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Rules of Polish Useful for Genealogists by Fay Vogel Bussgang

(Based on Second half of Talk given at International Seminar on Jewish Genealogy in Washington, D.C., July 20, 2003)

Polish Grammar, as you might expect, can be quite a challenge for the English speaker. Fortunately, we don’t have to cover all of it today. The purpose of this talk is not to turn you all into linguists. It is only to help you identify the names of people and towns you are researching in order to determine whether a given document has relevance for you. Polish birth, marriage, and death documents usually follow a preset format. If you have that format, which you can get from Judith Frazin’s Translation Guide, all you need to do is identify the names of people and places. But, if you don’t understand the case endings, it is difficult to recognize exactly what those names are. How would you know that “Brzeziny” and “Brzezinach” refer to the same town while “Brzeżany” is something totally different? That’s what I hope to show you today! Please keep in mind that you don’t have to memorize all the rules I’m about to present, just as you don’t have to memorize all the words in the dictionary. It is just important for you to understand the basic concepts.

[2] First, there are three CONCEPTS of POLISH GRAMMAR that may be new to English speakers––CASE, GENDER, AND STEM. The CASE of a indicates its function in the sentence, i.e., it may be the , the , or follow a preposition. In English, do not change their spelling, regardless of their position in the sentence, but in many other languages, they do. This process of changing the ending of a word according to its case is called DECLINATION. If you have taken Latin or Russian, you will already be familiar with this. In Polish, the case ending varies not only with the function of the word in the sentence, but also with its gender, number, and stem. As for GENDER, all nouns in the have gender, that is, they can be masculine, feminine, or neuter. Town names, given names, and surnames are no exception. AS in English, nouns have NUMBER; they are either singular or plural. The STEM is that part of a word that remains pretty much the same so that you can recognize the word even when different endings are added to indicate the case. [3] USEFUL CASES. It so happens that there are seven different cases in Polish, but we will take a look only at the four most often encountered in genealogical research: the NOMINATIVE, GENITIVE, INSTRUMENTAL, and LOCATIVE cases. The denotes the subject of the sentence. The name of a town or person in the NOMINATIVE is spelled as you commonly know it––Lublin or Kraków for a town, Glasman or Rozenberg for a surname. The denotes “of” or possession––such as the daughter or son of a person. It is also used after certain prepositions. In vital/metrical records, the GENITIVE is often found following the word “z,” (sometimes spelled “z-e”) meaning “from,” for example, to identify the town someone comes from.

©Fay Vogel Bussgang 2004 - 1 - The is used to show with or by what means something is done. It also often follows the preposition “z,” but in this instance “z” means “with.” In a marriage record, it may be used for the groom who appears with the rabbi. Please note that the same preposition––”z”––has one meaning when used with the GENITIVE and a different meaning when used with the INSTRUMENTAL. The indicates the location where an action takes place and is most often used with the preposition “w,” meaning “in.” [4] This is what a SAMPLE looks like. As you can see, the endings vary with the case, but the stem remains the same, and you can recognize that they all concern the city of Warszawa or Warsaw. [5] We will now take a look at how the various cases form their endings. We will start with the GENITIVE CASE. The ending used for the GENITIVE case varies according to the gender of the noun. Thus we first have to learn how to recognize what gender a town name is. FEMININE Town Names usually end in “a” in the NOMINATIVE––Warszawa, Warta, Horodenka. In addition, a few town names that end in double consonants or “ew” are considered feminine such as Byd’goszcz, Łódź, and Żół’kiew. The GENITIVE ending for all feminine towns is either “y” or “i,” depending on whether the last consonant of the word has a hard sound or a soft sound. Thus the GENITIVE of Warszawa is Warszawy, Warta becomes Warty, Horodenka becomes Horodenki. Byd’goszcz becomes Bydgosz’czy and Łódź becomes Łodzi. Please note that for Łódź, the slashes over both the “o” and the “z” are dropped. An “o” in a single or final syllable of a word often has a slash over it, but when a syllable is added, that slash is dropped. And when an “i” is added to any of the consonants that have a slash, such as the “z” in Łódź, that slash is also dropped. [6] MASCULINE TOWN NAMES, such as Kraków, Gdańsk, and Włocławek, end in a consonant in the NOMINATIVE. The GENITIVE ending for most masculine town names in Poland is “a.” Krakowa, Gdańska, Włocławka. If the name ends with a soft consonant such as “n” or “s with a slash,” an “i” replaces the slash before the “a” ending. Poz'nań thus becomes Pozna'nia, and Za'mość becomes Zamo'ścia. Most foreign cities take a “u” ending. Londyn, Londy'nu, Boston, Bosto'nu, as well as a few Polish towns that have compound names such as Raj'gród–Rajgro'du. You may have noticed that when a syllable is added to make the ending, the accent of the word shifts. Kra'ków becomes Krako'wa and Za'mość becomes Zamo'ścia. That is because in Polish, the accent is always on the next to the last syllable, the penultimate syllable.

[7] NEUTER TOWN NAMES end in “o” or, sometimes, in “e” in the NOMINATIVE: Chełmno, Radomsko, Opole. To form the GENITIVE of a neuter town name, the letter “a” is added to the stem, just as it was for masculine town names: Chełmna, Radomska, Opola.

[8] Polish town names not only have gender; they are sometimes plural, a concept that may seem strange to English speakers. PLURAL TOWN NAMES are those that end in “y,” “i,” and “e,” in the NOMINATIVE: Chęciny, Suwałki, Katowice. To form the GENITIVE, the final letter is dropped, so that they become Chęcin, Suwałek, Kato'wic [9] ADDING AND SUBTRACTING You may have noticed that sometimes an “e” or “ie” is added to an ending. Other times, it is taken away. The purpose in both cases is to make

- 2 - pronunciation easier. Thus for Żółkiew and Włocławek, the “ie” or “i” is removed to get Żółkwi and Włocławka. The same is true for names––such as Mosiek and Herszek, which have an “e” before the final consonant. They become Mośka and Herszka in the GENITIVE. In the case of plural town names, in which the final vowel is cut off to form the GENITIVE, an “e” may be added before the final consonant if otherwise there would be two consonants clustered together. Thus the GENITIVE of Suwałki becomes Suwałek, and Siedlce becomes Siedlec. It is not important for you to remember which words add “e” or subtract it, but when you see a town or person’s name in a slightly changed form, perhaps you will remember how it got that way. [10] In general, SURNAMES follow the same rule as town names in forming the GENITIVE, and like towns, surnames have gender, and they may not always agree with the gender of the person. For instance, surnames that end in “a” are treated as feminine, whether they belong to a man or a woman. The GENITIVE of the name Kwarta is Kwarty and the genitive of Spira is Spiry. Surnames that end in “o” also have feminine endings in the singular, so that it is impossible to tell from the GENITIVE whether the original name is Spira or Spiro. While these names are the same for men and women, there are names that are based on , which do have different endings for men and women, and we will get to those a little later. [11] GIVEN NAMES also follow the same rules in forming the GENITIVE, and given names also have gender independent of the person who bears them. Given names for men that end in “a” are treated like feminine names. Thus Szlama becomes Szlamy and Szaja becomes Szaji. On the other hand, I have never seem a woman’s given name, even if it ends in a consonant, declinated like a masculine noun. Thus, in the GENITIVE both Ruchel and Ruchla become Ruchli. Sometimes a feminine name like Jachwet or Maryem is treated like a foreign word and not declinated at all. [12] Now we come to the SURNAMES that are not really nouns at all but ADJECTIVES that have come to be used like nouns. These are the names that end in “c-k-i” or “s-k-i.” These names form the GENITIVE using endings and are different for men and women. In the NOMINATIVE, the name Kowalski and Sawicki are used for a man and Kowalska and Sawicka are used for a woman. The GENITIVE for a man is Kowalskiego and for a woman Kowalskiej. Similarly, in the GENITIVE, Sawicki becomes Sawickiego and Sawicka becomes Sawickiej. So, whenever you see “ego” or “ej” as an ending, you know you are dealing with a name that is treated like an adjective. The NOMINATIVE PLURAL ending for a couple is a little harder to recognize. It is Kowals'cy or Sawic'cy. The “k” has been softened to a “c” before the “y” plural ending is added. The GENITIVE PLURAL form for both men and women ends in “i-c-h.” Kowalskich, Sawickich. [13] GENITIVE FOR WOMEN’S SURNAMES. Women’s surnames other than those that function like adjectives are usually used in the NOMINATIVE form and not declinated at all, except under two circumstances. • To indicate that a woman is married, owa is added to her husband’s surname in the NOMINATIVE. Glasmanowa means Mrs. Glasman. To indicate that a woman is unmarried or to give her maiden name, ówna is added to her surname in the NOMINATIVE. Glasmanówna means Miss Glasman or maiden name Glasman. Patronymics also use the suffix ówna. Sura Herszówna means Sura, daughter of Hersz. The GENITIVE ending for owa is “e-j ,” because it is treated as an adjective. On the other hand, the ending for “ówna” is “y,” because, for some reason, it is treated as a noun.

- 3 - The GENITIVE PLURAL can also be used to indicate the maiden name of a married woman. The GENITIVE PLURAL ending for most surnames is “ó-w.” If Rywka Najman’s maiden name is Bursztajn, “z Bursztajn'ów” (literally, from the Bursztajns) is inserted before her married surname. However, if a woman’s maiden name ends in “c-k-a / s-k-a,” the adjective ending “i-c- h” is used. Thus to indicate that Ruchel Nowak’s maiden name is Kowalska, “z Kowalskich” is inserted before her married surname. Since you are viewing this PowerPoint on your own tablet or computer, you can always go over something again if you find it confusing. [14] The INSTRUMENTAL case is relatively simple. In general, it is used to show with whom or by what means something is done. It is formed simply by adding “e-m” for a man––to both first and last names or often just to the first name. In a marriage record, it may be used following the preposition “z” to indicate that the bride or groom appeared with the rabbi. It is also used after the preposition “między,” meaning “between,” for an between the bride and groom. If the NOMINATIVE is Szmul Kron, the INSTRUMENTAL is Szmulem Kronem or just Szmulem Kron. For family names ending in “c-k-i / s-k-i,” the ending is “im”: Aron Kowalski, Aro'nem Kowalskim. The preposition “ze” is used instead of “z” when the word following it begins with a cluster of consonants that would make it difficult to pronounce without the added “e.” That is why in the INSTRUMENTAL case, “ze” is used before Szmul, but only “z” before Aron. For a woman, “a” with a tail is added to the stem of the given name only, unless the surname ends in “c-k-a / s-k-a,” in which case the “a” with a tail is added to both the first and last names. If the “ówna” form is used for the surname or patronymic, the “ą” is also used––z Rywką Moszkówną. [15] Now we come to the most complicated case, the LOCATIVE CASE. It is a very important case for genealogists, so I hope you will bear with me to the end. Each birth or death record begins by stating in which town the event took place, and the town name usually appears in the locative case. Therefore, it is very important to be able to recognize your town name in its locative form to know whether a certain document has relevance for you. The LOCATIVE case, as mentioned earlier, tells where something is located. It is very easy to identify because it is used only after certain prepositions, the most common in vital records being “w or we” meaning “in.” Thus whenever you see the word “w,” you know that the LOCATIVE case is about to follow. However, while it is easy to tell that a word is in the LOCATIVE case, it is not always so easy to tell just what that word is, since it may have undergone some significant changes in spelling. The LOCATIVE case is based not only on gender and number but also on the nature of the stem. There are three types of stems: hard, soft, and velar (velar means guttural). How the stem is classified depends on the sound of the last consonant in the word. When we were forming the GENITIVE and INSTRUMENTAL, we were just adding or subtracting a letter or two, but when it comes to the LOCATIVE, we are making some fundamental changes before adding the endings. There are distinct rules to follow, but you don’t have to learn them by heart. Using a crib sheet is quite permissible. Thus, for the moment, just try to understand the concepts, and don’t worry about remembering the details. You can figure out later which rules apply to your specific towns.

- 4 - First, as before, you must determine the gender of the name of the town, whether it is masculine, feminine, or neuter, or whether it is plural. This time, however, we also have to determine its type of stem, which may be hard, soft, or velar. [16] We will start with HARD STEMS. If the last consonant of the word has a hard sound, the word is considered to have a hard stem. That is where our pronunciation has relevance for grammar. To form the LOCATIVE for a word with a hard stem, regardless of gender, the last consonant of the stem must be softened, and then an “e” ending is added. The final vowel or vowels are ignored in this transformation. Stems ending in “b, f, m, n, p, s, w, and z” are considered hard and are softened simply by adding “i” before an “e” ending: Dęba→w Dębie; Chełmno→w Chełmnie; Lublin→w Lublinie, Warszawa→w Warszawie, and Kraków→w Krakowie.

[17] Stems ending in “d, ł, r, and t,” are also HARD, but they are treated in a special way before adding the “e,” all according to a certain pattern. This pattern is in my Pronunciation Guide syllabus, so you don’t have to memorize it. Just try to follow along. d→dzi, ł→l, r→rz, t→ci. Thus Rajgród→w Rajgrodzie; Skała→w Skale; Góra→w Górze; Łańcut→w Łańcucie.

[18] Now we come to VELAR STEMS. The final consonant of a velar stem has a guttural sound (ch, g, k). With hard stems, you remember, the endings were the same, regardless of gender. For velar stems, however, the endings are different for feminine names than they are for masculine and neuter names. Feminine names soften velar stems before adding an “e” ending, according to the following pattern: ch→sz; g→dz; k→c. Bierwi'cha→Bierwi'sze; Struga→Strudze; Horodenka→Horodence. This last transformation from “k” to “c” is particularly common.

[19] Masculine and neuter names with VELAR STEMS simply add “u” to the stem: Tarnobrzeg→w Tarnobrzegu; Płock →w Płocku; Włocławek →w Włocławku; Radomsko→w Radomsku.

[20] Now we come to SOFT STEMS. Soft stems, as you might expect, end with consonants that have a soft sound. There are the naturally soft consonants “c, j, and l,” plus consonants that have been softened by a diacritical mark or by adding the letter “z” to them. A plain “z” is considered a hard sound, but when it is given a diacritical mark or combined with another consonant, it is considered soft. Please note that “l with a slash” is not included among the softened consonants. “L with a slash” is considered a hard consonant, while its counterpart, the “plain l,” is considered soft. Like velar stems, soft stem endings vary with gender. Feminine names that have a soft stem or end in “i-a,” add “i” or “y” to the stem: Dębica→w Dębicy; Bochnia→ w Bochni; Łódź→ w Łodzi; and Byd'goszcz →w Bydgo'szczy.

[21] Masculine and neuter names having a SOFT STEM add u to the stem, just as they do for velar stems. Mielec→ w Mielcu; Opole→ w Opolu;

- 5 - Tor'uń→ w Toruniu; Zgierz (pronounced Zgiesh)→ w Zgierzu.

[22] Towns with plural names all form the LOCATIVE case by adding “a-c-h” to the stem: Brzeziny → Brzezinach; Chęciny→ Chęcinach; Katowice→Katowicach; Suwałki→Suwałkach.

[23] I’ve just shown you how to form the LOCATIVE case from the NOMINATIVE, but in most instances you will be WORKING BACKWARD. You will see the town name in a document in the LOCATIVE case, and you will want to know what the original town NAME is. If the stem has not undergone any change, but just has an ending added to it, then it is easy. It is not difficult to see that w Warszawie is the city of Warszawa, Lublinie is Lublin, or Łodzi is Łódź. It isn’t even too hard, once you know the rule, to figure out that Brzezinach is Brzeziny. But what if you are faced with something like “w Warcie” or “w Warce?” What is the name of the original town? If we remove the “ie” ending as for Warszawie or Lublinie, we would get Warc, but there is no such town. Even if we add an “a” to get Warca, there is still no such town. What about w Warce? If we remove the “e” ending, we have the same problem.

[24] WORKING BACKWARD 2 Thus we must go back and look at the list with the transformation of letters. In the section on hard stems, we learned that “t” is changed to “c-i” before the LOCATIVE “e” ending is added. If the stem is velar, and the town name is feminine,“k” is changed to “c” before an “e” ending. So now lets remove the “e” ending of Warcie, and change the “c-i” back to “t,” and if we then add an “a” to the stem, we have Warta, a town that does exist. And if in the next example, we take the “c” in Warce and change it back to “k” and then add “a,” we have the town of Warka. Warta and Warka are towns not so far from each other, so it is very important for a researcher to be able to tell the difference. Whenever you see towns that end in “c-e” or “c-i-e” in the LOCATIVE, please remember Warka and Warta. Another preposition that uses the LOCATIVE case is “przy” meaning “near.” It is often used to tell with whom the bride or groom has been living until marriage. If it is only with the mother, it will show “przy matce,” and you will have to figure out just as we did with Warka that that is the LOCATIVE for matka, meaning mother. The LOCATIVE for ojciec (which means father) is irregular, so there is really no way you could figure it out. You will just have to learn that “przy ojcu” means living with the father. [25] Many town names undergo MULTIPLE TRANSFORMATIONS. In vital records, the word “mieście” often appears before the town name. “Mieście” is the LOCATIVE of the word “miasto,” which means town or city. At first glance, “miasto” looks very little like “mieście,” because three separate transformations have taken place. First of all, the “t” has been changed to “c-i” just as it was in Warta. In addition, the “a” before the “s” is now an “e.” Sometimes when a word changes from the NOMINATIVE to the LOCATIVE, there is also a change in the vowel from “a” to “e,” or from “a with a tail” to “e with a tail.” This is true, for instance, for the town of Ujazd, which becomes “w Ujeździe” in the LOCATIVE and “Dąb,” which becomes “w Dębie.” It doesn’t happen very often with towns, but you might want to be aware that it could happen so you don’t mistakenly think that it is not your town. Finally, we notice that there are slashes over the “s” in “mieście” and the “z” in “Ujeździe” that weren’t there in the NOMINATIVE. That is because there is a rule in Polish spelling that says that a consonant that precedes an already softened consonant should also be softened. So since the “t”

- 6 - in “miasto” was softened to “c-i” and the “d” in Ujazd was softened to “d-z-i,” the preceding consonant had to be softened. This softening of a consonant is not terribly important for you to remember, but some of you may have wondered about it when you saw it in the records. [26] ADJECTIVES USED IN TOWN NAMES In closing, I want to alert you to the fact that many towns have compound names, which include both a noun and an adjective that modifies it, such the word “Nowy,” which means “new” or by the region in which it is located, such as “Mazowiecki.” The endings for adjectives are not as difficult to figure out as the endings for nouns. If you study the chart on this page and the next, you should be able to see the pattern and get a basic understanding of how they operate. [27] In addition, a very few town names are in themselves adjectives, such as Dobra, which means good, and Głuchy, which means silent. These town names are, not surprisingly, declinated like adjectives. This talk is intended to give you an overview of Polish grammar that is relevant for genealogists, and I hope it has given you the courage to try to master some of it. Thank you.

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