3 Socio-economic Approaches ...... 19 Section Page

17 RECOMMENDATIONS AND ACTION LIST ...... 19 17.1 Recommendations ...... 19 17.2 Action List ...... 19 18 VENUE AND DATE OF THE NEXT MEETING ...... 21 19 CLOSING OF THE MEETING ...... ;...... 21 ANNEX 1: LIST OF PARTICIPANTS ...... 22 ANNEX 2: AGENDA ...... 24 ANNEX 3: OSPARJICESIEEA WORKSHOP ON HABITAT CLASSIFICATION AND BIOGEOGRAPHIC REGIONS ...... 25 ANNEX 4: REPORT ON THE ICES SYMPOSIUM, MARINE BENTHOS DYNAMICS: ENVIRONMENTAL AND FISHERIES IMPACTS ...... 30 ANNEX 5: UNDERWATER VIDEO-TECHNIQUE AS A TOOL FOR THE BENTHIC MONITORING IN THE GERMAN PART OF THE BALTIC SEA ...... 34 ANNEX 6: UPDATE ON OCCURRENCE OF ALIEN BENTHIC SPECIES IN ESTUARINE AND COASTAL WATERS OF THE NETHERLANDS ...... 37 ANNEX 7: SPECIES NUMBERS FOR THE TAXONOMIC GROUPS ON THE ETI CD-ROMS ON MACROBENTHOS OF THE NORTH SEA ...... 40 ANNEX 8: REVIEW OF STANDARD OPERATING PROCEDURES FOR THE SAMPLING AND ANALYSIS OF BENTHIC MACROFAUNA ...... 41 ANNEX 9: FIGURES 1,2,3, AND 4 ...... 44 ANNEX 10: BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS QUALITY ASSURANCE IN MONITORING PROGRAMMES (BEQUALM) ...... 46 ANNEX 11: PUBLISHED GUIDELINES FOR BENTHOS SAMPLING ...... 48 ANNEX 12 : GENERAL GUIDELINES ON QUALITY ASSURANCE FOR BIOLOGICAL MONITORING IN THE OSPAR AREA ...... 50 ANNEX 13: CONTRIBUTION OF THE BENTHOS ECOLOGY WORKING GROUP [BEWG] TO THE MARINE HABITAT COMMITTEE [MHC] STRATEGIC PLAN ...... 70 ANNEX 14: RECOMMENDATIONS ...... •...... 72

11 1 OPENING OF THE MEETING

The Benthos Ecology Working Group (BEWG) met at the Kristineberg Marine Research Station in Kristineberg, Sweden. The Chair, Dr K. Essink, informed the meeting of the regrettable absence of some otherwise faithful members ofthis group. A message was received from the ICES Environmental Data Scientist, Dr J. Nl'lrrevang Jensen, explaining that the General Secretary did not find it necessary for him to participate in the meeting. BEWG found this extremely disappointing because good interactions between the ICES Secretariat and BEWG for the development of the ICES database for phytobenthos and zoobenthos will be a prerequisite for an adequate and accepted database structure.

The list of participants for the meeting is appended as Annex 1.

2 APPOINTMENT OF RAPPORTEUR

Dr B. Tunberg was appointed rapporteur. Dr K. Essink stressed the importance that every member of the group contribute to drafting the text of the report.

3 TERMS OF REFERENCE

The Chair drew attention at an extra term of reference (ToR) (g) relating to the ICES strategic planning process. This ToR has been included in the ToRs of all ICES Workings Groups meeting this year.

The terms of reference for the 1999 meeting of the Benthos Ecology Working Group (c. Res. 199812:30) were to: a) finalise the details of the North Sea Benthos project; b) report on further developments in computer aids in benthic studies (taxonomic and operational); c) debate the merits of different (new) sampling approaches to benthos studies and new sampling devices, with the aim of upgrading existing guidelines; d) to provide guidance to ACME on Quality Assurance procedures for benthos studies through:

1. a review of standard operating procedures (SOPs) in use in Member Countries,

ll. further review of case studies aimed at evaluating the quality of benthos data,

iii. finalising an inventory of national guidelines for the conduct of benthos surveys operated in different countries (within and outside the OSPAR area); e) prepare guidelines for sampling and objective community description of epibiota (of soft sediments and hard bottom substrata), including QA matters; f) commence an analysis of the impact of the North Atlantic Oscillations (NAO) on long-term variations of benthic population parameters in different geographical locations in the ICES area; g) contribute to the ICES strategic planning process through assisting the Marine Habitat Committee in the following tasks:

1. formulating tactics to achieve the six objectives adopted by the Committee,

ll. suggesting and/or developing activities and products to fulfil the objectives

iii. estimating the resources required for each activity according to categories that will be supplied.

The Chair noted that BEWG will report to ACME before its May/June 1999 meeting and to the Marine Habitat and Oceanography Committees at the 1999 Annual Science Conference.

1999 BEWG Report ----,._----,-_.------

4 ADOPTION OF THE AGENDA

A request was received from the Chair of the ICESIOSPAR Steering Group on Quality Assurance of Biological Measurements related. to Eutrophication Effects (SGQAE) to comment on a document 'General Guidelines on Quality Assurance for Biological Sampling'. This point was inserted as agenda item llA because of its direct relationship to that particular agenda item, and after this amendment the agenda was adopted (see Annex 2).

5 REPORT ON THE 1998 ICES ANNUAL SCIENCE CONFERENCE IN LISBON, PORTUGAL

Dr Rees reported briefly on scientific Theme Sessions held at the 1998 Annual Science Conference on the effects of disturbances and anthropogenic activities on benthic populations and on habitat mapping techniques. Dr Rumohr informed BEWG that the report from this meeting is now available.

Dr H. Rees had also reported to the Marine Habitat Committee (MHC) on the work and results of the 1998 meeting of BEWG (see ICES Annual Report for 1997/1998, p. 175). Following recommendations by the MHC, two new Study Groups were established, viz. i) the Study Group on Marine Habitat Mapping (Chair: E. Jagtman, The Netherlands) and ii) the Study Group on Biodiversity (Chair: Dr J.H. Fossa, Norway). At a later time Dr Fossa withdrew as Chair. No information was available on who took over this job. [Editor's note: The new Chair is Dr K. Richardson, Denmark.]

6 REPORT ON MEETING OF ACME AND OTHER MEETINGS OF INTEREST

6.1 ACME Meeting

Due to time constraints, Dr K. Essink referred to page 15 of the Minutes from the 8-13 June 1998 meeting of the Advisory Committee on the Marine Environment (ACME) with respect to i) ecological aspects of the introduction of Marenzelleria sp. in NW European waters, ii) the effects of fishing activities on the benthos, and iii) the North Sea Benthos Project. With respect to the latter project, Dr K. Essink informed BEWG that no supportive letter from the Chair of the MHC has been received. The next meeting of the ACME will be held in June 1999.

At the request of some members of the BEWG, Dr Rumohr briefly presented the ICES organisation and the persons in charge of the different areas. It was also emphasised that detailed information on ICES is available on the Internet (http://www.ices.dk).

6.2 ICES Working Group on the Effects of Extraction of Marine Sediments on the Marine Ecosystem (WGEXT)

Dr Hillewaert, who participated in the meeting of WGEXT in Uppsala, 20-24 April 1999, reported the following to the BEWG:

Members of WGEXT reported on the status of marine sediment extraction. The various participating countries updated their figures regarding extracted amounts, ,the development of seabed resource mapping, and developments in the international and national legal and administrative frameworks and procedures (including black box regulations and approaches to environmental impact assessments). • John Side from Heriot-Watt University at Stromness, Orkney, reported on studies regarding the effects of aggregate extraction on higher trophic levels, more particularly, on fishes and fisheries. Developments in new technology for high resolution seabed characterisation such as micro- and macro topography , complex sediment distribution, and process interpretation (essential for sustainable development of resources and the definition of habitats in the coastal zone) were reviewed. More specifically, multibeam (Gordon Fader) and acoustic drum sediment-profiling were discussed. WGEXT furthermore took up the offer of ICES to create its own web site, on which the Cooperative Research Report will be summarised, together with meeting reports and monitoring sampling guidelines. A complete overview of documents related to sand and gravel extraction produced by the members of WGEXT between 1974 and 1999 was compiled. The documents are given in chronological order. A final review of the ICES Cooperative Research Report was carried out. The report will be recommended for publication. A considerable amount of time was devoted to a discussion on the contribution to the ICES strategic planning process through assisting the Marine Habitat Committee.

2 1999 BEWG Report 6.3 ICES Working Group on Introductions and Transfers of Marine Organisms (WGITMO)

Dr K. Essink informed BEWG of an interesting contribution by Dr I. Wallentinus at the WGITMO meeting, 14-17 April 1999 in Conwy, Wales, entitled 'Conceptual model approach for invasive species'. He will try to get hold of the text and circulate it among members of BEWG.

Dr Watling reported that it is clear that introduced species can often totally and completely alter benthic communities and one has no idea from where any of these species might come or at what time, but often you can see very large changes in benthic communities. A typical example of this is the situation in San Francisco Bay.

Dr Rumohr reported on the introduction of Marenzelleria in Kieler Bay which most likely occurred through the Kiel Canal. Dr Craeymeersch asked whether it was possible to inform of these important occurrences at an early stage. Dr Rumohr suggested that this information should be available at a designated Web page.

6.4 OSPARlICESIEEA Workshop on Habitat Classification and Biogeographic Regions and ICES Study Group on Marine Habitat Mapping (SGMHM)

Dr Connor reported on the forthcoming Workshop to be held at the Dunstaffnage Marine Laboratory, Oban, Scotland from 6-10 September 1999, hosted by the UK Joint Nature Conservation Committee. This joint initiative will contribute to: OSPAR Annex V, which inter alia requires the identification of habitats requiring further protection; ICES Marine Habitat Committee (Study Group on Marine Habitat Mapping (SGMHM) - Chair: Mr E. Jagtman, The Netherlands), which has an objective to develop a classification system for marine habitats of coastal waters, continental shelves and slopes, and the open sea, including subsequent habitat mapping; EEA EUNIS classification, which has developed a habitat classification for Europe, in which the marine elements for the Northeast Atlantic are at present only represented by the inshore habitats of the UK's MNCR BioMar classification.

The Workshop aims to: develop a habitat classification (inventory) for the OSPAR area, with emphasis on offshore and deepwater habitats; identify a series of biogeographic subregions for the OSP AR area; assess the feasibility of producing habitat maps for the OSPAR area.

The Terms of Reference for the OSPAR Workshop and SGMHM are presented in Annex 3. Members of the BEWG interested in attending the Workshop were asked to advise the SGMHM Chair, Dr Eric Jagtman, with nominations via their ICES National Delegates. Comments received indicated the need to address the issues of scale and the end-use of habitat maps at the Workshop. SGMHM will meet in conjunction with the Oban Workshop.

6.5 ICES Study Group on Marine Biodiversity (SGMB)

Reference was made by Dr Rees to an EU-funded study of epifaunal biodiversity in the North Sea that is a continuation of earlier activity previously reported to the BEWG. In summary, the project has the following objectives:

1) to monitor biodiversity of the offshore demersal fish and epibenthos of the North Sea and Skagerrak in accordance with Article 7 of the Convention on Biological Diversity (Rio de Janeiro 1992) and to summarise and report this information annually; 2) to compile available information on commercial trawling effort in the North Sea and Skagerrak internationally, separating beam trawling from otter trawling by ICES rectangle or with finer geographical resolution if possible, and to report annually in conjunction with biodiversity data; 3) to relate biodiversity to trawling effort, sediment type and other environmental factors, so far as available data and statistical methods permit. This is a proposal to implement biodiversity monitoring on national groundfish surveys in the North Sea. In this way, the expense of additional research vessel time is minimised. Techniques for monitoring biodiversity without disrupting the survey were developed under EC FAIR project CT 95-0817. Monitoring will be annual, using groundfish surveys in the third quarter. A specially designed two-meter steel beam trawl will be deployed as the main survey trawl. Demersal

1999 BEWG Report 3 fish communities will be assessed from the catches of both" and epibenthic communities from the beam trawl only. Sampling will take place randomly in each ICES rectangle to obtain comprehensive geographic coverage, and (with replicates) at fixed stations to assess trends. Supporting work for the monitoring includes coordination of survey efforts, taxonomic quality control, data archiving including physico-chemical data, reporting annually, and liaison.

The earlier project also showed that trawling effort data in terms of hours fishing can be collected from the countries fishing in the North Sea. All countries except one furnished data by ICES rectangles. Aerial surveillance data is available for some waters, and possibly suitable surveillance data will also become available during the present project. Since trawling is the commercial fishing method most likely to affect sea floor communities, information on where effort occurs permits an analysis of the direct physical effects of trawling on demersal and epibenthic biodiversity. Environmental factors may be as, or more, important and must be included in the analysis.

6.6 ICES Benthos Dynamics Symposium, Crete, October 1998

Drs Rumohr and Kingston reported on the ICES Symposium on Marine Benthos Dynamics: Environmental and Fisheries Impacts, that was held on Crete, 5-7 October 1998. A full account is given in Annex 4. Approximately 180 participants from 23 countries, including Australia, Argentina, Canada, Iceland, USA, South Africa, Estonia, and almost all European countries attended the meeting.

The three thematic areas of the Symposium centred around:

a) the evaluation of direct and indirect fisheries-related activities; b) disturbances due to anthropogenic activities and the recovery of the benthos; c) natural and disturbance (anthropogenic)-induced fluctuations in benthic communities. Manuscripts from the Symposium have been submitted to the ICES Journal of Marine Science (none from the invited speakers (!), 31 from oral presentations and nine from other presentations). About 50 % of the manuscripts are now ready to be sent back to the authors, and the remaining ones are still in the reviewing/editing process. The estimated number of papers to be published in the Symposium volume is about 35.

6.7 ICES/SCOR Symposium on Ecosystem Effectsiof Fisheries (Montpellier, March 1999)

No one from the BEWG participated in this meeting and there was therefore nothing to report.

6.8 Baltic Activities

Dr Rumohr presented current activities of the Baltic Marine Biologists (BMB):

The 16th Baltic Marine Biologists Symposium will be arranged in Lithuania (Klaipeda), 21-26 June 1999. Information is available on the Internet. A new (1998) publication is available: Baltic Environment Proceeding, No. 75: Red List of Marine and Coastal Biotopes Complexes of the Baltic Sea, Belt Sea and Kattegat (ISSN 0357-2994). Information on the activities of the BMB group is available on the Internet.

7 REPORT ON COOPERATIVE STUDIES AND OTHER STUDIES RELEVANT TO ICES (INCLUDING ACTION LIST OF 1998 BEWG MEETING)

7.1 Databases

ICES database

BEWG was deeply disappointed to receive an e-mail from the ICES Environmental Data Scientist, Dr J. N0rrevang Jensen, that it was not possible for him to attend the BEWG meeting. As a consequence, adequate communication did not evolve on the status of the ICES database with respect to phyto- and zoobenthos.

4 1999 BEWG Report JNCC's MERMAID database and the MarLIN programme

Dr Connor demonstrated the MERMAID database which will be released via the Internet in autumn 1999 at www.jncc.gov.uk. Its release is part of the UK government's policy on open access to information and contributes to the National Biodiversity Network. The database will include marine biological field data from sites around Britain and Ireland, collected during the II-year Marine Nature Conservation Review programme, the national marine biotope classification and information on sites to be designated as Special Areas of Conservation for the EC Habitats Directive. The database has an interactive mapping facility and a photographic library; it can display distribution maps of species and biotopes.

MarLIN is a major new collaborative programme started in 1998, led by the Marine Biological Association of the UK and involving government, research institutes, industry and others. Its overall goal is to provide a network of shared marine biological information via the Internet to improve environmental decision-making; it has three main elements:

• Data sharing. A network of shared databases, which will enable simultaneous interrogation of multiple data sets via a single Internet access point. During 1999, the first stage in establishment of the network will be the linking of JNCC's MERMAID database with that of another institute. Key information on biotopes and species. A database of biological and ecological data for species (e.g., growth rates, reproductive strategies) and biotopes, including an assessment of their sensitivity to various human activities. The database will be interfaced with the field database and available on the Internet. EducationaVamateur recording schemes. Development of educational tools and amateur recording schemes (sub­ programme seeking funding at present).

Oil industry benthos data on CD-ROM

Dr Kingston reported on a three-phase project, funded by the United Kingdom Offshore Operators Association (UKOOA). Phase 1, which is completed, was to locate and catalogue all the pre-operational and monitoring reports produced in connection with the UK offshore oil and gas exploration since operations started in the 1970s. Phase 2 of the project, which is about two thirds complete is to produce a database of all chemical and biological data contained in the reports. This should be completed by midsummer and will be made generally available on CD-ROM. Phase 3 involves a detailed analysis of the data and will start on the completion of Phase 2. It should be complete by the end of June 2000 when the results will be published.

7.2 Study of Hyperbenthic Populations

Dr J.-M. Dewarumez reported preliminary results of the study of hyperbenthic populations of the Abra alba community in the Gravelines area, which constitutes the third phase of the 'RENORA' project (Mcrutement en mer du NOrd dans Ie peuplement a £1bra alba). The previous phases were dedicated to the pelagic and benthic phases of the recruitment processes. Note that in this community more than 95 per cent of the species have a bentho-pelagic cycle.

The main results of the pelagic phase (1988-1990) were: (i) the fluxes of larvae are channelled by submarine sandbanks, without lateral diffusion, (ii) larval populations are present in water masses as 5 NM sized quite mono specific patches, (iii) despite the general northeasterly drift of the water masses due to tidal currents, larval fluxes can come from the northeast. Northerly or northeasterly wind conditions can inverse the general drift of water masses. These conditions occur especially in spring and in autumn when the majority of species of the Abra alba community recruits.

The studies of the benthic phase (1991-1995) confirm these results. The recruitment of a species only present on the Belgian coast (Ensis directus) occurs on a 9-10 km length area.

It was expected that during the critical phase of the settlement (first settlement, re-suspension, final settlement), animals living close to the sediment and especially hyperbenthic populations, may be important for older larvae by direct predation or competition for food supply.

Hyperbenthic popUlations were studied following two sampling strategies: (i) a two-year survey (1996-1998) for knowledge of hyperbenthos seasonal variations, using a two-netted sledge (2 mm mesh sized; 0.9 m high), all samples were taken at the same time of the day and in similar current conditions; (ii) a study of seasonal aspects of nycthemeral variations of hyperbenthic populations, using a four-netted Master-Giroq sledge (0.5 mm mesh sized; 1.2 m high); this study is now in progress.

J 999 BEWG Report 5 During the two-year survey (15 cruises) 115 taxa were identified (15 new for the local species list). The most important group is Mysids, dominated by Schistomysis spiritus (up to 47,000 indo per m\ the maximum global density was 3 observed in July 1996: more than 56,000 indo per m .

Annual variations of taxa can be grouped into following the 5 patterns:

3 1) maximum in spring, e.g., Pleurobrachia pileus (max. 8749 m· ); 3 2) maxima in early summer and autumn, e.g., Schistomysis spiritus (max. 47,581 m· ); 3 3) maximum in autumn: Eucheilota maculata (max. 573 m- ); 4) maximum in winter: Schistomysis kervillei (max. 10,871 m-\ 3 3 5) more than two maxima per year: Crangon crangon (max.' 1154 m- ); Atylus swammerdami max. 445 m- ).

The first results about nycthemeral variations (sampling at the end of March 1999) show the disappearance of several species from the boundary bottom layer during the night; Pleurobrachia pileus, Atylus swammerdami and Schistomysis spiritus migrate in the water column from sunset until sunrise. The copepod populations (essentially Temora longicornis) follow a similar pattern. Unfortunately, there are no valid results for the two-year study of this species. Animals living very close to the sediment (less than 30 cm) do not migrate during the night; the Shannon diversity index is stable in the net close to the sediment and increases during the night in the three other nets. These results may be confirmed by similar studies in May, August, and December 1999.

7.3 Long-term Benthic Studies

Southern Baltic Sea Studies

Dr J. Warzocha reported on the impact of different methods applied on the results of long-term benthic studies in the southern Baltic Sea. The benthos data have been collected in the Polish Marine Area of the southern Baltic since the 1920s. The first quantitative studies, covering the entire Polish zone and dealing with the abundance and biomass, were carried out by Hagmeier in 1925, 1926, and 1929. The first Polish data on biomass were collected by Demel and Mulicki in 1948-1952. The methodologies which were applied over the years differed mainly in type of grabs and way of biomass determination.

An attempt was made to obtain descriptions of the methodologies applied in the past and carry out a calibration in order to minimise any differences created by variations in methodologies used throughout the time period. The calibrations of three types of grabs (Petersen grab, van Veen grab and box corer) showed statistically significant differences in average abundance and biomass, especially on sandy and clay bottoms. The lowest values of infaunal abundance and biomass were obtained when applying the Petersen grab, while the highest ones were from the samples collected with the box corer. The main cause of these differences seems to be the different penetration depth of the grabs. On muddy bottoms, however, the abundance and biomass were not significantly dependent on grab type (Petersen and van Veen grab).

There were also differences in biomass values as calculated from methods used in the past compared with methods used now. These differences resulted firstly from the application, in the past, of conversion factors, being calculated either without taking into account population size structure, or with the size classes included but in very wide ranges.

Wadden Sea (The Netherlands, Germany, Denmark)

Dr K. Essink reported on an analysis of long-term data on macrozoobenthic biomass from various monitoring locations in the Danish, German, and Dutch Wadden Sea, which was published recently in Senckenbergiana maritima (vol. 29, 1998: 25-35). The longest data set was available from the Netherlands (1970-1994). The major part of temporal fluctuations was caused by the bivalves, which in turn were to a great extent influenced by variations in winter conditions, severe winters generally causing higher mortality but also increased reproduction success the following spring. In most parts of the Wadden Sea there was an increasing trend in polychaete biomass. The different trends in biomass of the macro benthic community of its major taxa were not clearly related to trends in eutrophication parameters such as nutrient concentrations or annual nutrient loads from riverine sources. So, it was concluded that fluctuation patterns in macrozoobenthic biomass in different parts of the Wadden Sea were largely governed by natural factors such as severity of winters. Further analysis, taking into account the different development of separate species is necessary for obtaining a better insight into what processes are involved.

6 1999 BEWG Report 7.4 Monitoring Programmes

Phytobenthos (Sweden)

Dr H. Kautsky informed BEWG that the new assessment of HELCOM will recommend monitoring of Baltic Sea phytobenthic plant and animal communities on both hard and soft substrates. The aim and method for this are briefly described below. In their area of choice the countries monitor the depth distribution and percentage cover degree of the substrate of the plant and animal communities. As the goal of the monitoring is to detect temporal changes, other causes for variation in the material should be kept as low as possible. The phytobenthic communities show a large, natural spatial variability at short horizontal distances due to changes in substrate, turbulence, bottom declination, etc. Changes are 'dramatic' over the depth gradient due to the available light and factors described above as well as in some cases biotic interactions. Therefore, the sampling sites should be kept fixed. This will mean that each site for observation will only represent changes within itself. Using a hierarchical at approach, however, trends in consistency for a given depth and/or from several depths, transects and/or areas, the results can be assumed to reflect changes in the whole depth range, area and/or region in question. Thus, in order to make more general statements about the development, an increased number of stations and/or other areas have to be visited.

The SCUBA divers swim in a given compass direction along a metre-marked line that starts from a fixed point. They make their observations within a lO-m wide zone along both sides of the line. The width of the zone will reduce the variability of spatial differences within a short range. The divers note the type and the percent share of the substrate (roughly subdivided into rock, boulders, stones, gravel, sand, soft and combinations thereof), siltation, plant distribution and cover degree as well as the occurrence of belt-forming blue mussels (Mytilus edulis). The percentage is given in a 7-point scale (100, 75, 50, 25, 10, 5 and + if present). Notes are taken directly on a protocol whenever a change in substrate and/or new species is observed or when the cover degree changes. The distance from shore and the depth obtained from a calibrated depth gauge is also noted simultaneously. Before reaching the lower limit of the plants in the case of very long transects, they may be subdivided into sections so that the whole depth range of the plants is covered. This will especially be the case along the southern and eastern shores of the Baltic proper and in the Gulf of Riga. The method will reflect population changes of the dominating species. In addition to the depth distribution, quantitative samples may be collected for the analysis of individual biomass of the species and for biodiversity estimates. In the Swedish programme, for each transect three parallel frames (0.2 m x 0.2 m as a standard or 0.5 m x 0.5 m for Fucus individuals) are placed haphazardly within the zone of observation at beforehand fixed distances from shore. The distance is determined the first time the transect is visited and reflects the different plant communities found at the site.

Since diver transects are time consuming, it is of great interest to develop methods that easily can survey larger areas to obtain geographic coverage. This might be achieved by additional transects between the divers' transects using video­ techniques. In the future also there is a promising development of, e.g., echo sounding and side scan techniques that can detect whether the substrate is covered by vegetation or not. Aerial photographs can be applied only in very shallow areas down to a few m depth. Several of the techniques suggested and their application (processing of data) are in common when describing all types of benthic communities.

The monitoring of the phytobenthic communities will reflect changes in, e.g., eutrophication. There is a strong correlation between the depth distribution of plants and the Secchi depth. Also the species composition is due to change with changed loads of nutrients, e.g., increased amount of filamentous, annual algae which out compete the perennial species in nutrient-rich areas. But also pollutants affect both the turbidity as well as the organisms themselves, e.g., the usually dominating large, perennial alga Fucus vesiculosus has proven to be highly sensitive to some contaminating metals and organic chemicals. The animal communities also reflect the changes and are influenced by or influence the plant communities, thus may be a part of the explanation of observed changes.

Zoobenthos (Sweden)

Susan Smith reported on the ongoing monitoring programme in the County of Kalmar, the Baltic Proper. For five years a total of 62 stations have been sampled, covering different habitats ranging from 1-40 m depth. For many of the localities, the time series go back 10 years or more. The mean value of the Macoma biomass has varied among the three regions of the county. In the northern region, which had comparatively low values, the biomass has not changed very much over the past years, whereas it increased in the southern region. In the middle part, however, there was a serious reduction in 1998, the cause of which has to be investigated.

Susan Smith also presented an investigation on benthos at a dumping site for dredged harbour material. The dumping site is situated about 10 km off the Swedish west coast on a transport bottom at 20 m depth. The fauna of the dumping site was, 16 months after the dumping event, more diverse than at three other localities along a gradient heading north on the same depth. The proportion of polychaetes was high and about 30 % of all the species were unique for this site.

1999 BEWG Report 7 On the other hand, the number of Amphiura filiformis and its biomass, the mean individual weight and the proportion of filter feeders were highest at the locality adjacent to the dumping site. The locality at the far end of the gradient was considered representative of the area and had the lowest biomass. Members of BEWG commented on the non-inclusion of sediment composition parameters in the monitoring programmes, which will impair proper assessment of the zoobenthos monitoring data.

It was put forward that the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency (S-EP A) had decided to cut funding for benthic soft bottom monitoring and as a result has recommended monitoring of the Swedish west coast mainly by the use of a single device, the Sediment Profile Imager (SPI). It is the opinion of BEWG that benthic monitoring should not be conducted primarily with the use of an index-based device. Rather, benthic monitoring normally uses another suite of well-known, internationally accepted and recommended, techniques some or all of which should be applied here. This is especially important in view of the long history of monitoring in this region where it is of utmost importance to be able to discriminate between natural fluctuations and anthropogenic ally induced perturbations in the benthic system of the seas. Sweden is also a signatory to the Biological Diversity Convention (BDC) and must by law do assessments of the state of its marine biodiversity; this cannot be accomplished by the use of the SPI only.

Spisula surveys (The Netherlands)

Dr J. Craeymeersch reported on annual surveys of commercial shellfish stocks. Since 1993, the Netherlands Institute for Fisheries Research (RIVO-DLO) has surveyed the southwest coast of the Netherlands. In 1995 the surveys were extended and now include the entire Dutch coast. The main aim is to assess the temporal and spatial variation in density, biomass and stocks of commercially exploited Spisula species. Each spring, about 900 stations are sampled following a stratified sampling design. Strata are based on the known or expected density of Spisula.

It is intended to approach the EU (FP5) to extend the project 'and cover the coastal area from France to Denmark. The programme will include investigations of i) the mechanisms 'which cause and influence the settlement, ii) population dynamics, iii) impact of fisheries, and iv) the relation between Spisula stocks and seabirds.

Baltic Sea macrozoobenthos (Germany)

Dr K. Essink informed BEWG of the application of underwater video-technique as a tool for macrozoobenthos monitoring in the German part of the Baltic Sea. This technique may prove to be useful in obtaining information on the occurrence of larger, and not so abundant, components of macrozoobenthos, e.g., the lug worm Arenicola marina and the starfish Asterias rubens. Further observations will be carried out in 1999. More information is contained in Annex 5.

7.5 Allen Species

Dr K. Essink presented an update on the occurrence of intro~uced species in The Netherlands. This included the first records of the red macroalga Agardhiella subulata (in 1998) and the Japanese kelp Undaria pinnatifida (in 1999) in f9rmer oyster ponds in the Eastern Scheidt. At several locations in the Dutch Wadden Sea well-reproducing, but probably small, populations of the Japanese oyster Crassostrea gigas are presently found. Also from the eastern and northern German Wadden Sea such records are presently known. The population of the spionid polychaete Marenzelleria cf wireni, after having thrived well for several years, showed a severe crash over the last four years, without any obvious clue as to its cause. For further information, see Annex 6. Dr E. Bonsdorff informed BEWG of a similar pattern in a Polydora species in the northern Baltic some time ago.

Dr K. Essink furthermore informed BEWG of a German review of introduced macrozoobenthic species reported in German North Sea coastal areas. A brochure with information sheet,S on the respective species will be published in May 1999. This brochure can be obtained without costs from the authors S. Nehring and H. Leuchs at the Bundesanstalt flir Gewasserkunde, Koblenz, Germany.

Finally, Dr Essink passed on information from Dr M. Despr~z on the recent discovery of popUlations of the American razor clam Ensis americanus (Syn. Ensis directus) close to the mouth of the River Seine. So far, this is the southernmost record of E. americanus along the western European shores. Dr J.-M. Dewarumez reported that this species has become 2 an integrated component of the benthos in the eastern English Channel, occurring in densities of 50-100 per m .

7.6 Coral Reefs

Dr J.H. Fossa reported (through B. Tunberg) that Norway recently passed a law protecting the deep coral reefs. The purpose of this law is to protect coral reefs against destructior as a result of fishing activities, and thereby contribute to

8 1999 BEWG Report a justifiable resource management. This will, among other things, protect reproduction sites and growth areas for many species of fish. The law states that fishing activities near areas where coral reefs are known to occur have to be performed with utmost caution. It is illegal to purposefully destroy any reefs. This law applies to fishing vessels of all nations.

The fast legislative response to alarming signals of coral reef destruction was greatly helped by raising public and political awareness with the help of very instructive video observations.

7.7 Transport Studies

Dr G. Duineveld reported on the Ocean Margin Exchange (OMEX) project, that is being carried out on the Iberian continental shelf margin. Benthic landers and sediment traps are deployed for studies on geochemistry and oxygen fluxes. Macrofauna data do not indicate local accumulation of organic matter. Chloropigments in the sediment and RNA (from bacteria) data obtained in August 1995, however, suggest an accumulation of organic matter at 4000 m depth. A continuation of the study (OMEX-II) will take place in a different location at the shelf/deep sea margin.

7.S Studies on Invertebrate By-catch

Dr J. Craeymeersch drew to the attention of BEWG a successful Workshop on 'Effects of fishing on non-target species and habitats. Biological, Conservation and Socio-Economic Issues' that took place in December 1998, organised by M.J. Kaiser and S.J. de Groot. Contributions to the Workshop will be published by the end of 1999 (Fishing News Books, Blackwell Science, Oxford).

Dr 1. Craeymeersch also reported that changes in the epibenthos assemblages of the North Sea were examined between 1985 and 1996 in relation to the establishment of the so-called 'plaice box'. In this area the beam trawl intensity was substantially reduced since 1989, and also substantial changes in epibenthos were detected. Changes, however, also occurred in the reference area (although in other species), suggesting that in addition to changes in impact by bottom fishing gear, also other (environmental) variables may have been involved.

7.9 North Sea Benthos Studies

Frisian Front (southern North Sea)

Dr G. Duineveld reported that at the Frisian Front (southern North Sea) a reduction has been observed since the 1990s in the abundance of the brittle star Amphiurafiliformis. Throughout the 1980s the Frisian Front area was inhabited by a 2 dense and stable population composed of mainly large (and old) specimens. Maximum densities (-1500 m- ) coincided with the highest chlorophyll and POC concentrations in the sediment. These overlapping distributions were attributed to increased and prolonged primary production at the frontal boundary.

A cruise in September 1997 showed that the area of peak densities of A. filiformis had shifted to the north. More prominent was a change in size (age) structure. Most 1997 samples were dominated by small 1- and 2-year old animals. Adults (>5 mm) were consistently scarce. Measurements of chlorophyll in the water column and sediment showed that spatial differences across the frontal zone were largely the same as in the 1980s. Highest concentrations were found at the location where formerly the density of Amphiura was maximal.

The tentative conclusion is that there has been no obvious change in (hydrography-related) food supply_ Why the population structure changed so dramatically is the subject of further speculation (e.g., senescence of a few successful cohorts, climatic factor) and of a further study.

Dr L. Watling commented that parallel observations with respect to the development of popUlation size composition have been obtained on Amphiura sarsi. This may relate to possible effects of fishing causing mortality especially among adults in the population_

Sublittoral Macrofauna in Tidal Inlets of the East Frisian Wadden Sea

Dr I. Kroncke informed BEWG that, in contrast to the eulittoral region of the East Frisian Wadden Sea or other sublittoral areas in the Wadden Sea, little information is available for the macrofaunal communities in the tidal inlets of the EastFrisian Wadden Sea.

J 999 BEWG Report 9 In a cooperation between Senckenberg Institute, Wilhelmsha~en, and Alfred Wegener Institute (AWl), Bremerhaven, the benthic communities of the Otzumer Balje (between the islands of Spiekeroog and Langeoog) and of the Wichter Ee (between the islands of Baltrum and Norderney) were investigated in March and September 1998. Senckenberg Institute investigated the macrofauna, the AWl (Dr R. Knust) did the epifauna. Macrofauna samples were taken with a 0.1 m2 Van Veen grab and sieved over 0.5 mm mesh size. Results for macrofauna are given for March 1998:

Max. depth (m) Species no. Polychaeta (%) Crustacea (%) Mollusca (%) mud (%) TOC (%) Otzumer BaJje 18 77 45 31 16 0-59 0.13-2.1 Wichter Ee 5 57 50 25 12 0-26 0.l5-1.35

Multivariate analysis, using the PRIMER package, showed that both inlets could be divided into i) a sandy and more exposed seaward area, and ii) more muddy and sheltered areas more close to the mainland coast. The seaward communities were dominated by amphipods of the genus Bathyporeia, Magelona mirabilis and spionids. Dominant species in the sheltered areas were Heteromastus filiformis, Capitella spp., and Tharyx killariensis. Oligochaetes made up 45 % of the total abundance in the Otzumer Balje. Long-living bivalve species such as Mytilus edulis, Cerastoderma edule and Macoma balthica were rare in the Otzumer Balje but were found in higher abundance in the Wichter Ee. This may have some relation to the lower intensity of shrimp fishing in the Wichter Ee as compared to the Otzumer Balje.

7.10 Sand Extraction and Dumping of Dredge Spoil

Monitoring of Dumping Sites off the Belgian Coast (1995-1997)

Dr H. Hillewaert reported on spring (March-April) and autumn (September-October) sampling campaigns carried out in 1995, 1996, and 1997 in compliance with the study programme 'Biologische monitoring van lossingen van gebaggerd materiaal voor de Belgische kust'. Yearly, two· complementary campaigns were held for the study of biological effects.

The sampled area concerned four primary dumping sites, two spare dumping sites and three mandatory reference sites. Also seven other areas, studied within the scope of other programmes, have been included for comparison purposes.

Benthic fauna

The studied area is situated in a very dynamic area (shallow! sea, tidal currents, seasonal fluctuations) in the southern North Sea. A clear causal relationship between possible negative effects of the deposit of dredged material and the biodiversity of the resident benthic fauna could not be demonstrated.

Abundance and species diversity were comparable on the dumping sites and the reference zones, the former occasionally even yielding the richest samples. The moderate disturbances of the benthic communities, as indicated by the ABC-curves (Abundance-Biomass-Comparison), turned out to be only very temporary phenomena.

An increase in food availability due to dumping of dredging spoils could be a reason for the relatively high abundance and biomass. Diversity at the other hand could be strongly influenced by changes in sediment granulometry.

Observations indicated that neither from temporal trends, nor from geographical distribution, could any significant influence of the dumping of dredged material be found on the abundance of juvenile flatfish during the period considered. Trend analysis on juvenile flatfish (1972-1997) corroborates this view. Any possible effect of dumping dredge spoils would likely have been masked by the large natural fluctuations of the popUlations.

Fish diseases and biological effects

In terms of pathology, it is important to note that serious lesions that may be indicative of pollution (e.g., acute and healing skin ulcerations, epidermal hyperplasia and papillomas, liver nodules, tumour formation, fin rot and lymphocystis) were not or only rarely found in fish from the examined sites of the Belgian continental shelf. No or very small differences in frequencies of these pathologically important lesions were present between the dredge dumping sites and the reference sites. Observed lesions most commonly had a parasitic aetiology caused by Digenea (Trematoda), Copepoda and/or Nematoda.

10 1999 BEWG Report The annual EROD variations in dab (Limanda limanda) at the dumping and reference sites on the Belgian continental shelf and other sites further away did not significantly differ. Strong EROD inductions always were present in early spring and seem to correlate well with elimination of PCBs during fat metabolism in cold periods. In terms of pathology and biological effects of contaminants, it may be concluded that the situation at the dumping sites is similar to those at the reference sites. There are no indications that fish are seriously affected. The EROD inductions in early spring are an important explicable effect that commonly occurs in all examined sites of the southern North Sea.

Sediment

The dumping sites were generally characterised by a higher silt content (fraction < 63 /lm) and higher values for interstitial water, organic material, total organic carbon and carbonate than the reference sites. A trend analysis (1979- 1997) showed a significantly lower silt fraction in favour of the fine sand fraction on dumping site Zeebrugge Sl. On site Zeebrugge S2, on the other hand, the fine sand fraction was higher at the expense of the middle coarse fraction. This phenomenon has been observed in most of the Belgian coastal waters. The physical effect of the disposal of dredged material might well explain these shifts in granulometry.

Heavy metals in benthic fauna

In nine benthic organisms, concentrations of mercury, cadmium, lead, copper, zinc and chromium were determined. Temporal trends (1981-1996) showed a steady decrease in concentrations of heavy metals. Starfish and hermit crab proved to be the best indicator species. Geographically there were no striking differences between the sampling stations, nor did the dumping sites show aberrant results. For further information, see W. Vyncke, K. Cooreman, H. Hillewaert, J. Wittoeck et al., 1998, Biologische monitoring van lossingen van gebaggerd materiaal voor de Belgische kust (1995- 1997), Onderhandse overeenkomst met de Diensten van de Vlaamse Executieve - Departement Leefmilieu en Infrastructuur - Administratie Waterwegen en Zeewezen, nr. 94,180, Rapport BAG/4.

Dredge Spoil Dumping Licenses and Benthos (The Netherlands)

Dr K. Essink reminded BEWG of studies in the Dutch Wadden Sea of ca. 10 years ago into the effects of dumping of largely non-contaminated harbour dredge spoil on benthos. A paper on 'Ecological effects of dumping of dredged sediments; options for management' will be published in 1999 in the Journal of Coastal Conservation.

For the last few years, harbour authorities having to renew their licenses for dumping at the existing dump sites have been faced with obligations under the Nature Protection Act to show that the practice of dumping has not significantly affected benthos at the dump sites. Alternatively, harbour authorities may be obliged to do benthic surveys in search of better dump sites.

UK Benthic Studies on Anthropogenic Impacts

Dr Rees referred to three ICES papers produced for the 1998 Annual Science Conference, which documented a range of recent work by CEFAS on the effects of anthropogenic activities around the UK coast (Rees et al., Improvements in the fauna of the Crouch estuary (United Kingdom) following a decline in TBT concentrations, ICES CM 1998N:8; Boyd et al., Nematodes as sensitive indicators of change at dredged material disposal sites, ICES CM 1998N:9; Kenny et al., The effects of marine gravel extraction on the macrobenthos at an experimental dredge site off North Norfolk, UK (results 3 years post-dredging), ICES CM 1998N:14).

Reference was also made to initial progress with a four-year study (by Sian Boyd and co-workers at the CEFAS Burnham Laboratory) into the potential for cumulative effects of marine aggregate extraction on the benthic ecosystem around clusters of dredging activity off the English eastern and southern coasts. The results from a spatial survey with a Hamon grab revealed over 400 different macrofaunal taxa from 68 samples taken from the southeast of the Isle of Wight. Samples were very dissimilar in terms of their species complement, which reflected a highly diverse and patchy distribution of the fauna in the region. Six main groups of stations were distinguished from the survey. This pattern suggests a biological gradient from inshore to offshore and corresponds with increasing water depth and a coarsening of the sediment further offshore. Preliminary findings from the Isle of Wight indicate that a combination of bathymetry and sediment particle size are the main factors governing the distribution of biological communities. Future work will include relating the biological patterns to factors such as sediment mobility due to waves and tides.

A sub-set of stations has been selected from the large-scale grid surveys and these are intended to contribute to a time­ series of information for assessing the persistence of any effects in relation to changes in dredging intensity and natural variations in macrofauna and fish popUlations.

1999 BEWG Report 11 7.11 Other Studies

UK Marine SACs Project (EC Habitats Directive)

Dr Connor gave an update on progress with this EC Life-funded project, specifically aspects of relevance to the BEWG about habitats and monitoring. There has been a series of 9 habitat reviews undertaken (e.g., for kelp forests, intertidal sediments) which described their ecological functioning, understanding of temporal variation, and research and monitoring requirements. These have been summarised in a standard reporting format, complete with an assessment of their sensitivity to a variety of human activities (Jones, Hiscock, and Connor, 1999).

A series of trials of monitoring techniques has been undertaken to develop a monitoring protocol for marine SACs. These included aerial and seabed remote survey techniques, diving and photographic studies and sediment sampling. A Monitoring Handbook will be published in 2000. A review of monitoring techniques has been undertaken (Hiscock, 1998) and a European workshop held to tackle a wide range of issues related to marine SAC monitoring (Earll, 1999).

The reports mentioned were made available to members of theBEWG:

Earll, R. (Ed.) 1999. Monitoring and reporting on marine Special Areas of Conservation: proceedings from the UK Marine SACs Project European Workshop, October 27 to 29, 1998. Joint Nature Conservation Committee (UK Marine SACs Project), Peterborough.

Jones, L., Hiscock, K., and Connor, D.W. 1999. Marine habitat reviews. Joint Nature Conservation Committee, Peterborough.

Hiscock, K. 1998. Biological monitoring of marine Special Areas of Conservation: a review of methods for detecting change. JNCC Report, no. 284.

European Register of Marine Species

Dr Connor reported that this EC MAST Concerted Action is making good progress with the development of a complete European list of marine species, together with a database of taxonomists and taxonomic guides. Many species lists were now on the ERMS web site at www.erms.biol.soton.ac.uk. Consideration has also been given recently to mechanisms to maintain the lists once they were complete in 2000.

8 NORTH SEA BENTHOS PROJECT

Dr P. Kingston reported on the current status of the North Sea Benthos Project and gave an overview of the Fifth Framework Programme (FP5) Energy, Environment and Sustainable Development for consideration as a possible source of funding.

The sub-group considered that the objectives of the project would fit in with the objectives and deliverables of Key Action 2 'Global Change, Climate and Biodiversity' and it was decided that a pre-proposal should be prepared for assessment by the FP5 Secretariat before committing a fully costed submission.

The project deliverable would be an assessment of North Sea benthic ecosystem change and vulnerability. This would be accomplished by a sampling and analytical programme covering the whole of the North Sea. Community structure and distribution would be established and compared with that determined by the ICES benthos survey of 1986. Community distribution would be related to anthropogenic impacts as determined by physical and chemical analysis of the substratum. Vulnerability of the communities would be established by relating life habits to the age structure of the component populations.

Ingrid Kroncke informed BEWG that Dr Eike Rachor had secured funding for a benthos survey in the German and Danish sectors of the North Sea and that he was willing to incorporate the work into an overall study of the North Sea benthos. Offers of ship-time for the project also came from Jean-Marie Dewarumez, Hans Hillewaert, Heye Rumohr and Karel Essink. Members of the group were asked to investigate the possibility of national funding for individual participants should the FP5 bid come to nothing.

12 1999 BEWG Report 9 MERITS OF (NEW) SAMPLING APPROACHES AND NEW SAMPLING DEVICES

9.1 Mapping of Marine Benthic Habitats of Browns Bank (Southern Scotian Shelf)

Dr B.l. Todd reported on mapping of marine benthic habitats by the Geological Survey of Canada (Atlantic). Canadian marine geoscientists and bioscientists have, during the last few years, increased their scientific cooperation in the application of high-resolution mapping techniques to the biological issues of habitat characterisation, fisheries management and gear impact assessment. Unlike the earlier generation of seabed maps produced for continental shelf­ wide geological mapping, the present maps enable a close correlation between sediment type and benthic habitat. The present generation of seabed maps is a result of the integration of technological advancements encompassing differential GPS navigation, multibeam bathymetric mapping systems, high-resolution sidescan sonars and advances in digital data recording, processing and visualisation techniques. An example was shown from the Bay of Fundy. In this location, spectacular sand bedforms have resulted from a high tidal range (> 10m) and associated strong currents with reversing flow directions.

A suite of marine geoscience and bioscience cooperative projects are under way in Atlantic Canada. One such project is on Browns Bank on the southern Scotian Shelf. This bank supports a commercially important sea scallop fishery. An ongoing cooperative seabed mapping project between the scallop industry, the Department of Fisheries and Oceans, the Canadian Hydrographic Service, and the Geological Survey of Canada (Atlantic) seeks to understand (among a number of objectives) the relationship between scallop distribution and seabed habitat. The project was initiated with the collection, processing and interpretation of multibeam bathymetry. This was followed by a series of three geoscientific cruises to collect 'ground truth' information to integrate with the multibeam data, resulting in a regional grid of high­ resolution seismic reflection profiles, sidescan sonar records, sediment samples and seabed photographs. An initial benthic habitat map of Browns Bank suggests that juvenile scallops are associated with a gravelly seabed in areas of high current flow. Mature, larger scallops are also associated with a gravelly seabed, but in areas of low current flow. Widespread sand wave fields on the bank are devoid of scallops.

The Browns Bank project will be used as a model for intergovernmental department, interdisciplinary seabed habitat studies in the near future. German Bank off southern Nova Scotia has already been mapped using multibeam, and the Canadian portion of Georges Bank is scheduled to be surveyed using multibeam in the summer of 1999. The resulting areal coverage of a significant portion of the southern Scotian Shelf by these combined surveys suggest that the time is approaching to consider a plan for the systematic multi beam surveying of the entire Canadian Atlantic continental shelf.

9.2 Mapping of UK Gravel Biotopes and an Examination of the Factors Controlling the Distribution, Type, and Diversity of their Biological Communities

Dr Rees outlined initial progress with a three-year research programme to apply a range of acoustic techniques to the mapping of physical and biological aspects of the seabed in areas of the English Channel. The study, funded by the UK Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food, is being carried out (by Craig Brown, David Limpenny and co-workers) at the CEFAS Burnham Laboratory.

Work began in 1998 with a preliminary survey covering a small area of seabed (approximately 4 km x 11 km) to the east of the Isle of Wight in the English Channel. A sidescan sonar survey, covering 100 % of the selected area, was carried out using an EG&G DF 1000 digital sidescan fish, and a mosaic of the output was produced using the Triton Elics post processing software. The area was then divided into acoustically distinct areas which were later ground truthed using a range of quantitative and semi-quantitative techniques (mini-Hamon grab, drop camera and rock dredge). The> 5 mm faunal fraction from each sampling station was processed onboard the research vessel. Collected samples were returned to the laboratory for particle size analysis, and analysis of the 1-5 mrn faunal fraction.

The preliminary > 5 mm biological data was statistically analysed using multivariate methods. There was little correlation between community structure at sampling stations (determined by statistical cluster analysis) and associated seabed type (as defined from the sidescan output). There appeared, however, to be a link between community structure and the presence/absence of cobbles within samples. This was determined using photographs of the substrate, taken after collection of samples at each station using the mini-Hamon grab. The 1-5 mrn infaunal samples are still being processed, and results may reveal a stronger link between benthic community structure and the physical habitat that can be deduced from sidescan sonar output.

Video footage, collected by the drop camera, revealed that the habitat within this region of the English Channel was particularly patchy in nature. This has caused problems when trying to define broad-scale biotopes across an area of

1999 BEWG Report 13 seabed. RoxAnn surveys were also carried out in parallel with the sidescan sonar surveys, and results are currently being processed.

The project has now just entered Year 2. Two cruises are pl~nned for July and August of this year (1999). The first cruise will involve an acoustic survey using sidescan sonar, RoxAnn and QTC (possibly dual frequency QTC) on designated areas of the seabed within the Eastern English Channel. Acoustic data will be processed, and acoustically distinct areas of the seabed will be ground truthed using the most appropriate sampling techniques (mini-Hamon grab/rock dredge/Rallier du Baty dredge/video) during the second cruise.

10 DEVELOPMENTS IN COMPUTER AIDS IN BENTHIC STUDIES (TAXONOMIC AND OPERA TIONAL)

10.1 Identification Keys on CD-ROM

Dr M. de Kluijver reported on the progress of the ETI CD-ROM for identification of benthic species, which is under development. The CD-ROM facilitates the identification of macrobenthic organisms (1 mm and larger) in the southern North Sea (down to 100 m depth). At this time, pictorial keys are available for nearly 2000 species, belonging to 13 different taxa (Annex 7). It is expected that the total product will enable the identification of 3000 species. Besides pictorial keys, the CD-ROM will contain introductions to the different taxa, glossaries, illustrated species descriptions, synonyms, literature links and taxonomic sections. In addition, standard protocols for sampling and identifying benthic communities will be developed by combining existing methodologies. Reference will be made to guidelines in different ICES reports and the QA system.

Test versions of two CD-ROMS will be made available during this year, viz. Mollusca and Brachiopoda (525 species), and Polychaeta, Nemertea, Planaria and Sipuncula (ca. 638 species). The Mollusca will contain a 'MapIt' (a modified GIS) module, while for the Polychaeta a text key for the higher taxa will be provided and, where useful, an 'identify It' for some families and genera. The remaining groups will be released in the years 200012001.

The members of BEWG agreed to comment on the different species lists that will be sent to them bye-mail.

10.2 BioMar Viewer

Dr D. Connor demonstrated the BioMarViewer that is now available as a CD-ROM (Picton and Costello, 1999). It includes a database of survey data for the Irish coast, a bibliography of about 8000 references, the MNCR marine biotope classification for Britain and Ireland, and about sod species descriptions for subtidal epibiota. There is full hypertext linking throughout the application and high quality photographs.

Picton, B.E., and Costello, M.J. (Eds.) 1999. BioMar biotope viewer: a guide to marine habitats, fauna and flora of Britain and Ireland. Environmental Sciences Unit, Trinity College, Dublin.

10.3 Identification Keys on Epibenthos

Dr I. Kroncke informed BEWG of the ongoing activities of the project on biodiversity ofepifauna of the North Sea and Skagerrak using bottom trawl surveys. In the framework of this project, identification keys are being developed intended to aid fisheries biologists. BEWG was notified that the reporting format being used was different from the one in use at ICES. This needs attention by the ICES Environment?l Data Scientist.

11 ADVICE ON QUALITY ASSURANCE PROCEDURES FOR BENTHOS STUDIES

11.1 Review of Standard Operating Procedures

Dr H. Rees presented a document summarising the outcome of a review of submitted Standard Operating Procedures, which is given at Annex 8. Recommendations included a request to BEWG members for further submissions so that a critical review could be extended to cover specific areas of benthos sampling or analytical activity.

Dr H. Rumohr referred to the TIMES No. 8 report on collection, treatment, and quality assurance of samples of soft bottom macrofauna. This report will be printed by ICES by summer 1999.

14 1999 BEWG Report 11.2 Review of Case Studies

Activities of the UK National Marine Biological AQC Scheme (NMBAQC)

Dr Rees gave an account of the NMBAQC scheme, which is now in its fifth year. It is intended to ensure the quality of macrobenthos data submitted to the UK National Marine Monitoring Programme (NMMP), but also has wider benefits in the conduct of marine and estuarine pollution surveys in UK waters. The scheme has addressed the efficiency of sorting and identification of benthic macrofaunal samples; and also the efficiency of biomass determination. Because of the relevance of sediment type to the interpretation of biological data, competence in sediment particle size analysis is also addressed. In 1997, the NMBAQC organised a field methods workshop dealing with the efficiency of sampling and initial processing of material, and has also had a role in sponsoring taxonomic workshops. Further workshops are planned in cooperation with other UK agencies, including one in May 1999 concerning issues of epifaunal sampling and sampling design.

About 27 laboratories presently participate, ranging from regulatory authorities and university departments to private­ sector consultants. In 199711998, an evaluation of performance was done by the following means:

1) three participant-supplied macrobenthic samples (OS) to be (re)analysed by a nominated contractor; Ring Tests: a) one normal ring test of twenty five species to be supplied by the contractor, b) one participant-supplied set of twenty five species to be sent to the contractor for validation, c) one ring test targeted at 'problem taxa' highlighted throughout the scheme; 2) one contractor-supplied macrobenthic sample (MB); 3) two sediment samples for particle size analysis.

In Annex 9 an indication of variability in laboratory performance in the identification of specimens from a Ring Test is shown in Figure 2, while Figure 1 shows the returns from an exercise to determine variability in the outcome of particle size analysis. As the scheme has been running for about five years, it is possible to gain an overview of the performance of laboratories across several exercises. Figures 3 and 4 show the % difference in numbers of taxa and individuals, ranked in increasing order, arising from the analysis by all laboratories of five samples which were subsequently re­ analysed by a single contractor. (Note that a negative value indicates that the contractor found fewer species or individuals than was determined by the participating laboratory for that sample, and vice versa.) Figure 3 shows an even distribution in over- and under-reporting of numbers of taxa; Figure 4 shows that most laboratories tended to under­ estimate actual numbers of individuals.

Issues arising from the scheme to date include continued problems with consistency in biomass analysis, sorting efficiency, and variability in analysis of the fine fraction of sediments. Late returns or non-returns of analysed samples is problematic in a number of cases.

Criteria for evaluating the acceptability of data

The UK National Marine Biological AQC Scheme (NMBAQC) was set up in order to ensure that macrobenthos data submitted to the UK Marine Monitoring Programme was of a consistent and acceptable quality. To this end, a provisional set of criteria was agreed, to test the outcome of the analysis of samples by participating laboratories. The pass/fail criteria were assigned only to the outcome of analysis of 'own samples' (OS), i.e., samples taken by individual laboratories participating in the scheme, which were then reconstituted, and reanalysed by the contractor.

Own sample-total taxa

This flag relates to the performance of the laboratory with respect to the efficiency with which the animals were extracted from a sample collected by that laboratory. The 'correct' total number of taxa is assumed to be that resulting from re-analysis of the sample by the nominated contractor. To achieve a pass, the number of taxa extracted should be within ± 10 % or ± 2 taxa (whichever is greater) of the total.

1999 BEWG Report 15 Own sample-total individuals

This flag reflects the efficiency with which a laboratory estimated the number of individuals in the sample. The total should be within ± 10 % or ± 2 individuals (whichever is greater) of the total resulting from re-analysis of the sample by the nominated contractor.

Own sample-total biomass

The total value should be within ± 20 % of the value obtained from re-analysis of the sample.

Own sample-Bray-Curtis comparison

Comparison of the two data sets, from re-analysis by the nominated contractor and by the participating laboratory, should result in a Bray-Curtis similarity index of ~ 90 %.

Particle size CPS) analysis-silt/clay fraction

A laboratory is required to determine the silt/clay « 63 micron) fraction to within ± 10 % of the mean of the results from all laboratories.

To attain an overall 'pass' flag for the OS exercise on which to base a filtering system for the NMMP database, it is required that (in anyone year) laboratories obtain passes for .six of the nine individually flagged exercises, i.e., three samples and three flagged items (numbers of taxa, individuals and Bray-Curtis similarity).

Because of the considerable variation in the estimation of biomass, the flag for this component was excluded from the determination of the overall flag for the OS exercise. Laboratories failing to supply OS or PS data were automatically assigned a fail flag by default.

The outcome of the application of the above system to 1997/1998 data was that, while individually very few laboratories had consistent problems, eight of sixteen NMMP laboratories failed overall, seven of which supplied insufficient or no OS data (these were deemed to have failed). (Overall flags can only be applied to laboratories participating in biological components. They are not applicable to laboratories only participating in analysis of particle size samples.) Achievement of the biological standards appeared to be posing a challenge for a number of laboratories. It is intended that the standards will be re-assessed (not necessarily relaxed) and peer reviewed in the near future. Particle size poses less of a challenge to laboratories although a number failed to return data and thus failed by default.

Criteria for evaluating the acceptability of samples during field collection are less well developed. However, for grab samples collected under NMMP auspices, those less than 5 cm depth (for sands) and 7 cm depth (in muds) at the centre of the closed grab buckets are routinely rejected.

Finally, it may be noted that the above standards have recently been applied to other UK project work as a means to evaluate data quality, and a report on the outcome is in preparation (a draft was made available to SGQAE members).

The Natural History Museum in the UK runs a scheme for the certification, by examination, of proficiency in the identification of several groups of terrestrial, freshwater and marine species. Such an approach may be viewed as a valuable alternative to formal (and often costly) QA accreditation schemes, in cases where work is conducted by small specialist units involving limited numbers of staff, or even single individuals. At present, marine certification (in the form of an 'identification qualification' or IdQ) is limited to rnarine benthic macro-invertebrates.

BEWG further discussed the issue of determining the acceptability of data, in the light of the above presentation. Biological studies at the community level present particular challenges in QA, since each field-collected sample constitutes a unique multivariate entity, i.e., consisting of a combination of species and individuals peculiar to that sample. Of course, this is not to imply that all component species are unique in their occurrence, and some may be sufficiently widespread to be suitable for intercomparison exercises of identification proficiency among many countries. However, many species will be more localised in distribution, and competency in identification may, as a result, be more fairly tested at a regional level. The general absence of recognised standards governing permissible change in animal communities in response to man-made influences also complicates the setting of criteria governing the acceptability of the data: the latter may often have to be somewhat arbitrary in their derivation.

16 1999 BEWG Report Nevertheless, only correct names should be entered into databases. In case of uncertainties, it is better to record correctly at the level of genus (or above) than incorrectly at the level of species. Exercises to ensure interlaboratory consistency in species identification were supported, as was a system of flagging of data where a laboratory had not achieved acceptable standards. Every laboratory entering data into a national/international database must show evidence of having attended relevant taxonomic workshops.

Biological Effects Quality Assurance in Monitoring Programmes (BEQUALM)

Dr H. Rumohr reported on the EU-programme BEQUALM, which started in 1998 and is a follow-up on the QUASIMEME project with respect to biological effects techniques. Under this programme, Dr Rumohr will collect and analyse relevant SOPs, and will also document SOPs by video. To that end he will approach BEWG members and other laboratories for cooperation. The objectives of the BEQUALM programme are outlined in Annex 10.

Taxonomic Expertise

Dr H. Rumohr reminded BEWG of problems regarding taxonomic expertise as experienced in the Baltic cooperation. To improve on the taxonomical expertise, international Baltic taxonomic workshops are being held every second year. The next one will be held in Wilhelmshaven, Germany, in autumn 1999. Financial support is given by HELCOM. Alternating with these workshops are national workshops in the participating countries.

Dr L. Watling pointed out the absence of any certification system in benthic ecology, especially with respect to good taxonomy. He recommended that specimens be kept in 'museums' in order to make later identification possible. The Working Group recommended that ICES take steps to stimulate the acceptance of certification of biological analysis in laboratories. Dr H. Rees commented that certification relates to procedures rather than to the quality of taxonomy. The difficulty is that there are no accepted criteria for judgement of the quality of taxonomic performance.

With respect to the performance of databases, it was noted that these databases (e.g., those of ICES) should be able to deal with frequent changes in taxonomic nomenclature, and especially with the consequences of taxonomic revisions.

11.3 Inventory of National Guidelines

Dr Rees presented the latest draft of this compilation, which is given at Annex 11. BEWG recommended that any further submissions towards this compilation should be notified to Dr Rees prior to the next meeting.

12 GENERAL GUIDELINES ON QA FOR BIOLOGICAL MONITORING (REQUEST FROM SGQAE)

Dr H. Rees presented a draft of 19-02-1999 of a document 'General guidelines on quality assurance for biological monitoring in the OSPAR area' (Annex 12). It was agreed that BEWG members will send final comments on this draft to Dr Rees by December 1999.

13 GUIDELINES FOR EPIFAUNAL SAMPLING AND COMMUNITY DESCRIPTION OF EPIBIOTA

Dr H. Rees informed BEWG that there had not been much progress in developing these guidelines. BEWG was asked whether a large ICES TIMES report should be produced on the procedures for epibenthic sampling. It was suggested that maybe a chapter on this subject should be included in the new IBP handbook on sampling benthos. Community definitions for level bottom epifauna are lacking. This should definitely be included in the handbook. The problem is that different gear is being used for sampling epibenthos, and as a consequence no consistent picture arises. Dr L. Watling suggested that this should be a topic for discussions during next year's BEWG meeting. Dr D. Connor reported that enough data are available, but that there is a problem when it comes to classification. Dr H. Rees emphasised the problem with tow gear, because of limited knowledge of the bottom types in areas that are supposed to be sampled. Dr H. Rumohr suggested that the use of videos should be promoted in all types of benthic sampling. It was also stated that towed video systems are now fairly reasonably priced, and therefore video should be used all the time (Dr Watling). Dr K. Essink stated that BEWG should keep in 'contact' with the IBP-handbook on this issue. !twas agreed that members of the BEWG will look into this question and report back to the Group.

1999 BEWG Report 17 14 ANALYSIS OF THE IMPACT OF NORTH ATLANTIC OSCILLATIONS (NAO) ON BENTHIC POPULATION PARAMETERS

Unfortunately, no Finnish representative was present to present results of studies on the influence of NAO on salinity and oxygen conditions in the Baltic Sea.

14.1 Causal Relationships in Long-term Changes of Benthos in Gullmarsfjorden, western Sweden

Drs B. Tunberg and J. Hagberg reported that in October 1987, there was widespread mass mortality of benthic organisms in relatively shallow water in the inner part of Gullmarsfjorden on the Swedish west coast, most likely caused by low oxygen levels. By 1990, benthic abundance, biomass and diversity had recovered dramatically. During the period 1991 to 1997, a second less severe disturbance occurred between 1991 and 1993.

Benthic community abundance in the deep basin of Gullmarsfjorden showed marked periodic varlatlOn at an approximate period of 7-8 years. Pooled Skagerrak 100 m stations showed a similar variation in benthic abundance at a similar period, but were about +1 year out of phase with Gullmarsfjorden. The two shallow fjord stations (circa 30 m and 40 m deep) situated at the mouth of the fjord and in the innermost part of the fjord also showed similar temporal abundance patterns (r = 0.52, p < 0.05)~

A close correlation (r = 1.0, P < 0.05) was recorded between the nitrogen input from the river Orekil (innermost part of Gullmarsfjorden) and total benthic abundance variations in the fjord. Furthermore, the nitrogen input was negatively correlated to the NAO index (r = -0.60, p < 0.05). This suggests that variation in benthic abundance at sites within Gullmarsfjorden may also be linked to the NAO, nutrient supply and enhanced production, through various possible mechanisms.

A possible mechanism for the one-year lag of the oscillation of the benthos in the Skagerrak compared to Gullmarsfjorden may therefore be connected to runoff where the benthos in Gullmarsfjorden react one year earlier than the benthos at the offshore stations. Statistical models were made using multiple regression on data from 1980, 1981 or 1983 (depending on station) to 1994, to model benthic total abundance variations at offshore Skagerrak stations to climatic and hydrological data. A number of factors such as water temperature, NAO index, wind direction, precipitation and runoff were used. Predicted benthic total abundance variations for 1995, 1996 and 1997 were thereafter compared to observed values. Temperature at 200 or 600 meters depth in the Skagerrak was the factor that, alone, best explained the benthic variations at all stations. Temperature at 600 m has earlier been shown to correlate closely to the NAO index (Tunberg and Nelson, 1998, MEPS 170: 85-94). Together with the results from the partial correlation analyses, showing that both runoff and temperature at 600 m depth in the Skagerrak correlate to the benthic variations at. the offshore stations, this indicates that the temperature in the Skagerrak deep water is connected to a factor that is important for benthic total abundance in the Skagerrak. The temperature is an indicator of water renewal which could be the responsible factor. These results indicate two possible mechanisms through which the NAO index may influence the natural variations of benthic total abundance on the west coast of Sweden.

In addition to the above presentation, Dr G. Duineveld informed BEWG of a project investigating the interannual growth variation in the bivalve Arctica islandica at the Fladen Grounds by using dendrochronology data. It appeared that growth rings in the shell correlate with precipitation, i.e., a NAO-related climatic phenomenon. It is planned to investigate Arctica islandica popUlations from several areas of the North Sea in order to obtain insight into the spatial extent of these growth variation patterns. Dr L. Watling suggested to also take into account annual variation in hours of sunshine because of this influencing primary production.

Dr B. Todd drew the attention to research on deposition of clay layers in the North American Great Lakes. In this depositional record, signals were found of palaeo-El Nino events.

BEWG agreed on the importance of further presentations on NAO-related research (a.o. by Finnish and German scientists) at the next BEWG meeting. Furthermore, it was advocated to also investigate possible relationships with the NAO in other long-term data sets (e.g., from Wadden Sea).

15 CONTRIBUTION TO THE MARINE HABITAT COMMITTEE [MHC] STRATEGIC PLAN

BEWG took note of the request from the Chair of the MHC and the draft Strategic Plan of 19 September 1998 (slightly edited in January 1999).

18 1999 BEWG Report The general opinion of BEWG was that the draft plan is rather demanding and may be difficult to implement. It was noted that ICES is not in a position to manage members of working groups; it only can express their wishes and request action. The work done by working groups is very much dependent on who is attending the working group meetings, and on how much time of individual scientists is allotted to ICES-related work by their home institutes.

BEWG agrees with the first formulated role for the new ICES Science Committees, viz. to keep abreast of the state-of­ the-art of science within their scientific area. At the same time, however, BEWG feels that it should deal with those areas where new developments are important to applied science's goals ofICES.,

BEWG, without going into much detail, considered the six objectives presented in the draft Strategic Plan. As a first step in contributing to the Strategic Plan of the MHC, an overall evaluation was given with respect to the relevance of the present and possible future work of the BEWG for each of the objectives (see Annex 13).

16 ANY OTHER BUSINESS

16.1 Joint Meeting with WGFTFB

Dr K. Essink informed BEWG of a request received this week from the Chair of the Working Group on Fishing Technology and Fish Behaviour (WGFTFB) to have a joint working group session in April 2000 in order to initiate a dialogue between benthic ecologists and gear technologists. The idea of the WGFTFB was that closer collaboration between these groups would result in more effective progress in the development of technical modifications to fishing gears to reduce the impact on benthos and benthic substrates. BEWG decided that, because of the diversity of expertise among BEWG members, participation of a delegation of the BEWG in the 2000 meeting of WGFTFB would be most efficient. As the WGFTFB meeting will be held in IImuiden, The Netherlands, BEWG decided that Dr K. Essink and Dr 1. Craeymeersch will participate in the WGFTFB meeting. Possibly, also Drs M. Bergman, M. Kaiser and H.Rumohr(?) will participate. The latter four scientists have been involved in the IMPACT-II project on the impact of bottom fishing gear on benthos. Dr Essink will communicate this decision to the Chair of the WGFTFB.

16.2 New Chair

Dr K. Essink has received a letter from the ICES General Secretary informing him of the expiry by the end of October 1999 of his term of office as Chair of the BEWG. After some discussion, BEWG decided to propose to ICES to re-elect Dr K. Essink for a second term. Dr Essink accepted this proposal under the provision that he has to seek approval from his superiors at the home institute. He will inform the ICES General Secretary accordingly.

16.3 Socio-economic Approaches

Dr H. Rumohr informed BEWG of a course he took on socio-economic evaluation methods related to the marine environment. Dr H. Kautsky added that at the University of Stockholm there has been experience in this field for some ten years.

BEWG decided that Drs Rumohr and Kautsky will explore the possibility of presenting a paper on this subject related to the marine benthic system at the next BEWG meeting. Alternatively, they may invite another speaker.

17 RECOMMENDATIONS AND ACTION LIST

17.1 Recommendations

Recommendations with justifications for the 2000 meeting of BEWG are listed in Annex 14.

17.2 Action List

1) Jan Helge Fossa to report on further results on deepwater Lophelia reefs in Norwegian waters.

2) Jan Helge Fossa to report on the development of an acoustical method for biomass estimation of kelp.

3) Gerard Duineveld to report on the effect of climate change on bivalve growth.

1999 BEWG Report 19 4) Gerard Duineveld to report on the REDUCE project on selectivity of fishing gears in relation to its effects on benthos.

5) Sigmar Steingrimsson to report on further results from the BIOICE project.

6) Ingrid Kroncke to report on further results of benthos studies at the Dogger Bank.

7) Ingrid Kroncke to report on results of the epifauna biodiversity studies in the North Sea using bottom trawls.

8) David Connor to report on the results of the Habitat Classification Workshop, Oban, September 1999.

9) Mario de Kluijver to report on progress regarding the preparation of CD-ROM for the identification of macrobenthos of the North Sea.

10) Karel Essink to report on the outcome ofthe evaluation of the Dutch macrozoobenthos monitoring programme.

11) Sigmar Steingrimsson to report on results of experimental studies on the effects of otter trawling on benthos.

12) Anita Ktinitzer to report on progress in the development of a QA-system for the German marine monitoring programme.

13) Heye Rumohr to report on results of the BEQUALM project.

14) Ashley Rowden to report on progress in studies on small-scale distributions of benthic invertebrates.

15) Doris Schiedek to report on progress in research on Marenzelleria spp.

16) Portuguese member(s) to report on new developments in Portuguese benthos research.

17) Spanish member to report on new developments in Spanish benthos research.

18) Hans Hillewaert to report on long-term effects of dredge spoil dumping on macrofauna.

19) Tasso Eleftheriou/Chris Smith to report on benthic studies in the Mediterranean Sea.

20) Hubert Rees to report on UK benthic studies at waste disposal and aggregate extraction sites.

21) Hubert Rees to seek contact with the editor of the update of the IBP Benthos Methods Handbook to ensure that coverage of epibenthos matters by the BEWG does not overlap.

22) Ann-Britt Andersin to report on the Finnish monitoring programme including the quality assurance system.

23) Ann-Britt Andersin to report on the importance of NAO for the salinity and oxygen conditions in the Baltic Sea.

24) Brian Todd to report on further developments in non-traditional benthic habitat mapping.

25) Don Gordon to report on the results of mobile fishing gear experiments.

26) Les Watling to present results of epifauna analysis in the Gulf of Maine.

27) Mario de Kluijver to report on macrofauna studies at the Rotterdam dredge spoil dumpsite in the North Sea.

28) Members to submit further examples of laboratory Standard Operating Procedures to Hubert Rees by December 1999 for review in time for the 2000 meeting.

29) Paul Kingston to report on progress in the North Sea Benthos Project.

20 1999 BEWG Report 30) Hans Kautsky to further report on the Swedish phytobenthos monitoring programme and related QA matters.

31) Jan Warzocha to report on the results of long-term data analysis in the southern Baltic Sea.

32) Gerard Duineveld to report on OMEX-II studies at the Iberian continental margin.

33) David Connor to report on Internet database developments for MERMAID and MarLIN.

34) Les Watling to report on the development of guidelines for ROV and submersible use in benthos studies.

35) Jean-Marie Dewarumez to report on recruitment processes in the Southern Bight of the North Sea as an explanation of long-term variability of communities, e.g., Abra alba community.

36) Jean-Marie Dewarumez to report on the project 'Rationaliser les connaissances pour preserver durablement Ie patrimoine naturellittoral (LITEAU)'.

37) Johan Craeymeersch to report on shellfish surveys in coastal waters.

38) Johan Craeymeersch to report on the impact of shellfish fisheries on benthos.

39) Bjorn Tunberg to report on the long-term oscillations of the infaunal communities along the Swedish west coast.

40) Bjorn Tunberg to report on the project 'Benthic community dynamics under various wetland management scenarios, Merritt Island National Wildlife Refuge, Florida'.

18 VENUE AND DATE OF THE NEXT MEETING

It was proposed that the 2000 meeting of the Benthos Ecology Working Group be held at the Darling Marine Center, Walpole, Maine, USA, 26 to 30 April. The offer to host this meeting was confirmed by Dr L. Watling.

It was anticipated to accept the invitation by Dr J.-M. Dewarumez to have the 2001 meeting of the BEWG at the Station Marine de Wimereux, France.

19 CLOSING OF THE MEETING

The Chair thanked all members of BEWG for their contributions and good spirit. Special thanks were conveyed to the local organiser of the meeting, Dr B. Tunberg, who had taken care for an immaculate organisation. Also the crew of the research vessel 'Arne Tiselius' was thanked for an instructive field sampling trip in the archipelago of Lysekil. This meeting was financially supported by:

The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences The Swedish National Board of Fisheries The Goteborg Marine Research Center Scamaff

1999 BEWG Report 21 ANNEX 1: LIST OF PARTICIPANTS

Name Address Telephone Telefax E-mail Erik Bonsdorff Dept. of Biology + 358 2 215 4070 + 358 2 215 4748 [email protected] Abo Akademy University BioCity FIN-20520 Abo Finland David Connor Joint Nature Conservation + 44 1733 866837 + 44 1733 555948 [email protected] Committee, Monkstone House, City Road, Peterborough PEl IJY, UK. Johan Craeymeersch RIVO-DLO + 31 113572781 + 31 113 573477 [email protected] P.O. Box 77 NL-4400AB Yerseke The Netherlands Gerard Duineveld NIOZ + 31 222 369528 + 31222319674 [email protected] P.O. Box 59 NL-1790 AB Den Burg-Texel The Netherlands Jean-Marie Station Marine de Wimereux + 33321992919 + 31321992901 [email protected] Dewarumez Upres A ELlCO 28, avenue Foch BP80 F-62930 Wimereux France Karel Essink Rijks waterstaatJRIKZ + 31505331373 + 3150 5340772 [email protected] (Chair) PO Box 207 NL-9750 AE Haren The Netherlands Jacob Hagberg Kristineberg Marine Research + 46 523 18543 + 46 523 18502 [email protected] Station, Kristineberg 2130, S-450 34 Fiskebackskil, Sweden Hans Hillewaert Department of Sea Fisheries + 32 59 320805 + 32 59 330629 [email protected] Ankerstraat 1, Internet: B-8400 Ostend, http://uc2.unicall.be/RVZ Belgium Hans Kautsky Dept. of Systems Ecology + 468 164244 + 46 8158417 [email protected] Stockholm University e S-106 91 Stockholm Sweden

Paul Kingston Dept. of Biological Sciences, + 44 131451 3303 + 44 131 449 3009 [email protected] Heriot Watt University, Edinburgh EH14 4AS Scotland, UK

22 1999 BEWG Report Name Address Telephone Telefax E-mail Mario de Kluijver ISPIETI +31 205256905 +31 205255402 [email protected] PO Box 94766, NL-I090 GT Amsterdam, The Netherlands Ingrid Kroncke Forschungsinstitut Senckenberg + 49 4421 947532 + 49 4421 947550 [email protected] Schleusenstrasse 39a, mare .. de 0-26382 Wilhelmshaven, Germany Hubert Rees Centre for Environment, +44 1621 787200 +44 1621 784989 [email protected] Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (CEFAS) Burnham Laboratory, Remembrance Av., Burnham-on-Crouch, Essex, UK Rutger Rosenberg Kristineberg Marine Research + 46 523 18529 + 46523 18502 r. [email protected] Station, Kristineberg 2130, S-450 34 Fiskebackskil, Sweden Heye Rumohr Institut fur Meereskunde, +49 431 597 3957 +49 431 597 3994 [email protected] Dtisternbrooker Weg 20, 0-24105 Kiel, Germany Susan Smith National Board of Fisheries + 46 31 697825 +4631691109 susan. smith @fiskeriverket.s Institute of Coastal Research e Nya Varvet, hus 31 S-426 71 Gothenburg Sweden Brian J. Todd Geological Survey of Canada 1 902426-3407 + 1 902426-6152 [email protected] (Atlantic) Bedford Institute of Oceanography P.O. Box 1006 Dartmouth Nova Scotia Canada B2Y 4A2 Bjorn G. Tunberg Kristineberg Marine Research + 46 523 18509 + 46523 18502 [email protected] Station, Kristineberg 2130, S-450 34 Fiskebackskil, Sweden Jan Warzocha Sea Fisheries Institute + 48 58 201728 + 48 58 202831 [email protected] ul. Kollataja 1 Gdynia Poland Les Watling Darling Marine Center + 1 2075633146 + 1 207 563 3119 [email protected] University of Maine ext. 248 Walpole, ME 04573 USA

1999 BEWG Report 23 ANNEX 2: AGENDA

1) Opening and local organisation

2) Appointment of rapporteur

3) Terms of Reference

4) Adoption of the Agenda

5) Report on ICES Annual Science Conference - Lisbon, Portugal

6) Report on meeting of ACME, and other meetings of interest

7) Report of cooperative studies and other studies relevant to ICES (incl. Action List of 1998 BEWG-meeting)

8) North Sea Benthos Project

9) Merits of (new) sampling appraoches and new sampling devices

10) Developments in computer aids in benthic studies (taxonomic and operational)

11) Advice on Quality Assurance procedures for benthos studies through:

review of standard operating procedures

further review of case studies

inventory of national guidelines l1A) General guidelines on QA for biological monitoring (request from SGQAE)

12) Guidelines for epifaunal sampling and community description of epibiota

13) Analysis of the impact of North Atlantic Oscillations (NAO) on benthic population parameters

14) Contribution to the Marine Habitat Committee [MHC] strategic plan

15) Any other business

16) Recommendations and Action List

17) Date and place of next meeting

18) Closing of the meeting

24 1999 BEWG Report ANNEX 3: OSPARlICESIEEA WORKSHOP ON HABITAT CLASSIFICATION AND BIOGEOGRAPHIC REGIONS

Agenda Item 2 ASMO(L) 9912/3-E Original: English English only

OSPAR CONVENTION FOR THE PROTECTION OF THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT OF THE NORTH-EAST ATLANTIC

MEETING OF THE ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT AND MONITORING COMMITTEE (ASMO)

THE HAGUE: 14-16 APRIL 1999

Terms of Reference for an OSPARlICESIEEA Workshop on Habitat Classification and Biogeographic Regions

Presented by the United Kingdom

Background

1) At its meeting in September 1998 IMPACT agreed a Terms of Reference (IMPACT 981l4/1-E, Annex IS) for a Workshop on habitat classification and biogeographic regions, as part of the work it requires to implement the OSPAR strategy relating to habitats and species. It was agreed the main goals of the workshop should be the development of a habitat classification (inventory) for the OSPAR area and the identification of biogeographic sub-regions.

2) ICES and the European Environment Agency are undertaking related work on marine habitat classifications and have agreed to co-sponsor the workshop to ensure the results of the workshop are fully compatible between the organisations.

Action requested

3) ASMO is invited to adopt the attached Terms of Reference for the proposed workshop.

1999 BEWG Report 25 Annex!

Terms of Reference and preparatory activities for an OSPARlICESIEEA Workshop on Habitat Classification and Biogeographic Regions

Introduction

The OSPAR strategy on the protection and conservation of the ecosystems and biological diversity of the maritime area, adopted at Sintra in July 1998 to implement the new Annex V, states that aSPAR will assess which habitats need to be protected, including threatened habitats, based upon, inter alia, inventories of habitats in the maritime area. The aSPAR workshops on species and habitats (Texel, Netherlands, 1997) and marine protected areas (Vilm, Germany, 1998) have highlighted our lack of common understanding of the range of habitats within the aSPAR area, in particular, in the offshore and deep-water zones. Both workshops also recognised the need to adopt measures on habitats and species related, where appropriate, to sub-regions of the asp AR area in order to protect the range of biological diversity within the OSPAR maritime area.

To ensure work on the selection of habitats and species requiring protection within the OSPAR framework can progress on a satisfactory basis, the UK offered at IMPACT 1998 to host a Workshop on habitat classification and biogeographic regions. It was agreed the main goals of the workshop should be the development of a habitat classification (inventory) for the asp AR area and the identification of biogeographic sub-regions. Consideration needs also be given to the feasibility of preparing habitat maps to facilitate JAMP issue 6.2, concerning the areal extent and frequency of habitats within the asp AR area.

ICES, through its newly established Marine Habitat Committee, is also seeking to establish a habitat classification system and subsequently develop habitat maps, as part of its work on marine habitats, and the EEA is currently developing a habitat classification (EUNIS) for Europe. The proposed workshop will contribute to both of these initiatives.

Objectives of the workshop

The following objectives will be pursued at the workshop:

Habitat classification (inventory)

To develop a habitat classification (inventory) for the OSPAR area, thereby ensuring habitat categories, agreed across the aSPAR area, are available to facilitate implementation of aSPAR Annex V, inparticular further work to identify habitats requiring protection measures.

Biogeographic regions

To identify a series of biogeographic sub-regions for the asp AR area.

Habitat mapping

To assess the feasibility of producing habitat maps for the asp AR area, or particular parts of the area, such that the distribution, areal extents and frequencies of habitats can be better understood.

The workshop will take into consideration the requirements of Annex V, as elaborated in the OSPAR strategy and the OSPAR Action Plan for 1998-2003, as well as relevant information in the overview document on habitats and species compiled by the Netherlands (IMPACT 96/7/1) and the Summary Records for the Texel Workshop and the Vilm workshop (IMPACT 98/6/4). The development of the habitat classification will take account of the European Environment Agency's EUNIS habitat classification.

Background

OSPAR has given various considerations to the need to establish a marine habitat classification for the aSPAR area, drawing initially upon the outcome of the North Sea Ministerial Declaration in Esbjerg, Denmark in June 1995:

26 1999 BEWG Report 1. The protection of species and habitats in coastal and offshore areas

... the Ministers INVITE the European Commission and the European Environment Agency to further develop and agree on a classification system for marine biotopes in the North Sea, compatible with the classification system used in the Habitats Directive, to be used as a basis for the identification of marine habitats and species that need special protection measures

... the Ministers INVITE OSPAR to ...

identifying and mapping the most threatened and/or ecologically important species and habitats in collaboration with the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES), European Environment Agency and/or other relevant organisations ...

This was further elaborated in the OSPAR workshop on habitats and species (Texel, Netherlands in February 1997), which included the following Terms of Reference:

1. Habitat classification systems

b. to define on the basis of this evaluation and in relation to the selection criteria to be used (see section 11) which system or combination of systems and which level of precision is most suitable to classify the marine habitats of the maritime area;

c. to develop an action programme for mapping, at an appropriate scale, of marine habitats within the maritime area on the basis of this agreed classification system;

The Texel workshop report concluded by stating: 'The workshop therefore proposes the UK to co-ordinate, with appropriate support, the further work required to establish a satisfactory marine habitats classification for the OSPAR region as a contribution to the EUNIS European classification and to work closely with the EEA in this regard.'

With the addition of Annex V to the OSPAR Convention in July 1998, IMPACT now has specific responsibility under the 1998-2003 OSPAR Action Plan (Section 2.2 Activities, paragraph 5) to:

compile lists of e.g. threatened or declining species;

and of threatened habitats; and for the selection of species and habitats which need to be protected.

IMPACT is currently also charged with fulfilling JAMP issue 6.2 which states 'What are the areal extents, frequencies and inter-relationships between different types of habitat within the coastal and offshore environment?'

To effectively work towards the requirements of the OSPAR Action Plan and JAMP issue 6.2, it is firstly essential to establish a common understanding of which habitats are present within the OSPAR area, i.e. to develop a habitat classification (inventory). This would then enable assessment of the habitats to identify those requiring further protection measures and initiation of an appropriate mapping programme.

In parallel to considerations by OSPAR for a habitat classification for the north-east Atlantic, the European Environment Agency (EEA), through its European Topic Centre on Nature Conservation, Paris (ETCNC), has been developing a classification of terrestrial and marine habitats to cover the whole of Europe-the EUNIS (European Nature Information System) classification. Whilst EUNIS aims to provide a broad marine classification for Europe, it is

1999 BEWG Report 27 presently too poorly developed for the north-east Atlantic to suit the particular needs of OSPAR (the northeast Atlantic element of EUNIS is, at present, solely based on the inshore MNCR BioMar classification for Britain and Ireland).

The newly established ICES Marine Habitat Committee has given recent consideration (Lisbon, Portugal in September 1998) to the need for a habitat classification under Task GroupI of its work programme, which has the objective of:

Development of a classification system for marine habitats of coastal waters, continental shelves and slopes, and the open sea; including subsequent habitat mapping.

Work programme for the workshop

1) To develop a habitat classification for the OSPAR area, building upon the relevant sections of the European EUNIS classification and following the approaches developed in the MNCR BioMar classification for Britain and Ireland. All marine habitats within the OSP AR area· (inshore, offshore and deep water) will be included, developing a hierarchical classification with sufficient detail to suite the requirements of OSPAR to inventory and map habitats and for selection of habitats in need of further protection. 2) To identify biogeographic sub-regions of the OSPAR area (about 5-10), suitable for the selection of habitats and populations of species which are representative of the natural range of biological character in the OSP AR area. 3) To use the habitat classification developed at (1), especially for offshore and deep-water habitats, to make a preliminary identification of habitats within the OSP AR area which are threatened, endangered or rare and the main human activities that are affecting them. This work should form a limited part of the workshop as a contribution to ongoing work led by the Netherlands as a follow-up to the Texel workshop. 4) To assess the feasibility of producing habitat maps for the OSPAR area (extent and type of information available, logistics and resources), and consider what techniques and mechanisms (such as use of the European standard 50 km X 50 km UTM grid, GIS systems) may be suitable for· producing such maps. 5) On the basis of progress made during the workshop, to recommend further work on habitats that mav be appropriate to meet the ongoing needs of OSPAR, ICES, and the EEA.

Participants at the workshop

Delegates to the workshop should be nominated to the UK by 'Contracting Parties, Observers, the ICES Marine Habitat Committee or the EEA by 11 June 1999.

In order to fully achieve the aims of the workshop it is important that delegates have national or international expertise m:

Deep sea habitats (beyond 200 m depth) of the OSP AR area Shelf sea habitats (beyond 12 miles and down to 200 m depth) Coastal marine habitats (intertidal and shallow subtidal out to 12 miles)

As future OSP AR work on habitats is likely to focus on offshore areas, priority should be given to the nomination of delegates with expertise in deep sea and shelf sea habitats.

Nominations to D Connor at [email protected]

Logistics

The UK Joint Nature Conservation Committee will host a workshop during 6-10 September 1999 in Oban, Scotland.

Preparatory activities and relation with other organisations

1) Contracting Parties, Observers, ICES, and EEA are requested to notify contact points for the workshop by 14 May 1999. 2) Contact points are requested to confirm their participants by 11 June 1999. 3) UK to send participants details concerning travel, accommodation and other logistical arrangements by 9 July 1999.

28 1999 BEWG Report 4) UK to send participants details of the most up-to-date version of the EUNIS classification and any other relevant documents (e.g., on biogeographic regions, mapping) by 9 July 1999. 5) UK to prepare an amalgamation of existing classifications/inventories within the OSPAR area (as listed in IMPACT 98/6/5 or provided to the UK in time) as a discussion document for the workshop by 9 July 1999. 6) Participants to undertake appropriate preparation of information on habitats within their area of expertise, under guidance from the UK, to facilitate a productive workshop. 7) Contracting Parties, Observers, ICES, EEA and participants are invited to contribute papers or make presentations at the workshop and to advise the organisers by 6 August 1999 of such proposals.

Outcomes of the workshop

The United Kingdom will prepare a Summary Report, addressing each of the objectives of the workshop, for circulation to participants for comment. The final Summary Report will be presented to IMPACT for adoption, to the EEA and to ICES.

The EEA will adopt the results of the workshop, as appropriate, as an integral part of the EUNIS habitat classification.

1999 BEWG Report 29 ANNEX 4: REPORT ON THE ICES SYMPOSIUM, MARINE BENTHOS DYNAMICS: ENVIRONMENTAL AND FISHERIES IMPACTS

There were three thematic areas. The first (Theme A) dealt with the evaluation of direct and indirect effects of fishery related activities and other man-made perturbations; the second (Theme B) on disturbance due to anthropogenic causes and recovery of benthos; and the third (Theme C), on natural and disturbance induced fluctuations in benthic communities.

The Symposium started with a passionate appeal from John Gray who voiced concern that the role of science has decreased in making managerial decisions over environmental issues in recent years. This has come about partly because green lobby groups argue that as science does not deal with uncertainties it should have no place in debate. The discussion of such issues should be directly with management. Gray did not see that this was necessarily the case and that government decisions could be driven by scientifically sound principles. He then went on to give us two examples of where he had used a rigorous scientific approach to influence governmental legislation on the basis that existing monitoring methods had not been sensitive enough to detect change in benthos. An important question that arises out of the use of such an objective approach is: at what level of effect is it unacceptable? Merely detecting an effect does not necessarily imply ecosystem damage. Wim Wolffe's presentation drew Gray's arguments nicely into the fisheries impact arena looking at the management of shell fisheries in the Dutch Wadden Sea and the effects harvesting mussels, cockles, and shrimp had on the benthos and productivity of the area. Shellfish dredging causes probably the greatest disturbance to the seabed of all bottom fishing activities. This is particularly true of suction dredging used for cockle fishing. Poor recruitment led to shellfish catches being regulated so that 60 % of the stocks had to be preserved as food for bird populations. Subsequent studies to determine whether this was effective were inconclusive. Mussels have not declined in numbers, neither have the numbers of oyster catchers, cockles have experienced some loss, so have eider duck. In the end, government decisions were based on Type I and Type 11 errors, with fishermen getting the benefit of the doubt over conservationists.

Long-term effects of shellfish dredging seem difficult to demonstrate. Erik Hoffman and his co-workers compared the effects of mussel dredging between a regularly fished area and one that had been closed to mussel dredging for almost 10 years on fin fish catches. Despite clear visual evidence of dredging in the mussel beds of the open area, no significant effects could be detected on the epifaunal community or fish catches from the two areas. Studies on the infauna at the same locations reported by Per Dolmer were able to show that there has been a reduction in certain polychaete species, that was paralleled by an increase in the shrimp, Crangon. He suggested disturbance by the mussel dredging resulted in the transport of biomass to a higher trophic level.

A rather different sort of shellfish harvesting was investigated by Theresa Lasiak who showed, using ABC curves, that subsistence collection of molluscs from a rocky intertidal subsistence fishery in South Africa resulted in a measurable impact. This was backed up by multivariate analysis. However, two-way SIMPER analysis indicated that most of the dissimilarity between exploited and unexploited sites could be mainly attributed to differences in abundance of those species being harvested.

Clare Eno reported on another less obvious type of impact, that of creels and pots. Detailed studies of lobster and crab fishing revealed that benthos disturbed by the traps invariably recovered and lasting impact was evident. The study did graphically show the consequence of losing traps. These can go on fishing for at least a year and in some cases become filled with various crustacea and fish such as wrasse. This goes on until the door hinges or netting degrades. Biodegradable door catches are recommended.

Another account of the impact of unusual harvesting methods was provided by Kjersti Sjotun. In this case it was the impact of kelp harvesting on fish popUlations which was studied by SCUBA observations. Despite the major change in habitat brought about the removal of the kelp canopy, there was a general increase in labrids and gadoids over the following summer in both harvested and unharvested areas of an experimental bay. However, if O-group gadoid schools were excluded, the density of gadoids in the unharvested area was significantly lower suggesting that it was important to manage the ratio between harvested and unharvested areas in any given region.

The rest of Theme A dealt with the impact trawling on benthos. By means of some excellent underwater video, Jan­ Helga Fossa clearly demonstrated the severe damage that can be done to Lophelia beds by the use of rock hopper trawls in the deep water off the Norwegian coast. Here Lophelia reefs are systematically cleared away prior to trawling, leaving only small fragments of Lophelia and destroying the reef structure. These huge and ancient coral reefs are under great threat and there is considerable urgency for some sort of control. Thomas Lundalv also provided some impressive video footage from the Koster-Vadero trough, a relatively deep water channel off the west coast of Sweden. This area is currently being fished for Pandalus and Nephrops, the trawling activity threatening a rich and diverse fauna both directly and indirectly by the effects of sediment resuspension in the confined space of the channel.

30 1999 BEWG Report Using extensive intertidal Sabel/aria reefs on the French coast for a programme of experiments Ralf Vorberg showed that the drastic decline of Sabel/aria reefs on the German North Sea coast over the last decade was not caused by beam trawling as has been suspected. He concluded that other factors such as the building of dikes, causeways and storm barriers, and the dumping of dredge waste as well as natural climatic factors were most likely responsible. Bob McConnaughey took us to the Bering Sea ecosystem where there has been an intensive development in commercial trawl fisheries. Because it has a relatively recent history with good recordkeeping, he was able to reconstruct the spatial and temporal patterns of exploitation. From this he compared the epifauna of un fished and fished areas and found that less mobile epifauna were more abundant in unfished areas, whilst more motile groups such as crabs and sea stars and bivalves were not as heavily affected. He concluded that although overall diversity and niche breadth of sedentary taxa were greater in the unfished areas, life history considerations, such as feeding mode and habitat requirements were important in determining response.

Several speakers addressed the impact of trawling on soft sediments. Brendan Ball showed a dramatic slide of a fisherman's onboard trawl track record that enabled us to get a clear picture of the great intensity with which parts of the Irish Sea are fished. Using areas protected by wrecks, he showed that these heavily fished areas were relatively sparse in fauna, and the fauna present was dominated by small polychaetes. Where protection was afforded by the proximity of a wreck, the fauna was rich and included large bivalves and echinoderms that were clearly vulnerable to trawling. Alex Schroeder also used wreck proximity as a control to assess impact, but looked at long-term changes using data from 1923, 1975, and 1995. He found an increase in number of species, abundance, and biomass over the period which appeared to be a result of short-lived opportunistic species, whilst long-lived species have declined. This was reflected in the wreck protection comparisons, where the protected areas supported more fragile species and larger organisms than the unprotected. Chris Frid reported investigations of data sets from the 1920s and 1980s and found that not all parts of the North Sea showed significant changes, where there had been change it involved subtle change in many taxa suggesting the impact may be indirect.

More evidence that change is not always as large as might be expected was provided by Mats Lindegarth who found that after 12 months of intensive trawling in a protected area both trawled and un trawled areas show similar large temporal changes in benthos. Changes were only slightly larger in trawled areas, suggesting trawling might influence small-scale spatial and temporal variability only. Hans Nilsson used remots sediment profiling in the same experimental areas, confining the nature of the small-scale changes.

The IMPACT II programme provided quite an input into the Symposium, apart from Brendan Ball's work in the Irish Sea, Magda Bergman compared the impacts of otter and beam trawls and attempted to estimate the annual mortality of megafauna using the triple-D dredge. She found that in the Dutch sector, the 12 m beam trawl was the most damaging, causing 5-40% mortality of megafauna. Relatively low mortalities followed the use of the otter trawl and 4 m beam trawl with a chain matrix. Overall the impact resulted in lower densities of vulnerable species and a greater abundance of opportunistic species. Stefan Groenewold focused on the response of scavengers. He found that there is an annual discard of some 260,000 tonnes of fish and 120,000 of invertebrates. Using traps and fish stomach analysis to estimate scavenger density, he showed a clear immigration of fish into trawled areas which was most marked immediately after a trawl pass. Quantifying the food released by the trawl pass, he concluded that its direct importance to the ecosystem was small and that beam trawling leads to short-cuts in trophic relationships often resulting in high turnover rates and production. It seems as if ICES fishery statistic squares cover too great an area to give accurate estimates of damage from trawling. Geran Piet showed that a better estimate can be made using sediment depth strata, even this could be improved using I x I high resolution fishery effort data. Chris Smith moved the centre of attention to the Mediterranean with a study of a conveniently restricted trawling lane off Iraklion. Using this and an adjacent unfished area, he showed that a few 'mega' species were more abundant in the trawling lane, being mainly predatory and scavenging species and concluded that different components of the benthos react differently to trawling disturbance. Pilar Sanchez working on the impact of otter trawling on coarse substrata in northwestern Mediterranean, found that species richness and diversity did not alter in the first 100 hours after impact, but did show differences after 150 hours. This implied that scavengers and predators made a significant impact. Analysis of faunal differences between trawled and untrawled sites showed that most groups of animals were not affected by the trawl. Maerl grounds were also shown to be vulnerable to trawling but that some disturbance of the seabed could be beneficial. Miraine Rizzo reported on a study off Malta and showed that whilst some degree of disturbance can enhance the growth of maerl, excessi ve turnover can result in the formation of overlarge rhodoliths resulting in a coarsening of the substratum and a change in the associated fauna. Another type of impact in the Mediterranean was reported by Guilio Relini in which trawling activity was related to the spread of the introduced algal species, Caulerpa. This alga has been shown to be dispersed on the nets of trawlers and has been invading the north coast of the Mediterranean and competing with the indigenous species, Cymodocea. The resulting habitat changes are not great, there is some evidence of reduction in commercially important fish species and the Caulerpa interferes with fishing gear deployment.

Roland Pitcher reported on an impressive programme of work that is being carried out in northeastern Australia to study the recovery of mega-zoobenthos from intensive trawling. Comparing fished areas with closed areas he found few

1999 BEWG Report 31 differences in the megafauna. In experimental trawl plots in which there was a single pass, even though 1-7 tonnes of material was removed from each plot, so significant differences in megafauna could be detected. However, more intense treatment, up to 13 consecutive passes, resulted in a substantial impact. The study concluded that impacts on the megabenthos may not be detectable in areas that are. trawled sparsely and that good management can allow sustained exploitation.

Overall, the picture is emerging that heavy damage to the seabed following trawling operations is not always obvious. Whether this is because benthic organisms are particularly resilient or we are dealing, in most cases, with already highly modified communities is not clear, but it would seem that with good management, sustainable exploitation of seabed resources is possible.

Theme B looked at disturbance from other anthropogenic causes and recovery of benthos. Unfortunately our keynote speaker, Tom Pearson was ill and could not make his presentation. The huge species richness to be found in Australia became apparent in the presentation by Michael Walker who gave a current species count of 600 species from the marine environs of Port Curtis in Queensland, with expectations of at least 800. Port Curtis is a rapidly developing port which has instituted a comprehensive environmental programme to monitor the effects of the port's growth. The effectiveness of this programme is already being put to the test as there is an unexplained crustacean shell disease slowly spreading up the adjacent coast which may be related to the quality of the sediment. Jean Munro reported on temporal changes in benthos communities affected by dredged material disposal in Quebec, finding that more than two years were needed before disturbed areas returned to a sediment and community structure similar to unaffected sites. A more spectacular disturbance was described by Candida Savage who carried out a multivariate analysis on faunal data from a marine diamond mining operation in South Africa. She found evidence that some hard-bodied species were able to survive the mining process, but there was a significant impact on the faunal communities. Some samples showed a trend towards pre-mined conditions 3 years after mining had stopped. Rafael Sarda studied the effects of a massive extraction of sand for beach nourishment in the Bay of Blanes. Recruitment after dredging was exceptionally high and during the second year after the dredging, density and bioma~s were back to normal, however, Callista, commercially harvested species takes 4 years to reach marketable size, effectively destroying the areas local Callista industry. The effects of aggregate dredging off the north coast of France was also shown to be limited. Michel Desprez showed that following cessation of dredging operations the seabed returned to control conditions within 28 months. The main impact from the aggregate extraction process appeared to be from the 're-deposition of sand rather than from the dredging itself, and recovery time could be minimized by selecting high energy areas for exploitation. However, rapid recovery may not always be apparent. Jan van Dalfsen found that in some areas changes in seabed morphology may persist for some time. Studies in the North Sea and the Mediterranean Sea sho~ed that recolonisation of disturbed areas was dominated by opportunistic species. Complete recovery of long-living species, such as bivalves and sea urchins, was not found.

Fish farming impact also represented an important area of concern. Roberto Danovaro showed that sediment conditions and fauna under fish cages in the Gaeta Gulf, Italy, can recover quite quickly once the source of contamination is removed. Chlorophyll and organic carbon reduce quickly and focusing their attention on meiofauna they concluded that the most sensitive species were nematodes and ostracods, but they rapidly recovered, reaching about 30 % of control abundances in 3 months. One interesting observation was that the expected copepod/nematode ratio was reversed. Viani Karrakassis reported on a study carried on three commercial fish farms in the Greek coastal zone located over substrata of different texture. Impact on silty sediments was marked, but almost negligible in the case of coarse sediment sites, possibly reflecting different hydrodynamic regimes.

Theme C dealt with natural and disturbance-induced fluctuations in benthic communities. Richard Warwick's keynote address dealt with methods of measuring impact on benthic diversity, producing some disturbing examples of the inadequacies of diversity indices. He proposed a new approach that takes the hierarchical nature of taxonomic classification into account and developed an algorithm to incorporate this into a new measure of taxonomic distinctness that better represents the structure of the community being investigated and which is also statistically testable.

Guy Batchelet and Hans Kautsky both demonstrated responses of benthic communities to different degrees of eutrophication. But, at the same time, eutrophication did not explain all of the benthic dynamics that they observed. A rather special case of disturbance of benthos by acid rum· off was introduced by Jamie Corfield. Using partial redundancy analysis and partial correspondence analysis, the effects of pH and soluble aluminium were distinguished and shown to be insignificant, but when combined the two factors had a strong influence, suggesting that there is a marked synergistic effect.

Jaap van der Meer reported on studies to determine the role of predators in the dynamics of intertidal invertebrate populations. The contribution was an eye opener. He had moved away from the, so often applied approaches to explain dynamics of populations to approaches that are more descriptive than analytical. A wider application of this approach will certainly bring us a big step further in understanding the dynamics of populations.

32 1999 BEWG Report Geoff Bailey reported on a hypoxic event off the west coast of South Africa in 1997. Around 1400 tonnes of rock lobsters were stranded because of a seasonal oxygen depletion that was particularly severe. Partially to blame was a bloom of flagellates which, because of stratification, led to anoxic conditions developing. Walter Nelson described widespread mass mortality of infauna in the relatively shallow waters of the inner part of Gullmarsfjorden, probably caused by low oxygen levels, over the period 1987-1997. These events may be linked to regional climatic changes and may be related to North Atlantic Oscillation. In the contribution by Ghertsos, on temporal changes in benthic communities in different parts of the English Channel, the importance was shown of paying attention to different spatial scales. Finally, Triantafyllou presented a numerical model for the Gialova Lagoon in which the importance of external physicaVchemical forcing on the pelagic system and its consequent effects on the benthic ecosystem was shown.

Paul Kingston Heye Rumohr

1999 BEWG Report 33 ANNEX 5: UNDERWATER VIDEO-TECHNIQUE AS A TOOL FOR THE BENTHIC MONITORING IN THE GERMAN PART OF THE BALTIC SEA

Michael L. Zettler and Doris Schiedek Baltic Sea Research Institute Wamemiinde, Seestrasse 15, D-18119 Rostock, Germany

In 1997 a project was started, aiming at the development of an underwater video-system for routine use within our national benthos monitoring programme. The programme was supported by the Federal Ministries for the Environment (BMU) and for Education and Research (BMBF). In the first part of the project a specific underwater video-system was constructed using expertise proposed in the literature (Holme and Barrett, 1977; Bluhm, 1994; Rumohr, 1995; Carleton and Done, 1995; Jacoby, 1998) and the results of several discussions with Heye Rumohr. After solving some technical problems, the underwater video-system, consisting of a sledge (ViMoS 2) and a video camera (Hitachi VK-C78ES, CCTV power zoom camera) was tested in the field. On these cruises various areal investigations were performed at different stations within the southern and western part of the Baltic Sea. During the video monitoring, the sledge was towed across the bottom by a drifting vessel at lowest possible speed. The camera was installed on a pan and tilt head. Scaling was accomplished by two parallel laser beams projected into the picture.

Finally, about 17 stations were visited during summer and autumn 1998, reaching from the Fehmarn belt to the Bornholm Sea (Figure 1). In total, 20 transacts have been recorded in water depths between 10 and 90 metres.

Figure 1. Stations in the southern and western Baltic, where the underwater video-technique was employed during the cruises in 1998.

2 For the later calibration of the video pictures, bottom samples were taken using van Veen grabs (0.98 and O. 106 m ) and dredges. All samples were treated according to the 'Guidelines for the Baltic Monitoring Programme for the third stage' (HELCOM, 1988). The recorded video material was analysed not only qualitatively but also quantitatively to some extent.

Using long-term benthic monitoring data (Baltic species list) as a reference 289 macrozoobenthic species are assumed present in total in the southern and western Baltic (Figure 2). The results obtained in the project, however, indicate that only 80 % of theses species (234) were found in the samples when only using the van Veen grab. A further 25 species are likely recognisable after analysing the video films. Some of the species already identified from the video pictures are representatives of epibenthos, such as the sea star Asterias rubens or the brittle star Ophiura albida. Others belong to the endobenthos, e.g., the soft-shell clam Arenomya a rena ria or the boring Pholadidae Barnea candida. They were identified due to their typical tracks on the sediment surface.

Probably 15 of the video-analysed species are more or less exclusively recognisable by means of the video technique. They are usually only sporadically collected with the van Veen grab, although they are prominent members of the various benthic communities (e.g., the shore crab Carcinus maenas, the isopod Saduria entomon or the lugworm Arenicola marina).

34 1999 BEWG Report Figure 2. Comparison of van Veen grab and underwater video-technique regarding the amount of species verifiable with the different methods.

300

250

... 200 .8 E ~ 150 cen II) U 8. en 100

50

o in total van Veen video elCClusively not provable grab technique video

Considering the already mentioned Baltic species list (compiled within the Bund-Liinder-Mess-Programme) about 30 species remained which were yet not verifiable either with the van Veen grab or the underwater-video-technique. Several crustaceans belong to this group, e.g., the amphipods Gammarus ssp. or Hyperia galba, the isopods Idotea ssp. and Sphaeroma ssp. or decapods such as Palaemon ssp. Some mysiids or opisthobranch molluscs (e.g., Elysia viridis, Limapontia nigra) were also not detectable with either of the techniques. In order to include all these species, a dredge was employed. However, this method only allows determination of relative abundance.

The importance of the video pictures is demonstrated very well for the lugworrn Arenicola marina. This polychaete worm is known to be dominant within the sandy community of the eastern Baltic up to the Darss Zingst Sill. On the video pictures an abundance of about 100 individuals per m2 has been estimated. When using the van Veen grab non of these worms were found except juveniles. A similar situation exists in the case of Arenomya arenaria. Some specimens were always found in the grab samples, but never older age groups. Since older Arenomya are known to live in the deeper parts of the sediments they were not caught with the van Veen grab, whereas on the video pictures they were recognisable due to their sipho-funnels.

In order to further specify the video analysis some additional cruises are planned for 1999. Moreover, the quantitative analysis shall be improved with regard to species composition and abundance.

References

Bluhm, H. 1994. Monitoring megabenthic communities in abyssal manganese nodule sites of the East Pacific Ocean in association with commercial deep-sea mining. Aqu. Conserv.: Mar. Freshw. Ecosyst., 4: 187-201.

Carleton, J.H., and Done, T.J. 1995. Quantitative video sampling of coral reef benthos: large-scale application. Coral Reefs, 14: 35-46.

HELCOM. 1988. Guidelines for the Baltic Monitoring Programme for the Third Stage. Baltic Sea Environment Proceedings, 27D. 161 pp.

Holme, N.A., and Barrett, R.L. 1977. A sledge with television and photographic cameras for quantitative investigationofthe epifauna on the continental shelf. J. Mar. BioI. Assoc. U.K., 57: 391-403.

1999 BEWG Report 35 Jacoby, C. 1998. Use of video to sample benthic habitats: Examples from Jervis Bay. Internet: http):IIkaos.erin.gov .aulmarineinatmisistandards/biologyij acobv .htnil: 1 pp.

Rumohr, H. 1995. Monitoring the marine environment with imaging methods. Sci. Mar., 59 (Sup!. 1): 129-138.

36 1999 BEWG Report ANNEX 6: UPDATE ON OCCURRENCE OF ALIEN BENTHIC SPECIES IN ESTUARINE AND COASTAL WATERS OF THE NETHERLANDS

Karel Essink

1 INTRODUCTION

In this document information is given on

• the first record of two macroalgae new to the Netherlands occurrence of the Japanese Oyster in the Wadden Sea dynamics of Ma renze lie ria populations in the Dutch Wadden Sea.

2 THE RED ALGAAGARDHIELLA SUBULATA

The occurrence of the red alga Agardhiella subulata in Dutch coastal waters was reported for the first time. In July 1998 one floating specimen was found near Yerseke (Eastern Scheidt, Southwestern Netherlands). In December 1998 sessile specimens were found at the same location (a former oyster pond) attached to mussel and oyster shells (Stegenga, 1998).

The species was identified as Agardhielia subulata (c. agardh) Kraft et Wynne, belonging to the family Solieriaceae.

Agardhiella subulata is an indigenous species of Atlantic North America. Earlier records in Europe are from the Solent (Southern England) (Farnham, 1994).

3 JAPANESE KELP UNDARIA PINNATIFIDA

In March 1999, the Japanese kelp 'Wakame' (Undaria pinnatifida) was found for the first time in The Netherlands in former oyster ponds near Yerseke (Eastern Scheidt, Southwestern Netherlands) by Dr H. Stegenga. More than 10 specimens were found growing on boulders. The sporophytes were already quite large (largest specimen 60 cm in length).

4 JAPANESE OYSTERS (CRASSOSTREA GIGAS) IN THE DUTCH WADDEN SEA

In 1995-1999 the Japanese oyster (Crassostrea gigas) was found living in the Dutch Wadden Sea at :2:8 localities. In October 1998IMarch 1999 populations near Texel and in the Ems estuary (Figure 1) had a maximum shell length of 70 and 60 mm, respectively, most probably being 4 years old. The smallest specimens were 15-20 mm, suggesting successful annual reproduction of the species (Tydeman, 1999).

5 THE POLYCHAETE MARENZELLERIA CF. WIRENI

After the introduction in the Dollard (Ems Estuary) of the North American (?) spionid polychaete in 1983, high biomass (ca. 10 g m-2 AFDW) was present in 1989-1994 (Essink et at., 1998). Since then this polychaete showed a decrease in abundance. Mean annual biomass decreased steadily over the years 1995-1998. By 1998, biomass had dropped to ca. 2 g m-2 AFDW (Figure 2). There is no clue as to the possible cause of this recent decrease.

At Balgzand intertidal flats in the western Dutch Wadden Sea population density of Marenzelleria cf. wireni did increase, especially in the eastern part where lowered salinities occur due to the discharge of freshwater from Lake Ijsselmeer, a tributary of the Rhine River. In the eastern part of Balgzand biomass reached ca. 12 g AFDW m-2 (R. Dekker, unpublished data).

1999 BEWG Report 37 Figure 1. Length-frequency distribution of Japanse oysters (Crassostrea gigas) in the 'Eemshaven' (Ems estuary), 18 November 1999. N = 52. (from: Tydeman, 1999).

aantal 12

10

8

6

4

2

15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 mm

Figure 2. Mean biomass of total macrozoobenthic biomass (Tot), total biomass without Marenzelleria cf. wireni (Tot­ Mar), and of Marenzelleria cf. wireni in the Dollard. Means of three transacts. Average biomass calculated for data from autumn and the following early spring (R. Dekker and K. Essink, unpublished).

aantal 12

10

8

6

4

2

15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 mm

1999 BEWG Report 38 6 REFERENCES

Essink, K., Eppinga, 1., and Dekker, R. 1998. Long-term changes (1977-1994) in intertidal macrozoobenthos of the Dollard (Ems estuary) and effects of introduction of the North American spionid polychaete Marenzelleria cf. wireni. Senckenberg. marit., 28: 211-225.

Farnham, W.F. 1994. Introduction of marine benthic algae into Atlantic European waters. In Introduced species in European coastal waters. Ed. by C.F. Boudouresque, F. Briand and C. Nolan. Ecosystems Research Report, 8: 32- 36.

Stegenga, H. 1999. Het rood wier Agardhielia subulata in Nederland. Het Zeepaard, 59: 54-57. (In Dutch.)

Tydeman, P. 1999. Japanse Oesters in de Eemshaven. Het Zeepaard, 59: 58-64. (In Dutch.)

1999 BEWG Report 39 ANNEX 7 :SPECIES NUMBERS FOR THE TAXONOMIC GROUPS ON THE ETI CD-ROMS ON MACROBENTHOS OF THE NORTH SEA

Taxonomic group In pictor. key Expected CD-ROM - 1: 1999 Mollusca 516 516 Brachiopoda 9 9 CD-ROM - 2: 1999 Polychaeta 567 567 Nemertea 42 42 Planaria ca. 18 Sipuncula ca. 11 CD-ROM - 3: 2000/2001 Crustacea 349 ca. 600 Pycnogonidae ca. 50 CD-ROM - 4: 2000/2001 Anthozoa 40 40 Porifera 62 62 Tunicata 34 35 Phoronida 5 5 Bryozoa 192 192 Hydrozoa 83 ca. 150 Entoprocta 33 33 Echinodermata 61 61 Pisces ca. 100 CD-ROM - 5: 2000/2001 Algae ca. 450 Total 1993 ca. 2941

40 1999 BEWG Report ANNEX 8: REVIEW OF STANDARD OPERATING PROCEDURES FOR THE SAMPLING AND ANALYSIS OF BENTHIC MACROFAUNA

H L Rees CEFAS Burnham Laboratory Remembrance Avenue Burnham-on-Crouch Essex CMO 8HA United Kingdom

SUMMARY

The response to a request from the ICES Benthos Ecology Working Group for submission of Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs) for review was limited. In part, this appeared to reflect differences between countries regarding approaches to ensuring consistent performance within and between laboratories. Thus, for environmental assessment work in Norway, a single national standard is the chosen route and, similarly, published guidelines by the Dutch Tidal Waters Department are sufficiently detailed to function effectively as Standard Operating Procedures suitable for any individual laboratory engaged in surveys around the Dutch coast. In the United Kingdom and Germany, unpublished submissions from a number of laboratories revealed variation in the format for documenting procedures, and in the level of detail provided, although most appeared to conform with the general requirements of national or international guidelines.

Despite the limited response, it was possible to identify examples of good practice, and these are documented, together with suggestions for future improvements. There is scope for further exchange and review of Standard Operating Procedures as a means to promote harmonisation between laboratories and countries. Laboratories who do not currently document activities by means of SOPs are strongly encouraged to do so.

DEFINITION AND FUNCTION OF A STANDARD OPERATING PROCEDURE

An SOP may be defined (as in 'Good Laboratory Practice' guidelines) as 'a documented procedure which describes how to perform tests or activities normally not specified in detail in study plans or test guidelines'. The italicised text helps to clarify some confusion that exists with regard to the role of an SOP. For example, in cases where international guidelines for a sampling or analytical procedure are written in sufficient detail, then these will perform the same function. However, guideline documents for benthic studies frequently cover large sea areas and a variety of habitats (e.g. Rumohr, in press) and cannot be expected to provide sufficient detail for the requirements of all local surveys. In these circumstances, an SOP bridges the gap between the activity of an individual laboratory and the wider need for harmonisation of methodology. For example, a laboratory SOP might include a description of sample-processing equipment peculiar to that laboratory (though compatible with the performance needs of external guidelines), and perhaps its local source of manufacture.

A well-written SOP will help inexperienced members of staff in a laboratory to quickly develop expertise in a sampling or analytical area which is consistent with past practice at that laboratory, while being compatible with established approaches elsewhere. For those seeking laboratory accreditation, the production of SOPs will be essential as part of a wider QA package but, even for those who are not, they provide an important means to foster good practice internally. However, SOPs are clearly not, in themselves, guarantors of data quality.

REVIEW OF SUBMISSIONS

1. Published procedures

A Norwegian contribution (Anon., 1998) represents one of a number of National Standards in the water quality area, and covers field survey design to meet various objectives, as well as field sampling procedures and laboratory analysis. The guidelines are intended to ensure strict standardisation in approaches among Norwegian laboratories and the level of detail provided is such that the document acts, in effect, as a national SOP. It is structured as follows : scope, references to other standards, definitions, purpose and strategy for investigation of soft-bottom fauna (sampling programme, types of investigation, choice of sampling stations, reference stations), sampling (vessel requirements, position fixing, types of sampler, sampling procedures, criteria for acceptance of samples, sieving, preservation, supporting parameters, documentation, responsibilities of personnel) processing of samples and identification of species (sorting, identification, biomass, data processing and analysis), storage and archiving. Annexes cover processing of large samples, measurement of wet weight biomass and samplers.

1999 BEWG Report 41 As with the Norwegian standard, a series of documents published by the Dutch Tidal Waters Department (Essink, 1989a, b, 1991, Leewis, undated, a,b) represent national standards and, because of the level of detail, fulfil the function of SOPs covering the various regions and habitats along the Dutch coast. Each document carries a named author and version number. They are typically structured as follows : introduction, field of application, terms and definitions, principle of the method, reagents and auxiliary materials, apparatus, sampling (locations, dates of sampling, procedures for grab/core sampling, environmental variables, preservation), analysis of benthic fauna samples (preparation, identification and enumeration, biomass determination), calculation of density and biomass, measurement of shell length and weight of bivalves, sediment analysis.

2. Unpublished procedures

Of those submitted, one provided a short summary of field and laboratory procedures, including a novel system for separating animals from sediments at sea, methodology for biomass determination, and an outline of QA approaches, including the routine recording of individuals responsible for sample processing and the training of new staff through internal taxonomic workshops. A further submission documented laboratory analytical procedures, accompanied by a brief description of each activity, under the following headings: sieving, sorting, staining, identification, AQC, sample tracking, taxonomic verification/quality control, data entry, taxonomic referrals and museum links.

One SOP contained much descriptive detail under the following headings: field sampling, laboratory analysis (sample storage and archiving of information, initial sample processing, sorting, identification and enumeration, biomass determination, archiving of identified samples), data processing, analysis and archiving. Diagrams showing equipment used in the collection and processing of samples at sea were appended.

The final two submissions were similar in structure, and contained a level of detail comparable with the above Norwegian and Dutch standards, which reflected the requirements of a formal laboratory accreditation scheme. Each SOP carried the issue number, date and name of the person responsible for its production. For an SOP covering grab sampling for benthic invertebrates in marine and estuarine sediments, the topics covered were as follows: principle (of methods), sampling vessels, equipment (grab, supporting stand, hopper, sieves, sample containers etc), reagents, personnel (minimum level of experience required), procedures (including pre-survey checks of equipment, preparation of sampling equipment, deployment and recovery, collection of samples, sample sieving, sample retention and preservation, safety considerations) and references. The SOP was accompanied by several Figures depicting sampling procedures at sea. .

For identification and enumeration of the benthos, the SOP structure from the above laboratory was as follows : principle (of methods), reagents (sample fixative, stains, preservative etc), equipment, procedures: sample handling, staining, fixation/preservation, elutriation, fractionation, sorting, identification, taxonomy, enumeration, specimen retention, AQC, specimen preparation techniques, calculation and presentation of results and taxonomic references.

CONCLUSIONS

The review revealed much variety in the structure of documented procedures, and in the amount of detail provided. However, most fulfilled the basic requirements of an SOP, there were no gross inconsistencies in methodological approaches and all followed a logical sequence in their layout. Further submissions are encouraged,. as these would provide the basis for a more critical evaluation of inter-laboratory consistency in specific aspects of field sampling and laboratory analysis.

In considering 'best practice' arising from this review, it is recommended that SOPs should: n. be structured logically by heading and sub-heading to cover the full sequence of activities in field sampling and laboratory analysis;

Ill. carry an issue number, date and name(s) of the individual(s) responsible for its drafting and updating. This anticipates a likely requirement for changes to SOPs in response to new equipment, guidelines and so on; iv. document in-house AQC procedures; v. account for the specific practices of the individual laboratory. At the same time, SOPs must of course reflect agreed guidelines applicable at national or international level; v\. be filed as paper copies in an accessible place, as well as being available on computer;

42 1999 BEWG Report vii. be freely available to all interested parties (especially funding agencies);

Vlll. contain explicit instructions for the tracking of samples from the point of collection to the point of archiving of analysed material.

SOPs may usefully contain:

11. diagrams depicting gear, especially where local modifications to equipment are made; lll. a summary flow-chart as an accompaniment to a lengthy SOP, as an aide memoire for field and laboratory bench operators; iv. a full listing of taxonomic keys used for laboratory identification, and other useful reference works relating to procedures; v. details of local suppliers, manufacturers etc., where relevant.

SOPs should not:

11. contain vague generalisations; iii. contain excessive detail : a sensible balance needs to be achieved which takes into account the basic level of training and common sense that a new operator will possess; iv. cover too many activities: for example, it is logical to have separate SOPs for field and laboratory procedures. Different types of field activity such as intertidal core sampling and ship-board sampling are also sensibly treated separately.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The following individuals kindly provided information used in this review: Torgeir Bakke (Norway), Karel Essink (Holland), Ingrid Kroncke (Germany), Keith Cooper, Nigel Grist, Elaine Hamilton, Geoff Turner (United Kingdom).

REFERENCES

Anon. 1998. Guidelines for quantitative investigations of sublittoral soft-bottom benthic fauna in the marine environment. Norwegian Standard, NS 9423, 1st edition, September 1998 (in Norwegian). Essink, K 1989a. Tidal Waters Standard Directive (GSV): sampling and analysis of macroscopic benthic fauna from the tidal shoals in the Wadden Sea, eastern Scheldte and western Scheldte regions (coastal waters). Ministry of Transport and Water Management, Directorate-General for Public Works and Water Management, Tidal Waters Department (in Dutch). Essink, K 1989b. Tidal Waters Standard Directive (GSV): sampling and analysis of macroscopic benthic fauna from the subliitoral zone of the Wadden Sea. Ministry of Transport and Water Management, Directorate-General for Public Works and Water Management, Tidal Waters Department (in Dutch). Essink, K 199). Tidal Waters Standard Directive (GSV): sampling and analysis of macroscopic benthic fauna from the Voordelta and the North Sea (Dutch continental shelf). Ministry of Transport and Water Management, Directorate-General for Public Works and Water Management, Tidal Waters Department (in Dutch). Leewis, R J (undated). Tidal Waters Standard Directive (GSV): sampling and analysis of hard-substrate flora and fauna in the littoral zone along the Dutch coast. Ministry of Transport and Water Management, Directorate-General for Public Works and Water Management, Tidal Waters Department (in Dutch). Leewis, R J (undated). Tidal Waters Standard Directive (GSV): sampling and analysis of hard-substrate flora and fauna in the sublittoral zone along the Dutch coast. Ministry of Transport and Water Management, Directorate-General for Public Works and Water Management, Tidal Waters Department (in Dutch). Rumohr, H (in press). Soft bottom macrofauna: collection, treatment, and quality assurance of samples. ICES Techniques in Environmental Sciences, No.8, Revised, Pre-print Version, 19pp.

1999 BEWG Report 43 ANNEX 9

Fig. 1. Particle size distribution curves from participating laboratories for sediment samples from PS11. The average values for the AQC analysis of replicates are included. 100 - "$... 90+ ~ _UM-L i , E" 80':' , --.--UM-S e..>" _lB01' ..- , , 701 IT" , , , / " \ , .- _lBOS' _,d' -.--lB07 80t ,,;;:' Solid Hnn • Lo .., I DISh lines =Sieve .-,,'p" -o-lB10 , - -+- -lB1l 50 Double dull lin .. =Mixed , + • HelBl la, apla.alion / _LB12' I .D -D--LB13 , ..- -o-LB1<4 401 ..- I 0- / I --.lr-lB17 p 30 + I --.c\--lB20 20 + _-lB22 I I I 10 -'- _lB27

0 -1 0 '2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Phi

Fig. 2. The number of differences at the level of genus and species recorded for each of the participating laboratories for RT1 O. Arranged in order of increasing number of differences at the level of species.

18 - Low Medium High

16 •

14

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44 1999 BEWG Report Figure 3 and 4. % difference in numbers of taxa and individuals (arranged in increasing order). arising from the analysis of five macrobenthic samples by a contractor and participating laboratories.

Figure 3 -.- ---- ._------Macrobenthic exercise - % difference in the number of taxa

50 --.--- 40 ------_ .. _-----_. 30 ------... ------_.- 20 . 10 o .. ------: __ %Diff.· -10 .:;o;oa~~~=-- -20 - -30 ------40 ------....---,"T,.-----,---__------,--, .- -50 ------

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Macrobenthic exercise - % difference in the number of individuals

80 70 --_._---_.------60 50 .. ------

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1999 BEWG Report 45 ANNEX 10: BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS QUALITY ASSURANCE IN MONITORING PROGRAMMES (BEQUALM)

Draft Paper Submitted to QUASIMEME Bulletin

Peter Matthiessen Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science Remembrance Avenue, Burnham-on-Crouch Essex, United Kingdom

The use of biological effects techniques in marine contaminant monitoring programmes is something of a late starter, although two valuable (but non-contaminant-specific) approaches have been deployed for many years-benthic community analysis and fish disease assessment. The reasons for this are manifold, but suffice it to say that monitoring organisations are partly techniques-driven, and chemical monitoring techniques happened to come along first. The balance is now being redressed, and the many advantages of monitoring with an integrated suite of chemical and biological methods are beginning to be realised. A previous article in QUASIMEME Bulletin (Stagg, 1998) described some of the more modern biological effects methods and their application by the Oslo and Paris Commission's Joint Assessment and Monitoring Programme-JAMP (JAMP, 1998a, 1998b). These new techniques allow one to detect the effects of complex mixtures of contaminants (the norm in the environment), many are diagnostic of causes, they provide information on the bioavailability of contaminants, and they therefore allow more accurate assessments to be made of potential ecological damage.

However, in their enthusiasm, biologists have tended to forget about the need for quality control of their favourite monitoring methods, and this has led to occasional problems. A case in point was a recent UK National Marine Monitoring Programme (NMMP) survey of estuarine water quality which employed the oyster embryo bioassay. If salinity is low, the method requires salinity correction by the addition of salt, and it was found that one laboratory was mistakenly using sodium chloride instead of sea salt, resulting in anomalous data. The problem was caused by an insufficiently detailed protocol, but due to the lack of formal AQC, was only picked up at a late stage. In the UK, we have now set up a National Marine Ecotoxicological Analytical Quality Control (NMEAQc) group to tackle such issues before the event, but a much wider international initiative (BEQUALM)is now in progress.

The idea for BEQUALM originated in the ICES Working Group on Biological Effects of Contaminants which has been very active in developing and validating new biological monitoring techniques. It was recognised in 1996 that an international biological AQC system analogous to QUASIMEME was required to support the deployment of these methods, and monitoring organisations like JAMP and NMMP are now making implementation of AQC procedures a condition of such deployment. A funding bid to the European Commission Standards, Measurement and Testing (SMT) programme was therefore put together towards the end of 1997, and the 3-year BEQUALM project formally came into existence on 1 October 1998.

BEQUALM has three main objectives.

Obiective 1: Development of appropriate reference materials or type collections.

Obiective 2: Development of an infrastructure for assessing the comparability of data from individual laboratories.

Objective 3: Demonstration that biological effects analyses are under statistical control and are of known quality.

The intention is to construct an AQC infrastructure which will become self-funding after years in a similar way to QUASIMEME. The project is being run by a Central Steering Group consisting of an expert from each Partner laboratory, plus a representative of QUASIMEME who will help us to avoid problems that have already been solved in chemical AQC living programmes. Having said that, we anticipate that biological effects techniques will throw up their own unique set of problems-living organisms are not quite so cooperative as gas chromatoigraphs.

Each Partner laboratory is expert in one or more of the biological techniques which come under the BEQUALM umbrella, and they will act as the leaders of each of the practical activities (workpackages in the programme). The Partners and techniques packages are listed in Table 1. The workpackages are modelled fairly closely on the requirements of JAMP, but are of course also largely applicable to other monitoring programmes ran by organisations such as HELCOM and MEDPOL.

There is no space here to describe the work in detail, but in broad terms it will involve training, workshops, inter- and intra-laboratory performance testing, and the construction of a compliance monitoring system. There are also likely to be joint ventures with other organisations such as QUASIMEME. All this will depend completely on the involvement

46 1999 BEWG Report of Participating Laboratories who will be expected to cover their own costs but who will in return be helped to maintain or upgrade their performance to acceptable standards. I will therefore end this article with an invitation for you to contact the relevant expert laboratories listed in Table 1 if you are interested in participating in the development of AQC for particular techniques and wish to obtain some more details of the BEQUALM programme. Your involvement will be very welcome.

Table 1. Partners and biological effects techniques in BEQUALM.

Expert laboratory Workpackages Partner 1 Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Workpackage 1: Central coordination Aquaculture Science (CEFAS) Workpackage 2: Water and sediment (Burnham-on-Crouch, UK) bioassays Contacts: John Thain and Peter Matthiessen Partner 2 Norwegian Institute for Water Workpackage 3: Metallothionein Research (NIV A) Workpackage 4: ALA-D activity (Oslo, Norway) Contact: Ketil Hyliand Partner 3 Institute of Applied Environment Workpackage 5: DNA adduct Research (ITM) measurements Contact: Lennart Balk (Stockholm) Partner 4 FRS Marine Laboratory (Aberdeen) Workpackage 6: P450 IA induction UK Workpackace 7: Imposexlintersex Contact: Ian Davies measurement Partner 5 NERC Plymouth Marine Laboratory Workpackage 8: Lysosomal stability (Plymouth, UK) In vitro Contact: David Lowe Partner 6 Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Workpackage 9: Liver histopathology, Aquaculture Science (CEFAS) liver nodules and external fish disease (Weymouth, UK) measurement Contact: Steve Feist Partner 7 Institute of Coastal Research Workpackage 10: Fish reproductive Swedish National Board of Fisheries success (SN-BF), bregrund Sweden Contact: Olof Sandstr6m Partner 8 Forschungs- und Technologie Workpackage 11: Phytoplankton Zentrum Westkuste, Christian- assemblage analysis and chlorophyll Albrechts-University zu Kiel (CAU) (Busum, Germany) Contact: Franciscus Colijn Partner 9 Institut for Meereskunde (IfM) Workpackage 12: Benthic community (Kie1. Germany) analysis Contact: Heye Rumohr

1999 BEWG Report 47 ANNEX 11: PUBLISHED GUIDELINES FOR BENTHOS SAMPLING

DRAFf 25.04.99

1 NATIONAL

Anon. 1998. Guidelines for quantitative investigations of sublittoral soft-bottom benthic fauna In the marine environment. Norwegian Standard, NS 942), 1 " edition, September 1998 (in Norwegian).

Anon. 1999. Guidelines for the processing and quality assurance of benthic invertebrate samples collected as part of the national water-quality assessment program. US Geological Survey, Open-File Report 93-407 (http://wwwrvares.er.usgs.gov/nawqa/protocols/OFR-93-407/invl.htmi).

Essink, K. 1989a. Tidal Waters Standard Directive (GSV): sampling and analysis of macroscopic benthic fauna from the tidal shoals in the Wadden Sea, eastern Scheidte and western Scheldte regions (coastal waters). Ministry of Transport and Water Management, Directorate-General for Public Works and Water Management, Tidal Waters Department (in Dutch).

Essink, K. 1989b. Tidal Waters Standard Directive (GSV): sampling and analysis of macroscopic benthic fauna from the subliitoral zone of the Wadden Sea. Ministry of Transport and Water Management, Directorate-General for Public Works and Water Management, Tidal Waters Department (in Dutch).

Essink, K. 1991. Tidal Waters Standard Directive (GSV): sampling and analysis of macroscopic benthic fauna from the Voordelta and the North Sea (Dutch continental shelf). Ministry of Transport and Water Management, Directorate­ General for Public Works and Water Management, Tidal Waters Department (in Dutch).

Heinis, F., Akkerman, I., Essink, K., Colijn, F., and Latuhihin, M. J. 1995. Biologische monitoring zoute riikswateren 1990-1993. Den Haag: Ministerie van Verkeer en Waterstaat, Directoraat-Generaal Rijkswaterstaat, Rijksinstiuut voor Kust en Zee/RIKZ - 111, Rapport RIKZ-95.059, 8Opp.

Hiscock, K. (Ed.) 1996. Marine nature conservation review: rationale and methods. Peterborough: Joint Nature Conservation Committee, 159 pp + appendices.

Hiscock, K. (Ed.) 1998. Biological monitoring of marine Special Areas of Conservation: a handbook of methods for detecting change. Part 2. Procedural guidelines. Version I of 27 March 1998. Peterborough: Joint Nature Conservation Committee.

Leewis, R.J. (undated). Tidal Waters Standard Directive (G~V) : sampling and analysis of hard-substrate flora and fauna in the littoral zone along the Dutch coast. Ministry of Transport and Water Management, Directorate­ General for Public Works and Water Management, Tidal Waters Department (in Dutch).

Leewis, R.J. (undated). Tidal Waters Standard Directive (GSV): sampling and analysis of hard-substrate flora and fauna in the sublittoral zone along the Dutch coast. Ministry of Transport and Water Management, Directorate-General for Public Works and Water Management, Tidal Waters Department (in Dutch).

Rees, H.L., Moore, D.C., Pearson, T.H., Elliott, M., Service, M., Pomfret, J., and Johnson, D. 1990. Procedures for the monitoring of marine benthic communities at UK sewage sludge disposal sites. Dept. Agriculture and Fisheries for Scotland, Scottish Fisheries Information Pamphlet No. 18.79 pp.

2 INTERNA TIONAL

Anon. 1997. JAMP eutrophication monitoring guidelines: benthos. Oslo and Paris Commisions, Joint Assessment and Monitoring Programme. 12 pp.

Anon. 1997. Guidance on basic approaches to be adopted in the conduct of surveys of the soft-bottom macrofauna under OSPARCOM auspices. In Report of the ICES Benthos Ecology Working Group, ICES CM 19971L:7.

Baker, J. M. and Wolff, W. J. (Eds.) 1987. Biological surveys of estuaries and coasts. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. 449pp.

48 1999 BEWG Report George, I.D., Lythgoe, G.!', and Lythgoe, I.N. (Eds.) 1985. Underwater photography and television for scientists. Clarendon Press, Oxford. 184 pp.

Gray, I.S., McIntyre, AD., and Stirn, I. 1992. Manual of methods in aquatic environment research. Part I 1. Biological assessment of marine pollution with particular reference to benthos. FAD Fish. Tech. Pap. No. 324. FAD, Rome. 49 pp.

Green, R.H. 1979. Sampling design and statistical methods for environmental biologists. I. Wiley, New York. 257 pp.

Higgins, R.P., and Thiel, H. (Eds.) 1988. Introduction ot the study of meiofauna. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington.

Holme, N.A and McIntyre, AD. (Eds.) 1984. Methods for the study of marine benthos. IBP Handbook No. 16 (2nd ed). Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford. 387 pp.

Kramer, K.J.M., Brockmann, U.H., and Warwick, R.M. 1994. Tidal estuaries manual of sampling and analytical procedures. Netherlands: A A Balkema, 340 pp.

Rees, H.L., Heip, C., Vincx, M., and Parker, M. M. 1991. Benthic communities: use in monitoring point-source discharges. ICES Techniques in Marine Environmental Sciences, No. 16.70 pp.

Rumohr, H. (Ed.) 1990. Soft-bottom macrofauna: collection and treatment of samples. ICES Techniques in Marine Environmental Sciences, No.8. 18 pp.

Rumohr, H. 1995. Monitoring the marine environment with imaging methods. Scientia marina, 59: 129

Rumohr, H. In press. Soft bottom macrofauna: collection, treatment, and quality assurance of samples. ICES Techniques in Environmental Sciences, No.8, Revised, Pre-print Version, 19 pp.

Somerfield, P.I., and Warwick, R.M. 1996. Meiofauna in marine pollution monitoring programmes. A laboratory manual. Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food, Directorate of Fisheries Research, Lowestoft. 71 pp.

J 999 BEWG Report 49 ANNEX 12 : GENERAL GUIDELINES ON QUALITY ASSURANCE FOR BIOLOGICAL MONITORING IN THE OSPAR AREA

DRAFT (19 Feb 1999)

Contents

1 INTRODUCTION

1.1. Need for quality assurance of analytical procedures in marine biological monitoring 1.2. The need for QA guidelines specific to biological measures 1.3 Strategy for practical implementation of QA programmes for biological measures 1.4 Objective

2 THE QUALITY SYSTEM

2.1 General 2.2 Topics of Quality Assurance 2.3 In-house Quality Manual 2.3.1 Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs) 2.4 Organization, Management and Staff 2.4.1 Organization 2.4.2 Management 2.4.3 Staff 2.5 Equipment 2.6 Documentation

3 QA OF SAMPLING DESIGN

3.1 Quality objectives 3.2 Specification of information needs 3.3 Strategy and determinands 3.4 Data quality objectives 3.5 Sampling design 3.6 Specification of sampling procedures

4 QA FOR FIELD WORK

4.1 Sea-going procedures 4.2 Coastal and land-based procedures

5 QUALITY ASSESSMENT FOR LABORATORY ANALYSIS AND DATA HANDLING

5.1 Routine quality control

6 DEFINITIONS

7 REFERENCES

APPENDIX 1. Critical QA factors and priority QA actions for monitoring chlorophyll a, phytoplankton, macrozoobenthos and macrophytobenthos

APPENDIX 2. Quality audit

50 1999 BEWG Report DRAFf (19 February 1999)

GENERAL GUIDELINES ON QUALITY ASSURANCE FOR BIOLOGICAL MONITORING IN THE OSPAR AREA

1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Need for Quality Assurance of Analytical Procedures in Marine Biological Monitoring

As a consequence of the absence-or improper application-of measures to assure the quality of biological data, information about variations in the status of natural populations both in space and time is often uncertain or misleading, and the effects of political measures to improve the quality of the marine environment cannot be adequately assessed. Therefore, the acquisition of relevant and reliable data is an essential component of any research and monitoring programme associated with marine environmental protection. To obtain such data, the whole analytical process must proceed under a well-established Quality Assurance (QA) programme.

In guiding such a development, the OSPAR Commission has formulated the following quality assurance policy:

1) Contracting Parties acknowledge that only reliable information can provide the basis for effective and economic environmental policy and management regarding the Convention area;

2) Contracting Parties acknowledge that environmental information is the product of a chain of activities, constituting programme design, execution, evaluation and reporting, and that each activity has to meet certain quality assurance requirements;

3) Contracting Parties agree that quality assurance requirements should be set for each of these activities;

4) Contracting Parties agree to make sure that suitable resources are available nationally (e.g., finances, ships, laboratories) in order to achieve this goal;

5) Contracting Parties fully commit themselves to following the guidelines adopted by JMG and the Commissions in accordance with this procedure of quality assurance.

1.2 Need for QA Guidelines Specific to Biological Measures

Adherence to well-documented QAJQC procedures is an established part of the activities of most chemical analytical laboratories, often occupying up to 20 % of staff time and, in recent years, much effort has been devoted within ICES to improving interlaboratory and inter-country data quality in national/international monitoring programmes. In contrast, much less effort has traditionally been devoted to QAJQC of biological measures employed in marine monitoring. This is largely due to the subsidiary role that many such measures have played in international assessments of environmental quality (with the notable exception of Baltic monitoring activity). Recently, there has been a shift in emphasis within ICES and OSPAR towards holistic evaluations of the biological status of the marine environment in relation to man's activities. This shift, along with a quite separate development towards increased contracting out of biological analysis by resource-limited regulatory bodies to commercial consultancies (who are, as a result, under competitive pressure to deliver data of a consistent quality), has sharply highlighted the need for more effective and harmonised approaches to QA within and between member countries.

SGQAE has developed the following guidelines with particular reference to the biological targets within its Terms of Reference, namely chlorophyll a, phytoplankton, macrozoobenthos and macrophytobenthos. In doing so, SGQAE has freely adapted guidlines applicable to a much larger suite of variables under investigation in the Baltic Monitoring Programme (the COMBINE Programme Part B). While the same general principles governing the development of QA programmes still apply, such adaptation was felt to be necessary as an acknowledgement of the very different organisational structures within which biological work may be conducted in OSPAR member countries. For example, at one extreme, local output may be vested in a single individual, where certification of that individual's expertise may be more appropriate than a formal system of accreditation requiring a hierarchical QA management structure for its application.

Biological studies at the community level (in this context, macrozoobenthos, phytobenthos, and phytoplankton) present particular challenges in QA, since each field-collected sample constitutes a unique multivariate entity, i.e., consisting of

1999 BEWG Report 51 a combination of species and individuals peculiar to that sample. Of course, this is not to imply that all component species are unique in their occurrence, and some may be sufficiently widespread to be suitable for intercomparison exercises of identification proficiency among many countries. However, many species will be more localised in distribution, and competency in identification may, as a result, be more fairly tested at a regional level.

The general absence of recognised standards governing permissible change in animal communities in response to man­ made influences also complicates the setting of criteria governing the acceptability of the data: the latter may often have to be somewhat arbitrary (though, it is to be hoped, 'precautionary') in their derivation.

The purpose of this document is to guide organisations (or individuals) towards the establishment of QA procedures, often for the first time, which will ensure that the data generated are suitable for contributing to international-level assessments of environmental quality. While some elements of any newly-incorporated QA scheme must, from the outset, be considered mandatory, past experience suggests the need for a pragmatic view of how such a scheme will initially proceed. Thus, enhancements in performance may well be step-wise, in response to the adoption of new in­ house working procedures, and as lessons are learned from intercomparison exercises, workshops and so on. At this stage, a prevailing climate of encouragement will be the most helpful in facilitating such a progression.

1.3 Strab:gy for Practical Implementation of QA Programmes for Biological Measures

For phytoplankton/chlorophyll a, the priority is likely to be for international-level QA assessment, at least at the level of sampling methodology, since the same (or similar) approaches will apply throughout the OSPAR area. It is also self­ evident that the habitat, i.e., the water column, is dependably present at all locations. This is in contrast to some benthos studies, where site-specific factors may determine differences in target organisms and sampling methods: not all countries will be involved in identical survey and sampling approaches. An example would be the presence or absence of a coastal rocky habitat. Also, biogeographical factors affecting phytoplankton populations and the benthos of widely distributed habitats (such as soft bottoms) may, in practice, limit the scope/necessity for intercomparisons of proficiency in species identification across all OSPAR countries. For example, biogeographical provinces across the OSPAR area range from Arctic Boreal to Lusitanean.

This suggests that a tiered approach to QA initiatives, i.e., varying from the level of the laboratory to the national or international level, would be appropriate. Such an approach would also, incidentally, highlight the priorities that would need to be given to the development of central databases for different subject areas.

It is also to be expected that there will be some examples of entrenched differences in sampling approaches between countries even for comparable habitats, e.g., where evidence for the greater efficiency of one sampling device over another is unconvincing. Here, personal preferences or historical precedents will be influential. There is no intrinsic reason why this should lead to significant problems with the quality of the resulting data, provided that acceptable documentation is available as to accuracy, precision, representativity, etc., of the data. However, the most cost-effective methods should be adopted in any new monitoring programme.

SGQAE emphasises the fundamental importance attached i to agreement among participating countries on basic sampling issues such as mesh size, criteria for acceptancelrejection of field samples (e.g., for sediment macrofauna: based on sample volume and visual appearance), and consistency in timing of annual or more frequent surveys. Disparities here will nullify any benefits of sound QA, when it comes to intercomparisons of the results.

As part of this strategy, SGQAE identified .a set of critical QA factors and priority QA actions for monitoring the relevant variables (chlorophyll a, phytoplankton, macrozoobenthos and phytobenthos). These are given in Appendix 1.

1.4 Objective

The objective of the Guidelines outlined here is to support laboratories working in marine biological monitoring to produce analytical data of the required quality. The Guidelines may also help to establish or improve quality assurance management in the laboratories concerned. Technical specifications pertaining to the variables of interest can be found in the JAMP guidelines (OSPAR 1997/8).

52 1999 BEWG Report 2 THE QUALITY SYSTEM

2.1 General

'Quality system' is a term used to describe measures which ensure that a laboratory fulfils the requirements for its analytical tasks on a continuing basis. A laboratory should establish and operate a Quality System adequate for the range of activities, i.e., for the type and extent of investigations, for which it has been employed. The Quality System should refer to methodology, organization and staff, equipment, quality audit.

The Quality System must be formalized in a Quality Manual that must be maintained and up-to-date. Some comments and explanations are given in this section.

2.2 Topics of Quality Assurance

In practice, Quality Assurance applies to all aspects of analytical investigation, and includes the following principal elements:

A knowledge of the purpose of the investigation is essential to establish the required data quality. Provision and optimization of appropriate laboratory facilities and analytical equipment. Selection and training of staff for the analytical task in question. Establishment of definitive directions for appropriate collection, preservation, storage and transport procedures to maintain the integrity of samples prior to analysis. Use of suitable pre-treatment procedures prior to the analysis of samples, to prevent cross-contamination and loss of the determinand in the samples. Validation of appropriate analytical methods to ensure that measurements are of the required quality to meet the needs of the investigations. Conduct of regular intralaboratory checks on the accuracy of routine measurements, by the analysis of appropriate reference materials, to assess whether the analytical methods are remaining under control, and the documentation and interpretation of the results on control charts. Participation in interlaboratory quality assessments (proficiency testing schemes, ring tests, training courses) to provide an independent assessment of the laboratory's capability of producing reliable measurements. The preparation and use of written instructions, laboratory protocols, laboratory journals, etc., so that specific analytical data can be traced to the relevant samples and vice versa.

2.3 In-house Quality Manual

Every phase of a monitoring or assessment survey, even in small laboratories, must be enforced to ensure the quality of data acquisition, collection, handling and analysis, and subsequent reporting. In-house Quality Manuals must be developed in accordance with appropriate national and international standards and followed rigorously.

The person responsible for authorization and compilation of the Quality Manual should be identified. A distribution list of the quality manual and identification of holders of controlled copies of the quality manual should be included.

The in-house quality manual should contain, as a minimum, the following items or their equivalent:

1) Scope. 2) References. 3) Definitions. 4) Statement of quality policy. 5) Organization and management. 6) Quality system audit and review. 7) A formal listing of the staff involved in the monitoring, analytical and technical work as well as quality control management with respective training, professional qualification and responsibilities within the laboratory. 8) Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs) (see below). 9) Certificates and reports.

1999 BEWG Report 53 10) Sub-contracting of calibration or testing. 11) Outside support services and supplies. 12) Handling of complaints.

2.3.1 Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs)

SOPs should describe all steps performed in biological measurement. They should be established for:

Handling and use of chemicals (i.e., fixatives, preservatives, reagents) used in marine environmental surveys; Handling, operating the maintenance and calibrating the field and laboratory equipment; Station selection and location, navigational accuracy; Collection of biological material; Storage of biological material including labelling, checking preservation status; Analytical methods of biological material; Distribution of biological material to external contractors/taxonomic specialists; Identification of biological material including taxonomic expertise of the personnel; Recording biological and environmental data; Analysis of biological and environmental data; Monitoring report writing and documentation including signed protocols in all steps of analysis.

SOPs should contain a description of operational procedures. An outline structure for a SOP (modified from DIN EN 45001, Chapter 5.4.3) is as follows:

scope of procedure used; description of the study target; variable to be determined; equipment necessary, reference material (e.g., voucher specimens), taxonomic literature used; specification of working conditions required for effective :sampling; description of procedure/method with respect to the following aspects: i) sampling and sample treatment, labelling, handlirig, transport and storage of samples, preparation for laboratory analysis, ii) instrument control and calibration, iii) recording of data, iv) safety aspects; criteria to adopt or reject results/measurements; data to be recorded and methods for their analysis; assessment of uncertainty of measurements.

2.4 Organization, Management, and Staff

2.4.1 Organization

The Quality System should provide general information on the identity and legal status of the laboratory and should include a statement of the technical role of the laboratory (e.g., employed in marine environmental monitoring).

The information must include general lines of responsibility within the laboratory (including the relationship between management, technical operations, quality control and support services, and any parent or sister organizations). In the case of smaller units, the organizational tasks must be allotted to fewer personnel or even one individual.

54 1999 BEWG Report 2.4.2 Management

Clear job descriptions, qualifications, training, and experience are necessary for all persons concerned with QA and QC.

Job descriptions should include a brief summary of function, the pathways of reporting key tasks that the jobholder performs in the laboratory, and limits of authority and responsibility.

2.4.3 Staff

Minimum levels of qualification and experience necessary for engagement of staff and their assignment to respective duties must be defined. Members of staff authorized to use particular items of equipment should be identified and the institution should ensure that all staff receive training adequate to the competent performance of the relevant methods and operation of equipment. A record should be maintained which provides evidence that individual members of staff have been adequately trained and that their competence to carry out specific methods, identifications or techniques has been assessed. Managers should be aware that a change of experienced and well-trained staff might jeopardize the continuation of quality.

In the case of small units employing few staff or even single individuals responsible for the generation of data, a scheme for the certification of individual expertise (e.g., in aspects of species identification) may be a valid alternative to formal accreditation involving a hierarchy of quality managers, which may not be practicable.

2.5 Equipment

As part of its quality system, a laboratory is required to operate a programme for the necessary maintenance and calibration of equipment used in the field and in the laboratory to ensure against bias of results.

General service equipment should be maintained by appropriate cleaning and operational checks where necessary. Calibrations will be necessary where the equipment can significantly affect the analytical result.

Performance checks and service should be carried out at specific intervals on microscopes, balances and other instruments. The frequency of such performance checks will be determined by experience and based on the need, type and previous performance of the equipment.

2.6 Documentation

All biological data produced by a laboratory should be completely documented ('meta-information') and should be traceable back to its origin. The necessary documentation should contain a description of sampling equipment and procedures, reference to SOPs for sampling, sample handling and analytical procedures involved, and the names of persons responsible for Quality Control. In general, one signed protocol should accompany a sample through all steps of processing.

3 QA OF SAMPLING DESIGN

The following account is an edited version of text relating to this issue published by the Nordic Council of Ministers (ref.).

3.1 Quality Objectives

This section describes the planning process, which is the most critical process in the production of environmental information. The basis for all further work is the information requirements, to be described in detail by the users and decision-makers. In order to design a tailor-made environmental monitoring system, the ~ issue is the final use of data and the final utilization of the information obtained. The objectives of the planned programme shall be clearly and precisely formulated by the user and shall be put in writing.

The user should also formulate the requirements as qualitatively and quantitatively as possible. Precise sets of qualitative targets are essential in optimizing sampling, analysis and data-handling programmes. If data are to be treated statistically, the number of samples, sampling frequency, sampling locations, and other quantitative aspects are of great importance. A statistician experienced in these types of problems should be consulted.

1999 REWa Report 55 Available resources and monitoring costs influence the programme design. Clear specification of objectives in relation to costs will ensure that only necessary and relevant data are collected. A consideration should also be made of the possible risk of incorrect decisions based on insufficient data acquisition as a result of financial constraints.

Information requirements in relation to available resources are the basic elements in the further planning process. The result of this planning process shall be documented in the quality objectives plan.

Periodic evaluation of the information requirements should be based on monitoring results and changes in the requirements of the users. Stability and continuity are of great importance in the monitoring process, that has an ongoing and iterative character. All changes shall be documented and validated before being implemented.

3.2 Specification ofInformationNeeds

Many different approaches indicating different information' needs can be identified in the design of monitoring programmes. There are mainly two broad categories:

compliance monitoring or the emission-based approach, including sampling and analysis according to national regulations; ambient monitoring or the environmental quality approach, including sampling and analysis in order to establish baseline levels or trends, set from -the originaVdesirablestate of the environment.

These different approaches are interrelated and complement each other in many ways.

Define in detail the information needs:

which questions are to be answered; which levels of overall reliability are to be attained; what are the intended uses of data/results.

The proper level of quality assurance can only be performed when the requirements of the information needed are made explicit.

In monitoring trends in the conditions of the environment, extreme care shall be exercised that observed trends are not influenced or biased by changing methodology, change of laboratory, differences in sample stability, or time and frequency of sampling.

Reuse of. monitoring information should always be kept in mind. In case of new and unforeseen environmental questions, thoroughly documented and accessible information may be re-evaluated in the far future, tackling quite new problems and thus the reuse of data should be facilitated as far as possible.

The information needs, as the basis for further work, shall be:

detailed, specified and put in writing in order to avoid ambiguity; subject to review for conformity to legal, scientific, technical and quality expectations; approved by top management and included in the quality management plan.

3.3 Strategy and Determinands

After defining the information needs, a strategy for monitoring must be defined. This involves decisions about what information is to be produced by the monitoring system, in ()rder to translate the information needs to data collecting activities. What determinands are to be measured, physical, chemical, biological, microbiological, hydrological, etc., and which levels of quality are required.

The monitoring strategy shall define what is to be determined and in which media, as well as its required quality. The strategy should also include information on the final use of data, including data analysis, compilations, statistical calculations and evaluations.

56 1999 BEWG Report In designing the monitoring strategy, the selection of determinands is of greatest importance. To obtain the most reliable and complete picture of the state of the environment, an integrated monitoring approach should be recommended, which means coordinating both chemical and biological measurements in order to assess ecosystem quality as a whole.

Spatial monitoring or mapping means coverage of chosen variables within geographically defined areas. It can be made on one occasion or be recurrent mapping. Remote sensing, the use of aerial photographs or satellite images are important tools in early discovery, surveillance and identification of objects to be further studied in field surveys by ground stations. The development of new satellite sensors means that remote sensing may be an alternative to ground stations in the near future.

Model calculations may be seen as an alternative to sampling programmes and/or remote sensing. Models are based on the assumption that a variable will continue to react as previously, depending on changes in one or more other control variables. Models are used for calculating loads and concentrations and for making prognoses. But there are difficulties in making predictions in the state of the environment and models are always simplifications of reality. All models used in monitoring should be clearly described, documented and validated. The quality of models depends mainly on the quality of entity and the correctness of the basic assumptions. Defined action for continuous follow-up and corrections of the model should be included in the quality control plan. Modelling and environmental indicators are further discussed in (ref.).

3.4 Data Quality Objectives

Data quality objectives (DQOs) are qualitative and quantitative statements derived from the DQO-process, which is a systematic planning tool based on a method that identifies and defines the type, quality and quantity of data needed to satisfy a specified use. The DQO-process provides a logical and quantitative framework for finding an appropriate balance between the time and resources that will be used to collect data and the quality of the data needed to make the decision. The quality level may be defined according to the tolerable total measurement uncertainty in different sets of data in order to achieve an acceptable level of confidence in final decisions. The DQO-process stresses the cooperation between the end users of the data and the scientific staff planning the monitoring programme.

The DQO-process was originally developed by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. The U.S. EPA has recently changed the three stages mentioned above to be a more manageable 'seven steps of the DQO-process'. The seven steps are:

state the problem; identify the decision; identify inputs to the decision; define the study boundaries; develop a decision rule; specify limits on decision errors; optimize the design; and are fully discussed in the EPA Quality System Series documents. These seven steps of the DQO-process may profitably be applied to all projects where the intention is to collect environmental data and to make a specified decision. The seven-step DQO-process provides a method for establishing decision performance requirements by considering the consequences of decision errors. A statistical sampling design satisfying the DQO can be generated. The introduction of the data quality objectives process in the planning of monitoring programmes is of vital importance. In other cases a similar process is called the graded approach, basing the level of quality on the intended use of the data and the degree of confidence needed in the quality of the results. Quality assurance means to test, define and document the quality level needed and to maintain this quality level in all subsequent steps.

3.5 Sampling Design

The previous parts of this section emphasize the importance of precisely defining the objectives of the monitoring programme. The monitoring strategy considers what is to be measured, e.g., the selection of determinands. The data quality objectives process tries to find the proper balance between time, costs, resources, and the desired quality of the results. The sampling design concentrates on where and when: it specifies which determinands are to be measured at which location, at which time and frequency. In sampling design emphasis may be put on statistics. But it should also be borne in mind that the programme designers must have insight into the temporal and spatial variability and other relevant phenomena of the system studied.

1999 BEWG Report 57 In a representative sample, all relevant determinands have the same values as in the system at the point and time of collection. A sampling programme or a set of samples is said to be valid if it gives an adequately accurate representation of temporal and spatial variability of 'environmental quality' for the duration of the monitoring programme.

It must be noted that most factors are interrelated and in part exchangeable. In some cases, there may be a choice between many locations and low frequency of sampling or few locations and frequent sampling.

Relevant factors in sampling design

Sampling location (system homogeneity, number of sampling locations, accessibility and safety precautions); Sampling time and frequency (system homogeneity over time, random and cyclic variations); Estimated nature and magnitude of total variations; Duration of sampling period-discrete or composite samples; Methods to change sampling frequency and number of sampling points (systems with a high degree of homogeneity and stability may allow reduction in sampling frequency and locations and vice versa); Economic and practical considerations; Quality control.

After a complete sampling cycle, all results are to be evaluated and tested to meet the pre-set quality targets.

Expert assessment of the final results may identify weak points and inconsistencies that can be corrected to increase the quality of the programmes.

3.6 Specification of Sampling Procedures

Sampling is the starting point in the collection of information and a cornerstone in the monitoring process. Mistakes in sampling may invalidate the whole process and normally it is not possible to correct errors made in sampling. Environmental monitoring means mostly sampling in time, which can never be reproduced. Sampling procedures include sample collection, preservation, transport and storage ·of samples. All decisions relating to sample strategy and sampling operations shall be thoroughly documented.

4 QA FOR FIELD WORK

4.1 Sea-going Procedures

The QA of sea-going procedures covers methods, instruments and equipment including their description, SOPs, applicability, limitations, calibration, and maintenance. Safety is also a critical consideration and will be an essential part of any QA programme.

The personnel are an additional important factor for the collection of data with high quality. QA covers the fields of responsibility and authority as well as education, experience, and all aspects of special training;

The description of the measuring site (station, area, transect, etc.) covers not only the unequivocal (geographical) identification of the site, but also the description of the physical environment (depth, sediment, etc.) as well as of the hydrographical and meteorological settings (temperature, salinity, currents, wind direction and speed, cloud cover, etc.). It is an indispensable need to have a comprehensive signed field log that covers all aspects and steps of the sampling process including personnel, instruments and equipment, and recording activity including deviations and deficiencies. A time log preferably using a calibrated time is of use especially when the results have to be combined.

The securing of results from instruments and data loggers is an indispensable and delicate step in QA that can be safeguarded by keeping parallel hard copies of results.

The securing of samples and material is another important field for QA, where especially a persistent and clear (internal and external) labelling is of importance. Parallel documentation by photo and video can increase reliability.

There is a need for predetermined solutions in case of deviations, malfunctions and deficiencies and in cases of illness of personnel that makes them incapable of fulfilling their tasks.

58 1999 BEWG Report Further criteria for changes of methods must be set up, including calibration, parallel measuring and other comparative measures. The recording and documentation of these results are very important.

The whole sea-going process (that ends when the samples, materials and documents are handed over to the analytical laboratory) must be accompanied by quality control activities such as:

• simultaneous records with different observers; parallel measurements with different instruments; test comparisons (intercomparisons); • field blank samples; • measuring reference materials; securing the stability of measuring instruments in changing ambient conditions (temperature, humidity); observing interferences with other instruments or installations of the ship (this includes the need for a stable voltage supply).

4.2 Coastal and Land-based Procedures

(Considerations: Diving: parallel checks among several divers, photo and video documentation, double recording of profiles/transects, need for specific scientific diver training and certification; strict safety rules).

5 QUALITY ASSESSMENT FOR LABORATORY ANALYSIS AND DATA HANDLING

The objective of a quality assurance programme is to reduce analytical errors to required limits and to assure that the results have a high probability of being of acceptable quality.

5.1 Routine Quality Control

Having developed an analytical system suitable for producing analytical results of the required accuracy, it is of extreme importance to establish a continuous control over the system and to show that all causes of errors remain the same in routine analyses (i.e., that the results are meaningful). In other words, continuous quantitative experimental evidence must be provided in order to demonstrate that the stated performance characteristics of the method chosen remain constant.

[Here examples of within-laboratory quality control for biology are inserted for each variable).

For marine environmental monitoring programmes, it is essential that the data provided by the laboratories involved are comparable. Therefore, activities such as participation in external quality assessment schemes, ring tests, and taxonomic workshops and the use of external specialists by the laboratories concerned should be considered indispensable.

While the use of a validated analytical method and routine quality control (see above) will ensure accurate results within a laboratory, participation in an external quality assessment or proficiency testing scheme provides an independent and continuous means of detecting and guarding against undiscovered sources of errors and acting as a demonstration that the analytical quality control of the laboratory is effective.

Generally, proficiency testing, ring tests, etc., are useful to obtain information about the comparability of results, and ensure that each of the participating laboratories achieves an acceptable level of analytical accuracy.

Most ring tests and proficiency testing schemes are based on the distribution of samples or identical sub-samples (test materials) from a uniform bulk material to the participating laboratories. The test material must be homogeneous and stable for the duration of the testing period. Amounts of the material should be submitted that are sufficient for the respective determinations.

The samples are analysed by the different laboratories independently of one another, each under repeatable conditions. Participants are free to select the validated method of their choice. It is important that the test material is not treated in any way different from the treatment of samples ordinarily analysed in the laboratory. In this way, the performance established by the proficiency testing results will reflect the actual performance of the laboratory.

1999 BEWG Report 59 Analytical results obtained in the respective laboratories are returned to the organizer where the data are collated, analysed statistically, and reports issued to the participants.

In cases where laboratories are formally accredited, external quality audits are carried out in order to ensure that the laboratory's policies and procedures, as formulated in the Quality Manual, are being followed.

6 DEFINITIONS

Accuracy. Difference between the expected or true value and the actual value obtained. Generally accuracy represents the sum of random error and systematic error or bias.

Analytical method/process. The set of written instructions completely defining the procedure to be adopted by the analyst in order to obtain the required analytical result (Wilson, 1970).

An analytical system comprises all components involved in producing results from the analysis of samples, i.e., the sampling technique, the 'method', the analyst, the laboratory facilities, the instrumental equipment, the nature (matrix, origin) of the sample, and the calibration procedure used.

Benthos. Fauna in, on and above the bottom of waters (also in fresh water).

Calibration is the set of operations which establishes, under specified conditions, the relationship between values indicated by a measuring instrument or measuring system, or values represented by a material measure, and the corresponding known values.

External quality assessment. See Section 5.

Intercalibration. Comparative sampling, laboratory analysis, and evaluation with the mm of detecting systematic differences that have to be overcome.

Intercomparison. Comparative sampling, laboratory analysis, and evaluation with the aim of detecting systematic differences.

Macrozoobenthos. Benthic fauna retained on a 1 mm screen.

Matrix. The totality of all components of a material, including its chemical, physical and biological properties.

Performance characteristics of an analytical method used under given experimental conditions are a set of quantitative and experimentally determined values for parameters of fundamental importance in assessing the suitability of the method for any given purpose (Wilson, 1970).

Phytobenthos. Benthic flora.

Phytoplankton. 'Chlorophyll-containing', autotrophic, drifting organisms (mainly algae) in aquatic systems.

Primary production. Formation of organic material by photosynthesis by phytoplankton.

Precision. Closeness between parallel analyses.

Proficiency testing is the determination of the laboratory calibration or testing performance by means of interlaboratory comparisons.

Quality. Characteristic features and properties of an analytical method/analytical system in relation to their suitability to fulfill specific requirements.

Quality Assurance. Quality Assurance (QA) is the total management scheme required to ensure the consistent delivery of quality controlled information fit for a defined purpose. The QA must take into account as many steps of the analytical chain as possible in order to determine the contribution of each step to the total variation. The two principal components of QA are quality control and quality assessment.

60 1999 REWa Report Quality Control. The procedures which maintain the measurements within an acceptable level of accuracy and precision.

Quality Assessment. The procedures which provide documented evidence that the quality control is being achieved.

Quality audits are carried out in order to ensure that the laboratory's policies and procedures, as formulated in the Quality Manual, are being followed.

Quality Manual is a document stating the quality policy and describing the quality system of an organization.

Quality policy. Overall quality objectives of a research unit and laboratory.

Quality system is a term used to describe measures which ensure that a laboratory fulfills the requirements for its analytical tasks on a continuing basis.

Quality Manager. Person responsible for QA (even in small laboratories).

Ring test. Interlaboratory test with either preserved samples, identical samples or artificial samples to compare the laboratory performance.

SOPs. Standard operating procedures. Detailed (cookbook-like) descriptions of analytical procedures in standardized format.

Technical Manager. The post-holder who has overall responsibility for the technical operation of the laboratory and for ensuring that the Quality System requirements are met.

Sample tracking. The ability to trace results or data back to their origin.

Voucher specimens. Specimens from routine collections put under museum curatorship to make later taxonomic checks possible.

Zoo benthos. Benthic fauna.

Zooplankton. Animal-like, heterotrophic organisms drifting in aquatic systems.

7 REFERENCES

Analytical Methods Committee. 1987. Recommendations for the detection, estimation and use of the detection limit. Analyst, 112: 199-204.

Analytical Methods Committee. 1992. Proficiency testing of analytical laboratories: Organization and statistical assessment. Analyst, 117: 97-104.

Berman, S.S. 1992. Comments on the evaluation of intercomparison study results. ICES Marine Chemistry Working Group, Working Document 7.1.2.

Gorsuch, T. 1970. The destruction of organic matter. Pergamon Press, Oxford.

HELCOM. 1991. Third Biological Intercalibration Workshop, 27-31 August 1990, Visby, Sweden. Baltic Sea Environment Proceedings No. 38.

HELCOM. 1994. Environment Committee (EC). Report of the 5th Meeting, Nykoping, Sweden, 10-14 October 1994. EC5/17, Annex 9.

HELCOM. 1995. Helsinki Commission (HELCOM). Report of the 16th Meeting, Helsinki, Finland, 14-17 March 1995. HELCOM 16117, Annex 7.

1999 BEWG Report 61 HELCOM. 1998. Manual for Marine Monitoring in the COMBINE Programme of HELCOM, Manual version 1.0, Revised June 1998.

ICES. 1997. ICESIHELCOM Workshop on Quality Assuranc.e of Pelagic Biological Measurements in the Baltic Sea. ICES CM 1997IE:5. .

ISO. 1997. Proficiency Testing by Interlaboratory Comparisons - Development and Operation of Proficiency Testing Schemes. ISO IEC GUIDE 43.

Taylor, J.K. 1981. Quality assurance of chemical measurements. Analytical Chemistry, 53: 1588A-1596A.

Topping, G. 1992. The role and applicability of quality assurance in marine environmental protection. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 25: 61-66.

Wilson. 1970.

62 1999 BEWG Report APPENDIXl

Critical QA factors and priority QA actions for monitoring CHLOROPHYLL a, PHYTOPLANKTON, MACROZOOBENTHOS, AND MACROPHYTOBENTHOS

Table 1. Chlorophyll a.

Steps Method diversity Critical QA factors Priority QA actions Sampling 3--4 methods according to Variability in accuracy among intercomparisons (workshops) on procedures lAMP Guidelines methods (effectiveness of methods sampling method performance: hose vs. in coping with patchiness). bottle sampler vs. in situ fluorescence - pump/hose - bottle sampler - in situ fluorescence different QA procedure for chlorophyll a extracts Sample analysis 2 (3) principles Accuracy and precision. Certified reference material recommended International calibration - spectrophotometer Calibration of in situ measurements (if in situ fluorometers are used, they - fluorometer should be calibrated with filtered water (-HPLC as clean-up option) samples) Data treatment Low variety of statistical Reporting of data should be followed methods by control charts Footnote. Supplementary variables essential for interpretation of chlorophyll results include: suspended particulate matter, particulate nitrogen and phosphorus, particulate organic carbon, temperature, salinity, and light penetration.

1999 BEWG Report 63 Table 2. Phytoplankton.

Steps Method diversity Critical QA factors Priority QA actions Sampling High (4) Large variability in accuracy Intercomparison of methods procedures between methods especially among - water bottles nets. - hose - pumps - nets Treatment and High (4-6) Algae may be impossible to identify Intercomparison of fixative effects storage of as a result of group-specific fixation samples - different fixati ves damage. - living samples Concentration High (4) Large variability in accuracy Intercomparison of methods of samples between methods (species - sedimentation dependent). - centrifugation - filtration - no concentration Sample analysis Use of light microscope Magnification. Intercomparison exercises offers different techniques such as: Quality of optics (resolution). Control of optical quality - brightfield - darkfield - phase-contrast - epifluorescence

Species identification Taxonomic expertise. Training and intercomparison exercises Change of species names Ring tests (Synonyms). Common check list including synonyms Biomass Two main methods: Large variability in size for Use of standard geometric cell shapes transformation the same species. - cell measurements Establish lists of standard volumes - use of standard volumes Data treatment Use of 'control charts' with Simplicity and uniformity of Develop and maintain control charts relevant information control charts. accompanying the data. Footnote. Supplementary variables essential for interpretation of phytoplankton results include: particulate and total organic carbon, particulate organic nitrogen, temperature, salinity, and light penetration.

64 1999 BEWG Report Table 3. Macrophytobenthos: hard bottom.

Steps Method diversity Critical QA factors Priority QA actions Sampling High. At least 3 different Frame and transect work: Guidelines on assessment of procedure method principles representativity (accuracy) of representativity of stations recommended: stations. - aerial surveillance, Taxonomic competence of field Taxonomic intercomparison workshops observers. - shoreline and diving Preparation of regional check lists of taxa transects and frames, - photography or video. Internal assessment of observer precision (repeated registrations) Operation of photographic and Training courses video equipment. Photo/video resolution. Instrument intercalibration exercises Sample analysis Low for each of the above Taxonomic competence. Taxonomic intercomparison workshops sampling procedures Preparation of regional check lists of taxa Precision in quantification of Intercalibration workshop on image abundances from photo and video analysis procedures images. Data treatment LowinOSPAR None. None recommendations Footnote. Supplementary variables essential for interpretation of macrophytobenthos results include: substrate type, slope and bearing, presence of loose sediment, degree of wave exposure, tidal range, Secchi disk depth, and salinity.

1999 BEWG Report 65 Table 4. Macrozoobenthos: hard bottom.

Steps Method diversity Critical QA factors Priority QA actions , Sampling High. At least 3 different Frame and transect work: Guidelines on assessment of procedure method principles representativity (accuracy) of representativity of stations recommended: stations. - aerial surveillance, Taxonomic competence of field Taxonomic intercomparison workshops observers. - shoreline and diving Preparation of regional check lists of transects and frames, taxa - photography or video. Internal assessment of observer precision (repeated registrations) Operation of photographic and Training courses video equipment. Photo/video resolution. Instrument intercalibration exercises Sample analysis Low for each sampling Taxonomic skill. Taxonomic intercomparison workshops procedure Standardized taxonomic lists High diversity in quantification of abundance Precision of quantification of Intercalibration workshops (abundance scales) abundances from photo and video - image analysis procedures images. - abundance estimates Data treatment Variable principles with Criteria for inclusion of epigrowth Standard approaches to respect to and colonial organisms. pooling/exclusions of species inclusion/exclusion of species in community Consensus on how to treat More specific guidelines description abundance of colony-forming species. Recommendations for best practice Inconsistency in handling uncertain identifications. Numerous methods (and 'Rounding' errors with different Intercomparisons of analytical output software packages) for computer packages. from a standard data set univariate and multivariate analysis Mistakes in data compilation. Standardized taxonomic lists Footnote. Supplementary variables essential for interpretation of· hard-bottom fauna results include: substrate type, slope and bearing, presence of loose sediment, degree of wave exposure, tidal range, dominating macro algal cover, and salinity.

66 1999 BEWG Report Table 5. Macrozoobenthos: soft bottom.

Steps Method diversity Critical QA factors Priority QA actions Sampling Sample collection: Low: 2 Variability in sediment and faunal Intercomparisons of sampling devices procedure main categories - grabbing sampling efficiency according to in the field and coring. sampler design and handling. Agreement on minimum acceptable A wide variety of sampler sample volumes and sample quality designs are available within these categories Mesh design (round vs. square, Intercomparisons of methods for field plastic vs. metal), sieving sample processing Field processing: Low: the procedures, especially hose Recommendations on 'best practice' aim is invariably to extract pressure. fauna from sediments, and to preserve the material. Approaches to processing can vary substantially in the details Sample analysis Low: manual counting, Extraction and sorting efficiency. Independent (in-house or external) identifying and weighing of checks on sorting and identification species. efficiency Variability is encountered Proficiency of species Workshops on species identification in: I) means to extract identification. fauna from residual Access to up-to-date taxonomic keys sediment; 2) use of Standardized taxonomic lists magnification during sorting; 3) access to up-to- Ring tests (identification, counting, date taxonomic keys; 4) biomass) biomass determinations Precision/accuracy of biomass Compilation of biomass conversion estimates (method-determined). factors Data treatment High: numerous methods Inconsistency in handling of Standard approaches to (and software packages) for uncertain identifications. pooling/exclusions of species univariate and multivariate 'Rounding' errors with different analysis Intercomparisons of analytical output computer packages. from a standard data set Mistakes in data compilation. Footnote 1. Supplementary variables essential to the interpretation of soft-bottom benthos data include: particle size analyses of sediment sub-samples; measurements of redox potential; concentrations of specified contaminants, e.g., heavy metals; organic matter content; chlorophyll a. QA procedures should already be established for many of these variables. However, for those not presently covered, advice is needed on the appropriate ICES/OSPAR groups to deal with them. Footnote 2. Epifauna are sampled by a variety of means across both coarse and soft bottoms. QA procedures must also be developed for this group. A wide variety of sampling methods is currently employed (e.g., underwater photography, dredges/sledges, trawls) and, in most cases, the results are strongly method-dependent.

1999 BEWG Report 67 APPENDIX 2

QUALITY ~UDIT

Areas of particular importance to a chemistry laboratory (drafted by the WELAC/EURACHEM Working Group, 1992) but in most parts valid also for biology.

1 STAFF

Staff are properly trained and up-to-date training records are being maintained. Tests are only carried out by authorized analysts. The performance of staff carrying out analyses is observed.

2 EQUIPMENT

The equipment in use is suited to its purpose. Major instruments are correctly maintained and records of this maintenance are kept. Equipment, e.g., balances, thermometers, glassware, time pieces, pipettes, etc., is calibrated, and the appropriate calibration certificates demonstrating traceability to national or international standards are available. Calibrated equipment is appropriately labelled or otherwise identified. Instrument calibration procedures are documented and records of calibrations are satisfactorily maintained. Appropriate instructions for use of equipment are available. Instrument performance checks show that performance is within specifications.

3 METHODS AND PROCEDURES

In-house methods are fully documented and appropriately validated. Alterations to methods are appropriately authorized. The most up-to-date version of the method is available to'the analyst. Analyses are following the methods specified.

4 STANDARDS AND CERTIFIED REFERENCE MATERIALS

The standards actually required for the tests are held. The standards are certified or are the 'best' available. The preparation of working standards is documented. Standards and reference materials are properly labelled and correctly stored. New batches of standards are compared against old batches before use. The correct grade of materials is being used in the tests. Where reference materials are certified, copies of the certificate are available for inspection.

5 QUALITY CONTROL

There is an appropriate degree of calibration for each test. Where control charts are used, performance has been maintained within acceptable criteria. QC check samples are being tested by the defined procedures, at the required frequency, and there is an up-to-date record of the results and actions taken where results have exceeded action limits. Results from the random re-analysis of samples show an acceptable measure of agreement with results from the original analyses. Where appropriate, performance in proficiency testing schemes and/or interlaboratory comparisons is satisfactory and has not highlighted any problems or potential problems. Where performance has been unsatisfactory, corrective action has been taken.

68 1999 BEWG Report 6 SAMPLE MANAGEMENT

There is an effective documented system for receiving samples, identifying samples against requests for analysis, and showing progress of analysis and fate of sample. Samples are properly labelled and stored.

7 RECORDS

Notebooks/worksheets include the date of test, analyst, analyte, sample details, test observations, all rough calculations, any relevant instrument traces, and relevant calibration data. • Notebooks/worksheets are completed in ink, mistakes are crossed out and not erased, and the records are signed by the analysts. Where a mistake is corrected, the alteration is signed by the person making the correction. The laboratory's procedures for checking data transfers and calculations are being complied with. Vertical audits on random samples have not highlighted any problems (i.e., checks made on a sample, examining all procedures associated with its testing from receipt through to the issue of a report). Proof-reading of the final data report has been made.

REFERENCE

EURACHEMIWELAC (Cooperation for Analytical Chemistry in EuropelWestern European Legal Metrology Cooperation). 1992. Information Sheet No.1 (Draft): Guidance on the Interpretation of the EN 45000 series of Standards and ISO Guide 25. 27 pp.

1999 BEWG Report 69 .~------..----

ANNEX 13: CONTRIBUTION OF THE BENTHOS ECOLOGY WORKING GROUP [BEWG] TO THE MARINE HABITAT COMMITTEE [MHC] STRATEGIC PLAN

Objective 1: Development of a toolbox to assess marine habitat quality.

The Working Group concluded that in essence much of its work up till now has been dealing with these kind of matters. From this work certainly various indicators, such as suggested by the MHC, can be derived, and indicators and indices developed elsewhere can be reviewed as to their merits. The great problem, however, is how to deal with the assessment of habitat quality. The Working Group realises that an objective identification and definition of habitat quality may be difficult to agree. This is considered to be beyond the scope of the BEWG. In fact there is the problem of how to quantify habitat quality. What is good habitat quality and what is not can only be defined by accepting certain (historical) reference situations of newly set so called ecotargets. Therefore, the MHC is requested to reconsider and/or redefine the issue of assessment of habitat quality.

Objective 2: Development of a classification system for marine habitats of coastal areas, continental shelves and slopes, and the open ocean; including subsequent habitat mapping.

The Working Group is of the opinion that there is a great demand for this kind of work in the near and further future, and has considerable expertise to contribute to this objective. Many projects are underway in this area at various scales. There seems to be an overlap between activities under OSPAR and under ICES, the reason for which should be clarified, or activities should be better integrated.

Development of a habitat classification system, and especially the subsequent habitat mapping for the very large sea areasof ICES is considered a huge task, potentially requiring enormous effort. Such mapping is considered essential in order to avoid classification of marine benthic habitats on the basis of solely physical habitat mapping or mapping while having available far too few benthos ground-truth data. This is a conditio sine qua non when these habitat classification results will be used for assessment purposes (e.g. QSR). The application of a classification and mapping programme needs to be carefully established to ensure the programme is appropriately developed.

A first step could be to bring together the existing physical and ecological information on the marine benthic habitats in the ICES area, and identify the gaps in information. The envisaged North Sea Benthos Project will produce information for updating existing habitat classification of the North Sea and giving insight into temporal changes therein.

Finally, very basic discussions may be necessary to arrive at good and widely accepted definitions of marine habitats.

Objective 3: Development of knowledge on the importance of biological diversity to the functioning of marine ecosystems

A primary reaction of the Working Group was "does this make sense?" The Working Group was of the opinion that here we are dealing with very fundamental research questions. For example: what do we know of mechanisms in which biological diversity (on whatever level) determines certain aspects of ecosystem functioning. Many ideas exist though, but basic research into this matter in the marine field hardly exists. So there is a severe gap in knowledge. Well known, on the other hand, is that habitat destruction is a great threat against biodiversity.

It was concluded that the BEWG can contribute to this objective and support the work of the new Study Group on Marine Biodiversity and contribute as far as possible.

Objective 4: Development of knowledge on the effects of anthropogenic contaminants on habitats and dependent living resources.

There has been, and still is, expertise in this field in the BEWG. The Working Group considers that its work in dealing with effects of contaminants at community level can make an important contribution to this MHC objective. For more specific aspects dealing with effects, such as physiological and ecotoxicological ones, the BEWG refers to the more relevant tasks of the Working Group on Biological Effects of Contaminants (WGBEC).

70 1999 BEWG Report Objective 5: Development of knowledge on the impact of human-induced changes on habitats and dependent living resources, other than contaminant-related.

The Working Group recognizes this objective to be of outstanding relevance to their work, now and in the future. With respect to the tactics mentioned, the omission of knowledge on the effects of dredging and dumping is brought at the attention of the MHC.

It is assumed by the BEWG that "ecomorphological delopment" does relate to coastal developments. If so, fulfillment of tasks under this tactic cannot be done without pertinent primary involvement of oceanographic (water transport modellers) and geomorphologic disciplines to be supplemented with ecological (benthic and other) expertise.

Objective 6: Enhance knowledge of marine monitoring methodology in relation to the well-being of marine habitats.

This objective relates much to objective 1. The Working Group strongly advises that the part on "well-being" of marine habitats be omitted. This is anthropocentric thinking, and provides no real possibilities for practical management unless one would succeed in objectively defining and quantifying this "well-being".

The BEWG has been working on most of the isues bulleted, and foresees a continued contribution in the field of marine monitoring methodology. One option for future work of the BEWG would be the regular production of reviews of new methods and techniques which may serve as annexes to the new edition (in preparation) of the IBP-Handbook "Methods for the Study of marine Benthos" (Holme & McIntyre, eds.).

1999 BEWG Report 71 ANNEX 14: RECOMMENDATIONS

The Benthos Ecology Working Group (BEWG) recommended that it meet in Walpole, ME, USA, from 26-30 April 2000 to: a) report on progress in the North Sea Benthos Project; b) report on further developments in computer aids in benthic studies (taxonomic and operational), and discuss problems in the field of quality assurance of taxonomic expertise as related to benthic studies; c) debate the merits of different (new) approaches and techniques to benthic studies; d) further provide guidance to ACME on Quality Assurance procedures for benthic studies through:

i) agreeing on a final draft of general guidelines for QA for biological monitoring;

ii) finalising an extended review of standard operating procedures in use in ICES Member Countries,

iii) further reviewing QA schemes for benthic studies; e) pursue the preparation of guidelines for sampling and objective description of epibiota (of soft sediments and hard bottom substrates), including QA mattters; f) continue an analysis of the impact of the North Atlantic Oscillations (NAO) and other climatic phenomena on long-term variations of benthic population parameters in different parts of the ICES area; g) discuss data banking and related QA matters, including data exchange, with the ICES Environmental Data Scientist.

Justifications a) It is necessary to use the BEWG as a forum to discuss organisational and operational progress of the North Sea Benthos Project. b) This action relates to on-going developments aimed at improving the consistency and quality of benthic data. Without good taxonomy, good benthic studies, especially those related to biodiversity studies, will not be possible. c) There is a continuing need for debating the merits of different (new) designs and methods for sampling and surveying benthos and benthic habitats, as well as updating reviews of different methodologies. d) This will provide a worthwhile contribution on QA matters, based on collaboration between ICES/OSPAR and ICES/HELCOM working groups and the BEWG. e) These guidelines will form the basis of a new TIMES report to be published by ICES. f) In order to be able to better discriminate between anthropogenic changes and natural fluctuation patterns in benthic populations, a further analysis of correlations between long-term benthos data and climatic patterns (e.g., NAO) is necessary. g) This will be essential for the quality of the ICES database on benthos.

72 1999 BEWG Report