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NATURAL SECURITY: HOW SUSTAINABLE WATER STRATEGIES ARE PREPARING COMMUNITIES FOR A CHANGING CLIMATE

We would like to acknowledge and thank Betsy Otto and Andrew Fahlund Acknowledgments of American Rivers for reviewing this report and providing guidance and This report was made insight. We would also like to thank additional reviewers at American Rivers including Katherine Baer, Angela Dicianno, Cathy Duley, Jenny Hoffner, possible by funding from Caitlin Jennings, Rob Kimball, Stephanie Lindloff, David Moryc, Katie the Anthony A Lapham Roenker, Melissa Samet and Joyce Wu. Fellowship and an We would also like to thank the many people we interviewed for their assis- anonymous donor. tance in providing information on the case study communities including Linda Dobson, Linc Mann, Rick Bastasch, and Virgil Adderley of the City of Portland Bureau of Environmental Services, Marie Bodnar of South Richmond Commu- Written by Will Hewes and nity Board, Dana Gumb and Allan Aigen of New York City Department of Kristen Pitts. Environmental Protection and Department of Public Health, Betty France and Dan Thoftne of Soldiers Grove, Tom Hirsch of Hirsch Group LLC, Rita Barron of the Charles River Watershed Association, Merlon Bassett of the New England Division of U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Jim Poff of Clayton County Water Authority, Rich Gustav and Al Dietemann of Seattle Public Utilities, Steve Brooke of Maine State Planning Office, David Courtemanch of Maine Department of Environmental Protection, Dana Morse of Univer- sity of Maine Marine Extension Team, and Brian Mahoney and Bennett Boeschenstein of Grand Junction/ Mesa County Riverfront Commission.

The authors are responsible for any factual errors. The recommendations are those of American Rivers. The views expressed in this report are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of our funders or those who provided review.

© 2009 American Rivers

American Rivers i ABOUT AMERICAN RIVERS

American Rivers is the leading national organization fighting for healthy rivers so communities can thrive. American Rivers protects and restores America’s rivers for the benefit of people, wildlife, and nature. Founded in 1973, American Rivers has more than 65,000 members and supporters, with offices in Washington, DC and nationwide. Visit www.AmericanRivers.org.

Healthy forests and rivers help provide communities with a clean and consistent water supply. Sailboats on Charles River.

Table of Contents

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ...... 1

INTRODUCTION ...... 5

CLIMATE CHANGE: An Uncertain Future for the Nation’s Water Resources ...... 9

RESILIENCE: Thriving in the Face of Climate Change ...... 13

CASE STUDIES ...... 19

IMPROVING PUBLIC HEALTH ...... 20 Portland, Oregon—Integrating Gray and Green Infrastructure ...... 20 Staten Island, New York—Utilizing Natural Drainage Systems ...... 28

REDUCING FLOOD DAMAGE ...... 34 Soldiers Grove, Wisconsin—Moving Out of Harm’s Way ...... 34 Charles River, Massachusetts—Wetlands as Flood Protection ...... 40

SECURING CLEAN WATER SUPPLY ...... 48 Clayton County, Georgia—Withstanding Drought with Wetlands and Water Reuse . . .48 Seattle, Washington—Reducing Demand through Conservation and Efficiency ...... 56

ENHANCING LIVABILITY ...... 64 Augusta, Maine—From Working River to Restored River ...... 64 Grand Junction, Colorado—Restoration of a Community Asset ...... 72

BLUEPRINT FOR A MODEL RESILIENT COMMUNITY ...... 81

CONCLUSION: A Truly Resilient Community ...... 91

ENDNOTES AND PHOTO CREDITS ...... 94 Top: A constructed wetland on Staten Island, New York treats stormwater runoff. Bottom: Rafting on the Colorado River.

iv Natural Security: How Sustainable Water Strategies are Preparing Communities for a Changing Climate EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Clean water is essential to our health, our communities, and our lives. Yet our water infra- structure (drinking water, wastewater, and stormwater systems, dams, and levees) is seriously outdated. In addition, we have degraded much of our essential natural infrastructure (forests, streams, wetlands, and floodplains). Climate change will worsen the situation, as rising temperatures, increased water demands, extended droughts, and intense storms strain our water supplies, flood our communities, and pollute our waterways.

The same approaches we have used Many forward-looking communities for centuries will not solve today’s have become more resilient to threats water challenges. We need to fun- such as flooding, sewage pollution, damentally transform the way we and limited water supplies by em- manage water. bracing green infrastructure. Amer-

A 21st century approach would rec- ican Rivers has conducted in-depth ognize “green infrastructure” as the research on eight communities’ core of our water management sys- sustainable green infrastructure tem. Green infrastructure is the best, approaches that provide clean most cost-effective, and flexible way water, conserve rivers and eco - for communities to deal with the systems, and provide a wide array impacts of climate change. It has of benefits to people and wildlife in three critical components: the face of climate change.

Protect healthy landscapes like forests and small streams that nat- The featured communities have urally sustain clean water supplies. taken steps to prepare themselves in four areas where the effects of climate Restore degraded landscapes like change will be felt most: public floodplains and wetlands so they health, extreme weather, water sup- can better store flood water and ply, and quality of life. In each case, recharge streams and aquifers. these communities could achieve even more by extending their use of Replicate natural water systems green infrastructure strategies and in urban settings, to capture rain- water for outdoor watering and working with neighboring commu- other uses and prevent stormwater nities to apply these approaches and sewage pollution. throughout their watersheds.

American Rivers 1 IMPROVING PUBLIC HEALTH tanks leaking sewage into streams 1983, 49 homes and businesses had Portland, Oregon—In response to and persistent flooding caused by been moved out of harm’s way. stormwater runoff and sewer over- stormwater runoff, Staten Island While massive floods in 2007 and flows that have long degraded water constructed sanitary sewers and 2008 devastated surrounding com- quality and threatened public health, created an innovative stormwater munities, Soldiers Grove remained Portland adopted a number of green system that utilizes streams and largely protected. As climate change infrastructure solutions in conjunc- wetlands to transport and treat brings more severe storms and tion with expanding sewer and runoff. The program has drastically floods, Soldiers Grove’s forward- stormwater pipes. The city’s “green reduced flooding and improved looking relocation effort will mini- street,” eco-roof, and downspout dis- water quality, effectively removing mize losses and keep residents safe. connection programs, while still in 65 percent of total organic carbon, early stages, currently capture 8 per- 93 percent of fecal coliform from Charles River Basin, Massachu- cent of the city’s annual stormwater stormwater runoff, and most excess setts—To prevent recurring floods runoff and have the potential to ab- nutrients. As storms and droughts that had caused extensive damage sorb about 50 percent. By 2011, Port- become more frequent and severe, in Boston and neighboring commu- land’s investments will reduce the program will continue to pro- nities, the Army Corps of Engineers sewage overflows by 96 percent. tect public health, clean water, and created an innovative plan to ac- Green infrastructure will provide the local streams. quire and protect more than 8,000 added capacity and flexibility to acres of wetlands along the upper minimize stormwater problems and REDUCING FLOOD AND reaches of the Charles River. Those protect public health even as ex- STORM DAMAGE wetlands help prevent $40 million treme storms grow more frequent Soldiers Grove, Wisconsin—After in flood damages every year. As and intense in a changing climate. years of major flooding in the Kick- precipitation increases and storms apoo River Valley, the Town of Sol- become more intense in a changing Staten Island, New York—To diers Grove decided to relocate its climate, wetlands will continue to overcome the problems of septic downtown out of the floodplain. By provide cost-effective and natural protection against floods.

Seattle SECURING CLEAN WATER Augusta SUPPLIES Portland Boston Soldiers Grove Clayton County, Georgia—While

Staten Island most southeastern communities experienced major water shortages during the 2007-2008 drought, Grand Junction Clayton County was an exception. An innovative water recycling system that filters treated water Clayton County through a series of constructed wet- lands helped the county maintain Case Study an abundant water supply throughout the record-setting drought. While nearby Atlanta’s Map of case study communities highlighted in this report. Lake Lanier shrunk to a 90-day

2 Natural Security: How Sustainable Water Strategies are Preparing Communities for a Changing Climate tion efforts will help keep quality of life high, in spite of the challenges brought by climate change.

RESILIENT COMMUNITIES In sharp contrast to traditional water management approaches that rely solely on pipes, levees, and dams, 21st century green infrastruc- ture solutions preserve and restore natural landscapes, prevent waste- ful water use, and work with nature supply of water, Clayton County ENHANCING LIVABILITY rather than against it. While tradi- maintained a 230-day supply in its Augusta, Maine—When the Ed- tional water infrastructure—dams, reservoirs. As climate change wards Dam was removed in 1999, reservoirs, pipes, and levees—will makes precipitation more variable the Kennebec River began to restore continue to have a role, this kind of and uncertain, Clayton County’s itself. Water quality improved and engineered infrastructure is static water capturing and recycling sys- fish stocks rebounded rapidly. The and only attempts to solve a single tem will ensure a secure and reli- river’s restoration has created new problem. It requires a huge expense able water supply for its residents. recreational opportunities, boosted to build and maintain, damages the local economy, and improved the environment, and often exacer- Seattle, Washington—Population the quality of life in Augusta. As bates the problem by causing more growth in the Seattle metropolitan climate change threatens clean development in harm’s way. area has strained water supplies water and fish and wildlife, a during the past several decades. To healthy Kennebec River will be bet- Communities that invest in a broad maintain a consistent supply and ter able to adapt to changing con- suite of green infrastructure ap- ensure enough water remains in ditions and allow Augusta to proaches like the ones described streams for ecosystem health, Seat- remain a vibrant community. above will lessen the impacts of an tle Public Utilities has undertaken a increasingly volatile climate by improving the health of valuable number of water conservation and Grand Junction, Colorado— ecosystems, providing flexibility to efficiency measures. The city has re- Grand Junction’s rivers were once handle a wide range of conditions duced water consumption by 26 per- forgotten places with uranium tail- and uncertainty, strengthening cent and per capita water use by 33 ings, salvage yards, and a landfill local economies, and securing percent since 1990. Combined with along their banks. Gradually, local multiple benefits. protecting the lands surrounding river clean-up projects turned into a drinking water sources and taking a valley-wide effort to reclaim the Communities that work with neigh- flexible approach to planning, rivers as social, economic, and recre- boring communities to adopt these water efficiency and conservation ational amenities. Through the cre- cost effective, flexible solutions measures will allow Seattle to main- ation of riverfront trails and parks, will thrive in spite of the great tain a safe and consistent supply of restoration of the riverfront has challenges that climate change water even as rising temperatures helped stimulate economic growth is bringing. reduce the snowpack that the city and improve quality of life in Grand relies on to fill its reservoirs. Junction. The community’s restora-

American Rivers 3 Healthy ecosystems allow communities and wildlife to thrive even as a changing climate brings more floods, droughts and water pollution.

4 Natural Security: How Sustainable Water Strategies are Preparing Communities for a Changing Climate INTRODUCTION

We stand at a crossroads when it comes to water management in the U.S. Behind us lie centuries of mismanagement that have degraded and stressed the nation’s lakes, rivers, and streams, while before us stands the looming threat of climate change. The decisions we make now will determine the health of our rivers and communities for years to come.

Communities know this all too well. They have been the beneficiaries of good public water infrastructure investment decisions and the victims of the mistakes.

Clean water is our most precious pose at great expense, and we have natural resource. We need it to not maintained these built systems. meet our basic needs and protect Vast networks of sewer pipes, lev- our health. Clean water drives eco- ees, and dams that we built nomic activity as an essential input decades ago have exceeded their in manufacturing, energy genera- intended life, leaving communities tion, and other industries. Healthy at risk of devastating floods and rivers, lakes, and streams provide our waterways full of untreated venues for recreation and relax- waste. ation and improve our quality of life. Yet, But the greatest threat time and time to our water resources again we have has yet to be fully failed to protect felt. Climate change our water resources. will alter the nation’s We have destroyed rivers and lakes in an the forests and wetlands unprecedented manner. that absorb rainfall, control floods, Rain and snowfall will become and recharge streams and ground- more unpredictable and more vari- water. We withdraw and waste able, leaving some places with too huge amounts of water, weakening much water and others with not ecosystems and endangering water enough. Heavy storms will increase supply. We have replaced natural the risk of floods and wash pollu- infrastructure with engineered tants into streams and rivers. Pro- structures that serve a single pur- longed droughts and decreased

American Rivers 5 snowpack may cause the taps to In this report, we examine how run dry in some communities. communities have used innovative, Rising temperatures and increased green infrastructure solutions to ad- runoff will worsen water quality dress water management chal- and threaten species such as lenges and become more resilient to salmon and trout. the floods, droughts, and other challenges that a changing climate We need to fundamentally trans- form the way we manage water. will bring. The first sections discuss The same approaches we have used climate change impacts in more in the past will not solve the chal- depth and define the concept of re- lenges we face today. We need a silience. Then, using eight real- 21st century approach that recog- world case studies, we demonstrate nizes “green infrastructure” as the that restoring natural landscapes, core of our water management sys- preventing wasteful water use, and tem. Green infrastructure is the working with nature rather than best, most cost-effective, and flexi- against it can help communities ble way for communities to meet protect public health, reduce flood their needs and deal with the im- pacts of climate change. It has damages, secure a consistent supply three critical components: of clean water, and maintain a high quality of life, even as climate Protect healthy landscapes like change takes hold. In the final sec- forests and small streams that nat- tion, we envision how a hypotheti- urally sustain clean water supplies. cal community could implement a comprehensive and sustainable ap- Restore degraded landscapes like proach to water management and floodplains and wetlands so they maximize its resilience to a chang- can better store flood water and ing climate by holistically applying recharge streams and aquifers. the kinds of strategies profiled in Replicate natural water systems the case study communities. in more urban settings to capture rainwater for outdoor watering and If communities are to weather the other uses and prevent stormwater impacts of a changing climate, and sewage pollution. they must choose the most effec- tive, flexible, and least costly solu- tions. This report provides a roadmap of how communities can adopt a 21st century approach to A green street project in Portland absorbs and filters stormwater. water management and thrive in an uncertain future.

6 Natural Security: How Sustainable Water Strategies are Preparing Communities for a Changing Climate THREE CRITICAL COMPONENTS OF GREEN INFRASTRUCTURE:

• PROTECT healthy landscapes like forests and small streams that naturally sustain clean water supplies.

• RESTORE degraded landscapes like floodplains and wetlands so they can better store flood water and Top: A green roof in Portland recharge streams and aquifers. captures runoff and prevents it from entering the sewer system and causing sewage spills. • REPLICATE natural water systems in more urban settings to capture rainwater for outdoor watering and other uses and prevent storm water and sewage pollution.

American Rivers 7 Top: Wetlands absorb water and release it slowly, buffering communities against droughts. Bottom: Healthy rivers support recreation and economic growth.

8 Natural Security: How Sustainable Water Strategies are Preparing Communities for a Changing Climate CLIMATE CHANGE: AN UNCERTAIN FUTURE FOR THE NATION’S WATER RESOURCES Water resources in the U.S. face a range of threats in a warming climate. Many communities will see their water supplies shrink as temperatures rise and precipitation patterns shift. A rise in severe storms will degrade water quality and increase the risk of catastrophic floods. Changes in the timing and location of precipitation combined with rising levels of water pollution will strain ecosystems and threaten the survival of many fish and wildlife species. These shifts will have dramatic impacts on communities, threatening public health, weaken- ing economies, and decreasing the quality of life in many places.

None of this is happening in a vac- WATER QUANTITY uum, however. The consequences of Rising temperatures will have a shifting weather patterns will de- profound effect on water availabil- pend in large part upon choices ity. Communities already strug- that communities have made in gling to meet rising demands may the past and are making now. be unable to meet the needs of Cities that do not take steps to safe- agriculture, industry, ecosystems, guard their water supply could see and rising populations. Every part the tap run dry. Those that fail to of the country will struggle as address aging infrastructure will weather patterns become more un- experience greater increases in predictable and render historical climate records obsolete. stormwater runoff and sewer over- flows. Most importantly, communi- Shifting precipitation ties that have done the greatest patterns damage to their natural infrastruc- Climate change threatens to funda- ture—wetlands, forests, streams, mentally alter where and when and rivers—will have fewer de- water is available across the na- fenses to protect them against a tion. Precipitation patterns are changing climate. Decisions related shifting, benefiting some regions to land use planning, flood protec- with additional water while reduc- tion, water infrastructure, and ing snow and rainfall in other many other facets of community areas. Streamflow has decreased life have a profound impact on a two percent per decade over the last community’s vulnerability in a 100 years in the central Rocky warming world and will play a Mountain region.1 Southwestern large role in determining the reper- states will experience the greatest cussions of the following changes. decline in precipitation. The region

American Rivers 9 could lose 10 percent or more of its Combined with shifting precipita- Water management annual rainfall by the end of the tion patterns, many western com- These shifts in water supplies will century2 and transition to a climate munities that depend on snowpack make management of the nation’s similar to dust bowl conditions.3 will face significant summer water water resources increasingly chal- There will also be significant shortages. Across the country, lenging. The historical records changes in the timing of precipita- warmer temperatures will also in- water managers use to forecast tion. Many areas will receive less crease evaporation from reservoirs water availability will cease to be summer rainfall as precipitation and lakes, offsetting increases in an accurate predictor of future con- shifts increasingly to winter precipitation in some regions and ditions. There will also be greater months.4 competition for dwindling water re- magnifying decreases in western sources among agricultural, munic- areas.7 Reservoirs on the Colorado Rising temperatures ipal, industrial, and ecological River already lose 1.8 million acre- Western snowmelt-dominated wa- uses.12 Management of over-allo- feet of water to evaporation in an tersheds will be among the hardest cated interstate and international average year, about 13 percent of hit in a changing climate. Rising rivers, such as the Colorado and Co- the river’s annual flow.8 temperatures will cause more pre- lumbia, is already becoming partic- cipitation to fall as rain rather than ularly difficult and contentious as Extended droughts snow and will melt mountain runoff patterns shift.13 The Colorado snowpack earlier in the season, re- In addition to shifting averages, River is already over-allocated and ducing the natural reservoir that the increase in weather extremes there will likely be insufficient water has historically fed western rivers presents a serious threat to many to meet the commitments set out in throughout drier summer months.5 communities’ water supply. Precipi- the Colorado River Compact as Between 1950 and 1999 the tation is becoming more variable flows decrease further.14 Output amount of water stored in snow- and more uncertain, leading to from heavily utilized groundwater pack decreased in eight of nine more frequent and more intense sources, such as the Ogallala and western mountain regions due to floods and droughts.9 The south- Edwards aquifers, is also expected human-induced changes to the cli- eastern U.S., once considered water to decrease significantly due to ex- mate.6 Losses ranged from 10 per- rich, has experienced record cessive withdrawal of these ancient cent in the Colorado Rockies to 40 droughts over the past several stores, and severe water shortages are likely to result.15 Even in the ab- percent in the Oregon Cascades. years. With the rise in climate vari- sence of major climatic changes, ability, this type of multi-year water managers in 36 states antici- drought will become more frequent pate water shortages by 2013, with and can impact any part of the 46 states expecting water shortages country. Resulting water shortages under drought conditions.16 have significant economic and en- vironmental costs. Economic losses WATER QUALITY due to water shortages in Califor- The same climate shifts that will nia alone could reach $2.6 billion challenge water availability will per year in the near future.10 The also pose a number of threats to 2009 drought is expected to cause the quality of the nation’s water re- nearly $3 billion in economic losses sources. Warming temperatures throughout the state.11 and changing precipitation pat-

10 Natural Security: How Sustainable Water Strategies are Preparing Communities for a Changing Climate terns could make some water bod- shifting precipitation patterns will ies unsuitable for recreation, water aggravate pollution problems.20 As supply, and other purposes. At a water levels decline in rivers, lakes, minimum, water management will and streams, there will be less water be more difficult and more costly to dilute pollutants, resulting in due to rising pollution levels. higher contaminant concentrations. This will make it more difficult and Increased polluted runoff costly to meet water quality and More frequent and more powerful drinking water treatment standards storms will increase runoff from and could make waterways unsafe urban and agricultural areas, pick- for swimming, fishing, and boating. Increased runoff from more severe ing up pollutants from the landscape storms will cause greater pollution. and carrying them to nearby water- Rising temperatures ways.17 Nutrients, toxics, pathogens, As the global surface temperature and other contaminants will find increases, surface water also warms, Rising damages their way into urban streams in in- reducing its ability to hold dissolved Resulting floods will claim lives and creasing concentrations, threatening oxygen, which is a key determinant destroy property, especially in com- aquatic species and human health. of the type of aquatic life that can munities built in floodplains. Al- In older communities where survive in a freshwater ecosystem.21 ready in the 21st century, floods stormwater and sewage are trans- Low dissolved oxygen levels can caused more property damage and ported together in one pipe, heavy stress or kill important fish species fatalities in the U.S. than any other storms can overwhelm the system and other organisms. Warmer type of natural disaster.26 While no and send raw sewage and polluted water is also more conducive to single flood event can be directly at- stormwater into nearby streams and algal blooms , which can cause fish tributed to climate change, the re- rivers. These combined sewer over- kills, threaten human health, and currence of devastating 100-year flows (CSO) will grow more frequent increase water treatment costs.22 and 500-year floods throughout the as extreme storms increase. In the Midwest and other areas in recent Great Lakes region, the frequency of EXTREME STORMS years may foreshadow a future CSOs could increase from 13 percent Rising global temperatures and cli- where repeated disasters of this mag- to 70 percent, and the cost of control- mate variability will increase the nitude are much more common. ling overflows could rise 10 percent.18 frequency and severity of extreme Even in places with separate sanitary storm events.23 The intensity of Seasonal variation sewers, increased stormwater runoff storms is regulated by the amount Accelerated spring snowmelt will can infiltrate aging pipes, causing of moisture in the atmosphere. At- magnify the size of floods from ex- them to overflow with raw sewage. mospheric capacity to hold mois- treme storms in mountainous More frequent storms will also wash ture increases exponentially with areas. In the western U.S. espe- growing volumes of pesticides and temperature, leading to a greater cially, more precipitation will fall in fertilizers from agricultural areas into capacity for heavy precipitation the winter and spring, and snow- surrounding waterways.19 events and floods.24 Nationwide, pack will melt earlier in the season. the number of storms with extreme The combination of rapidly melting Lower stream and river flows precipitation has increased 24 per- snow and heavier spring rains Lower flows in rivers and streams cent since 1948.25 This trend is ex- could cause catastrophic floods in due to more frequent droughts and pected to continue in the future. vulnerable communities.

American Rivers 11 Heavy precipitation is already causing more flooding and sewage spills. In the Great Lakes region, the frequency of combined sewer overflows could increase 13-70%.

12 Natural Security: How Sustainable Water Strategies are Preparing Communities for a Changing Climate RESILIENCE: THRIVING IN THE FACE OF CLIMATE CHANGE

Much of the debate related to climate change focuses on reducing greenhouse gases—rightfully so considering that unabated emissions would have catastrophic consequences for the planet. Most communities and policy makers have largely ignored the development of strategies and metrics needed to adapt to shifting weather patterns. Even if all carbon emissions stopped today, we would experience rising temperatures and many other impacts due to past fossil fuel consumption and deforestation.27 Resilience is a concept that captures a community’s ability to withstand these impacts. In order for the term to be useful, however, it must have a clear definition. Resilience has been interpreted differently over decades of use in ecology, disaster management, and other fields.28 In this report, we propose combining multiple uses of the term to create a uni- fied concept that defines resilience as the ability of a community to absorb disturbances or stresses caused by climate change without experiencing catastrophic losses or losing essential functions. This definition encompasses multiple ideas including the ability to resist impacts from a disturbance, the ability to recover and respond productively, and the capacity to learn and adapt to changing conditions in order to limit future vulnerability. It stands in contrast to the narrower view of resilience that focuses on returning an ecological system to its pre- disturbance state.29 Instead of focusing on maintaining the “original” condition of an ecosystem or community, we emphasize continued functioning in the face of a changing climate.

Working from this definition, this re- ways in which the solutions dis- port focuses on how communities cussed in this report build resilience: can become more resilient in light strengthening ecosystems, creating of a changing climate. Taking steps flexible infrastructure, diversifying to adapt to a changing climate does local economies, and providing not guarantee that communities or multiple benefits. ecosystems will become more re- silient. In fact, management actions SUSTAINING ECOSYSTEMS can either enhance or diminish re- In debates over land use, pollution silience.30 In this report we propose control, and the preservation of a suite of water management strate- natural resources, there is often a gies that make communities better perception that the choice comes able to weather the impacts of cli- down to people versus the environ- mate change and maintain the flex- ment. A town can either protect ibility to respond to shifting wetlands or allow new development conditions. This section outlines four that could increase tax revenues.

American Rivers 13 This is a false choice. Whether they climate. This could mean reducing acknowledge it or not, every com- nutrient-laden agricultural or munity depends on rivers, forests, urban runoff by installing a stream and wetlands to provide clean buffer. Healthier stream systems water, protect public health and will be better able to process the property, and drive economic growth. excess nutrients carried by increas- In a changing climate, the services ingly severe storms without experi- provided by healthy ecosystems will encing large algal blooms or loss be even more important to protect of biodiversity. The management communities from severe storms, strategies profiled in this report filter rising pollution levels, and improve the ability of ecosystems maintain a consistent supply of to withstand the impacts of climate clean water. For example, wetlands change and recover from the un- and forests can absorb the floodwa- predictable extremes of an uncer- ters that will strike with increasing regularity in a changing climate, tain future. In order to create truly preventing the loss of life and de- resilient ecosystems, however, com- struction of homes and businesses. munities must work together to im- The ability of communities to sur- plement these strategies across vive and prosper will depend in entire watersheds, not just at the large part on the health and re- local level. It is only through coor- silience of ecosystems and their dinated, basin-wide action that ability to provide vital services. communities can ensure that their natural resources will be capable How then can a community make of weathering the profound effects ecosystems more resilient and en- climate change will have on all sure that they continue to provide ecosystems. vital services? Much like communi- ties, ecosystems have a limit to the In sum, community resilience is amount of stress they can absorb closely connected to the health and before they undergo fundamental resilience of the ecosystems on changes and lose essential func- which it relies. Where rivers, wet- tions.31 A more resilient ecosystem lands, and forests are able to with- is better able to withstand distur- stand the impacts of a changing bances and rebuild itself if dam- climate and continue to provide aged. In the past, human activities have undermined resilience and ecosystem services, communities the self-repairing capacity of will suffer fewer negative conse- ecosystems.32 We must instead quences, be better able to recover focus on reducing existing stresses from disturbances, and will have and providing natural buffers so the flexibility to adapt to changing that ecosystems can absorb the ef- conditions. In a word, they will be fects associated with a changing more resilient.

14 Natural Security: How Sustainable Water Strategies are Preparing Communities for a Changing Climate FLEXIBLE drought by recharging groundwater centralized and can be scaled up INFRASTRUCTURE and gradually filtering and releas- according to need. Traditional engi- Sustainable water management ing water, maintaining constant neering solutions such as dams, strategies function better in a stream flow even during dry peri- sewer expansion projects, or water ods.35 As extreme droughts and supply pipelines cost billions of dol- changing climate both because of floods grow more common, this lars and require years to complete their innate ability to handle a wide ability to buffer ecosystems and the design, permitting, and envi- range of conditions and because communities from a wide range of ronmental review processes. Once they can be more easily adapted to conditions will be essential to thriv- they are completed, it is difficult or changing conditions. In fact, com- ing in the face of climate change. impossible to alter their capacity or munities are better off using these Construction of a flood control function to adapt to changing strategies even without the added levee, on the other hand, might re- conditions. For example, if a deep impetus of climate change. Wet- duce damages from heavy rains, tunnel project designed to control lands absorb rainfall and protect but it will not help protect against combined sewer overflows does not communities from flooding.33 A typ- droughts. incorporate climate change projec- ical one-acre wetland can store one tions into the planning process, million gallons of water on aver- Another key benefit of sustainable making adjustments to expand its age.34 Wetlands also buffer against water strategies is that they are de- capacity would be extremely costly

Healthy wetlands will buffer communities from more frequent and severe droughts and floods.

American Rivers 15 and time consuming. Green infra- static, undermining resilience and County’s wetland and water reuse structure, on the other hand, pro- increasing the likelihood of col- system proved far less costly than vides a community with the ability lapse.36 Building resilience is about an advanced treatment plant while to embed additional green roofs, dealing with unpredictability and also providing water supply bene- rain gardens, and swales through- innovating as conditions change.37 fits. Portland has saved tens of mil- out the urban landscape in order Decentralized approaches such as lions of dollars on stormwater to slow and retain stormwater as green infrastructure and water effi- management by incorporating additional capacity is needed, ciency allow a community to learn green infrastructure. Other analyses precluding the need for additional and adapt their water infrastruc- have found similar savings.38 The pipes or treatment plants. This can ture as the local impacts of climate savings provide communities with be done without extensive permit- change become evident. They do greater financial flexibility to con- ting and environmental reviews not lock a community into one set tinue adapting their infrastructure and can be expanded over time. of solutions in the face of future to changing conditions, which in Water efficiency efforts can simi- uncertainty. turn allows them to minimize dam- larly be enhanced to address in- ages and recover from disasters. In creasing droughts and shrinking In order to maintain a flexible, an era of economic uncertainty, de- water supplies as the climate shifts. responsive infrastructure, however, clining tax revenues, and growing communities must have the finan- budget deficits, this flexibility will This flexibility is essential for cial flexibility to adapt and adjust be essential. communities that struggle with their public works investments. In stormwater, sewer overflows, or every case study we examine in this STRENGTHENING water supply problems as they face report, the sustainable water man- LOCAL ECONOMIES the uncertainty of climate change. agement strategies provide substan- The economic consequences of a Rigid engineering systems that seek tial cost savings over traditional changing climate are difficult to to control water are inflexible and engineering solutions. Clayton predict, but there is no doubt that the impacts will be significant. Unabated emissions could lead to a five to 20 percent reduction in global GDP.39 Locally, the impacts could be greater depending on the economic industries that support a community. The strength of local economies is undoubtedly closely intertwined with the overall well- being of communities. Reducing the vulnerability of key industries to climate change and water im-

Downspouts disconnected from sewers prevent sewage overflows, and rainwater can be captured in rain gardens as at this building in Portland.

16 Natural Security: How Sustainable Water Strategies are Preparing Communities for a Changing Climate pacts while limiting local govern- ment service expenses can help protect and boost local economies.

Proactive efforts to reduce the vul- nerability of individual industries and create a broader economic base can build resilience to the po- tential economic impacts of a changing climate. The strategies discussed in this report strengthen ecosystems and improve their abil- ity to withstand the impacts of cli- mate change. This will help ensure that the economic sectors that de- pend on a clean and consistent River restoration efforts promote recreation and boost economic growth. supply of water will also be less vul- nerable. The Charles River wet- lands, for example, help maintain water quality in the lower basin a community will create new jobs multiple benefits address the imme- where river recreation and the sce- and retain existing ones. diate needs of a community such as nic values of the protected river- unhealthy levels of air pollution, front generate considerable ACHIEVING MULTIPLE poor water quality, and deteriorat- economic activity. In addition, a BENEFITS ing infrastructure in addition to number of communities have cre- All of the water management building resilience to the impacts ated new industries and fueled strategies discussed in this report associated with rising tempera- growth by reconnecting to their have benefits that extend far be- tures. On a pragmatic level, these rivers and promoting their natural multiple benefits can be a primary yond their primary goal of reduc- resources. Restoration efforts in motivating factor for local leaders ing runoff, improving water Grand Junction and Augusta have that have limited resources to deal quality, or reducing flooding. Many helped revitalize local economies with what they perceive as more of them address multiple water and expand recreation and tourism immediate and tangible problems management challenges. For ex- activities. These new economic ac- than climate change.41 They can ample, healthy wetlands absorb tivities diversify the local economic also increase a community’s re- floodwaters, filter pollutants, pro- base and provide a greater ability silience to a diverse range of threats vide wildlife habitat, and buffer for a community to respond to from declining air quality to heat change.40 Finally, the solutions dis- against droughts. Other strategies waves and help them prepare for cussed in this report have made provide benefits unrelated to flood- an uncertain future. communities more livable and ing or water supply. In addition to more attractive places to do busi- controlling stormwater, green roofs ness. A better quality of life will lower ambient air temperatures, help employers attract the best decrease heating and cooling bills, workers, making it more likely that and improve air quality. These

American Rivers 17 Healthy ecosystems benefit communities and provide vital wildlife habitat.

18 Natural Security: How Sustainable Water Strategies are Preparing Communities for a Changing Climate CASE STUDIES The eight case studies presented in this section demonstrate how innovative and sustainable water management strategies allow communities to overcome existing water management problems and prepare for the larger challenges that a changing climate will bring. Each case study describes the historical problems that the community faces, the strategy they are using to address the problem, the tangible benefits demonstrated to date, and how this will help reduce vulnerability as the climate shifts. The success of these projects proves that a water management strategy based on protecting natural landscapes, restoring degraded ecosystems, and replicating natural water systems can solve a diverse range of water management challenges.

The case studies are organized into aged in an integrated and compre- four categories to highlight the pri- hensive fashion by highlighting the mary benefit provided to communi- multiple benefits each approach ties by each management strategy: provides. For instance, the green in- protecting public health, securing frastructure projects used in Port- reliable clean water land help recharge supplies, reducing groundwater, lower flood and storm temperatures, damage, and and beautify maintaining a neighbor- high quality of hoods in life. As tempera- addition to con- tures rise and trolling stormwa- weather becomes more ter. While each strategy unpredictable, these strategies will is particularly effective in address- become even more important. Or- ing one issue, communities can ganizing the case studies into these utilize a suite of similar approaches four categories is not meant to rein- as they prepare to respond to the force the outdated notion that pressures that a changing climate water supply, flood control, and presents. stormwater management should be addressed separately. Instead we emphasize that water is best man-

American Rivers 19 IMPROVING PUBLIC HEALTH stormwater runoff in the same Portland, Oregon— pipes. These systems are common in Integrating Gray and Green Infrastructure older cities throughout the Great Lakes and coastal regions. When Summary Challenge stormwater exceeds the capacity of In response to stormwater runoff As with many older cities in the the pipes, which may occur even and sewer overflows that have long U.S., Portland has spent decades during small storms, the system is working to save its rivers and designed to send the excess flow of degraded water quality and threat- streams from the sewage and raw sewage and stormwater, called ened public health, Portland stormwater pollution it produces a combined sewer overflow (CSO), adopted a number of green infra- every time it rains. At the root of the into local waterways. More modern structure solutions in addition to problem are the acres of streets, separate sewer pipes serve newer expanding sewer and stormwater roofs, and parking lots that have re- sections of the city, but the com- pipes. The city’s “green street,” eco- placed forests and wetlands as the bined system still services approxi- roof, and downspout disconnection city developed. Rather than soaking mately 35 percent of Portland’s area into the ground and replenishing and 60 percent of its population.43 programs, while still in early water supplies, the city’s ample Nearly every time it rains, raw stages, currently capture 8 percent rainfall gathers on hard surfaces sewage flows into the Columbia of the city’s annual stormwater and flows into the sewer system and Slough and the Willamette River runoff and have potential to absorb local waterways. Stormwater runoff from the city’s 55 outfall pipes.44 about 50 percent. By 2011, Port- picks up oil, fertilizers, heavy met- land’s investments will reduce als, pathogens, and other pollutants Stormwater and sewage pollution sewage overflows by 96 percent. as it flows through the city. Port- take a heavy toll on human health Green infrastructure will provide land’s annual average precipitation and local ecosystems. Nationwide, of 37 inches creates 20 billion gal- stormwater runoff is a leading cause the added capacity and flexibility lons of stormwater runoff per year.42 of water pollution.45 The pathogens to minimize stormwater problems contained in untreated sewage and and protect public health even as In addition, much of the city is stormwater can cause diarrhea, skin extreme storms grow more frequent served by a combined sewer system, and eye infections, organ failure, 46 and intense in a changingPortland, climate. which transports sewage and Oregonand even death. Up to 3.5 million

Left: 60% of Portland’s population is served by a combined sewer system that dumps raw sewage into local waterways when it rains. Middle: Sewer overflows in Portland have a long history of contaminating the Willamette River and making it unsafe for recreation. Right: Nationwide, up to 3.5 million people fall ill from coming in contact with raw sewage every year.

20 Natural Security: How Sustainable Water Strategies are Preparing Communities for a Changing Climate people fall ill from contact with un- and Columbia Slough, including Portland’s Approach treated sewage in the U.S. every PCBs, dioxins, mercury, and pesti- Portland has embraced a combina- year,47 mostly during swimming, cides. High consumption of fish tion of traditional engineering solu- boating, or other recreational activi- from the Willamette can increase tions and innovative green ties. Stormwater also has significant the risk of cancer and lead to im- approaches to solving its stormwater impacts on freshwater ecosystems mune system and developmental and sewage problems. In 1991, and aquatic species by increasing under an agreement with the state, problems.51 water temperatures, altering river the city committed to spending $1.4 flows, and transporting pollutants billion to reduce sewer overflows sys- With the Willamette River Basin that reduce oxygen levels and accu- tem-wide by 96 percent by 2011.55 home to over 70 percent of Orego- mulate in organisms’ tissues, some- The CSO reduction plan called for times at toxic levels.48 nians and 75 percent of Oregon’s construction of new sewer lines and economy, clean water is particu- large pipes to store sewage during Stormwater runoff and sewer over- larly important, especially in the storms and prevent it from entering flows have long been a threat to Portland metro area.52 Since the the river. More recently the city has human and ecosystem health in early 1970s, Portland has worked to turned to small-scale green tech- Portland. CSOs contribute over 40 increase access to the river with niques such as green roofs, swales, percent of bacteria loading to the riverside parks, picnic areas, boat and downspout disconnections 49 mainstem Willamette. Along with ramps, a yacht club, and a marina which replicate natural systems such urban runoff, they have historically in its downtown.53 Pleasure boat- as forests and wetlands by retaining been major causes of poor water and filtering stormwater. This ap- ing, water skiing, and angling on quality in both the Columbia proach reduces the amount of the Willamette are all increasing, Slough and Lower Willamette River, stormwater that enters sewers, reduc- making recreation the fastest-grow- leading to violations of standards ing the potential for overflows. Port- ing use of the river.54 This increase for dissolved oxygen, temperature, land has conducted pilot projects pH, phosphorus, bacteria, and a in river recreation will raise the risk and instituted a number of incen- range of toxic pollutants including of exposure to waterborne disease, tives for green infrastructure over the mercury.50 Dangerous chemicals making it imperative that Portland past decade. In 2008, the city signifi- transported by runoff have been improve water quality and provide cantly expanded these efforts found in fish of both the Willamette a safe environment for paddlers. through its Grey to Green initiative,

Left: A combination of gray and green infrastructure improvements will reduce overflows 96% by 2011 and make the river safer for recreation. Middle: Across the city, curb extensions, rain gardens, green roofs and other green infrastructure techniques capture stormwater. Right: Clean water is essential to protecting public health as river recreation in Portland continues to expand.

American Rivers 21 which will invest $50 million in private homes, city streets, and stormwater bill discounts to green infrastructure over five years.56 rooftops. A description of the results ratepayers who keep stormwater This initiative will increase the num- of these programs is found in the from leaving their property through ber of green streets, ecoroofs, and Benefits section below. the Clean River Rewards Program.58 trees while protecting undeveloped Residents can install rain barrels, open spaces and restoring native Private Homes: Portland has a cisterns, rain gardens, or other proj- vegetation. Portland is pioneering number of incentives to encourage ects to control their stormwater. The the integration of green and gray in- homeowners to reduce stormwater city offers free workshops to help frastructure to control water quality runoff from their property. Since participants plan projects, obtain problems and is demonstrating how 1994, 56,000 residents have partici- permits, and ensure proper installa- communities can save money, pro- pated in the downspout disconnec- tion and maintenance. tect public health, and preserve vital tion program, which helps water resources. homeowners disconnect from the Green Streets: Portland has worked sewer system the pipe that drains to decrease the runoff from city Programs water from their gutters.57 Instead of streets by building swales, rain gar- Portland has a variety of sustain- gathering on roofs and flowing into dens, and curb extensions to retain able stormwater programs that overburdened sewer pipes, rainfall and absorb stormwater. Under the focus on reducing runoff from dif- is diverted to lawns and gardens. Green Streets Program, the city has ferent parts of the city including Since 2006 the city has also offered experimented with these types of fa-

Green roofs in Portland retain 60% of rainfall on average, preventing sewer overflows into the Willamette River.

22 Natural Security: How Sustainable Water Strategies are Preparing Communities for a Changing Climate cilities in pilot projects since 1990, three of which have received honor awards from the American Society of Landscape Architects for General Design.59 In 2007, the Portland City Council approved a Green Streets resolution and policy to promote Kansas City, Missouri—10,000 Rain Gardens and incorporate green street facilities Kansas City has a combined sewer system that overflows more into future projects.60 The city plans than 20 times per year, dumping 6.3 billion gallons of untreated to build 920 Green Street facilities in 92 public rights of way through the sewage and stormwater into local waterways. In response to Grey to Green initiative by 2013.61 pressure from EPA and residents, the city launched the 10,000 Rain Gardens Program in 2005.93 The Rain Garden program is a Green roofs: Green roofs, also public-private initiative involving citizens, corporations, educators, known as ecoroofs, refer to the in- nonprofits, and local government agencies that works to educate stallation of vegetation and soil over the public and promote citizen involvement in reducing flooding a synthetic, waterproof membrane on a roof surface. The vegetated sur- and improving water quality. Since 2005, they have registered faces retain rainfall and reduce 254 rain barrels, 304 rain gardens, and two green roofs in the stormwater runoff, provide energy Kansas City Metropolitan Area.94 Kansas City has recently incor- savings, and improve air quality. porated rain gardens and other green infrastructure approaches Portland has installed greenroofs on into its sewage overflow and stormwater plans, with $5 million nearly 90 buildings since 1996 and plans to add another 43 acres by dedicated to the 10,000 Rain Gardens program over the next 2013.62 The city has expanded the ten years95 and over $200 million planned for green area by requiring all new or re- infrastructure projects.96 placed roofs on city buildings to have at least 70 percent ecoroof cov- erage and by offering incentives to residents.63 Stormwater fee reduc- tions through the Clean River Re- in a manner that protects and en- strategies. Prior to the city’s recent wards program are available for hances watershed health. The city commitment to green infrastructure, properties with ecoroofs. In 2008, evaluates the condition of its water- Portland conducted a number of Portland’s Grey to Green initiative sheds and works with various stake- pilot projects. Monitoring data from added grant incentives which pay holders, from watershed councils to these projects provided the city with up to $5 per square foot of new eco- state, federal, and city agencies to the information needed to make a roof projects.64 improve their health. Watershed science-based assessment of how plans help prioritize localized ac- green strategies could contribute to Planning tions such as stormwater retrofits to meeting future stormwater goals. The City of Portland employs a wa- existing development to maximize tershed management approach in water quality improvements. The Funding which all of its services and activi- city has also emphasized monitor- When Portland began experiment- ties are designed and implemented ing to assess the effectiveness of its ing with green infrastructure as a

American Rivers 23 stormwater control measure, such infrastructure projects in discussing approaches were not common. its efforts to reduce stormwater dis- Early funding for the construction charges.69 In addition, these green and monitoring of demonstration infrastructure initiatives are helping projects came from EPA grants.65 the city reduce CSOs as required Today, funding primarily comes under the agreement with the state. from stormwater rates, which were While much of the reduction is Chicago, Illinois— established in 1977.66 The first year being accomplished by traditional Green Roofs of the $50 million, 5-year Grey to engineering approaches, the down- With over 517,633 acres Green initiative will be paid for by spout disconnection program re- of green roofs, Chicago increasing stormwater rates by moves more than a billion gallons has more vegetated roof $0.11 per month.67 Strategic part- of stormwater from the sewer system space than any other city nerships with other departments are every year, and the growing number in the country.97 The city a new but growing source of fund- of greenroofs, swales, and other has encouraged green ing.68 For example, Portland’s Bu- projects are further decreasing runoff. roof construction reau of Environmental Services has Benefits through a variety of in- partnered with the city’s Office of centives, such as expand- Transportation to create safe routes Portland’s natural stormwater man- for pedestrians that are also de- agement programs, while still rela- ing the number of units signed to handle stormwater runoff. tively new, have already developers are allowed to demonstrated their effectiveness in build on a property if Permitting controlling stormwater runoff. The they install a green roof.98 Portland’s investment in green in- Downspout Disconnection Program The city also offers an ex- frastructure doesn’t only help make removes about 1.5 billion gallons of press lane for the permit the city more sustainable, it is also a stormwater from the sewer system process, allowing projects key part of meeting Clean Water Act every year.70 Green Street projects with green roofs to be re- requirements. Portland was first re- have been shown to retain up to 94 viewed, free of process- quired to obtain a stormwater per- percent of rainfall and to reduce pol- ing fees, and permitted in mit in the early 1990s when EPA lutants by 90 percent.71 Citywide, 30 days, compared to the began regulating stormwater. Under Green Street projects currently retain usual 90 to 100 days. In the permit, the city is required to and infiltrate 42.6 million gallons of addition, Chicago re- control stormwater pollution to the stormwater per year and have the quires any developer who maximum extent practicable. In potential to manage 7.9 billion gal- receives city assistance Portland’s Stormwater Management lons, or 40 percent of Portland’s 72 (e.g. to rehabilitate a Plan (2006) and biannual compli- runoff annually. Ecoroofs in Port- brownfield) to include a ance reports, the city relies heavily land have shown similarly impres- on its green infrastructure initiatives sive results, reducing peak storm green roof. These initia- to demonstrate that it is meeting flows 81-100 percent and retaining tives will reduce runoff, permit requirements. In its most re- an average of 60 percent of the improve air quality, and cent compliance report the city lists runoff.73 Finally, the Clean River Re- keep the city cool as the Grey to Green Initiative, Green wards Program has enlisted 36,000 temperatures rise. Streets Program, Clean River Re- households as of October 2008, all wards and a variety of other green of whom are working to reduce

24 Natural Security: How Sustainable Water Strategies are Preparing Communities for a Changing Climate reduce runoff from their property.74 These green infrastructure projects retain stormwater, reduce flooding, and remove pollutants. It is still too early to assess what ef- fect Portland’s green infrastructure initiatives are having on water qual- ity throughout the basin. Many of the projects have yet to be fully im- plemented, although the above re- sults from pilot projects suggest the potential for significant benefits. Portland’s traditional sewage infra- structure projects have led to signifi- cantly lower CSO discharges to the Columbia Slough since 2000 and 78 have dramatically increased water creasing in popularity as well. flows into the Willamette River. quality.75 Water quality in the Co- While certain activities such as Solving these problems with pipes lumbia Slough and Willamette River swimming have long been consid- alone would cost an estimated $144 79 will likely improve further with the ered unsafe due to poor water qual- million. By integrating green tech- completion of the city’s big pipe ity, more residents are beginning to niques such as swales and trees into project, however there will still be swim again as bacteria levels drop the same stormwater plan, the cost room for improvement from green and the idea of swimming in the will drop to $81 million, saving $63 80 initiatives. Both waterways are listed river regains acceptance. These im- million. In addition, Portland’s as impaired under the Clean Water provements in water quality have Green Street, downspout disconnec- Act. The Columbia Slough still suf- allowed the Portland Triathlon to tion, and rain garden projects pro- fers from elevated temperatures and use the Willamette River for the mote groundwater infiltration and high heavy metal concentrations swimming stretch of the race for recharge groundwater supplies. Eco- and the Willamette River exceeds the past two years. roofs reduce the urban heat island standards for temperature, mercury, effect, improve air quality, and and fecal coliform.76 While Portland’s integrated ap- lower heating and cooling costs. proach is proving successful, the Green Streets also beautify neigh- Recreation along the river has in- green infrastructure projects have borhoods and make roads safer for creased in recent years, largely due demonstrated a number of benefits pedestrians and cyclists by improv- to improvements in water quality. that traditional concrete pipes do ing sidewalk connectivity and pro- Portland celebrated its first Riverfest not. Green infrastructure has saved viding vegetated pedestrian islands in the summer of 2008 to draw at- the city significant amounts of to cross busy roads. tention to the river as an urban money, as demonstrated by the asset.77 Boating of all sorts is ex- Brooklyn Creek Basin project. Com- Climate Change tremely popular and there is a ro- bined sewer pipes in this basin are While Portland has made signifi- bust paddling community. The close to 100 years old, lack the cant steps towards addressing its Willamette River Water Trail has re- capacity to handle current runoff water problems, climate change cently been completed and is in- volumes, and result in sewage over- threatens to reverse some of this

American Rivers 25 weather patterns will exacerbate sewage and stormwater infrastruc- winter flooding while intensifying ture will increase. The projected 15 summer water shortages. More fre- percent increase in winter precipi- quent and severe storms will over- tation will yield an additional three whelm sewage and stormwater inches of winter precipitation,86 al- infrastructure, sending more pol- though the intensity of the storms luted wastewater into local water- will determine the effect on flood- ways. Water systems will need the ing and CSOs. The upgraded sewers capacity to handle large amounts were not designed to accommodate of precipitation and the flexibility climate change and are built to to manage highly variable condi- handle a storm of 1.2 inches over tions. Water quality will be threat- 24 hours up to four times per win- ened by increased pollutant ter.87 If the floods of January 2009 concentrations and rising tempera- are indicative of future conditions, tures, which encourage pathogen the extensive upgrades to Port- survival, lower dissolved oxygen land’s sewage and stormwater sys- levels, and cause frequent algal tems may be insufficient. Those progress. Temperatures in the re- blooms.83 Salmon and other cold storms dumped over three inches of gion are expected to increase 2.7- water fish will be especially vulner- rain on Portland in 24 hours,88 re- 5.8° F by 2040.81 Precipitation will able to these changes. As tempera- sulting in street flooding, road clos- shift towards winter months, result- tures rise, oxygen levels fall, ings, mudslides, and elevated levels ing in average increases in stream- inhibiting salmon growth rates and of bacteria in the water.89 flow volumes of 15 percent in making the fish more vulnerable to winter months and decreases of 30 toxins, parasites, and disease.84 As As discussed above, green infra- percent in late spring and summer much as 20 percent of salmon habi- structure absorbs stormwater runoff by 2040.82 Mountain snowpack, tat in the Columbia River Basin and the attendant pollutants, pre- which acts as a natural reservoir (which includes the Willamette venting runoff from entering the that maintains summer stream- River) could reach or exceed the sewer system and causing over- flow, will decline, further limiting critical 69.8° F threshold, above flows. It will counteract the increase summer water supplies. Extreme which salmon survival declines.85 in severe weather by effectively storms will also grow more frequent adding capacity to the city’s and severe. Despite these seemingly Towards Resilience stormwater infrastructure, increas- confident predictions, the defining Portland’s integration of traditional ing its ability to safely handle characteristic of the future will be and green stormwater manage- heavy storms and prevent CSOs uncertainty as precipitation grows ment strategies allows the city to and runoff. Green infrastructure more unpredictable and more vari- address current CSO problems and has the added advantage that it is able from year to year. Historical increase the resilience of its infra- flexible and can be scaled up ac- records cease to be an accurate pre- structure and ecosystems to the im- cording to need. If precipitation dictor of future conditions. pacts of climate change. As patterns exceed historical trends precipitation shifts towards wetter used to design sewage and These changes will have important winter months and the frequency stormwater infrastructure, expand- consequences for Portland’s water and intensity of extreme storms in- ing capacity of pipes and treatment resources. The seasonal shift in crease, the pressure on Portland’s plants would be extremely expen-

26 Natural Security: How Sustainable Water Strategies are Preparing Communities for a Changing Climate sive. Because green infrastructure pressures. Green infrastructure is Portland in any condition by reduc- projects are decentralized and have particularly valuable because it pre- ing air pollution, cooling urban fewer permitting requirements, new vents stormwater from flowing into areas, and beautifying neighbor- capacity can be added relatively local waterways, reducing the tem- hoods. These strategies also pro- perature spike that runoff causes, easily by expanding existing initia- mote groundwater infiltration, tives and continuing to embed and infiltrating it into the ground, augmenting an important back-up these techniques throughout the where it eventually flows back to water supply for Portland. Since landscape. In addition, because the river as cooled groundwater. By 1985, the city has had to rely on green approaches are more cost ef- minimizing existing stresses and re- groundwater on five occasions due fective, Portland will have greater ducing the impacts of a changing to contamination from rain events financial flexibility to adapt to cli- climate, the city is greatly increas- mate change with limited funding. ing the ability of these ecosystems in its primary reservoir and on an and organisms to survive and additional twelve occasions due to What all of this means is that Port- thrive in a warming world. This in low water levels in summer.90 These land will have a resilient and flexi- turn will help Portland maintain a water supply challenges will only ble infrastructure that will be able healthy economy and high quality increase as the climate shifts, and to protect public health in a chang- of life in future years. Portland could need up to 5.5 bil- ing climate. Even as the potential lion gallons of additional storage to Finally, green infrastructure builds for exposure to waterborne disease offset climate-related water losses.91 resilience to a number of impacts of increases with the rise in river recre- Due to these multiple benefits, ation, Portland’s innovative ap- climate change not related to water green approaches will help the city proach will allow it to minimize quality. Traditional big pipe solu- minimize the impacts of heat waves risk by limiting CSOs and runoff. tions, in addition to costing billions of dollars, sit empty in dry years and decreased water availability and will help Portland remain a While protecting public health is and provide no additional benefits. the main concern in a changing cli- Green infrastructure will benefit vibrant, resilient community. mate, Portland’s integrated ap- proach to CSO and stormwater control will build resilience to a changing climate in other ways. It also adds resilience to local ecosys- tems and aquatic organisms, both important drivers of the regional economy. Of particular concern is the region’s prized fishery which in- cludes multiple species of salmon and trout. The combined pressure from existing problems and climate change will put an enormous strain on ecosystems and could make them unsuitable for certain species.

Fortunately, Portland’s infrastruc- Green Street projects currently retain and infiltrate 36.9 million gallons of stormwater per ture investments relieve existing year and have the potential to manage 7.9 billion gallons.

American Rivers 27 IMPROVING PUBLIC HEALTH sulted in property damage, eroding Staten Island, New York— foundations, and severe street flood- Utilizing Natural Drainage Systems ing.101 At the same time, soil satura- tion and inadequate septic system Summary completion of the Verrazano-Nar- upkeep led to basement sewage To overcome the problems of septic rows Bridge in 1964. Once the back-ups and septic failures that tanks leaking sewage into streams bridge established direct road access sent untreated sewage into ground- and persistent flooding caused by to the rest of the city, the island ex- water and surface streams.102 stormwater runoff, Staten Island perienced rapid growth.99 Sewage constructed sanitary sewers and cre- and stormwater infrastructure, how- Stormwater and leaking septic sys- ated an innovative stormwater sys- ever, did not accompany the con- tems posed a significant threat to tem known as the Bluebelt Program struction boom. Residential septic public health, the economy and that utilizes streams and wetlands to systems proliferated in the absence ecosystems throughout South Rich- transport and treat runoff. These of sanitary sewers. The lack of storm mond. Stormwater runoff is one of programs have drastically reduced sewers or any sort of formal the leading causes of contamination flooding and improved water qual- drainage system, in combination in American waterways.103 Septic sys- ity. Bluebelt facilities effectively re- with naturally high water tables, led tems are an often-overlooked source move most excess nutrients, 65 to significant flooding problems.100 of water pollution; nearly a quarter percent of total organic carbon, and New York City constructed stormwa- of American households use onsite 93 percent of fecal coliform from ter and sanitary sewers on the is- septic systems to dispose of their stormwater runoff. As storms and land in the 1960s and 1970s. wastewater,104 and 10-30 percent of droughts become more frequent and However, the southern portion of these systems fail every year,105 leak- severe, the Bluebelt program will Staten Island, known as South Rich- ing pathogens, nutrients, and other continue to protect public health, mond, remained without sewers be- pollutants into groundwater and clean water, and healthy streams. cause the City could not come up surface waters. The pathogens con- with a strategy for building sewers tained in stormwater and improp- Challenge that did not damage protected wet- erly treated sewage can cause While Staten Island became the fifth lands. During heavy rainstorms, diarrhea, skin and eye infections, borough of New York City in 1898, it South Richmond continued to expe- organ failure, and even death.106 Statenremained largely undeveloped until Island,rience chronic flooding, which New re- Stormwater alsoYork has significant im-

Left: Staten Island’s lack of adequate drainage caused frequent flooding. Middle: Without a sanitary sewer system, residents relied on septic systems, many of which leaked regularly. Right: Stormwater and sewage from septic systems contaminated local waterways and threatened public health.

28 Natural Security: How Sustainable Water Strategies are Preparing Communities for a Changing Climate pacts on freshwater ecosystems and imize erosion and flooding, and sheds and is in the process of ex- aquatic species by increasing water promote groundwater infiltration. panding to wetlands in three addi- temperatures, altering river flows, The filtered stormwater runoff then tional watersheds. The total area and transporting pollutants that re- flows into streams, which serve as included in the Bluebelt program duce oxygen levels and accumulate natural drainage corridors that makes up 14,000 acres or 36 per- in organisms’ tissues.107 For years, transport runoff from the urban cent of Staten Island’s land area.112 residents of South Richmond lived area. The city restores and day- New York City’s sustainability plan, with these problems. One resident lights these streams by re-establish- PlaNYC, calls for an additional recollects septic pollution so bad it ing their naturally meandering 4,000 acres to be added to the pro- caused duck and fish die-offs.108 channel to reduce water velocity gram by 2030.113 and prevent erosion. The result is Staten Island’s Approach an interconnected system of Planning In an effort to address these prob- stormwater pipes, wetlands, and Throughout the initial Bluebelt de- lems, the New York City Depart- streams that drain runoff, filter out sign process, NYC DEP has taken ment of Environmental Protection pollutants, and recharge ground - an integrated planning approach (NYC DEP) developed a two part water and streams around the island. that includes engineers, landscape plan involving a sanitary sewer architects, environmental planners, system routed around protected NYC DEP began acquiring land and wetland restoration ecologists wetlands and an innovative along wetland corridors for the from consulting firms and non- stormwater management program. project as early as 1991. The profits.114 This planning team has The stormwater plan consists of agency has since purchased over prepared four environmental im- storm sewers that carry runoff from 250 acres of natural waterways and pact statements to evaluate the po- streets and parking lots to existing over 12,000 acres of land which are tential effects on local hydrology streams and wetlands. Before known collectively as the Bluebelt and water quality.115 The project stormwater reaches the stream, system.110 Since construction began has been carefully designed to pro- it passes through a variety of in 1997, 40 Bluebelt facilities have tect mature trees, minimize distur- constructed wetlands, basins, and been completed, with another eight bance to existing natural areas, filters, called Bluebelt facilities.109 under construction, two in the de- remove invasive plant communi- These Bluebelt facilities slow the sign stage, and 40 yet to go.111 The ties, protect new plantings from runoff, remove contaminants, min- program currently covers 16 water- herbivores, and restore native vege-

Left: The interconnected system of stormwater pipes, wetlands, and streams efficiently drains runoff and prevents flooding. Middle: In 2007 a storm that dumped 3 inches of rain in one hour flooded parts of the city but left South Richmond unscathed. Right: The percentage of homes using septic systems has decreased from 60% in 1998 to 30% today.

American Rivers 29 tation.116 The planning team exam- could reduce sewer construction Permitting ined over one hundred different costs through the Bluebelt pro- Interagency coordination with de- stormwater facility designs leading gram, the city allocated $22 million partments overseeing parks, recre- to careful selection of the most ap- for the initial purchase of wetlands ation, transportation, and city propriate Bluebelt facilities for each in South Richmond.121 Because the planning was instrumental in suc- 117 individual project. The planning Bluebelt program is funded as part cessfully navigating the permitting team also incorporates mainte- of a larger capital sewer project, process for the Bluebelt system. nance considerations into the de- exact funding numbers are not Under the Freshwater Wetlands Act, the Bluebelt program would have re- sign process. The constructed available. However, the city esti- wetlands are designed to allow easy quired over 90 separate Freshwater mates that the program has saved removal of sediment, which must Wetland permits, one for each Blue- over $80 million in construction be regularly removed to ensure belt facility.124 Instead, the NYC DEP costs compared with conventional continued effectiveness.118 worked with the state Department of stormwater sewers.122 Annually, Environmental Conservation to cre- maintenance for the Bluebelt pro- Funding ate an approval process that incor- gram costs about $700,000 in con- Because the Bluebelt program inte- porated drainage plans and Bluebelt tractor services.123 In addition, a grates stormwater management sites within each watershed into a staff of 6 full-time NYC DEP em- and sanitary sewage collection, single permit at the watershed level. planners have been able to secure ployees works on the expansion of This allowed NYC DEP to meet per- funding for land acquisition and the Bluebelt system. The city has mit requirements and complete the Bluebelt facility construction minimized maintenance costs process more rapidly. through ongoing city-wide water through community involvement Benefits infrastructure initiatives.119 The city in the “Adopt-a-Bluebelt-Program,” derives much of its water and which encourages citizens to main- The Bluebelt program has been wastewater infrastructure funding tain and enhance Bluebelt facilities highly successful in resolving flood- through water and sewer rates.120 by organizing clean-ups and re- ing and improving water quality In 1992, after recognizing they porting illegal activities. across the island. It has won nu- merous awards from environmen- tal, engineering, and landscape architecture groups and is widely viewed as a leading example of in- novative stormwater management. The improved drainage has proven its value on several occasions in re- cent years. When the remnants of Hurricane Ivan hit New York City in 2004, areas of the city experi- enced property damage and were evacuated due to flooding, while South Richmond, which was hit with 2.25 inches of rainfall in two hours, experienced no flooding.125 The constructed wetlands protect local waterways by removing most pollutants, including 93% of fecal coliform, an indicator of dangerous pathogens. Again in August of 2007, parts of

30 Natural Security: How Sustainable Water Strategies are Preparing Communities for a Changing Climate New York City flooded when 3 inches of rain fell in one hour, in- undating the subway system.126 At the same time, the location that was once home to South Rich- mond’s worst drainage problems 127 experienced no flooding. Nor Griffin Park—Greenville, North Carolina—Natural were there any flood reports in Drainage Systems in New Development143 other parts of South Richmond. Re- How do the costs of green infrastructure stack up against tradi- duced flooding has improved win- tional engineering approaches for stormwater management? One ter road conditions and minimized property damages. Marie Bodnar, study of a new development in North Carolina compared the the Community Board District costs of a 300-acre project. The study found that a natural Manager for the community, drainage system would generate some extra expenses, such as praises the Bluebelt program: “It’s $102,400 for rain gardens—more than twice as much as a tradi- the best program ever introduced to tional detention pond. Reductions in other expenses, however, South Richmond. The Bluebelt pro- would more than offset those costs. Instead of installing 9,434 lin- gram has helped solve a multitude ear feet of pipes at a cost of $291,794, the developer could install of problems, saved money, and 4,182 feet of piping, reducing costs by more than 50 percent. Ad- created a more tranquil and pleas- ditional savings would come from installing fewer curbs and gut- ant living environment.”128 ters, reducing road width, and surfacing alleys with crushed stone

The stormwater and sewage infra- rather than asphalt or concrete. Altogether, engineering costs structure investments have also would drop by 31 percent. Development costs per lot would fall 30 greatly reduced the threat to public percent, to $6,234 from $8,934. The developer of the property has health throughout South Rich- since incorporated natural drainage systems into the development. mond. The construction of separate sanitary sewers allows homeowners to phase out on-site septic systems which have a history of contami- the constructed wetlands minimize limited, monitoring shows that the nating local water resources.129 In erosion and flooding, both of which Bluebelt facilities are effectively re- 1998, approximately 60 percent of have been significant problems moving excess nutrients and con- homes relied on septic tanks, while throughout the island in the past. taminants that would otherwise less than 30 percent currently use Constructed wetlands also effec- cause algal blooms, reduce dis- them.130 The Bluebelt facilities have tively remove pollutants from solved oxygen levels, and threaten also been effective in reducing the stormwater runoff including most public health. impacts of stormwater on the is- excess nutrients, 65 percent of total land’s waterways. Constructed wet- organic carbon, an important These improvements in stormwater lands reduce discharge to streams measure of overall water quality, drainage and sewage disposal around the island by 30-55 percent and 93 percent of fecal coliform, an greatly benefit local communities and lower stormwater velocity 5-23 indicator of feces and pathogens.132 and wildlife. The value of homes percent.131 By reducing the velocity While water quality data from near the Bluebelt system has con- and volume of stormwater runoff, streams and coastal waterways is sistently appreciated in recent

American Rivers 31 years, enhancing the city’s tax percent, and sea level rises of 14-19 base.133 Community members take inches throughout the region by pride in the Bluebelt program and 2080.138 There will also be greater actively work to protect it and raise variation and unpredictability in awareness. In a recent city-wide precipitation patterns from year to survey, 86 percent of residents from year. Precipitation will shift more to Seattle, Washington— the South Richmond area found winter months, and there will be Natural Drainage their neighborhood to be an excel- longer dry spells and more severe Systems lent or good place to live.134 An ad- droughts. Low flows will provide visory committee made up of about less water to dilute contaminants, Streets cover one quarter 30 citizens acts as a liaison to the aggravating pollution problems in of Seattle’s total area, re- sulting in large volumes of wider community and assists in the urban streams. Warmer tempera- 135 stormwater runoff. In an program development. Linkages tures will encourage the spread of effort to reduce runoff, between existing parks and pro- pathogens, create more algal Seattle has installed natural tected lands have resulted in in- blooms, and lower dissolved oxy- drainage systems in pilot creased habitat connectivity and gen, further aggravating water projects throughout the the return of native wildlife. Red- quality problems. Of greatest con- city. One example is the 2nd backed salamanders, green frogs, cern to communities struggling Avenue Street Edge Alter- white egrets, Canada geese, red- with stormwater and sewage man- native (SEA) project in the tailed hawks, and a number of tur- agement will be the increase in se- Pipers Creek watershed. tle species have returned to the vere storms. Heavy rain- and 136 Instead of traditional island. The city has worked to ac- snowstorms are likely to become curbs, gutters, and pipes, commodate wildlife communities both more frequent and more se- SEAs use innovative by building bat boxes, installing vere.139 This trend will increase drainage design and land- fish ladders for migratory fish like flooding and polluted runoff flow- scaping that mimics the American eels, and improving cul- ing to local waterways. natural landscape prior to verts to mimic natural conditions development. The final for bottom-dwelling organisms. Towards Resilience project reduced impervi- By building sanitary sewers and the ousness by more than 18 Climate Change Bluebelt system, South Richmond percent, using swales, trees, Climate change poses a major has solved most of its chronic water shrubs, and wetlands.144 threat to communities throughout quality and flooding problems, but Years of monitoring show the Northeast, especially those that it has also taken steps that will pro- that the SEA project is able struggle with stormwater, sewage, tect public health and the island’s to reduce the total volume and flooding problems. Over the ecosystems in an uncertain future. of stormwater leaving the past century temperatures in New The pathogens from failing septic street by 98 percent for a York State have increased 1.9ºF, an- systems and stormwater runoff 2-year storm event.145 The nual average precipitation has posed a significant threat to resi- City of Seattle has since risen 10 percent, and sea level has dents, and that threat will only undertaken natural risen almost an inch.137 Projections grow as the climate shifts. More ex- drainage projects in several show a continuation of these trends treme storms will cause additional other watersheds. with temperature increases of 2.5- flooding and runoff, and soil satu- 9ºF, precipitation increases of 5-10 ration will increase septic system

32 Natural Security: How Sustainable Water Strategies are Preparing Communities for a Changing Climate failures. In addition, the risk of wa- terborne disease is likely to increase in a warmer climate as higher water temperatures and increased turbidity improve conditions for pathogen survival.140 The construc- tion of sanitary sewers and Bluebelt facilities will limit the impact of The Bluebelt system will protect residents from flooding and water pollution even as the climate shifts. these changes by reducing the num- ber of failing septic systems and preventing extreme storms from causing more polluted runoff from flowing into streams and coastal irreversible harm. Restored eco - This will improve the city’s ability waters. As a result, South Richmond systems and open space also beautify to further adapt to climate change is better prepared to absorb the im- neighborhoods, improve quality as it takes hold. pacts of a changing climate without of life, raise property values, and witnessing a rise in waterborne dis- strengthen local economies, all of While the Bluebelt system addresses ease or other health problems. which will make the communities development-related stormwater of South Richmond better able to problems and provides some adap- The Bluebelt system also provides thrive in a shifting climate. While tation capacity to the impacts of cli- the communities and ecosystems in traditional stormwater management mate change, the system was not South Richmond with a flexible sys- would have provided an inflexible planned with climate change in tem that can accommodate a wide and one-dimensional solution to mind.141 The dual pressures of con- range of climate conditions. Tradi- existing problems, wetlands and tinued development and a shifting tional storm sewers, if properly de- stream restoration have built a climate will test the capacity of the signed, might accommodate the system that can better respond to system, and it may be found want- increase in extreme weather. During the full range of conditions climate ing if climate extremes are not con- dry periods, however, these costly change promises to bring. sidered in ongoing planning for the pipes would sit empty and provide Bluebelt system. The system will no additional benefits. Staten Is- Finally, the Bluebelt system has likely need additional capacity if it land’s program provides benefits saved New York $80 million in con- is to handle the projected 2.5-6 inch that will help South Richmond struction costs, providing the city increase in winter precipitation and adapt in numerous ways unrelated with additional financial flexibility severe storms that are forecasted 142 to stormwater. First, the Bluebelt sys- to face future challenges. By utiliz- over the next few decades. While tem improves the health of the is- ing ecosystem services provided by progress towards solving South land’s ecosystems, provides valuable wetlands and streams, the Bluebelt Richmond’s stormwater and sewage habitat and strengthens popula- program is able to meet the island’s problems to this point is laudable, tions of wildlife and aquatic species. stormwater needs at a lower cost consideration of changing condi- By removing existing stresses on than traditional sewers. The sav- tions will be key to ensuring that ecosystems and wildlife, the Bluebelt ings will allow the city to meet the community is able to weather system will help many species sur- other critical needs, improve water an uncertain future. vive the changes brought on by cli- infrastructure elsewhere, or simply mate change without suffering reduce future financial obligations.

American Rivers 33 REDUCING FLOOD AND STORM DAMAGE year, construction of the upstream Soldiers Grove— dam was canceled after it was dis- Moving Out of Harm’s Way covered that it would endanger rare plants and cause water quality Summary the Kickapoo began to flood the problems. As a result, after spending After years of major flooding in the communities that had sprung up nearly $18 million, the Corps ended Kickapoo River Valley, the Town of along its banks.146 Flooding soon all Kickapoo Valley flood control Soldiers Grove decided to relocate its became a serious and permanent projects, ending any hope for fed- downtown out of the floodplain. By problem, inundating Soldiers Grove eral flood control assistance.150 1983, 49 homes and businesses had in 1907, 1912, 1917, 1935, and been moved out of harm’s way. 1951.147 Nearly the entire business Meanwhile, the community of Sol- While massive floods in 2007 and district was located within the diers Grove was slowly dying. Small 2008 devastated surrounding com- floodplain, making floods espe- family farms that once kept the vil- munities, Soldiers Grove was left cially disastrous to the community. lage’s businesses running had been largely unscathed. As climate declining since the end of World change brings more severe storms After years of requests, Congress War II. The railroad through town and floods, Soldiers Grove’s forward- finally took action in 1962 and was discontinued in 1939 and the looking relocation effort will mini- approved construction of a dam 36 major highway, US-61, was moved mize losses and keep residents safe. miles upstream of Soldiers Grove and to bypass the business district in the a levee at the village to be planned 1950s.151 By 1975, the local econ- Challenge and constructed by the Army Corps omy was failing, and 36 percent of Originally settled on the banks of of Engineers (Corps).148 When the families in the village earned less the Kickapoo River in the 1850s, Corps presented plans for the levee to than $3,000 a year,152 far less than the community of Soldiers Grove the village in 1974, however, it soon the regional median income of over thrived due to southwestern Wis- became apparent that it was not an $12,000 at the time.153 consin’s abundant forests and fer- economically viable solution. The vil- tile soils. However, starting in the lage would have to contribute an Soldiers Grove’s Approach late 1800s, extensive logging, agri- amount equal to twice the town’s an- Without federal support, residents culture, and urbanization stripped nual property tax revenue for mainte- turned to relocation as the only vi- the watershed of its vegetation, and nance every year.149 The following able alternative. In March of 1975, Soldiers Grove

Left: The Kickapoo River near Soldiers Grove has a long history of flooding. Middle: Downtown Soldiers Grove during one of the many floods that inundated the community throughout the 20th century. Right: The 1978 flood devastated the community of Soldiers Grove yet brought Federal support for relocation.

34 Natural Security: How Sustainable Water Strategies are Preparing Communities for a Changing Climate the village hired a relocation coor- In July of 1978, the Kickapoo River dinator and put together a Citizen’s hit the village with a record flood. Planning Committee to advise the The flood left two dead, inflicted a relocation efforts.154 With several half-million dollars in damages to small state and regional grants, Sol- the business district, and destroyed several buildings.158 With a state- diers Grove undertook a feasibility wide mandatory floodplain zoning study, which concluded the only vi- ordinance in place as of 1975, new able option was to relocate the development and major repairs on town at an estimated cost of $3 mil- buildings within the floodplain lion.155 A second study investigating were prohibited, leaving the village implementation and funding op- with few options for recovery.159 The tions put the cost closer to $6 mil- extent of the damage spurred then- lion. By the end of 1976 the village U.S. Senators William Proxmire board took the unprecedented move and Gaylord Nelson to help secure of passing a resolution in favor of federal support for relocation. The relocation.156 Although it did not Department of Housing and Urban commit the village to any specific Development granted the village actions, the resolution was highly $900,000 in the fall of 1978 to committing to solar energy and en- begin relocation.160 contentious due to lack of federal ergy efficiency. Spurred by the en- funding and disagreement among ergy crisis of the 1970s, Soldiers Before starting the process, however, Grove decided to move past rebuild- home and business owners. In Soldiers Grove worked with the Uni- ing in a traditional manner and in- 1977, the village invested $90,000 versity of Wisconsin to conduct stud- stead invested in passive solar, of its own funds to purchase a site ies on the best possible land use plan super-insulated, energy efficient 157 for the new downtown. Although for relocation, options for energy ef- buildings. New buildings incorpo- several small grants from state ficiency, and the community’s busi- rated advanced technologies that re- sources were awarded to help relo- ness capacity.161 These studies helped duced heating bills by 75 percent.162 cate Soldiers Grove, they were far the community finalize relocation The village also passed ordinances from sufficient to fund the move. plans and explore the possibility of requiring new buildings to meet

Left: Floods in 2007 and 2008 devastated neighboring Gays Mills but not Soldiers Grove. Middle: City park along river near where the downtown used to stand. Right: The 2008 flood scoured Soldiers Groves community park, near where the old downtown once stood.

American Rivers 35 thermal performance standards made up of 39 businesses, was outside of the floodplain. The va- twice as stringent as those required moved a half-mile to the south to cated area was planted with native by state law at the time and man- ground 55 feet above the old town vegetation and converted into a dating that all new commercial center.163 The new business district municipal park. It now houses bas- ketball and tennis courts, picnic buildings receive at least half their once again borders U.S. Highway areas, baseball fields, a skateboard heating energy from the sun—the 61. In addition, 10 families moved park, and a playground.164 Al- first such ordinance in the nation. to homes outside of the floodplain, though original relocation plans and 12 homes were elevated to pro- called for the removal of levees that By 1983, the relocation process was tect them from high water. Other had been built in the late 1960s completed. The business district, residential neighborhoods remained around the old downtown, those levees remained after relocation.165

Planning Years of planning preceded the re- location of Soldiers Grove. Much of it was organized by the relocation coordinator the town hired in 1975. The coordinator directed all reloca- Grand Forks, North Dakota & East Grand Forks, tion efforts and pursued funding Minnesota—Levee Set-back and Greenway with assistance from the village Sitting on the banks of the Red River, Grand Forks, ND and East president and the Citizen’s Plan- ning Committee. Through local Grand Forks, MN have experienced twelve major floods since and regional grants, Soldiers Grove 1870.187 The record flood of 1997 was particularly destructive as it was able to research their options flooded 75 percent of Grand Forks and 95 percent of East Grand and create a comprehensive flood Forks, resulting in the evacuation of 56,000 people and up to $2 prevention plan. When the 1978 billion in damages.188 Within four months of the flood, the commu- flood provided the needed catalyst nities began relocating 1,100 homes and businesses out of the most to secure federal funding, the com- prehensive prevention plan was affected neighborhoods.189 Due to low soil stability, the Corps de- converted into a flood recovery cided to set the flood control levees back from the river, allowing plan and provided an outline for the river to naturally overflow onto the newly-vacated floodplain. In action. The studies conducted in co- addition, a consultant worked with local citizens to develop a plan operation with the University of for a new recreational area along both sides of the river. From Wisconsin helped Soldiers Grove to there, the communities took charge of the plan and have since explore rebuilding opportunities created a popular open space area called the Greenway. Com- and embrace a sustainable plan for their new business district. pleted in 2006, it includes over 2,000 acres of green space with trails, campgrounds, boat access, golf courses, and other recre- Funding ational opportunities. The Greenway is home to festivals, races, and Due to the small population and tournaments, and is an important driver of the local economy. limited financial resources of Sol- diers Grove, the village had to piece

36 Natural Security: How Sustainable Water Strategies are Preparing Communities for a Changing Climate Soldiers Grove’s relocated business district sits half a mile to the south and 55 feet above the old town center, safe from even the largest floods. together a number of external disputable. In August of 2007, flood ages throughout Crawford County, funding sources to pay for the relo- waters churning down the Kick- home to both towns, totaled $10 cation. Numerous state and re- apoo River recorded the largest million.171 gional grants supported flood in the history of the village.168 coordination and planning of the After more than a foot of rain, the Ten months later, while the region relocation. The total cost of the river raged over Soldiers Grove’s was still recovering from the previ- project was $6 million. Federal as- abandoned downtown. The waters ous year’s disaster, a new flood sistance covered 60 percent of that inundated the municipal park and record was set. In June 2008, the amount, and state, local, and pri- campgrounds, taking ten days to fi- Kickapoo crested near 21 feet, inun- vate investments made up the bal- nally recede, but the village sus- dating riverside communities. De- ance.166 Major federal funding tained little damage beyond a spite the enormous destruction included over $3 million from the partially collapsed road. While Sol- elsewhere, none of the relocated Department of Housing and Urban diers Grove stood protected, down- homes in Soldiers Grove flooded. Development (Community Devel- stream communities did not. Gays Floodwaters overwhelmed an old opment Block Grants), $500,000 Mills, located within the Kickapoo’s levee, damaging the riverside park from the Economic Development floodplain 10 miles from Soldiers and 30 homes that had been flood- Administration, and $650,000 from Grove, received the worst damage. proofed, but not relocated in 1978. Department of Interior Land and The river crested at over 19 feet in Elsewhere the damage was far Water Conservation funds.167 Gays Mills, more than 6 feet above worse. Approximately 175 homes flood stage.169 Approximately 75 and businesses were damaged in Benefits homes were damaged and inun- Gays Mills alone.172 Just a week The Soldiers Grove relocation has dated with up to four feet of prior, the Gays Mills Village Board rescued the town from the recurring water.170 Many residents lost cars, had approved a study by the Corps floods that threatened residents’ furnishings, and other of Engineers to find ways to prevent lives and the town’s existence. The belongings. Electricity and gas future floods and earmarked improvement in flood safety is in- services were out for days. Dam- money to buy out some of the

American Rivers 37 homeowners that live in the most brace a more sustainable future as good as or better than the previ- flood prone areas of the village.173 through energy efficiency and solar ous location.179 Some residents of the town have heating. As of 1991, eight out of given up following the 2008 flood, ten businesses were still heated by Climate Change and 30-45 homes remained vacant solar energy.176 The town park built A changing climate poses a serious months later. An estimated 120 on the site of the old business dis- threat to flood-prone communities people (1/5 of the population) have trict receives frequent use. The throughout the Midwest. Already in not returned to the town.174 In No- town’s economic activity has re- the past 20 years, the region has vember 2008, the Village Board versed its decline. By the time relo- experienced record-breaking floods voted to move ahead with a FEMA cation was completed in 1983, the in 1993, 2007, and 2008. Through- proposal for partial, voluntary relo- town had added several new busi- out the Great Lakes region, annual cation.175 Thirty years and several nesses and gained 47 jobs relative average precipitation is expected to devastating floods later, Gays Mills to 1978.177 The town center is once increase five to 10 percent by the now starts down the path that Sol- again adjacent to the state high- end of the century,180 but it is the diers Grove chose in the 1970s. way, which is a source of economic continued rise in severe storms that activity. Since 1983, the population will present the greatest challenge. The relocation of Soldiers Grove has of Soldiers Grove has stabilized The intensity of storms is regulated also helped revitalize and stabilize at roughly 600 people178 and 75 by the amount of moisture in the a community in decline. It gave the percent of surveyed citizens con- atmosphere. Atmospheric capacity community an opportunity to em- sider the relocated village to be to hold moisture increases expo-

Tulsa, Oklahoma—Urban Relocation Situated on the wide Arkansas River in a region known as tornado alley for its violent summer thunder- storms, Tulsa, OK is well acquainted with flooding. While average rainfall is approximately 37 inches, storms have produced as much as 15 inches of rainfall in a few short hours. In the 1970s and 1980s, recurring floods made Tulsa home to the most federally declared flood disasters in the nation, with nine declared disasters in 15 years.190 The city passed its first floodplain ordinance in 1977 and subsequently moved 33 homes out of high risk areas. Another 30 homes were moved in 1979. But it wasn’t until the Memorial Day flood of 1984, the worst in Tulsa’s history, when the necessity of a comprehensive flood management program became evident. The historic flood killed 14 people, injured 288 others, destroyed or damaged over 7,000 buildings, and caused $184 million in damages.191 In response, the city relocated 300 homes and a 228-pad mobile home park through a voluntary buy-out program. They also instituted rebuilding restrictions, built structural and non-structural flood control works, and created master drainage plans. Since then, Tulsa has cleared more than 900 buildings from its floodplains, although 8,500 buildings remain in harm’s way.

38 Natural Security: How Sustainable Water Strategies are Preparing Communities for a Changing Climate nentially with temperature,181 meaning that the 6-8º F increase in annual average temperature throughout the region by 2100182 will cause a rise in the number of extreme storms. In fact, projections show that extremely heavy precipi- tation events in southern Wisconsin will become 10 to 40 percent stronger by the end of the cen- Extreme precipitation events in southern Wisconsin will grow 10-40% stronger by the end tury.183 This will lead to more fre- of the century, but Soldiers Grove is well prepared to meet the challenge. quent flooding, increased property and infrastructure damage, higher future conditions as climate models Business owners felt that the flood insurance rates, increased clean-up predict, the relocation will save lives changed the dynamics of the town, and rebuilding costs, and a greater and prevent the repeated loss of noting especially “lack of commu- threat to human health. Commu- homes and businesses. Despite the nity leadership, deteriorating aes- nities that have historically been success of relocation, however, the thetics, and increasing uncertainty victims of damaging floods will damages Soldiers Grove experi- about the future of the village.”185 need to adapt to these changing enced in 2008 show where the town An economic analysis following the conditions or risk even greater de- can continue to improve. The old 2007 flood found that a one month struction in the future. and deteriorating levees surround- closure of the 19 Gays Mills busi- ing the old downtown will need to nesses located in the floodplain Towards Resilience be removed, and the homes on the would lead to a $2.3 million eco- By moving out of the floodplain, edge of the floodplain that were nomic loss for the county.186 Soldiers Grove has corrected the damaged in the floods may need to mistakes of its founders who be relocated. Instead of halting economic activity stripped the watershed’s natural and spending scarce financial re- flood protection and placed their The importance of preserving flood- sources on clean-up, Soldiers Grove homes in harm’s way. The move plains in a changing climate is not has been able to continue life as was also essential to ensuring a vi- confined to the immediate reduc- normal. In a future defined by able future in a shifting climate. tion in flood damages. Massive floods like those that struck Wiscon- One need look no further than floods like those that struck Gays sin in 2007 and 2008, Soldiers Grove neighboring Gays Mills to envision Mills in 2007 and 2008 do more will be a more resilient community what Soldiers Grove would have ex- than destroy property. They under- because of its capacity to limit dam- perienced without relocation. The mine community cohesiveness, ages and recover more quickly. two 500 year floods that stormed drive families away, and weaken the Rather than leaving themselves at down the Kickapoo River in less local economy. Following the 2008 the mercy of unpredictable weather than ten months wreaked havoc in flood, Gays Mills is in disarray and patterns, the relocation project has allowed Soldiers Grove to determine Gays Mills, while Soldiers Grove many residents have not returned. its future, and it will reap the bene- stayed largely safe and dry. Gays 87 percent of the town’s businesses fits for years to come. Mills has to once again go through suffered direct economic losses from the costly and onerous process of re- the 2007 flood, while 62 percent lost building. If these floods foreshadow money due to the 2008 flood.184

American Rivers 39 REDUCING FLOOD AND STORM DAMAGE neers (Corps) to undertake a com- Charles River Basin— prehensive study of the entire Wetland as Flood Protection Charles River Watershed in 1965.197 The Corps’ final report, published in Summary the lower river’s wetlands and natu- 1972, emphasized the critical role To prevent recurring floods that ral landscapes, reducing natural that wetlands played in storing ex- had caused extensive damage in water storage and causing down- cess floodwaters and reducing dam- Boston and neighboring communi- stream flooding.193 When hurricanes age on the upper and middle ties, the Army Corps of Engineers and major rain events swept across portions of the Charles River. Wet- created an innovative plan to ac- the region, such as in 1938 and lands reduced peak river flows by quire and protect over 8,000 acres 1955, flooding caused widespread 65 percent in the 1955 disaster.198 In of wetlands along the upper damage throughout the basin. The 1968, floodwaters rushed through reaches of the Charles River. Today, 1955 flood resulting from Hurricane the lower basin in a matter of the wetlands help prevent $40 mil- Diane caused over $5 million in hours, while peak flows from the lion in flood damages every year. damages (over $40 million in upper basin took three to four days As precipitation increases and today’s dollars194) to communities to reach a dam near the mouth of storms become more intense in a along the lower Charles River.195 In the river.199 The entire volume of changing climate, wetlands will March of 1968, the watershed expe- stormwater produced during the continue to provide cost-effective rienced its worst flood yet, when 1968 flood from the upper and mid- protection against floods. three straight days of rain and melt- dle reaches took over a month to ing snow set record water levels and reach the dam.200 This prevented a Challenge flooded roads, basements, and sub- rapid release of floodwater and pro- The Charles River watershed, home ways throughout the lower basin.196 tected residents downstream. to 20 percent of Massachusetts’s population, is the most densely pop- Following the 1955 disaster, local Even as the Corps of Engineers’ ulated river basin in New Eng- leaders began searching for a solu- study was revealing the importance land.192 Since 1870, urban and tion to the recurring flooding of the Charles River wetlands, they suburban development from Boston, throughout the watershed. Led by continued to disappear due to de- Cambridge, and surrounding com- Representative Tip O’Neill, Congress velopment. The construction of In- munities has paved over much of directed the Army Corps of Engi- terstate 495 had already begun and Charles River Basin

Left: Heavy rains inundated communities along the lower stretches of the Charles River. Middle: The 1955 flood resulting from Hurricane Diana caused over $5 million in damages ($40 million in today’s dollars). Right: Wetlands that prevented flooding in the upper basin were disappearing at the rate of 1% per year due to development.

40 Natural Security: How Sustainable Water Strategies are Preparing Communities for a Changing Climate would soon open up rural land was incapable of providing flood discharge 630,000 gallons of water along the Charles River to develop- control and proposed construction per minute into Boston Harbor ment.201 Studies at the time showed of a new dam and pumping station when the river gets too high.207 The that wetlands in Massachusetts just downstream of the existing proposed dam and levee system in were disappearing at a rate of one structure. The proposal also called the upper basin was removed from percent per year, with the greatest for levees and a second dam along the plan after the Corps released its pressure on the Charles River wet- the middle portion of the Charles watershed report recommending lands.202 New roofs, roads, and River at an estimated cost of $100 wetland acquisition for flood pro- parking lots would reduce natural million ($618 million in today’s tection.208 In an expedited process, flood storage and create additional dollars).203 However, when the 1968 extensive mapping and study of runoff as pavement replaced vege- flood hit, the Corps witnessed the the wetlands determined that ap- tation. Destroying upper basin wet- capacity of the wetlands to store proximately 10,000 acres of the lands would not only extend flood waters and decided to pre- 20,000 acres of wetlands in the flooding problems throughout the serve them.204 Based on flood hy- basin had floodwater retention ca- watershed, it would also worsen the drograph records, they calculated pacity.209 In the end, 17 sites, rang- lower basin’s predicament, as flood- that a 100-acre wetland stored the ing from 118 to 2,340 acres were waters would move downstream same amount of water, 55 acre feet, selected for acquisition.210 more quickly. If local leaders were as an average flood control reser- to solve the lower basin’s recurring voir in New England.205 In fact, The next challenge was to secure flooding and prevent those prob- while the Corps explored potential federal funding in order to purchase lems from spreading upstream, they impoundment sites, they could not the wetlands. The Corps found over- would need to preserve existing wet- find any with as much storage ca- whelming public support for wet- lands and relieve the pressure from pacity as the wetlands.206 land acquisition after completion of accelerating development. its watershed study.211 State and fed- In 1972, the Corps began work to eral officials and legislators took Approach alleviate flooding in the lower note of public sentiment and sup- The Corps was nearing completion basin by replacing the existing ported the project. However, the of its study on the lower basin prior dam at the mouth of the river. The project was held up in Congress for to the 1968 flood. They found that new dam was completed in 1978 over a year due to opposition to ex- the dam at the mouth of the river with a large pumping station to tending federal flood control author-

Left: 75% of the remaining wetlands in the watershed were protected. Middle: The wetlands protect Boston and other downstream communities along the Charles River from flooding. Right: The Charles River also supports recreational activities such as fishing, rowing, and other water sports.

American Rivers 41 1974. They started by contacting over 550 land owners within the wa- tershed.215 The Corps offered fair market value for properties and the option of a special restrictive ease- ment for landowners that wanted to retain the title to their lands. In 1977 Napa, California—Restoration of a Living River the Corps began purchasing land and acquiring easements, prioritiz- From 1961 to 1997, Napa, California flooded on 19 separate occa- ing parcels by location, storage ca- 253 sions, resulting in over $542 million in damages. The Army pacity, and threat of development.216 Corps of Engineers proposed channelizing the river and building By 1983, the Corps had purchased levees in both 1975 and 1988, but the community rejected the 3,211 acres and acquired easements on 4,882 acres of private land.217 The idea. When the Corps proposed the same solution again in 1995, protected area includes 75 percent of community members developed a coalition to work with the all existing wetlands in the Charles Corps towards a more sustainable solution.254 The result is the River watershed.218 The Corps moni- Napa River Flood Project, which will restore 650 acres of tidal tors the wetlands to ensure that the terms of easements are upheld by wetlands, reconnect the river to the historical floodplain, clean up systematically surveying all 31 prop- contaminated sites, create terraced river banks, replace bridges, erty segments in 16 communities.219 and construct floodwalls, levees, and bypass channels in selected The Massachusetts Division of Fish- areas. When completed in 2011, the project will protect roughly eries and Wildlife manages the wet- lands, enforces laws, stocks trout, 2,700 homes, 350 businesses, and over 50 public properties from and improves habitats through a 100-year flood levels and reduce the $26 million of annual average lease arrangement with the Corps.220 flood damages.255 The end result will be a living river that sustains migrating fish and wildlife and protects residents from floods. Because the Corps could only pro- tect 75 percent of the wetlands in the basin, Congress required a com- mitment from the state to enforce ity to non-structural land acquisi- damage, but from this moment on, its Inland Wetlands Act and flood- tion.212 Congress finally authorized all future flood control projects plain zoning more stringently to the Charles River Natural Valley across the nation were required to protect the remaining 25 percent of Storage Area (CRNVSA) in 1974 consider non-structural alternatives the wetlands.221 Congress also re- and to offer equal funding opportu- under the Water Resources Develop- quired local interests to prevent any 214 ment Act, allowing for the acquisi- nities for these projects. developments that would modify tion of wetlands and easements in the drainage characteristics of the the watershed.213 Not only was this Working in partnership with the CRNVSA.222 Most local communi- the first time that Congress ap- Charles River Watershed Associa- ties cooperated readily by adopting proved and appropriated money to tion, the Corps began implementing local zoning laws to protect their buy land to reduce risk of flood the wetland protection project in wetlands.223

42 Natural Security: How Sustainable Water Strategies are Preparing Communities for a Changing Climate Planning the appropriate committees in the Corps estimated in 1976 that 40 The Corps of Engineers has been the House of Representatives and the percent of all existing wetlands at primary agency involved with the Senate. Once authorized, the project the time would have been lost to research, acquisition and protection can receive funding, which is typi- development by 1990.232 The most of the basin’s wetlands. A number of cally appropriated in important benefit of the Corps studies were instrumental in phases over several project has been pro- establishing the need for wetland years. Congress tection from the de- preservation and guiding the imple- authorized structive floods mentation of the project. As men- funding for the that previously tioned above, the first step in the Charles River plagued the process was the watershed study that wetland project basin. When Congress requested in 1965. Having in the Water Re- heavy rainfall established the importance of wet- sources Develop- threatened the basin lands in that report, the Corps Hy- ment Act (WRDA) of in 1979, the protected 227 drology Branch conducted a study 1974. The initial 1975 ap- wetlands and flood-control using advanced engineering to propriation totaled $100,000, while dam in the lower basin controlled guide land acquisition based on the the 1976 allocation increased to the floodwaters, preventing an esti- flood protection value of various $290,000. These initial sums were mated $14 million in damages (in 233 wetland parcels. Full-time cartogra- used for aerial surveys, mapping, 1979 dollars). The wetlands have 228 phers and appraisers were hired by and mathematical modeling. Ap- protected downstream communities the Corps to work on the real estate propriations grew as land acquisi- during floods many times since. planning phase to negotiate acquisi- tion began and totaled $8.3 million The World Wildlife Federation esti- 229 tion and easement contracts of wet- over the life of the project. While mates that the wetlands currently local or state interests are typically prevent $40 million per year in lands.224 A General Design asked to share 20 percent of the flood damages.234 Neighboring Memorandum was also prepared to total cost of the project, the Com- communities outside of the water- identify planning decisions as well monwealth of shed demonstrate what would hap- as state and Federal roles, and in- Massachusetts already owned 20 pen in the absence of strong cluded a schedule of the funding percent of the lands selected for wetland protection. In May of necessary for the completion of the acquisition, and the federal govern- 2006, the community of Lawrence, project to be updated periodically.225 ment accepted these properties as which lies at the confluence of the Throughout the planning process the state’s share.230 Every year, Merrimack, Shawsheen, and the Corps involved the public. Thirty $300,000 for operation and mainte- Spicket rivers, received 8.73 inches representatives from affected com- nance costs is supplied through of rain over several days, resulting munities along the Charles River WRDA to support three full-time in an estimated $19 million in served on the Citizen Advisory Com- positions and two interns.231 flood damages.235 At the same time, mittee as liaisons between the Corps communities along the Charles and citizens.226 Benefits River, including Boston and Cam- Funding Protection of the Charles River wet- lands has provided numerous bene- Funding for federal flood control fits to the 16 communities within projects such as the Charles River the CRNVSA and their downstream wetlands requires several steps. The The wetlands provide vital neighbors. Without protection, the habitat for wildlife. project must first be authorized by

American Rivers 43 bridge, received 8.99 inches—the ers reported that properties adja- second highest four-day total in cent to the wetlands had higher 134 years of record-keeping—and property values and were easier to suffered almost no flood damage.236 sell.241 A statistical analysis verified The Merrimack and Ipswich rivers that homes next to wetlands were surpassed flood levels when they worth 1.5 percent more than other reached their highest levels on May homes in the region.242 Overall, the 15, 2006. The Charles River did not combined amenity value of living crest until two days later and re- close to the wetlands is valued at mained well below flood level dur- $216,500 per year.243 ing and after the heavy rains.237 Finally, the wetlands provide signif- The 16 communities within the icant downstream water quality Charles River Natural Valley Stor- benefits. While no formal water age Area benefit from much more quality studies have specifically fo- than just flood prevention. All of cused on the Charles River wet- the protected lands owned by the lands, these ecosystems have a Army Corps of Engineers are open well-established ability to naturally to the public for recreation includ- remove sediment and other con- ing boating, walking, sightseeing, taminants.244 Until recently, the fishing, and bird watching.238 Also river was plagued with sewage and available for public use along the other pollutants from the region’s Charles River are parcels of state- industrial past. Clean-up efforts in owned land managed by the Divi- the 1960s helped improve water sion of Fisheries and Wildlife and a quality, but problems persist, most number of small parks managed notably urban runoff from contin- by local municipalities and conser- ued development. The intact wet- vation trusts. This open space im- lands minimize these threats by proves the quality of life for local trapping sediment, excess nutri- residents but also stimulates the ents, and other contaminants that local economy by attracting would otherwise pollute the river tourists. Hunting and fishing in the and threaten recreational uses. The Charles River Natural Valley Stor- Charles River is an iconic setting for age Area is valued at over $30 mil- sailing, rowing, and other activi- lion annually.239 The Corps ties. River recreation helps bring estimates that the 212,000 annual hundreds of thousands of visitors to visitors spend $4.51 million within the region each year.245 All told, the 30 miles of the CRNVSA.240 In addi- water quality benefits of the wet- tion, properties adjacent to the pro- lands are estimated at nearly $25 tected wetlands have shown direct million per year.246 In addition, by benefits to local residents through preventing development along the The wetlands prevent an estimated $40 million in flood damages every year. increased property values. In a sur- river, the wetlands’ protected status vey, 14 of 15 realtors and apprais- has kept developers from building

44 Natural Security: How Sustainable Water Strategies are Preparing Communities for a Changing Climate more roads and parking lots, which creasing the risk of coastal flooding the region has to offer and that would deliver a host of pollutants in the lower basin.251 riverside communities can depend to the river. on this natural buffer to protect Towards Resilience them. Preservation of the water- In all, the Charles River wetland pro- The preservation of wetlands shed’s wetlands has several impor- tection project has been a great ben- within the upper Charles River tant implications in a changing efit to the watershed. In contrast to a basin make the river and the com- climate. As extreme storms become flood control dam which would have munities along its banks better able more frequent, the protected wet- cost over $100 million and provided to weather a changing climate. The lands will continue to absorb flood- few, if any, additional benefits, wet- wetlands have demonstrated time waters and release them gradually land purchases and easements cost and again that they are able to over the course of weeks or months, less than $10 million and contribute handle the most extreme storms avoiding the deadly peak flows over $95 million to the regional economy every year.247

Climate Change With shifting precipitation patterns, the threat of flooding is growing. De- spite a severe drought in the early 1960s, average annual precipitation has increased 5-10 percent across the Northeast since 1900.248 This trend Reno, Nevada—Truckee River Flood Protection256 will continue for the foreseeable fu- About every 10 years, the Truckee River overflows its banks, caus- ture, and the Northeast will experi- ence an increase in average annual ing tremendous damage to homes, businesses, and infrastructure. precipitation of 10 percent, or four In the 1997 New Year’s Day Flood, damages exceeded $1 billion inches, by the end of the century.249 in six counties. In response, the cities of Reno and Sparks, More importantly for flood damage Washoe and Storey counties, the Corps of Engineers, and other purposes, the intensity of storms will stakeholders came together to plan a flood project. Over six increase significantly throughout the Northeast. The number of heavy years, the Truckee River Flood Project’s Community Coalition precipitation events is projected to clocked over 20,000 volunteers hours in more than 500 meet- increase eight percent by 2050 and ings to develop the community-supported Living River Plan. 12-13 percent by the end of the The $1.4 billion plan includes flood protection and river restora- century.250 These trends will be ag- tion projects along 50 miles of the Truckee River that will en- gravated by warming winter temper- atures and earlier snow melt, both of hance recreational opportunities and fish passage. The 45 flood which will increase flood risk. Fi- protection measures listed in the plan include setback levees nally, sea level rises will bring addi- and floodwalls, terraced riverbanks, bridge replacements, a tional pressure on coastal flood stormwater detention facility, and restoration of the floodplain. control systems. By the end of the The project is expected to be completed by 2025. century, sea level is expected to rise between seven and 23 inches, in-

American Rivers 45 that can take lives and destroy accommodate high waters is criti- proving the health of the river and communities. On the other hand, cal. As the Charles River reaches limiting the effects of climate paving over these wetlands to sup- the Millis-Medfield region, its nor- change, the Charles River and the port development would allow mal 50-foot width has the ability to species that depend on it will be floodwaters to pick up speed and expand to over 1.5 miles wide better able to absorb the negative move rapidly downstream, ampli- under flood conditions.252 Keeping impacts without devastating conse- communities out of the floodplain quences. It will improve the likeli- will reduce their vulnerability as hood that future stresses will not weather events become more ex- exceed the ecosystem’s capacity to treme. In combination with the adapt to change. flood control dam in the lower basin, communities along the Finally, the CRNVSA has important Charles are well equipped to with- benefits for the regional economy stand large floods without suffering and finances of basin communities. devastating losses. The same is not A significant portion of the recre- true of neighboring watersheds that ation and tourism industry in the are stripped of their wetlands, and area is dependent on a healthy this vulnerability will be magnified Charles River. The protected wet- as the climate shifts. However, as lands preserve water quality and climate change shifts precipitation ensure that these industries remain patterns further from the historical viable in an uncertain future. This average, the CRNVSA’s capacity will in turn help maintain a strong, and flexibility will be taxed and diversified economic base that will tested. Heightened storm intensity help insulate the region from eco- and frequency will likely produce nomic fluctuations due to climate record floods and may demand ad- change. In addition, flood control ditional storage capacity. and other ecosystem services pro- vided by the wetlands prevent The wetland protection project also towns and cities within the basin has important implications for the from having to expend scarce re- ability of ecosystems and wildlife to sources on flood recovery, water weather a more extreme climate. treatment, or stormwater control. The rising number of severe storms Flood damages in other watersheds will wash more pollutants off the have been considerable in recent fying the impact of more frequent landscape into waterways, but the storms, and they will only grow and intense storms to come. CRNVSA will greatly limit the im- with more severe storms. By avoid- pacts on water quality. The loss of ing these costs, Charles River com- The second important implication the wetlands’ natural filtering munities will have more financial of the CRNVSA project is the lack of capacity and greater floodplain flexibility and will be better able to development in flood-prone areas, development could have had meet the uncertainties and costs of which is key to ensuring safe com- devastating impacts on the health climate change. munities in a changing climate. of the Charles River watershed in a Giving the river room to expand to warming world. By proactively im-

46 Natural Security: How Sustainable Water Strategies are Preparing Communities for a Changing Climate The wetlands will protect Charles River communities as the climate shifts and help maintain a high quality of life.

American Rivers 47 SECURING CLEAN WATER SUPPLIES pressing question of how to ensure a Clayton County, Georgia—Withstanding clean, reliable water supply for cur- Drought with Wetlands and Water Reuse rent and future generations.

Summary throughout the region have seen Clayton County’s Approach While most southeastern communi- water supply reservoirs drop dramat- Amidst the bleak water supply real- ties experienced major water short- ically, falling below 50 percent ca- ities that have faced the region in ages during the 2007-2008 drought, pacity in some cases.257 Lake Lanier, recent years, one bright spot has Clayton County, Georgia was an a major water source for metropoli- been Clayton County, Georgia. Lo- exception. An innovative water re- tan Atlanta, reached record lows in cated south of Atlanta, the county’s cycling system that filters treated December of 2007.258 A region his- reservoirs have remained near ca- water through a series of con- torically blessed with abundant pacity even in record drought con- structed wetlands helped the water is now facing shortages due to ditions. The Clayton County Water county maintain an abundant growing populations, rapid develop- Authority (CCWA) uses an innova- water supply throughout the ment, mismanagement, and ex- tive water recycling wetland system record-setting drought. While At- tended droughts. Development has to bolster water supply and has un- lanta’s Lake Lanier shrunk to a 90- brought acres of roofs and parking dertaken a number of water quality day supply of water, Clayton lots that turn rainfall into polluted and efficiency initiatives. The use of County maintained a 230-day sup- runoff where once it was allowed to recycled wastewater provides a con- ply in its reservoirs. As climate soak into the ground and recharge sistent drought-resistant supply of change makes precipitation more water supplies. Inefficient irrigation water, while the wetlands gradually variable and uncertain, Clayton and wasteful water use in homes release water over time, reducing County’s water recycling system and businesses throughout the re- vulnerability to droughts. will ensure a secure and reliable gion force ever larger withdrawals water supply for its residents. from rivers, aquifers, and reservoirs. Clayton County’s wetland systems The severe droughts of the past sev- consist of a series of intercon- Challenges eral years have been the final straw nected, shallow ponds filled with In recent years the Southeastern that has pushed demand beyond native vegetation. Wastewater is United States has faced major water available supply in many places. first processed in an advanced supply challenges. Communities Communities are now faced with the treatment facility and then dis- Clayton County, Georgia

Left: In recent years, extended droughts have caused water shortages throughout the southeast. Middle: Shrinking water supplies forced many communities to impose restrictions. Right: Runoff from rapid development throughout the region threatens water quality.

48 Natural Security: How Sustainable Water Strategies are Preparing Communities for a Changing Climate charged to the constructed wet- of CCWA’s larger water supply sys- isting trees on new developments lands which remove remaining tem, which has a total capacity of and redeveloped properties; a soil pollutants such as excess nutrients 42 mgd,263 the county also pulls erosion and sedimentation ordi- like nitrogen and phosphorus. A water from the Flint River and nance restricting all land-disturb- portion of the water in the wet- reservoirs located on smaller ing activities within 25 feet of State lands infiltrates into the ground- streams. waters; and landscaping guidelines water supply, but the majority that require at least 15 percent veg- flows on the surface into one of In addition to investing in water etated area on commercial, indus- CCWA’s water supply reservoirs. reuse, Clayton County has taken a trial, and multi-family residential Water typically takes two years number of steps to protect its water properties.265 The Watershed Man- under normal conditions to filter supply from drought and contami- agement Plan also established a through wetlands and reservoirs nation. In order to improve effi- standard for controlling erosion before being reused and takes less ciency and avoid unnecessary from new developments, which re- than a year under drought condi- waste, CCWA has undertaken a quires developers to install wider tions.259 The first section of con- successful leak detection program stream buffers, preserve open land, structed wetlands, known as the and participated in a regional resi- and use green infrastructure tech- Panhandle system, was completed dential toilet rebate program that niques such as constructed wet- in 2003 and has a treatment ca- provides incentives to replace older lands, infiltration trenches, and pacity of 4.4 million gallons per toilets with more efficient models.264 swales to capture and filter day (mgd).260 The adjacent Huie The county has also worked to re- 266 wetland system is coming online in duce stormwater pollution in order stormwater. Clayton County has phases. Thus far three phases of to protect the small streams that directly undertaken a number of the construction have been com- recharge water supply reservoirs. In stream restoration projects, water pleted with a capacity of 9.3 its 2001 Watershed Management quality monitoring, and green mgd.261 Additional sections of the Plan, CCWA outlined a number of space purchases to protect water Huie system will be completed in ordinances and actions it could quality. In 2007, CCWA took over 2010 and 2012 which will bring take to protect water quality. The responsibility for stormwater man- the total capacity of the system to plan includes a tree preservation agement throughout the county, around 24 mgd.262 While the wet- ordinance that requires developers which had previously been carried lands constitute an important part to protect at least 10 percent of ex- out by municipalities.

Left: A series of wetlands recycles wastewater and recharges water supplies. Middle: Clayton County has maintained plentiful water supplies even during droughts. Right: The wetlands also provide recreation and enhanced quality of life for local residents and valuable habitat for a variety of wildlife.

American Rivers 49 Planning removes the remaining 20 percent Water supply has long been a chal- of pollutants present in wastewater lenge in Clayton County due to lim- when it leaves the treatment ited surface water and groundwater plant.268 It also requires less land, supplies. In the late 1990s CCWA taking up just 15 to 25 acres com- began searching for ways to im- pared to100 acres for the LAS.269 prove efficiency, minimize operating West Palm Beach, costs, and expand capacity of its In 2001, CCWA also completed a Florida—Natural wastewater and water supply infra- planning process to protect the Wetlands as a Drink- structure. Since 1980, the county Flint River watershed. This effort was motivated by the realization ing Water Source294 has operated a land application sys- tem (LAS) which sprays treated that CCWA could not ensure suffi- Grassy Waters in West wastewater onto 2,500 acres of cient clean water in the future with- Palm Beach, Florida is more forested land where it gradually out protecting the entire 270 than just a wetland and soaks into the ground and flows into watershed. The Flint River begins at the Hartsfield-Jackson Interna- prairie preserve; it is also an the county’s reservoirs. This system was initially constructed because the tional Airport (the world’s busiest), important drinking water Flint River, which would have other- in an area where population has source. The 20 square miles wise received the wastewater dis- increased over 200 percent since of wetlands provides most charge, was severely degraded and the 1970s.271 While efforts to clean of the drinking water for could not handle the waste loads it up wastewater discharges improved 130,000 people in West was receiving. Despite generally low water quality in the 1990s, in- creased impervious surfaces and Palm Beach and surround- permeability of the Upper Flint wa- tershed geology, the land applica- runoff have created a growing pol- ing municipalities. The city tion system returned 70 percent of lution problem. As CCWA con- sends up to 10 million gal- the reclaimed water to the water ducted watershed assessments in lons per day of highly supply reservoir as stream flow.267 formulating its watershed plan, it treated water to the became clear that not only were marshy expanse. The re- In the late 1990s, CCWA developed their water resources limited, but increased urbanization was having claimed water takes about a number of long-term plans outlin- ing the steps needed to reach its negative impacts on the quality of two years to filter through clean water goals. The Master Plan, its available water resources.272 The native plants and soil be- published in 2000, identified neces- resulting watershed management fore being pumped to the sary capital improvements to the plans from Clayton County and city’s reservoir where it is county’s water infrastructure and nearby Henry and Fayette Counties processed for drinking. Fil- committed the county to transition- are helping Clayton County main- tering water through the ing from the land application sys- tain a safe and consistent supply of tem to constructed treatment water despite pressure from rapid vegetation and soil helps wetlands. CCWA decided to switch urbanization. remove remaining impuri- to the wetland system because of its ties such as nitrogen and ability to remove pollutants at a low Funding phosphorous. operating cost. Maintenance for the Clayton County’s forward-thinking system is minimal, and it effectively water supply system and watershed

50 Natural Security: How Sustainable Water Strategies are Preparing Communities for a Changing Climate protection efforts have required a significant commitment of resources. CCWA is building the wetland sys- tem on land it first purchased for the land application system in the late 1970s. Funding for the land purchase and the construction of the LAS primarily came through the Federal Construction Grants program under the Clean Water Act. Permitting, design, and con- struction of the wetland system will through the Georgia Department of to verify the proposed wetland site total $55 million through 2025.273 Natural Resources.278 The first step was suitable for construction. After The wetlands have been built using in this process was for the Georgia site approval, Clayton County sub- low-interest loans from the State Re- Environmental Protection Division mitted an application for an volving Fund, bonds, and ratepayer to set discharge limits by determin- NPDES permit and began construc- revenue.274 To fund improvement ing the amount of pollutants the tion once it was issued. The county projects for all water related services, wetlands can handle. An anti- was also required to submit an op- CCWA has increased water rates in degradation analysis was then per- erations manual and watershed recent years, beginning with a six formed, followed by a Design plan before they could begin opera- percent raise in 2006 and five per- Development Report and an Envi- tion of the wetland system.279 cent increases each year between ronmental Information Document 2007 and 2010.275 Approximately to assess the environmental impact Benefits four cents of every dollar collected of the constructed wetlands. The Clayton County’s investment has for water and sewer service is set Georgia Environmental Protection clearly demonstrated the value of aside for watershed protection.276 Division then conducted a site visit wetlands and water recycling over CCWA’s stormwater program is funded primarily by stormwater fees which amount to $3.75 a 100— month for residential properties 90— and an amount based on impervi- 80— ous surface for commercial and 70— 277 industrial customers. val 60—

t Remo 50—

Permitting cen

Per 40— Clayton County has gone through 30— a number of permitting processes 20— in order to construct its wetland sys- 10— tem. A National Pollutant Dis- 0— charge Elimination System (NPDES) Phosphorus Nitrate Ammonia Total Biological Suspended Oxygen permit was required for constructed Solids wetlands, following an extensive Pollutant review and approval process Data from CCWA.

American Rivers 51 the past several years. During one of County’s demand for water, which the worst droughts of the past 50 currently stands at about 26 mgd.281 years, CCWA’s reservoirs maintained at least a 230 day supply while the The constructed treatment wetlands Atlanta area at one point had only have also improved ecosystem a 90 day supply of water in its main health for people and wildlife. The reservoir, Lake Lanier.280 The county wetlands have been shown to re- is nonetheless continuing to expand duce nitrates by 72 percent on aver- the capacity of its water reclamation age, total phosphorus by 59 system. When the last sections of the percent, total suspended solids by Huie wetland are completed, the 38 percent, and biological oxygen Panhandle and Huie systems will be demand by 22 percent on aver- able to produce over 28 mgd. As a age.282 This decreases treatment result, the wetland system will be costs for drinking water and re- able to supply all of Clayton duces the amount of pollutants

The wetlands are a valuable community asset that attracts visitors from around the world.

52 Natural Security: How Sustainable Water Strategies are Preparing Communities for a Changing Climate flowing into local waterways. The Climate Change ing summer precipitation will lead wetland system also has a number The region’s water supply problems to worsening droughts and water of habitat and recreation benefits. will not lessen as temperatures rise, shortages. If that is the case, Clay- The wetlands are a refuge for 130 precipitation becomes more vari- ton County’s water supply system species of birds and a diverse array able, and population increases. has clearly demonstrated that it is of other wildlife.283 Four thousand Georgia is expected to experience able to meet the challenge. As acres of protected forest land are average temperature increases of 4- neighboring communities went dry available for public recreation, in- 5º F in winter months and 6-7º F in in recent years, CCWA continued to cluding fishing, bow hunting, and summer months by the end of the provide a safe and consistent sup- hiking. A wetland center and 21st century.287 Higher temperatures ply of water and was able to avoid nearby trails serve as educational will result in more evaporation the water restrictions that other facilities and host an annual Wet- from water reservoirs, higher communities experienced.290 There land and Watershed Festival as stream temperatures, increased de- are two key elements of Clayton well as elementary school field mand, and worsening water qual- County’s water system that make it trips. Over 20,000 people visit the ity. Changes in rainfall are less well adapted to more arid and wetlands annually, including inter- predictable, but projections show a unpredictable weather patterns. national visitors from as far slight increase in annual average Recycled wastewater is a drought- away as Australia. precipitation and a rise in winter resistant supply that may decrease rainfall at the expense of the hotter slightly during droughts, but will Finally, the wetlands are more cost- summer months.288 Water supply never disappear completely. The effective than other alternatives forecasts based on past trends will use of a wetland system also helps and have saved Clayton County not provide an accurate assessment buffer against arid conditions be- considerable amounts of money. of future conditions. Most impor- cause wetlands release water grad- Building a wastewater treatment tantly, precipitation will become ually, delaying the effects of system using constructed wetlands more variable and increasingly un- drought.291 With the combination costs about $5.00 per gallon of ca- predictable, leaving the region of reuse and treatment wetlands pacity. In contrast, capital construc- more vulnerable to droughts such will ensure a continuous inflow tion costs of a conventional as those that have occurred in re- and gradual release of treated advanced treatment facility are cent years. An increase in the fre- water to the county’s water supply roughly $10.00 per gallon of capac- quency and severity of extreme reservoirs. Even in a changing cli- ity.284 The operating costs of the storms will cause more flooding, mate, Clayton County will be able wetland system are also signifi- stormwater runoff, and sewer over- to withstand extended droughts cantly lower. Because it relies on flows, aggravating water quality and continue to provide clean gravity flow and natural pollutant problems, polluting source waters, water to homes and businesses. processing, the wetland system is and making water treatment very energy efficient and has re- more costly.289 Clayton County’s water manage- duced CCWA’s monthly energy bill ment strategies build resilience by 66 percent.285 Maintenance of Towards Resilience beyond the immediate drought- the system is also simpler than the Climate projections suggest that protection benefits. The water reuse land application system, which has the dry conditions of past years system and watershed protection allowed the county to reduce its offer a glimpse into what the future efforts allow the county to main- maintenance staff from 12-15 could hold for the southeastern U.S. tain the health of the ecosystems people to four.286 Warmer temperatures and declin- they rely on for water supply, recre-

American Rivers 53 The wetlands will help Clayton County maintain a clean and consistent supply of water even as the climate shifts.

ation, and other needs. By increas- and extreme degradation results ing water reuse and improving effi- when imperviousness exceeds 25 ciency in homes and businesses, percent.293 In such a highly devel- more water can be kept in the Flint oped and rapidly growing area, River, helping offset low flows, high more severe storms could greatly temperatures, and poor water qual- exacerbate water quality problems. ity resulting from drier conditions. Clayton County’s wetlands, stream Watershed protection efforts are es- buffers, open space purchases, and sential for protecting the quality of vegetation preserved by county- Clayton County’s waterways from wide ordinances will capture and the increase in polluted runoff due purify stormwater, helping to buffer to climate change. Over 26 percent waterways from increased runoff. of the Flint River watershed is cov- These efforts will help maintain a ered with impervious surfaces that healthy river system in the face of prevent groundwater infiltration climate change and will ensure and generate polluted runoff.292 that it can continue to provide the Stream health declines as impervi- valuable ecosystem services on ous cover in a watershed increases, which Clayton County relies.

54 Natural Security: How Sustainable Water Strategies are Preparing Communities for a Changing Climate Clayton County has taken simple and effective steps to protect itself from drought and is making progress towards improving water quality as well. The county man- ages wastewater, stormwater, and water supply in a holistic manner in recognition of the close intercon- Middleburg, Ohio—Big Darby Headwaters Preserve295 nections between them. However, they must do more if they are to be As a tributary to the Scioto River, Big Darby Creek is part of truly resilient to the impacts of a a larger watershed that provides drinking water for tens of changing climate. While the wet- thousands of people south of Columbus.296 Small streams land system responded well to the record drought of the past few contribute up to 55 percent of the flow in larger rivers297 and, as years, CCWA’s water supply system a result, have a large impact on the quantity and quality of could be vulnerable to a more pro- tracted dry spell. The county should water available to many communities. To protect the quality of incorporate climate change projec- this vital water source, Columbus is looking upstream to the Big tions into its water supply planning to ensure the system will be able to Darby’s headwaters. The city is receiving a lower rate on its withstand future changes. In addi- loan through the Clean Water State Revolving Fund—the tion, the county needs to expand its watershed protection efforts and primary source of federal wastewater infrastructure funding—in stormwater management if it is to exchange for sponsoring upstream source water protection. In avoid the worst impacts of a chang- 2006, the City of Columbus sponsored the Nature Conser- ing climate. The county must pro- tect existing green space from vancy’s Big Darby Headwaters Preserve project at a cost of ongoing development and increase nearly $1.5 million. The new preserve is at the headwaters of the the use of stream buffers, swales, and other green infrastructure tech- Big Darby Creek—the place where the Big Darby becomes a niques to reduce the impacts of permanent stream. By protecting the stream at its source, runoff from impervious surfaces. With such extensive development Columbus is reducing pollution from farms and development throughout the watershed, there is near the headwaters, thereby securing cleaner water as it flows much room for improvement. into the Scioto River.

American Rivers 55 SECURING CLEAN WATER SUPPLIES year.302 Washington State has de- Seattle, Washington—Reducing Demand clared drought emergencies five through Conservation and Efficiency times since 1977, most recently in 2005. The 2001 drought was one of Summary U.S.: a growing population and lim- the worst on record. Agriculture, Population growth in the Seattle ited water supply. King County, which accounts for three-quarters of metropolitan area has strained water home to much of the Seattle metro- the state’s water consumption, was supplies over the past several politan area, has seen population hit especially hard. Economic losses decades. To maintain a consistent growth of over 95 percent since in the industry exceeded $1.2 billion supply and ensure enough water re- 1960.298 Seattle Public Utilities (SPU), and job losses totaled 2,144.303 Low mains in streams for ecosystem which supplies drinking water to the river flows decreased energy produc- health, Seattle Public Utilities has un- greater Seattle area, serviced fewer tion, which forced the Bonneville dertaken a number of water conser- than a million customers in 1975, Power Administration to pay over vation and efficiency measures. The while today it supplies roughly 1.45 $400 million to energy-intensive in- city has reduced water consumption million.299 Such rapid growth in- dustries in order to keep them closed by 26 percent and per capita water evitably results in increased demand during the drought.304 Two to three use by 33 percent since 1990. Com- for limited water supplies. In fact, in thousand aluminum workers lost bined with protecting the lands sur- 1995 SPU forecasted that water de- their jobs for months as a result. rounding drinking water sources and mand would exceed supply by Wildfires, fed by the dry conditions, taking a flexible approach to plan- 2005.300 Summer months present the burned 223,857 acres and cost $138 ning, water efficiency and conserva- greatest water supply challenge for million to suppress.305 Low river tion measures will allow Seattle to the city, as rainfall is scarce and de- flows and elevated water tempera- maintain a safe and consistent sup- mand soars due to outdoor watering tures increased stress on aquatic or- ply of water even as rising tempera- and irrigation.301 ganisms, killing millions of salmon tures reduce the snowpack that the fry in the Columbia River.306 city relies on to fill its reservoirs. Limited water availability can have far-reaching impacts on economies, Seattle’s Approach Challenge ecosystems, and quality of life. Eco- Driven by growing water demand Seattle faces a challenge similar to nomic losses due to drought average and environmental concerns, Seat- many other cities in the western $6-8 billion nationwide every tle began investigating water effi- Seattle, Washington

Left: Rapid population growth in the region has stretched available water supplies. Middle: The Cedar River watershed, Seattle’s primary source of water, is owned by the city. Right: Planners have repeatedly forecast that the city would experience water shortages in the near future.

56 Natural Security: How Sustainable Water Strategies are Preparing Communities for a Changing Climate ciency and conservation in the late Seattle has also employed a variety 1980s. Their first step was to intro- of incentives to replace antiquated duce tiered water rates in 1988 that plumbing fixtures and change charge progressively higher rates as wasteful behavior. Early programs a customer’s water consumption in- included the Home Water Savers creases.307 The city also increased Program, through which the city summer water rates to discourage gave away 330,000 efficient shower- waste during the warm months heads and provided free installation when supplies are lowest. During of water-saving showerheads, most of the year, water rates are faucets and toilets to residents of apartments and condominiums.311 $2.95 per cubic foot (ccf), but from Water-efficient showerhead. Showerhead distribution programs mid-May to mid-September, rates continue, with nearly 80,000 house- increase to $3.25-$9.64/ccf depend- holds participating in 2007.312 The ing on how much water a house- WashWise program, which provides hold uses.308 The city has also rebates for efficient washing ma- altered plumbing codes to require chines, processed nearly 7,000 re- ficiency audits and efficient fixtures in new construc- bates in 2007 alone.313 Incentives are incentives for irrigation efficiency tion and remodeling projects and also available for new construction improvements are also available.315 invested in its water supply infra- and remodeling projects including structure to reduce losses from rebates for efficient toilets, shower- In 1999, the Saving Water Partner- 309 leaks. Sewer rates are an added heads, and sprinkler systems.314 A ship, a group of 18 regional water incentive to save water, as Seattle variety of educational workshops utilities, created the one percent meters sewage discharges from and programs have taught residents Water Conservation Program, de- homes and businesses and charges how to reduce water use in garden- signed to reduce personal and busi- customers accordingly. Sewage ing and other everyday activities. ness water consumption in the rates are roughly twice as high as Through its commercial programs, region by one percent each year drinking water rates, encouraging Seattle has replaced thousands of through 2010. Accomplishing this wise use of all water coming into toilets and urinals by providing goal would save 14.5 million gal- households.310 cash rebates. Commercial water ef- lons of water per day and offset the

Left: Seattle has reduced water consumption by 26% despite a 16% increase in population. Middle: The city has distributed thousands of efficient water fixtures. Right: Seattle now has sufficient water to meet its needs for years to come.

American Rivers 57 Inter-tie.321 The CPA found they could save up to 31 million gallons a day (mgd) over 20 years through conservation and efficiency at a similar cost to the Tacoma-Seattle Inter-tie which would supply 22 mgd.322 SPU chose to go forward with conservation and efficiency measures, and they continue to con- duct water conservation assessments periodically to evaluate the avail- able options and guide future con- servation and efficiency initiatives. Following the successful completion of the one percent Water Conserva- tion Program in 2010, Seattle is

A promotional flier sent to customers to encourage efficient watering practices. planning to continue with a new re- gional water conservation commit- ment for 2011-2030 with expected cumulative savings of 15 mgd.323 increased demand from projected banned agricultural, industrial, SPU also performs conservation sur- 316 population growth. Through the and recreational activities through- veys to better understand residential partnership, participating utilities out much of these watersheds in customers’ perceptions and attitudes 320 have implemented nearly 70 cost- order to protect water quality. By towards water conservation and effective conservation and effi- limiting the disturbance in long-range water demand forecasts ciency measures targeting various critical water supply areas, Seattle to help plan for the future. residential and commercial uses.317 has maintained the forests and wetlands that ensure a safe and Seattle and surrounding municipal- Seattle also does an exceptional job consistent supply of water, thereby ities have also put into place a of safeguarding its source waters by limiting treatment costs and reduc- number of water management protecting their watersheds. The ing vulnerability to drought. plans and technologies to assist in Cedar River has been the primary better predicting and adapting to source of water for the greater Seat- Planning drought conditions. In response to tle area since 1901 and the city In the mid 1990s, faced with poten- the drought of 1987, SPU created owns the entire 90,638 acre water- tial water shortages in the near the first of many Water Shortage shed.318 Approximately 30 percent future, SPU conducted a water Contingency Plans, providing of Seattle’s water supply comes Conservation Potential Assessment guidelines on how to manage from the South Fork of the Tolt (CPA) to create a portfolio of water water supplies in the case of ex- River, which began supplying Seat- supply options including new sup- tended drought.324 After the 1992 tle in 1964. The city owns 70 per- ply, water reuse, conservation, and drought, they established snow- cent of this watershed while the enhanced system efficiency. One op- pack telemetry sites to supply real- U.S. Forest Service owns most of the tion consisted of constructing a new time snow and climate data.325 The remaining land.319 Seattle has pipeline called the Tacoma-Seattle drought of 1997 led to the incorpo-

58 Natural Security: How Sustainable Water Strategies are Preparing Communities for a Changing Climate ration of El Nino forecasts into reservoir management decisions.326

Funding The estimated total cost of the one percent Water Conservation Pro- gram is $54 million dollars over ten San Antonio, Texas—Water Conservation = Saving $$$ years. Of that, $36 million is being Water conservation can translate into saving more than a few allocated to domestic conservation pennies. When San Antonio committed to reducing per capita efforts, while the remainder is re- water use, it ended up saving millions of dollars.360 San Antonio’s served for the commercial sector.327 Overall, 75 percent of Water Con- water conservation campaign includes leak repairs, water-smart servation Program funding is being landscaping guidance, and vouchers and rebates for water used for capital improvements such efficient toilets, clothes washers, shower heads, and irrigation as installation of efficient technolo- systems. The water utility also has a strongly tiered rate struc- gies and 25 percent is going to- ture, under which rates increase sharply for customers that use wards outreach and targeting large amounts of water.361 Through these programs, the city has behavior changes.328 Conservation reduced per capita consumption from 225 gallons per day to programs are primarily paid for 140 gallons per day since 1982. The city has spent slightly over through charges to connect to the $300 for each acre-foot of water it has saved through efficiency water system and water rate rev- enue.329 Since the beginning of con- and conservation. Comparatively, new water rights from San servation efforts in 1991 through Antonio’s primary supply, the Edwards Aquifer, currently cost 2011, water rates will have risen about $5,000 per acre-foot.362 New supply by dam or pipeline over 300 percent.330 Between two projects could cost $600–1,000 per acre-foot.363 By conserving and four percent of the revenue col- water instead of seeking new water supplies, San Antonio has lected each year goes to support saved nearly $550 million.364 water efficiency, while the majority of water rate revenue is spent on capital projects.331 Rate increases are proposed by the Mayor and federal laws. State laws requiring ciency program, evaluate and im- voted on by the Seattle City Council conservation include the Water Use plement water use efficiency meas- through an open public process, Efficiency Act of 1989, which re- ures, and report on progress with opportunities for public input quires public water suppliers to in- annually. In addition, the Washing- during committee meetings or corporate conservation in their ton Department of Ecology requires directly to individual council members. water system plans, the Municipal all water systems experiencing pop- Water Law of 2003 and the Water ulation growth to implement con- Permitting/Regulations Use Efficiency Rule of 2007.332 This servation programs before seeking Like all municipalities in Washing- rule requires water suppliers to es- new water rights.333 Finally, because ton, Seattle is obligated to meet tablish water saving goals, install Seattle’s water supply is home to water conservation requirements service meters, meet leakage stan- populations of threatened bull trout mandated by a variety of state and dards, develop a water use effi- and Puget Sound Chinook salmon,

American Rivers 59 the city is required under the En- dangered Species Act to develop a habitat conservation plan before it can divert water from the river.334 Maintaining the necessary flows for these species’ habitat requires Seat- tle to improve conservation and ef- ficiency and minimize withdrawals.

Tucson, Arizona—Lessons from the Desert Seattle’s conservation efforts go well beyond what these laws and regula- Located in the heart of the Sonoran Desert, where 12 inches of tions require. SPU incorporates con- precipitation falls in an average year, Tucson has no choice but servation and demand forecasts in to be mindful of its water consumption.365 Years of population its Water System Plans, maintains an exceptionally low leakage rate growth and pumping from aquifers has lowered the water table of three percent and reports on to such an extent that the once-perennial Santa Cruz River no progress towards meeting efficiency longer flows at the surface except during large storms.366 In its and conservation goals in annual reports.335 SPU’s habitat conserva- struggle to provide a sustainable water supply to the growing tion plan is a 50-year plan designed area, Tucson has recently turned to conservation, efficiency, to both provide certainty for Seat- tle’s drinking water supply and pro- and reuse. The city is implementing progressive water pricing, tect and restore fish and wildlife water-smart ordinances, and a number of rebate programs for habitat. Water conservation efforts high-efficiency appliances, and fixtures. In October of 2008, have helped the city reduce diver- sions from the river and maintain Tucson became the first city in the country to require commer- guaranteed minimum instream cial developments to capture and use rainwater.367 Beginning in flow requirements for aquatic 336 2010, 50 percent of a development’s landscaping water will species.

come from rainfall. Additionally, all new homes built in Tucson Benefits after 2010 will need to include plumbing for gray-water sys- Seattle’s innovative water supply programs have been highly success- tems that re-use water from showers and laundry for flushing ful, allowing the city to reduce an- 368 toilets and irrigation. Today, Tucson uses a portion of its Col- nual water consumption despite a orado River water from the Central Arizona Project to recharge steadily increasing population. Be- tween 1990 and 2007, water con- groundwater supplies. In addition, for close to 20 years, the city sumption dropped 44 mgd, or 26 has been recycling treated wastewater to irrigate parks, school- percent, despite a 16 percent in- 337 yards, golf courses, and other facilities.369 crease in population. Water use per capita has fallen from 150 gal- lons per day to less than 100 gallons per day.338 Residential and commer-

60 Natural Security: How Sustainable Water Strategies are Preparing Communities for a Changing Climate Growth in Population and Water Consumption cial conservation programs ac- Growth in Population and Water Consumption1 Seattle Regional Water System 1975–2007 1 counted for approximately 30 per- 1,400,000— Seattle Regional Water System 1975–2007 —280 cent of the savings while increased 1,300,1,400000,0—00— —260—280 1,200,1,300,0000—00— Population —240—260 Population rates, updated plumbing codes, and 1,100,1,200,0000—00— —220—240 operational improvements ac- 1,000,01,100,000—00— —200—220 900,1,000,0000—00— Total Consumption —180—200 counted for the remaining 70 per- Total Consumption 800,900,0000—00— —160—180age)

339 ver cent. The region is also on track to 700,0800,000—00— —140—160 age) ulation 600,700,0000—00— —120—140 ver ulation Pop meet its future conservation goals 500,000600,0—00— —100—120 (Annual A Pop 400,500000,000— — —80—100 and expects to achieve the 2010 tar- (Annual A 300,0400,000—00— —60—80 get under the one percent Pro- 200,030000,0—00— —40—60sumption in Millions of Gallons per Day sumption in Millions of Gallons per Day gram.340 SPU has repeatedly 10020,0000,0—00— —20—40Con Con 1000,000— — —0 —20 — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — forecasted that demand would ex- 0— —0 — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — 1981 — 1991 — — 1975 — 1977 — 1987 — 1979 1983 — — 1997 1985 — — 1993 — 1995 — 1989 1999 — — 2001 — 2007 — 2003 ceed supply in the near future, only 2005 — 1981 — 1991 — — 1975 — 1977 — 1987 — 1979 1983 — — 1997 1985 — — 1993 — 1995 — 1989 1999 — — 2001 — 2007 — 2003 to push their water shortage predic- 2005 — tions back due to the success of con- servation and efficiency programs.341 In 1997 they predicted Cumulative Water Savings1 Since 1999 Cumulative Water Savings1 Since 1999 shortages by 2013 but revised that 30— —30— System Operation Improvement estimate to at least 2020 in 2001. ConserSystvatemion Ope Progrationram Improvement 25— — Conservation Program They currently expect to have suffi- 25— Rates + Code — Rates + Code cient water through at least 2060, 20— — although this forecast does not take —20— 342 — climate change into account. r Demand in MGD 15— ate r Demand in MGD —15— ate — Through its water conservation and 10— 10— uction In W —

efficiency programs, SPU has saved uction In W Red 5— — money by avoiding costly new in- Red —5— vestments in water supply infrastruc- 0— — ture. While neighboring Tacoma has 0—1999 20002001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 1999 20002001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 invested $237 million in its water 1This chart provides historical progress rather than an absolute count of cumulative savings. All p1Trogramhis chart catagories provides arehisto shownrical prog as annualress rat aveherrage than savings. an absolute count of cumulative savings. supply expansion, Seattle has All program catagories are shown as annual average savings. avoided capital-intensive projects Top: Even as population has grown, water consumption has dropped due to conservation such as the Tacoma-Seattle Inter- and efficiency measures. tie.343 Water efficiency has provided Bottom: All of Seattle’s water conservation measures have helped to reduce water the city with a cost-effective and reli- consumption. able new source of supply. The de- crease in water consumption has further led to reduced wastewater volumes and lower energy demand associated with transportation and treatment of drinking water and wastewater. By using less water through efficiency measures, home

American Rivers 61 decline could cause shortages and reduce the amount of water kept in the rivers for habitat protection. The combination of increased water temperatures and altered flows will likely reduce the repro- ductive success of salmon and other cold water fishes while giving non- native, warm water fish greater ad- vantage.353 The historical streamflow patterns that water managers have used to forecast water availability will become ob- solete as conditions change. and business owners also lower projected to grow 5-10 percent in Towards Resilience water and sewer bills. winter months and decrease 15-20 The combination of population percent in summer months.347 Most growth and climate change will By investing in water conservation critically, snowpack in the Cascade make it very difficult to guarantee and efficiency, SPU has also pro- Mountains that feeds rivers and a safe and consistent supply of tected vital ecosystems and wildlife. streams throughout summer drinking water. Fortunately, by em- Reduced water consumption leaves months will likely decline 32-71 bracing source water protection, more water in the river for aquatic percent by 2059.348 Many sites in conservation and efficiency, and a organisms. While Seattle has his- the Cascades have already seen flexible planning approach that in- torical water claims to 350 mgd snowpack levels shrink by more corporates climate change, Seattle from the Cedar River, it typically than 40 percent since 1950.349 The has built a water supply system uses only a third of its claim and continued loss of snowpack will be with the ability to respond to the allows the river to keep the rest.344 accompanied by a shift towards unpredictable impacts of a shifting In 2004, Seattle agreed to a binding earlier snow melt, which will fur- climate. No community can com- set of minimum flows in the Cedar ther decrease summer stream pletely insulate itself from these River and to protect and restore flows.350 Glaciers are also shrinking, daunting threats, but Seattle is a habitat for 83 species of fish and and models estimate that a 3.6º F model for building a flexible, re- wildlife that may be affected by temperature increase would lead to silient water supply system. water supply operations including the loss of 65-75 percent of glaciers Chinook, Sockeye and Coho in the North Cascade Mountains.351 Climate change will mean less salmon and steelhead trout.345 water when it is most needed, exac- Seattle is heavily dependent on erbating supply and demand con- Climate Change snowpack and glaciers for its sum- flicts especially in summer months. Seattle’s water supply challenges mer water supply. The decreases Throughout the West, rivers and are complicated significantly by cli- will affect the volume of water that aquifers are already seriously over- mate change. Temperatures in the flows into Seattle’s primary reser- allocated, leaving little room for Pacific Northwest are expected to voirs on the Cedar and Tolt rivers, adjustment as the climate shifts. If rise 5-7º F by the end of the 21st cen- and climate models suggest that extended droughts become more tury, with greater increases in sum- Seattle’s water supply could de- common, there will be no addi- mer months.346 Precipitation is crease 14 percent by 2040.352 Such a tional water supply to meet the

62 Natural Security: How Sustainable Water Strategies are Preparing Communities for a Changing Climate needs of people and ecosystems. adapting water supply systems to mate change adaptation strategy, These communities will likely be climate change.355 SPU works to continuously identify forced to implement emergency re- and evaluate all possible impacts strictions that will slow the econ- Seattle’s source water protection ef- to its existing supply system and omy, reduce quality of life, and still forts further add to the resilience of potential responses. SPU works leave insufficient water in streams the city’s water supply system. The with the University of Washing- and rivers for fish and other intact streams, wetlands, and ton’s Department of Civil Engineer- species. Even worse, some commu- forests in the Cedar and Tolt river ing and researchers with the nities may respond by building new watersheds will provide a buffer Climate Impact Group to explore dams. Dams are extremely costly, against many of the impacts of cli- the potential impacts of climate reduce ecosystems’ ability to re- mate change. They will prevent change on Seattle’s reservoirs.358 spond to changing conditions, and erosion, slow runoff, and remove SPU also invests in data systems will lose increasing amounts of pollutants, preventing a decline in that allow them to respond to water to evaporation as tempera- water quality and lowering treat- changing conditions. A network of tures rise.354 ment costs even as severe storms sensors provides real-time snow- grow more frequent.356 These natu- pack measurements which are Seattle, on the other hand, has ex- ral systems also absorb rainfall, used to guide operations, project cess supply and a commitment to recharge groundwater, and provide conservation targets, and adjust efficiency that will provide an inex- consistent stream flow during dry water rates. This data allows the pensive insurance policy against periods.357 Riverbank vegetation city to manage its reservoirs to the uncertainty of a warming cli- shades and cools water, which will maximize water storage for use in mate. The city’s excess water sup- help reduce the impact of rising dry summer months and minimize ply provides a buffer against more temperatures on stream health and the risk of flooding.359 In a highly variable precipitation patterns and aquatic species. variable and unpredictable cli- will help the city avoid disruptive mate, these planning and monitor- emergency restrictions. By reducing Finally, Seattle has embraced a ing efforts will be essential to water withdrawals, Seattle is main- planning approach that will allow ensuring a consistent supply of taining healthy watersheds that it to effectively respond to increas- clean water and maintaining can continue to supply clean water ing temperatures. As part of its cli- healthy ecosystems. even as a shifting climate aggra- vates water quality problems. Fi- nally, as the most cost-effective way to ensure future supply, Seattle’s conservation and efficiency initia- tives put the city on a firm finan- cial footing by reducing treatment costs and avoiding costly new water supply projects. Greater financial flexibility will allow the city to re- spond to other climate impacts as they arise. Numerous studies by the Intergovernmental Panel on Cli- mate Change and others have found that efficiency can be an ef- fective and inexpensive strategy for

American Rivers 63 ENHANCING LIVABILITY While the Kennebec and its tribu- Augusta, Maine— taries have numerous dams, the From Working River to Restored River Edwards Dam was the first obstruc- tion encountered by migratory fish Summary was built just north of downtown headed upstream to their spawning When the Edwards Dam was re- Augusta in 1837 to power sawmills, grounds, making it especially de- moved in 1999, the Kennebec River a grist mill, and a machine shop.371 structive to the fishery. The Ken- began to come back to life. Water Effluent from paper mills and other nebec once supported a number of quality improved and fish stocks re- industries, as well as raw sewage, commercial fisheries, but following bounded rapidly. The restoration of was piped to the river, severely de- the construction of Edwards Dam, the river has created new recre- grading water quality and habitat. both commercial and recreational ational opportunities, boosted the This rendered the Kennebec useless fishing essentially disappeared. local economy, and improved the for purposes other than power gen- Two years after the dam was com- quality of life in Augusta. As cli- eration and the transportation of pleted, alewife and Atlantic salmon mate change threatens water qual- pulpwood, sewage, and waste. The populations on the Kennebec and ity and fish and wildlife, a healthy community of Augusta largely its tributaries were declining rap- Kennebec River will be better able turned its back to the polluted river, idly.374 Production of Atlantic to adapt to changing conditions and few people viewed it as an eco- salmon had declined by 90 percent and allow Augusta to remain a liv- nomic resource. Instead, it was by 1881.375 American shad popula- able community. viewed as an open sewer.372 The tions also decreased rapidly, lead- Clean Water Act of 1972 and the ing to the demise of the industry in Challenge banning of log drives in 1976 re- 1867.376 The sturgeon industry For much of its history Augusta, sulted in significant water quality crashed by 1880 when annual Maine has relied on the Kennebec improvements in the Kennebec.373 catches that had averaged 320,000 River as a primary driver of the Augusta residents began to realize pounds per year in the early 1800s local economy. The river trans- the Kennebec could again benefit dropped to 12,000 pounds.377 ported mast pines for the shipbuild- the community with further clean- ing industry in the early 1800s and up efforts and the return of fish Beginning in the late 1970s, cities later delivered timber to riverside species. One major obstacle stood in across the country began to redis- paper mills.370 The Edwards Dam the way. cover their riverfronts through revi- Augusta, Maine

Left: Edwards Dam on the Kennebec River at Augusta before dam removal. Middle The Edwards Dam and poor water quality decimated fish populations. Right: Augusta turned its back on the degraded river.

64 Natural Security: How Sustainable Water Strategies are Preparing Communities for a Changing Climate talization efforts, utilizing rivers as effort to revive the Kennebec River continued to argue for removal. A resources that contribute to a sense and its fisheries. The struggle cen- key turning point came during a of community, cultural heritage, the tered on the dam’s 30-year operat- public hearing when local fisher- local economy, and quality of life. ing license, which expired in 1993 man stayed late into the evening Augusta, however, continued to op- and would have to be renewed by and convinced FERC commissioners erate with its back towards its river. the Federal Energy Regulatory to rethink parts of the EIS.386 Soon While owners of seven upstream Commission (FERC) to continue op- after the hearing, the Kennebec dams began assisting the Maine De- erations.382 The Kennebec Coali- Coalition filed a 7,000 page re- partment of Marine Resources with tion, made up of four sponse to the draft EIS with exten- alewife restoration efforts, the own- environmental groups including sive proof that the economic and ers of Edwards Dam refused.378 American Rivers, filed for and re- ecological realities favored re- When Edwards Manufacturing Com- ceived intervenor status, which al- moval.387 Four out of five fish pany’s textile mill closed in 1980, lowed them to participate and species in question had never been the company began selling the 3.5 influence the relicensing process.383 documented to successfully use fish megawatts of electricity generated The relicensing process was not re- passage facilities, while historical by the dam to the state utility, Cen- solved by the 1993 deadline, and records showed species rebounds tral Maine Power.379 The Company the dam continued to operate on when the dam had previously been then made a deal with the City of annual permits pending resolution breached. FERC’s recommendations Augusta to co-license the dam in of the license application.384 In failed to consider the additional 1992 in exchange for three percent early 1996, FERC released its draft spawning habitat that removal of gross profits from the dam.380 environmental impact statement would provide and the potential in- Once the City of Augusta began (EIS) recommending approval of a crease in recreation and tourism. profiting from the dam, officials be- new license for the dam with con- The Kennebec Coalition demon- came opposed to removal despite struction of fish passage facilities strated that removal could generate the potential economic benefits it worth $8.9 million and an addi- $48 million annually through in- would bring to the community.381 tional $1 million towards environ- creased sport fishing alone.388 mental remediation.385 Augusta’s Approach In July of 1997 the final EIS ac- Removal of the Edwards Dam was In the wake of the draft EIS, the knowledged that the benefits of re- the culmination of a decades-long coalition and concerned citizens moval far outweighed the costs of

Left: The Kennebec River has made a dramatic recovery since removal of the dam. Middle: Stonefly larvae, indicators of good water quality, are now abundant. Right: Striped bass, Atlantic salmon, sturgeon and other fish have begun using the new habitat.

American Rivers 65 installing fish passage facilities and tlement in May 1998 that trans- However, removal of the dam was recommended dam removal. Fish ferred ownership of the dam to the only the first step towards restoring passage facilities would cost 1.7 state, which would be responsible for the river and surrounding commu- times as much as removing the removal. The agreement also re- nities. As part of the Edwards Dam dam, while the effectiveness of the quired fish passage at seven up- removal agreement, Augusta fish passage was unknown.389 In No- stream dams and called for a formed the Capitol Riverfront Im- vember of 1997, the FERC Commis- partnership between Augusta and provement District (CRID) to pro- sioners voted 2-1 to deny relicensing the state to improve the Kennebec vide access to the river, protect of the Edwards Dam and ordered re- River waterfront. Dam removal scenic characteristics, and promote moval of the dam. This was the first began in June of 1999 and was com- economic initiatives. The State dam to have its license renewal re- pleted on October 12, 1999, opening Planning Office took responsibility fused by FERC.390 The initial plan a 17 mile stretch of river to flow for the dam’s former mill site, a mildly contaminated brownfield, called for Edwards Manufacturing to freely for the first time in 162 restored it as part of the dam re- pay for removal, to which dam own- years.391 As is discussed below, the moval project, gave it to Augusta ers were adamantly opposed. In an previously dammed stretch saw im- for use as a park and helped the effort to circumvent the funding proved water quality and the return city secure grants to improve the roadblock, the parties reached a set- of migratory fish within a year.392 riverfront.393 Mill Park, as it is now called, serves as a community re- source with 17 acres of park space along the river near downtown Au- gusta.394 The city also built a canoe and kayak launch with parking and access to the river. CRID fur- thermore works to revitalize historic buildings in the city by working Josephine County, Oregon—Wild and with private developers. Projects in- Scenic Rogue427 clude the conversion of the old Central Maine Power building into The Rogue River has been protected from development and affordable housing in the down- degradation since 1968 due to its classification as a Wild and town area and the redevelopment of the riverfront Arsenal buildings Scenic River. Recent studies show that recreational activities into a historic site with retail busi- such as white-water rafting, fishing, and commercial jet-boat nesses, new housing developments, walking trails, and a boat dock.395 tours on sections of the river located within Josephine County, The Arsenal redevelopment is ex- Oregon have greatly benefited the local economy. In the 2007 pected to help rejuvenate the down- town, attract visitors, and increase season, recreation contributed $13.9 million in total economic recreational boating. Finally, the output throughout the county, including $7.4 million in personal Kennebec River Rail Trail, which was completed in 2007, connects income and 222 full- and part-time jobs. Augusta to three other river towns.396

66 Natural Security: How Sustainable Water Strategies are Preparing Communities for a Changing Climate Dam removal has improved recreational opportunities on the Kennebec River near Augusta, ME.

Additional river restoration and Augusta at the mouth of the Sebasti- clude a boat launch, public trails, riverfront redevelopment activities cook River—were unable to meet the and redevelopment of the Statler throughout the river basin comple- costs of fish passage and removed mill site.399 ment Augusta’s improvements. The the dam in the summer of 2008.397 agreement that secured the removal In addition, the basin-wide Ken- Funding of the Edwards Dam also required nebec River Initiative is organizing a Dam removal and fisheries restora- installation of fish passage facilities cooperative effort to secure the fu- tion efforts totaling $7.25 million at seven upstream dams in order to ture of the river as a vital ecological, were paid for by the upstream dam allow sea run fish to reach available recreational, cultural, and economic owners and a downstream ship- habitat in the lower Kennebec water- asset and to foster revitalization ef- yard, Bath Iron Works.400 The shed and migrate downstream to the forts in river communities. The Ken- Kennebec Hydro Developers Group, sea. While most dams under the nebec River Action Plan lists over 40 made up of seven upstream dam agreement now have fish passage projects currently underway or owners, paid $4.75 million in facilities, owners of the Fort Halifax planned for the Kennebec River.398 exchange for additional time to Dam—located 18 miles upstream of The projects focused on Augusta in- install fish passage facilities.401

American Rivers 67 Bath Iron Works paid $2.5 million went to a 15-year program to re- as partial mitigation for their ex- store migratory fish to the river.404 pansion into 15 acres of endan- Funding for redevelopment activi- gered fish spawning habitat.402 ties has come from a variety of Total costs of removal came to $3 sources including appropriations million with $2.1 million spent on from the City of Augusta and the construction and the rest on plan- State of Maine, as well as grants ning and permitting.403 The re- from the Maine Community Foun- maining fund of over $4 million dation.405 In late 2008, Augusta

The economic impact of recreational fishing along the restored river totals $65 million annually.

68 Natural Security: How Sustainable Water Strategies are Preparing Communities for a Changing Climate and neighboring Gardiner received a $495,000 grant through Maine’s Riverfront Community Development Bond Program for riverfront trails, public access, and habitat improvements along the Kennebec River.406 Marinette County, Wisconsin—Outstanding Benefits Resource Waters428 The Kennebec River has undergone a dramatic revival in the past 10 years. In Marinette County, Wisconsin, 52 streams or stream segments Since removal, fish and wildlife pop- are designated as outstanding resource waters and an addi- ulations have rebounded, and river- tional 109 stream sections are designated as exceptional re- bank communities have rediscovered their long forgotten river and its trib- source waters. These designations, required under federal Clean utaries. All native fish species, which Water Act obligations for Wisconsin to adopt an “anti-degrada- had maintained resident popula- tion” policy, are designed to prevent any lowering of water qual- tions downstream of the dam, have begun to spread into the newly avail- ity—especially in those waters that have significant ecological or able habitat upstream of the old cultural value. A 1995 Department of Natural Resources report dam site.407 In the spring following the dam’s removal, schools of found these protective designations helped spur job growth in alewives and striped bass migrated the tourism industry. The study found that tourism activities, past the former dam site. Within a which at the time accounted for 28 percent of Marinette year, Atlantic salmon, American shad, and sturgeon were also migrat- County’s economic output, generated $42.7 million and 408 ing up the river. Recreational fish- 1,135 jobs. ermen recorded high catches of striped bass as far north as Water- ville in 2006 and 2007, although there were unexplained declines in this reach of river. invertebrates, due to the poor condi- 2008.409 Wild American shad have Removal of the Edwards Dam has tions. However, after dam removal, begun spawning in multiple areas not only resulted in improved habi- water quality improved rapidly. In- upstream of Augusta, and salmon tat for fish, it has also improved vertebrate samples prior to dam re- redds—gravel depressions where they water quality and allowed aquatic moval routinely collected less than spawn—have been observed above organisms to thrive. Prior to re- 100 specimens, while post-removal the former dam site.410 In June of 2006, four salmon entered the fish moval, the segment directly above samples collect between 2,000 and lift at Lockwood Dam, 22 miles up- the dam did not even attain Class C 3,000. The abundance of individual stream of the old Edwards Dam water quality standards, the lowest species nearly tripled following re- site.411 Fish-eating raptors such as os- classification in Maine.412 There moval.413 The number of caddisfly, prey, bald eagles, heron, cormorants, were very few bottom-dwelling mayfly and stonefly larvae, indica- and kingfishers are now common on insects, known as benthic macro - tors of good water quality and an

American Rivers 69 important food source for fish, has ther from the dam sites.417 year-to-year variation in precipita- increased. The 17-mile stretch of Restoration efforts have also greatly tion and temperatures, however, river above the dam went from fail- increased pride in the river, espe- will likely prove the most taxing ing to meet Class C water quality cially among those who witnessed shift for many ecosystems and com- standards to meeting Class B stan- the river prior to the Clean Water munities. Heavy rain- and snow- dards in just two months following Act.418 In 2008, the Spring Running storms will become more severe removal and have maintained that Festival held its 3rd annual celebra- and more frequent.425 Combined classification since.414 tion of life on the Kennebec River at with higher winter precipitation Mill Park.419 Over 900 people at- and earlier spring snowmelt, these Restoration of the Kennebec has tended the festival in 2008, in addi- storms will result in increased also revived the City of Augusta tion to roughly 50 canoe and flooding and erosion. They will also and the local economy. The Ken- kayaks taking part in the coinciding wash pollutants from streets and nebec now offers numerous recre- 17-mile Fort to Fort Canoe/Kayak farms into surrounding waterways. ational opportunities including Expedition.420 In 2007, a weekly At the same time, extended fishing, canoeing, kayaking, and farmer’s market began at Mill Park droughts such as the one that hit bird-watching. A new boat launch and will soon have an open air the state from 1999 to 2002 will upstream of Augusta provides pavilion for shelter at the park.421 grow more common. boaters with easy access to the river. Waterfront Wednesdays presents A recent study shows that anglers free concerts in the summer. Towards Resilience spend more money when visiting Restoration efforts on the Kennebec the Kennebec fishery at Augusta Climate Change have been successful in reviving the than they did previously.415 This A changing climate holds many river from more than a century of study estimates the total annual challenges for river communities neglect. These efforts will be benefi- economic impact from recreational throughout the Northeast, espe- cial well into the future as Augusta fishing to be $27.5 million on the cially where dams already stress deals with another man-made freshwater section of the Kennebec fragile ecosystems. Dams and challenge: climate change. Re- between Waterville and Augusta heavy development reduce the abil- moval of the Edwards Dam and and $37.5 million on the tidal sec- ity of river ecosystems to respond to restoration of the Kennebec River tion from Augusta to Merrymeeting changes in flow and temperature, will allow Augusta and neighbor- Bay.416 Dam removal has been even new sources of pollution or other ing communities to minimize nega- more valuable to the local recre- disturbances.422 Climate change tive impacts and maintain a high ational fishery than was expected. will bring many of these shifts to quality of life as temperatures rise. In addition, properties near Ed- river ecosystems throughout the Even if the most dire predictions wards Dam that sold for less than Northeast. The region is expected to don’t come true, however, the comparable properties farther from see significant changes in tempera- restoration efforts are clearly no-re- the dam have increased in value; tures and rainfall in the coming grets solutions. Augusta and other the penalty for homes close to the decades. Average temperatures will communities will still benefit from former dam site has essentially dis- increase 6-7ºF by the end of the better water quality, more recre- appeared. Upstream, depressed century.423 Average precipitation is ational opportunities, a stronger home values near the Fort Halifax expected to increase 10-15 percent economy, and a healthy fishery. and Lockwood dams have increased in winter months and up to five Keeping the dam in place would slightly but remain significantly percent in the summer.424 The in- not have provided the immediate lower than the value of homes far- crease in extreme weather and benefits or long-term flexibility to

70 Natural Security: How Sustainable Water Strategies are Preparing Communities for a Changing Climate deal with climate change. While a small remnant population communities in the basin. Already, The improvements in water quality of native fishes remained below the Augusta has seen property values and free-flowing nature of the Ken- dam, most of the historical habitat rise and the local economy grow nebec will allow the river to absorb had been closed off. Climate since removal of the dam. A more climate-related stresses and remain change will pose numerous chal- robust economy will help Augusta a valuable community asset as lenges to fish species in the Ken- withstand the economic impacts of temperatures rise. Water quality in nebec. Rising water temperatures a changing climate. Perhaps most the Kennebec remains much im- and the increase in polluted runoff importantly, Augusta has become proved since the removal of the Ed- will increase stress on many invested in the health of the Ken- wards Dam. Climate change will species, especially cold-water fish nebec River again. By investing in threaten these gains by increasing such as Atlantic salmon. As water restoration, redeveloping the river- polluted runoff and water tempera- temperatures begin to increase, fish banks, building trails, and encour- tures. By improving water quality and other aquatic organisms will aging recreational use, the proactively, however, the river will need to adapt by migrating to community is more likely to main- be better able to assimilate the ad- cooler waters. Rivers and river- tain the health of the Kennebec in ditional stresses without losing its banks serve as critical corridors for the future. If this remains the case, capacity to support fish and fish and wildlife movement. The the river can continue to provide wildlife populations or benefit river additional habitat opened by the recreational opportunities, a venue communities. Restoring the river’s removal of the Edwards Dam will for festivals and concerts, and an free-flowing nature will also pro- provide fish species with more flexi- overall higher quality of life. Main- vide important flexibility to the bility as conditions change. taining such a vital resource will basin. Free-flowing rivers have help the community weather the more flexibility to efficiently drain Finally, a healthy, resilient Ken- impacts of climate change and re- runoff and utilize their floodplains nebec and restored fisheries have main culturally and economically to accommodate increases in vol- important implications for the qual- vibrant for years to come. ume. In a review of large river ity of life and economic resilience of basins around the world, scientists have found that dam-impacted or otherwise disturbed basins are much more likely to experience in- creased flooding, water shortages or loss of biodiversity under changing conditions and therefore will need intensive management.426

River restoration efforts also greatly improve the likelihood that a healthy fishery can be maintained on the Kennebec in the face of a shifting climate. As described above, the Edwards Dam had been the primary obstacle to the Ken- A free flowing Kennebec River is better able to adapt to a changing climate and maintain nebec River fishery for decades. a high quality of life in nearby communities.

American Rivers 71 ENHANCING LIVABILITY few residents viewed the river as an Grand Junction, Colorado— asset to the community. Restoration of a Community Asset A volatile economic environment Summary From 1951 to 1970, the Climax added to the challenge facing Grand Junction’s rivers were once Uranium Company processed Grand Junction and its neglected forgotten places with uranium tail- uranium and vanadium in Grand rivers. Throughout the late 1970s ings, salvage yards and a sanitary Junction, primarily for the U.S. and early 1980s, oil companies landfill along their banks. Gradu- Atomic Energy Commission. flocked to Western Colorado to har- ally, local river clean-up projects During its 19 years of operation the vest oil shale. As they set up proj- turned into a valley-wide effort to mill produced 2.2 million tons of ects, masses of people moved to the reclaim the rivers as social, eco- low-level radioactive waste tailings, area and populations in some nomic, and recreational amenities. much of which was left at the pro- small towns increased 400 percent With riverfront trails and parks, cessing site on the north bank of by 1980. When Exxon canceled restoration of the riverfront has the Colorado River.429 Throughout these plans and shuttered its Col- helped stimulate economic growth the 1950s, a gravel mining com- orado operations in 1982, the re- and improve quality of life in Grand pany operated nearby and dug a gional economy collapsed. Within Junction. The community’s restora- deep hole into a northern side- five years, Grand Junction lost 10 tion efforts will help keep quality of channel of the Colorado River. percent of its population and saw life high in spite of the challenges When gravel mining operations over 4,000 foreclosures, leaving brought by climate change. moved elsewhere, the hole was nearly 15 percent of homes va- used as a sanitary landfill and cant.432 The oil shale bust turned Challenge dumpsite for uranium tailings.430 Grand Junction into a ghost town Grand Junction derives its name The community also used the with few economic prospects. from its location at the confluence floodplain as a salvage yard, filling of the Colorado (previously named it with scrap metal and cars for Grand Junction’s Approach the Grand River) and Gunnison years, giving rise to the nickname In an effort to revive itself from the rivers. For decades, Grand Junction “Grand Junk-tion.”431 Limited oil shale bust, the City of Grand and neighboring communities de- access to the riverfront restricted Junction recognized that it needed graded and ignored the rivers. recreational use of the river and to diversify its economic base and Grand Junction, Colorado

Left: For many years Grand Junction polluted the Colorado River and ignored its potential recreational and economic benefits. Middle: Radioactive mine tailings, salvage yards, and a landfill lined the river in Grand Junction. Right: The oil shale bust in the 1980s devastated Grand Junction’s economy.

72 Natural Security: How Sustainable Water Strategies are Preparing Communities for a Changing Climate attract new residents and tourists. years of salvage yard scrap metal, three year clean-up of the 30-foot With an ample housing stock and 4,000 tires and over 400 truckloads mound of untreated tailings in beautiful natural surroundings in- of waste to the landfill.436 Restora- 1989.438 Upon completion, the 107- cluding red rock canyons, mesas, tion was completed in 1991 and the acre parcel of land was turned over mountains, and lakes, Grand Junc- island is now home to hiking trails, to Grand Junction and has since tion promoted itself as a destination an amphitheater, a botanical gar- been developed into a park that will for retirees and outdoor enthusi- den, and a butterfly house.437 While soon include bike trails, an amp- asts.433 As part of this effort, the city previous efforts to revitalize the itheater, a boat launch, board needed to confront the conse- riverfront failed to engage the com- walks, and a civic center.439 quences of its industrial past and re- munity, residents now began to see connect to its greatest natural assets: its rivers as a potential social and Another focus of the riverfront rede- the Colorado and Gunnison rivers. economic resource. What began as velopment has been the Jarvis Prop- a local clean-up project expanded erty, a parcel of land that housed a Restoration efforts began in 1985 into a valley-wide effort to reclaim landfill, uranium mill tailings, and when the local Lions Club created a the rivers and their floodplains as a salvage yard of over 5,000 vehi- committee to review the possibility social, economic, and recreational cles. After lengthy negotiations, the of cleaning up and beautifying the amenities. City of Grand Junction bought the Southern entrance to the city at the 60-acre property with assistance confluence of the two rivers.434 The Since the Watson Island project, the from the Trust for Public Land in parcel of land they were interested Grand Junction/Mesa County River- 1991.440 Clean-up was largely un- in was a 30-acre weed- and junk-in- front Commission has undertaken a dertaken through the U.S. Depart- fested island known as Watson Is- number of riverfront restoration ini- ment of Energy’s (DOE) Uranium land. The Grand Junction/Mesa tiatives. One prominent project was Mill Tailings Remedial Action Pro- County Riverfront Commission was restoration of the Climax Mill site. gram. The original DOE remedia- formed in 1987 to purchase Watson Grand Junction residents had long tion plan consisted of temporarily Island and provide guidance for its been concerned about the leftover storing the cars offsite while remov- clean-up and redevelopment.435 For mine tailings contaminating the ing the 300,000 cubic yards of ura- two years, volunteers spent count- Colorado River, groundwater sup- nium tailings and then returning less hours cleaning the island by plies and neighborhoods. The U.S. the 5,000 salvage vehicles to the hand. The city hauled away 25 Department of Energy began a site.441 The Riverfront Commission

Left: The city has cleaned up polluted sites and embraced the river. Middle: Improved access to the river has increased recreational activities and boosted the economy. Right: A series of trails and parks stretches along the river in and near Grand Junction.

American Rivers 73 convinced DOE to permanently are working to improve recreational venues for fishing, swimming, boat- move the cars to a disposal site, re- opportunities on the river. Grand ing, and many other activities.447 move the tailings, and leave the ex- Junction is connecting its restored cavated area open as fish habitat. properties with a pedestrian path- Planning DOE would also pay the city the way commonly referred to as the Restoration activities in Grand Junc- money it would have used to return Riverfront Trail. The first sections of tion began without an overarching the vehicles to their original site, trail were constructed by the Grand plan for the final result. Success from which the city used to buy the land. Valley Audubon Society and com- Watson Island led to discussions with The DOE agreed to this proposal munity volunteers in 1987.444 Since city, county, state, and federal agen- and has used similar solutions then, more than 30 miles of trails cies and the creation of a vision for many times since in other commu- have been created throughout Mesa an extended riverfront system of nities.442 Today, hiking and biking County.445 The long-term vision parks and trails throughout the trails connect the Jarvis Property would connect many towns along Grand Mesa Valley, an area that in- with Watson Island to the east and the Colorado River with over 140 cludes three cities and over 100,000 other riverside parks to the west. miles of trails.446 In addition, the people.448 The Riverfront Commis- Grand Junction recently developed Colorado Division of Wildlife and a plan to redevelop the property Colorado State Parks have created a sion has since been charged with into a mixed use area that includes state park along the Colorado River planning, advocating, and imple- housing and green space.443 around Grand Junction that has five menting a strategy to redevelop and sections linked together by the River- reclaim the riverfront within the city In addition to restoration of river- front Trail. The State Park has nearly and county. The commission is made front properties, Grand Junction, sur- two dozen miles of trails for hiking, up of 12 citizens who volunteer their rounding towns, and state agencies biking, and horseback riding and time on the Board of Directors.449

74 Natural Security: How Sustainable Water Strategies are Preparing Communities for a Changing Climate Funding Funding for the Riverfront Project has come from a variety of local, re- gional, state, and federal partners. The largest source of funding is the statewide Great Outdoors Colorado Program (GOCO), which uses lottery Dallas, Texas—Trinity River Corridor Project484 revenue to support parks and open The Trinity River Corridor Project brings together numerous space. In 1996, Mesa County re- ceived a $9 million grant for the flood protection, recreation, environmental restoration, Riverfront Project through GOCO economic development, and transportation initiatives into and used the money for land acquisi- tions, easements, and improvements one massive project. Planned for completion in 2014, the to parks and trails.450 In addition, GOCO grants have funded numer- project is the largest urban development effort ever un- ous smaller riverfront projects. dertaken by Dallas, covering 20 miles of the Trinity River

Grand Junction has also pieced to- and 10,000 acres. Included in the overall project are wet- gether funding from a variety of land construction, restoration of the river’s natural mean- smaller sources. Energy remediation funds made up a majority of the ders, creation and restoration of habitat, trails, and early clean-up funding. The Energy boardwalks, athletic fields, boat launches, open space, a Impact Assistance Fund, a federal program designed to help communi- white water course, fishing access, and development of ties affected by mining and energy new residential and commercial districts. The overall proj- development, provided $200,000 to- ward the purchase and restoration of ect will enhance livability and transform flood protection Watson Island in 1988.451 Programs into an opportunity for community revitalization and eco- created by the Colorado Division of Wildlife, such as “Watchable nomic development. Wildlife” and “Fishing is Fun,” pro- vided additional funding for a num- ber of projects.456 The Colorado Division of Wildlife also promised Grand Junction has also stretched Grand Junction expanded the trail that five percent of money received available resources by minimizing system without purchasing addi- for wildlife mitigation projects would be spent on expanding the Riverfront costs and partnering with the com- tional land by securing permission Trail.458 Finally, the Colorado River- munity and governmental agencies. from the Corps of Engineers to build front Foundation, created shortly Much of the Watson Island clean up trails on top of levees when the after the Riverfront Commission to was carried out by volunteers from Corps renovated them to strengthen allow people to make tax-deductible the community, and volunteers con- flood protection.455 In the early years contributions, provides an ongoing tinue to contribute thousands of of the riverfront restoration process, source of funding for smaller projects. hours every year to the state park.454 Grand Junction also benefited from

American Rivers 75 the depressed economic climate cluding concerts, triathlons, bike which allowed the city to acquire rides, raft races, and festivals. The critical pieces of property for less annual Robb River Rally includes a than they would have been sold walking and biking tour and enter- otherwise. tainment in honor of the late James M. Robb, the visionary who origi- Benefits nally conceived of a riverfront sys- Denver, Colorado— River restoration efforts in the tem of trails and parks.458 On South Platte River485 Grand Junction area have revital- Watson Island, native gardens, the ized the local economy, strength- butterfly house, and the amphithe- For years the South Platte ened ecosystems, and greatly ater offer educational and entertain- River in Denver was filled improved the quality of life for area ment venues. During the summer, with sewage and garbage. In residents. The expansion of trails the Colorado Riverfront Foundation 1965 a disastrous flood tore and parks around Grand Junction hosts a series of free concerts at the through the basin and has reconnected the community Colorado River State Park at Fruita. with valuable natural resources caused over $375 million in that had previously been neglected Although just one of many attrac- damages in the Denver met- and ignored. Residents have em- tions in the area, the riverfront ropolitan area.486 Following braced the results of the restoration restoration project has helped re- the disaster, Denver began activities. Over 450,000 visitors vive Grand Junction’s economy fol- come to Colorado Rivers State Park lowing the oil shale bust. Successful to restore the river. Unsightly annually to enjoy the 137 camp- marketing of the region’s natural businesses were relocated, sites, three boat launches and 105 amenities and recreational oppor- major polluters were picnic areas on 639 acres of land.456 tunities helped the population in brought under control, and Recreational opportunities include Mesa County to grow nearly 45 459 railroads were rerouted to biking, fishing, swimming, camp- percent from 1990 to 2000. One ing, hiking, boating, wildlife obser- study concluded that tourism ac- make way for parks and vation, ice skating, and counts for 17 percent of the jobs greenways along the river. educational activities. A 1995 sur- and 11 percent of the income in The Platte River Develop- vey found that 80 percent of Grand Mesa County.460 It also found that ment Committee (now the Junction respondents used the tourists directly or indirectly pay Riverfront Trail System and that 92 one-third of the sales taxes gener- South Platte River Greenway percent of respondents regarded the ated in the region.461 Since suffering Foundation) has since built trail as valuable, very valuable or through an economic slump in the 150 miles of trails, numerous extremely valuable.457 mid-1980s, Grand Junction’s popu- boat launches, whitewater lation and economic indicators chutes, and wildlife reserves. The restored rivers have had im- now exceed the highest levels of the pacts on the community beyond oil shale boom period of the late The parks serve as facilities recreation and tourism. They have 1970s and early 1980s. Once de- for community events in- become an integral part of commu- pendent on mining and agricul- cluding concerts, outdoor nity life and spurred cultural ture, Grand Junction now has a movies, festivals, and races. growth. There are numerous com- more stable and diverse economy munity events around the river in- because of its improved quality of

76 Natural Security: How Sustainable Water Strategies are Preparing Communities for a Changing Climate life and outdoor amenities, and it volvement in protecting the natural serves as a regional hub for trade, resources that are vital to the com- services, finance, education, trans- munity and the local economy. portation, and health care.462 This is best evidenced by the num- ber of new initiatives begun since Grand Junction’s river restoration the riverfront project. Civic groups activities have also benefited and students have volunteered wildlife and local ecosystems by re- countless hours that not only moving contaminants and increas- helped create new recreational op- ing riparian habitat. Aquifers lying portunities but also created great below past mill tailing piles have pride and ownership in the proj- been contaminated to the point ect.465 The Urban Trails Committee that they are considered un-use- works to develop bicycle and pedes- ing ecosystems, infrastructure, and able; however the influence of these trian trails within Grand Junction key industries to the impacts of a contaminants on the aquatic and to connect these paths to the changing climate. Average temper- ecosystem is largely unknown.463 A river trail. The Tamarisk Coalition atures in the region increased 2° F study on a nearby uranium mill started removing tamarisk, an in- between 1977 and 2006 and are ex- found aquatic macroinvertebrates vasive shrub that crowds out native pected to rise an additional 6-7° F in downstream stretches to have el- vegetation, from the Colorado by the end of the century.468 Aver- 464 evated uranium in their tissues. riverfront in Grand Junction in age precipitation will likely in- The removal of mine tailings and 2000 and has since broadened its crease 5-10 percent in winter junk yards reduces the risk of future efforts to the state and even to months and decrease 5-10 percent 466 contamination of the rivers and Mexico. The Colorado Riverfront in summer.469 Rising temperatures groundwater around Grand Junc- Trail’s vision has also expanded to could cause a precipitous decline in tion. In addition, the restored vege- over 140 miles to link Glenwood lower elevation snowpack by 467 tation and green space along the Springs, CO to Moab, UT. 2050.470 Peak runoff from melting Colorado and Gunnison rivers pro- Progress on the Riverfront Project snowpack has shifted to two weeks vides a buffer that can capture pol- has been the result of tireless com- earlier in the spring since 1978 and luted stormwater and reduce the munity effort and continues to is projected to continue this trend, amount of pathogens, fertilizers, move forward as the river becomes resulting in reduced late summer and other contaminants flowing part of everyday life of Colorado flows.471 The amount of runoff into the rivers. It also provides criti- River communities. Land acquisi- draining into the Colorado River cal habitat for deer, fox, lizards, tion, easements, and funding re- could decrease 6-20 percent by herons, and countless waterfowl main the biggest obstacles to 2050.472 More important than the and birds. At the Jarvis Property, a continuing forward, but individuals averages, however, will be the large wetland serves as a breeding and communities are now deter- greater extremes in precipitation site for endangered fish species in- mined to build trails and protect and temperatures. More extreme cluding razorback sucker and Col- surrounding open space, however storms will raise the risk of flooding orado pikeminnow during high long it takes. and wash more pollutants from water runoff. urban streets and agricultural areas Climate Change into nearby waterways.473 Rising Finally, the riverfront movement Across Colorado, communities are temperatures will also degrade has inspired an ethic of citizen in- faced with the challenge of adapt- water quality by reducing dissolved

American Rivers 77 oxygen and increasing the concen- ture, and public safety.478 Climate and recharge stream baseflow. A tration of pollutants due to higher change will challenge many of healthy river system can in turn re- evaporation rates.474 Warmer water these areas by increasing water- main an important contributor to may cause trout populations borne disease, worsening water the high quality of life enjoyed by throughout the western U.S. to de- quality problems, and threatening Grand Junction’s residents by pro- cline by as much as 64 percent.475 the supply of clean water that viding aesthetic benefits and boost- drives the local economy. Fortu- ing economic activity. These changes will present a signif- nately, Grand Junction’s restoration icant challenge to economies, efforts have strengthened its natu- Grand Junction’s efforts to promote ecosystems, and the quality of life ral resources, economic base, and and protect its natural resources in many communities, especially social and cultural capital, making also make the local economy more those that are in economic decline them more resilient to the impacts resilient to climate change. River and have degraded their natural of a warming climate. restoration and the expansion of resources. Reduced water availabil- recreation and tourism opportuni- ity and increased demand will cre- Grand Junction’s restoration activi- ties have created new economic ac- ate shortages and conflicts among ties will help shelter its river ecosys- tivities and strengthened existing water users. Recreation and tourism tems from rising temperatures and ones, thereby expanding and solidi- activities such as fishing and raft- polluted runoff in a warming fying the city’s economic base. As a ing will be threatened due to de- world. Ecosystems can withstand result, the city has maintained creasing water levels and varying degrees of disturbance such strong economic growth in recent worsening water quality in rivers as increased levels of pollution. years and has fared better than and lakes. Recreation on waterways When these changes exceed a cer- many surrounding communities could also become a growing threat tain threshold, however, ecosystems during the recent economic down- to public health as severe storms can undergo fundamental shifts turn.480 Economic diversity will be wash more polluted stormwater and suffer extensive damages.479 By key to building resilience to the nat- from the landscape.476 Revenue reducing historical stresses, the ural hazards and other pressures from fishing and hunting in Col- rivers and the species that depend that climate change will bring.481 orado could drop substantially, on them will be better able to ab- By relying on a greater diversity of hurting the $1 billion industry.477 sorb the impacts of climate change industries, Grand Junction will be and continue to provide essential less vulnerable to an economic Towards Resilience services to Grand Junction resi- downturn in one area. The parks By restoring its riverfront and em- dents. Cleaning up polluted sites and green space also help Grand bracing the Colorado and Gunnison along the riverbanks and restoring Junction retain employers because rivers, Grand Junction has not only green space that can absorb it is easier to attract the best workers corrected decades of neglect; it has stormwater runoff will minimize to more livable communities. While also increased its ability to absorb the impact of more severe storms. the city may see some economic the impacts of climate change and Vegetation on the riverbanks will contraction due to future impacts of remain a vibrant community with a provide shade and moderate water climate change, it is better posi- high quality of life. Quality of life temperatures that would stress vul- tioned to withstand turbulence due depends on a number of factors in- nerable fish populations. Protecting to its efforts to restore the riverfront cluding natural resources, economic open space and minimizing flood- and expand recreation and tourism conditions, social and cultural re- plain development provides a natu- activities. A strong local economy is sources, human health, infrastruc- ral buffer to protect against floods in turn a key determinant of a

78 Natural Security: How Sustainable Water Strategies are Preparing Communities for a Changing Climate community’s quality of life, as eco- level of pride and dedication the protect the social and cultural ac- nomic activity determines income, community has for its riverfront tivities that have resulted from the employment opportunities, and the area. Studies show that community river restoration efforts. Concerts, 482 cost of living. members involved in conservation races, and festivals strengthen com- efforts are more willing to work to munity ties and make the city a Finally, a less tangible result of its improve their community in the fu- more attractive place to work and restoration efforts is increased dedi- ture.483 Continued efforts to pre- live. A continued dedication to the cation to conservation of natural serve Grand Junction’s rivers will be rivers’ health will maintain these resources. Much of the restoration crucial in adapting to climate im- activity was carried out by volun- pacts, and community dedication and the other benefits that con- teers, and the ongoing efforts to re- to these resources will be one of the tribute to Grand Junction’s high move invasive species and improve greatest assets in protecting the quality of life. access to the river demonstrate the rivers. These activities will in turn

American Rivers 79 Top: City of Grand Forks Greenway. Bottom: A riverside park in downtown Boston.

80 Natural Security: How Sustainable Water Strategies are Preparing Communities for a Changing Climate BLUEPRINT FOR A MODEL RESILIENT COMMUNITY

The eight communities discussed in the previous section have all adopted sustainable and innovative approaches to address a particular water management problem. And while these improvements have increased the ability of these communities to withstand the impacts of climate change, none have implemented the strategies to the maximum extent possible or integrated multiple solutions to address community water needs comprehensively.

In this final section of the report, we envision how a hypothetical we envision how a hypothetical community—we’ll call it community can integrate all the Greenville—could create a more sus- strategies discussed in the previous tainable future by holistically imple- case studies to become a model of menting four major initiatives. We resilience to the impacts of a outline the steps that would address changing climate. In order to existing problems and make ground our recommendations in Greenville’s water resources—and the real-world challenges that thus the entire community—more many communities face, we chose resilient to a changing climate. as a starting point a representative Drawing from the case studies in the medium-sized Midwestern city with previous section, we demonstrate problems that affect communities how an integrated suite of green across the country. We provide de- water management practices would tails of this city’s actual problems— build resilience and ensure greater water quality, flooding, water security and economic prosperity supply, and green space—and de- into the future—even in the face of scribe the efforts currently being great uncertainty. undertaken to remedy them, fully acknowledging that many commu- This section provides a broad outline nities are struggling to meet similar for building community resilience, challenges with scarce resources. but much more detail is needed to We have not yet found a city that translate these principles into an im- has achieved an optimal set of plementable plan. This section is water management solutions. meant to create a picture of how a set of cost-effective, proven solutions Starting with this snapshot of the can help a community better pre- challenges the city faces at present, pare for an uncertain future. An ex-

American Rivers 81 Like many communities, the hypothetical “Greenville” faces a variety of water challenges from flooding and sewer overflows to limited water supplies.

tensive planning process would be lowed agriculture to expand, but pen every four to six years on aver- needed to adapt this vision to the the rapid alteration of the region’s age by the end of the century.490 particulars of a given community. hydrology through the draining of These storms will cause more floods, For example, if green infrastructure wetlands and other activities cre- sewer overflows, and stormwater techniques are being used to capture ated a number of problems that still runoff. At the same time, there will stormwater, planners would need to plague the city. Today, much of the also be more frequent droughts. Ex- set targets for reducing impervious- land surrounding Greenville is ur- tended dry spells combined with re- ness based on runoff patterns banized, and the city struggles with duced summer precipitation and throughout the watershed. That flooding, stormwater runoff, sewage higher temperatures will decrease would translate to a certain number overflows, a vulnerable water sup- groundwater recharge, lower water of green roofs, rain barrels or swales. ply, and insufficient green space. levels in rivers, cause small streams Since this planning is very site-spe- and wetlands to dry up, and cific and depends on detailed engi- Adding to these substantial chal- threaten water supply.491 With less neering studies, we do not lenges is the threat of a changing water to dilute contaminants, pollu- specifically quantify the solutions climate. By the end of the century, tion concentrations could rise in proposed here. Instead, we demon- temperatures across the region are many water bodies. Rising tempera- strate how the solutions build overall expected to rise by 6º to 7º F.487 Av- tures will also deplete oxygen levels resilience and identify policies that erage precipitation will increase and cause more algal blooms in can help implement them. slightly and shift to spring and win- many waterways, stressing aquatic ter, leaving the summer months species.492 MEETING MULTIPLE drier.488 Of greatest concern is the WATER CHALLENGES expected rise in extreme weather. Water Quality and Greenville sits on the banks of the Precipitation will become more Public Health Green River in the upper Midwest. variable and unpredictable, making As Greenville has expanded and Following settlement in the 1800s, severe storms and extended developed, sewer overflows and pol- the land was cleared of hardwoods droughts more common.489 Heavy luted runoff have increasingly and transformed into a mix of farm precipitation events that only occur threatened public health and land and growing towns. This al- every 20 years at present could hap- ecosystems.

82 Natural Security: How Sustainable Water Strategies are Preparing Communities for a Changing Climate By integrating green infrastructure techniques, increased water efficiency and floodplain restoration, Greenville can protect itself from the worst impacts of climate change.

Combined Sewer Overflows aggravate the problem by decreas- comparable properties further from (CSOs). Greenville’s sewer system ing the amount of water available the contamination. was developed over the course of to dilute contaminants. more than a century. Newer parts of Stormwater. Another major source the city have separate stormwater Greenville’s sewer overflows present of water pollution is stormwater and sewage pipes, but older sections a major threat to public health. De- runoff from Greenville and up- are served by a combined sewer sys- spite the well-known pollution stream farms and communities. tem that transports sewage and problems and bans on recreational Within the city, impervious surfaces stormwater in the same pipes. Dur- activities in some of the city’s wa- such as roofs, parking lots, and ing dry weather, the combined and terways, residents continue to fish, streets have expanded as the city separate systems transport sewage kayak, wade, and swim in polluted has grown. During storms, rainfall to one of the city’s two wastewater streams. This puts them at risk of collects on these hard surfaces and treatment plants in the southern falling ill from the many bacteria carries nutrients, toxics, and other part of town. When rains exceed and viruses found in CSOs and pollutants into the sewer system one-quarter of an inch, however, stormwater runoff. These and local waterways. In the 1970s the combined system discharges pathogens can cause a wide variety and 1980s rapid development raw sewage and polluted storm - of health problems, and hundreds around Little Green Creek, a small water from more than 100 outfalls of thousands of people across the tributary of the Green River, led to a along the Green River and other nation fall ill every year as a re- nearly 20 percent increase in imper- smaller streams. Dozens of CSOs sult.493 CSOs also affect fish and vious surfaces. As a result, annual occur every year, dumping billions wildlife. One overflow in the 1990s runoff volume increased by 80 per- of gallons of untreated sewage into killed over half a million fish in the cent and lead, copper, and zinc lev- local waterways. Upstream commu- Green River. Finally, CSOs have els rose 50 percent. Nutrients and nities also have combined sewer negative impacts on the city’s econ- pesticides from upstream farms also systems that discharge into the omy, especially property values. add contaminants to the stressed Green River. Large withdrawals Residential properties near a CSO- waterways. Seventy percent of the from the city’s streams and rivers contaminated stretch of river are Green River basin is used for agri- for water supply purposes further up to 40 percent less valuable than culture. Streams in the Green River

American Rivers 83 Basin have some of the highest pes- dertaking dozens of construction a first line of defense, absorbing rain- ticide concentrations of any water projects to improve drainage and water before it can flow into sewers. body in the country. High levels of stormwater management. The city metals and organic compounds in is also working to limit runoff from The Sustainable Approach: streambed sediments in Greenville private property through ordi- Green Infrastructure trigger fish consumption advisories. nances and a stormwater design Greenville’s stormwater and CSO manual that sets minimum stan- problems will be an increasing bur- Current Strategies dards for controlling runoff from den on the city’s residents and In recent years, Greenville has com- new development and redevelop- ecosystems as strong storms become mitted to investing more than $3 ment projects. Discounts on more frequent. The city’s commit- billion in its sewage and stormwa- stormwater bills provide an incen- ment to invest billions of dollars in ter infrastructure. The largest in- tive to property owners that control its clean water infrastructure could vestment is in the city’s aging runoff. In total, Greenville plans to provide clean, healthy waterways combined sewer system. In order to spend approximately $3 billion on despite the impacts of climate meet Clean Water Act require- traditional infrastructure to address change if funds are used in the most water quality issues. The expansion efficient manner. Greenville has the plan does not take climate change opportunity to create a more effec- into account. tive and flexible infrastructure by investing in green infrastructure as While most of the water in- a core component along with ex- frastructure projects already panded and rehabilitated sewers. completed or being planned use Green solutions have a proven abil- traditional engineering approaches, ity to control stormwater and CSOs ments, the city approved Greenville is beginning to embrace but they are also less costly than tra- a $1.8 billion plan that will green infrastructure strategies. There ditional engineering approaches. reduce CSOs more than 95 percent. are few specific plans as of yet, but This would allow the city to reduce The plan consists of numerous con- the city is exploring how it can repli- existing sewage and stormwater struction projects including expan- cate natural water infrastructure to problems and address projected in- sion of sewer lines, upgrades to encourage more sustainable water creases in extreme weather, which treatment plants, and an under- management. In 2008, Greenville the current CSO and stormwater ground tunnel that will be capable announced that it would incorporate control plans do not. Green infra- of storing over 200 million gallons constructed wetlands and street trees structure approaches would also of sewage and stormwater during into its CSO reduction efforts. The help the city reduce air pollution, heavy storms. Greenville is invest- city has already created a small lower temperatures during summer ing an additional $650 million over green street project that uses native heat waves, beautify neighbor- a 20- to 30-year period to expand vegetation to retain and infiltrate hoods, and create wildlife habitat. capacity and limit overflows in its stormwater and plans to build the sanitary sewer system. The third first green roof on a city-owned Specific recommendations include: major investment focuses on im- building in the near future. proving the city’s stormwater infra- Greenville is also revising its Sewage and stormwater infra- structure. With funding from a stormwater ordinance and design structure: Greenville should direct a stormwater utility the city created manual to encourage developers to significant portion of the $3 billion it several years ago, Greenville is un- use green infrastructure strategies as plans to invest in clean water infra-

84 Natural Security: How Sustainable Water Strategies are Preparing Communities for a Changing Climate structure over the next 20-30 years to ous surfaces are privately owned, century that destroyed thousands green strategies. Investing in green and Greenville cannot solve its of homes and caused nearly 100 roofs, wetlands and trees would stormwater problems without the deaths, the city was fortified with a allow the city to reduce the number help of property owners. Residents system of levees, floodwalls, and size of sewer pipes and pump that live in single family homes can straightened stream channels, and stations and to scale back expan- disconnect their gutter downspout dams. Major floods nonetheless sions of treatment plant capacity. from the sewer, reducing the amount continued to plague the city. Be- of roof runoff entering the system. tween 1993 and 2005 floods caused Green streets: Narrowing streets They can redirect stormwater from over $100 million in property dam- and installing swales, rain gardens, their property into rain barrels or ages and took several lives. There and pervious pavement would re- rain gardens. Developers can funnel duce runoff from roads and prevent runoff from multi-unit buildings to it from entering sewers. Greenville constructed wetlands or swales that should first retrofit all streets infiltrate stormwater into the ground throughout the CSO area and then rather than allowing it to flow into extend green street projects into the sewer or nearby streams. areas with separate sanitary sew- ers, starting with critical areas that Ordinances: Greenville could create the most runoff. strengthen its existing ordinance and design manual for stormwater Green roofs: Greenville should in- control to require that all new de- stall green roofs on all city-owned velopment and redevelopment buildings. The city should also pro- projects maintain pre-development vide incentives to downtown build- hydrology (i.e., that no more runs ing owners until at least 80 percent off the site than did previous to de- of large buildings in the downtown velopment), reduce impervious sur- area have green roofs. faces by a given percentage, retain the first ½ inch or inch of runoff or Wetlands: Constructed wetlands install pre-approved green infra- should be integrated into existing structure techniques.494 open space areas and designed to is also significant localized flood- capture and filter polluted runoff, Incentives: The city could provide ing during smaller storms due to a especially along waterways. free downspout connections to in- lack of sufficient stormwater terested homeowners and discounts drainage in parts of the city. This Urban trees: Urban trees face a va- on stormwater bills for installing often results in flooded basements riety of pressures from development rain gardens, rain barrels or other and streets. Over a five year period, and poor maintenance. Greenville measures to reduce imperviousness Greenville residents filed more should improve maintenance of ex- on their property. than 10,000 complaints about isting trees and expand the canopy drainage and flooding problems. through an extensive tree planting Storm and Flood Damage Much of this is a direct result of ur- campaign. Flooding is a recurring problem in banization and development Private homes and developments: Greenville. Following a devastating within the floodplain. The increase A large amount of the city’s impervi- flood in the early part of the 20th

American Rivers 85 in severe storms will worsen erty owners. Even now the city is city should instead stop all develop- Greenville’s flooding problems. continuing to build levees to protect ment in vulnerable areas and re- homes located in the floodplain. As move existing structures in those Current Strategies we have seen time and again, in areas where possible. Over the past century, the city has New Orleans in 2005, along the built a complex system of flood con- Mississippi River in 1993, and on Voluntary buy outs: As a first step, trol dams and levees along its many other occasions, structural Greenville should offer buy outs to streams and rivers. Today, flood walls flood protection structures can— the dozens of repetitive loss struc- line the Green River and a number and do—fail. When they fail, levees tures (buildings that have sustained of smaller streams. The Corps of En- and dams can unleash devastating flood damages worth 25 percent or gineers is currently undertaking an floods that destroy property and more of the structure’s value twice expansion of levees along a stretch take lives.495 With more severe in ten years). The city should also of the Green River in the northern storms in a warming climate, the remove other homes and businesses part of the city. This project was consequences of Greenville’s contin- from frequently flooded areas that spurred by a recent flood that nearly ued reliance on structural ap- don’t yet meet this definition to caused a catastrophic levee failure. proaches will be magnified. A safer provide an additional buffer should As a participant in the National and more cost-effective strategy future flood areas expand. Flood Insurance Program (NFIP), would reduce runoff from upstream Greenville should consider remov- Greenville has also adopted and en- areas, remove vulnerable structures, ing structures behind levees that forced floodplain management ordi- prohibit floodplain development, may appear safe now but could be nances to limit and increase flood at risk in a changing climate. development within storage within Other cities have removed thou- and along flood- city limits by sands of structures in order to re- plains. Since restoring duce their long-term vulnerability 2000, an or- and con- to floods, demonstrating that large- dinance has structing scale buy outs are possible.496 Fed- restricted wet- eral programs such as the Federal construction lands, Emergency Management Agency’s or alteration stream Flood Mitigation Assistance Pro- of structures buffers, gram could provide financial assis- in the flood- and other tance for relocation.497 plain. However, natural sys- numerous homes tems. These poli- Strengthening ordinances: While built prior to these restric- cies will reduce Greenville has already passed an tions still stand in the floodplain and repeated damages and save lives. ordinance to limit floodplain devel- have been repeatedly damaged. opment, the city should consider Reducing vulnerability: Like many strengthening it to incorporate cli- The Sustainable Approach: communities Greenville has at- mate projections and determine Natural Flood Protection tempted to protect vulnerable what areas will be vulnerable to For much of its history, Greenville homes and businesses with dams flooding in the future. has relied on structural flood con- and levees, only to experience con- trol projects that provide a false tinued damages and rising costs of Protecting high density develop- sense of security to vulnerable prop- maintaining flood defenses. The ment: In the highest density areas

86 Natural Security: How Sustainable Water Strategies are Preparing Communities for a Changing Climate with high-value buildings (e.g from farming and other activities significant impacts on ecosystems downtown) where relocation is not that disturb the natural hydrology, and wildlife. In summer, the combi- feasible, the city should strengthen allowing these areas to absorb rain- nation of low rainfall and increased existing flood defenses to handle fall instead of sending it down- outdoor watering means that much the projected increase in extreme stream. Federal programs such as of the water from the Green River is weather. the Natural Resources Conservation removed for water supply purposes, Service’s (NRCS) Floodplain Ease- reducing its ability to absorb pollu- Increasing natural flood storage: ment Program can provide financial tants and degrading water quality. Greenville can further reduce flood support for restoring farm lands to risk by restoring and protecting nat- prevent downstream flooding.500 Current Strategies ural areas such as wetlands, stream Until recently, Greenville only had a buffers, and trees throughout the Adequate Water Supply voluntary water conservation policy. city. Flood prone areas that have Greenville gets 75 percent of its Even during water shortages, resi- been cleared of vulnerable struc- water supply from reservoirs on the dents were asked, but not required, tures can be replaced with open Green River and two smaller to reduce their water consumption. space or wetlands that can absorb streams. The remainder is pumped In 2009, the Greenville City Council flood waters and release them from groundwater aquifers. While passed a water conservation ordi- slowly to reduce high peak flows. these sources are sufficient to meet nance that requires mandatory The city could purchase additional current demand, limited treatment water conservation practices during open space along streams and wet- capacity and poor water quality times of declared drought. During lands in order to ensure that these threaten water supply at times. A shortages, residents are not allowed areas remain completely undevel- moderate drought in the summer of to water lawns, wash vehicles or fill oped.498 Planting new trees and pro- 2007 caused water use to rise more empty swimming pools. The ordi- tecting the existing tree canopy also than 50 percent, mostly due to in- nance also commits the city to es- provides valuable flood storage ca- creased outdoor watering. This in- tablishing a water rate structure pacity where there is not a large crease in demand exceeded the that increases the cost of water as amount of open space. pumping and processing facilities’ consumption rises. The city cur- capacity, leading the city to ask resi- rently uses a declining block rate Reducing upstream runoff: While dents to voluntarily reduce water structure which charges customers flooding in Greenville is caused in consumption in order to avoid over- less for each unit of water as con- part by the proliferation of impervi- taxing the system. High levels of nu- sumption increases. ous surfaces and floodplain develop- trients from urban and agricultural ment within the city limits, loss of runoff also pose a threat to some of The Sustainable Approach: wetlands and forests for agricultural Greenville’s water sources. The Water Conservation and activities upstream has increased Green River Reservoir, which sup- Efficiency and accelerated runoff throughout plies 80,000 residents, has recurring While Greenville does not face severe the river basin.499 Greenville can re- algal blooms that cause taste and water shortages like many western store this natural flood protection by odor problems. There was also a communities, it is vulnerable to rebuilding wetlands and natural toxic algal bloom in the Green Creek shortages because of limited treat- vegetation throughout the flood- Reservoir in the summer of 2007, ment capacity. Rather than under- plain and working with watershed which prompted recreational advi- taking a costly expansion of its water organizations, farmers, and other sories from state health officials. Fi- supply facilities, the city could solve landowners to retire critical lands nally, water withdrawals have multiple problems by increasing effi-

American Rivers 87 result in a 13-17 percent reduction in ments, and efficiency incentives household water use without de- will accomplish little without creasing utility revenues.502 proper outreach to the public. Resi- dents should be provided with in- Conservation: Greenville has formation explaining why efficient adopted an enforceable conservation water use is necessary, what actions policy that limits water use during they can take, what resources are droughts. The city should ensure that available, and detailed information the regulations are strong enough to on their water consumption pat- achieve necessary reductions in a cli- terns. mate that will bring more frequent and more severe droughts. The city Strong Economy and should also extend mandatory con- Quality of Life servation requirements throughout Greenville has made significant ef- summer months to decrease water forts to create green space and revi- withdrawals even when drought talize its downtown, but it still conditions are not in effect. bears scars from poorly planned de- velopment and economic decline in Efficiency: Greenville can further the 1960s and 1970s. Nearly all of reduce overall water consumption the county’s native vegetation was through a variety of incentives and destroyed during decades of inten- ciency and conservation efforts. regulations. The city could provide sive agriculture and rapid urban- Water efficiency is the most cost ef- rebates or direct installation of effi- ization. Recreation on a number of fective way of overcoming water cient toilets, showerheads, faucets, the city’s waterways is unsafe due shortages because it both negates the and appliances. The city could also to poor water quality, and a city or- need for new construction and lowers require the installation of efficient dinance prohibits swimming in the pumping and treatment costs.501 By fixtures in new development, rede- combined sewer area. In addition, reducing withdrawals, the city can velopment or upon resale of parts of downtown continue to suf- also leave more water in streams, al- homes. Replacement of wasteful fer from neglect. Following the Sec- leviating the low flows in summer appliances and fixtures can de- ond World War, middle-class that degrade water quality and crease household water consump- families and businesses relocated to harm fish and wildlife. tion by as much as 35 percent.503 the suburbs, leaving blighted neighborhoods throughout the city. Rate structure: Water rates can be Leak detection: A leak detection Abandoned homes in turn led to a designed to promote conservation by and repair program would allow proliferation of drugs and violence. charging customers more for higher Greenville to reduce water losses by Nearly 8,000 homes remain vacant water consumption. Greenville’s cur- locating and fixing leaks in the city’s today. This combination of limited rent rate structure achieves the oppo- aging water supply system. About green space, poor water quality, site effect by lowering costs as water 15 percent of public water supply and blighted neighborhoods has use rises. The city should adopt nationwide is lost due to leaks.504 depressed property values, limited strongly tiered rates that reward cus- recreational activities and de- tomers for conserving water. Conser- Public education: Altered rate creased the quality of life in vation-oriented water pricing can structures, conservation require- Greenville.

88 Natural Security: How Sustainable Water Strategies are Preparing Communities for a Changing Climate Current Strategies ral beauty, polluted its streams, and parks will not reach their full po- Over the last two decades, Greenville left many of its neighborhoods tential without improved water has worked hard to increase the blighted. While the city has taken quality that can support a variety quality of life by developing trails steps to increase green space and of recreational activities. The qual- and park space and revitalizing the revive neglected areas, the quality ity of life in Greenville will suffer as downtown area. It has created a of life in Greenville will not reach long as the streams remain heavily number of recreational trails along its full potential until all of these polluted and unsafe for swimming. the city’s rivers and streams. There problems are addressed. Continu- If the current stormwater and sewer are nearly 60 miles of trails for bik- ing to expand and connect parks projects achieve their goal, how- ing and walking and over 25 miles and trails and improving water ever, additional public access of water trails for canoeing. The city quality will help build a vibrant points along streams can help ex- plans to nearly double park acreage community that is better adapted pand recreation and tourism. In and expand the trail system to 200 to climate change. Planting more that case, organized recreation on miles, connecting 12,000 acres of trees and using other natural the river and entertainment activi- park land and open space. More stormwater management tech- ties such as races, concerts, and fes- than two million users are expected niques will help moderate rising tivals could help promote the use of to use the greenways every year temperatures and make the city trails, parks, and the river. when the current plan is completed. greener and more appealing. An interconnected system of greenways The solutions discussed in this Greenville is taking a similarly am- and open spaces will also create chapter can create a safe, healthy bitious approach to restoring its valuable habitat for wildlife and community capable of withstand- downtown. The city has already in- help control stormwater runoff. ing floods, droughts, and rising temperatures. Under this scenario, vested billions of dollars to revital- Greenville would transition from a ize its downtown. The new Expanding greenways: Greenville city beset by numerous problems restaurants, hotels, shopping, and already has an impressive system of and vulnerable to the impacts of entertainment facilities opened as a trails and parks that it plans to ex- climate change to a vibrant, green result of the renewal efforts have pand in coming years. The city can community with healthy water- redefined the downtown as a major continue to increase this network, es- ways, extensive green space, a se- event center and bolstered the city’s pecially in blighted neighborhoods. cure water supply, improved $3.5 billion tourism industry. In The Parks Department can expand neighborhoods, and numerous blighted neighborhoods the city the greenway system by partnering recreational opportunities. Taken plans to rehabilitate deteriorating with other city departments such as together these sustainable water homes, build new houses, create the Department of Public Works on management strategies would rental housing opportunities for joint, multi-use projects. Given the make Greenville resilient to the im- low-income households, and con- flooding and stormwater benefits of pacts of a changing climate. vert more land into greenspace. increasing natural areas within the city, expansion of greenways should The Sustainable Approach: be coordinated with stormwater and Expanding Green Space flood control projects to ensure the Greenville’s poorly planned devel- maximum benefit. opment, neglect of its water re- sources, and economic decline have Improving water-based recre- stripped the community of its natu- ation: The city’s greenways and

American Rivers 89 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Clean water is essential to our health, our communities, and our lives. Yet our water infra- structure (drinking water, wastewater and stormwater systems, dams and levees) is seriously outdated. In addition, we have degraded much of our essential natural infrastructure (forests, streams, wetlands, and floodplains). Global warming will worsen the situation, as captions here captions here captions risinghere temperatures, captions here captions increased here cap- water demands, extended droughts, and intense storms tions here captions here captions here straincaptions our herewater captions supplies, here captions flood our communities and pollute our waterways. here captions here captions here cap- tions here captions here captions here captions here captions here

90 Natural Security: How Sustainable Water Strategies are Preparing Communities for a Changing Climate CONCLUSION: A TRULY RESILIENT COMMUNITY The water management strategies presented in this report demonstrate how communities can protect healthy landscapes, restore degraded ecosystems, and replicate natural water systems in urban settings to adapt to a changing climate. These solutions build resilience in a number of ways.

Healthier Ecosystems: All communi- of dollars to control CSOs through ties depend on healthy ecosystems to expanded pipes and deep tunnels. provide clean water, control floods, Yet these projects mostly do not fac- and sustain the economy. By elimi- tor in changing precipitation pat- nating CSOs and stormwater runoff, terns, and it will be very difficult to restoring forests and wetlands, and adapt them once they are con- maintaining minimum stream flow structed. Green infrastructure, on the throughout the year, communities other hand, can be scaled up to need can ensure that these valuable as conditions change. In addition, ecosystem services will benefit future while none of the solutions recom- generations as well. Decades of neg- mended in this report are cheap, lect have left many communities’ they can provide cost savings over natural resources degraded and vul- traditional approaches that are ex- nerable to the rising temperatures tremely costly. Particularly for flood and extreme weather a changing cli- management, removing structures mate will bring. These combined from vulnerable areas can provide pressures could stress ecosystems to long-term cost savings by avoiding the point of collapse, which would future damages and the need to leave them unable to benefit the repair and upgrade structural community. Reducing these stresses defenses. With fewer disasters to r before the worst impacts of climate espond to and levees to maintain, change are felt, however, will in- communities will have greater crease the ecosystems’ ability to ab- financial flexibility to respond to sorb impacts without losing essential climate change or other pressing functions. With healthy, resilient priorities. ecosystems, communities will be better prepared to weather storms, Stronger Local Economy and droughts, and rising temperatures. Quality of Life: Climate change will have significant impacts on Increased Flexibility: Many older economies throughout the country communities are investing billions and around the globe. Worldwide,

American Rivers 91 better able to withstand the wide process, a community can create variety of climate change im- an integrated approach that maxi- pacts if they maximize the ben- mizes benefits and is more cost ef- efit of their investments. fective. Even better, they can work with neighboring communities in If any community is to realize the their watershed to ensure that up- full potential of the solutions pre- stream actions support its own sented here, it is essential to create steps. If it takes these steps, the city an integrated plan for implementa- can create flexible systems that tion that does not artificially sepa- minimize the impacts of climate there could be a 5-20 percent reduc- rate water supply, flood control, change. The end result will be a tion in economic output if emis- and clean water infrastructure. The truly resilient community prepared sions are not limited.505 Impacts on interconnected benefits demand for an uncertain future. local economies will depend on the that communities coordinate plan- vulnerability of key industries and ning across water management sec- steps communities take to adapt. tors. For example, green space can By restoring rivers and streams, en- reduce stormwater runoff, limit couraging recreation, increasing flood damages, reduce the cost of green space, and making the city a drinking water treatment, and im- more livable place, communities prove recreational opportunities. If all aspects of water management can create a more vibrant and sta- are incorporated into the planning ble economy that will add new jobs while preserving the ones it already has. All things being equal, em- ployers will be more likely to stay in places that offer a high quality of life for their employees.

Multiple Benefits: While the strate- gies discussed in this report have benefits across water management sectors, they can also help commu- nities adapt to other impacts of cli- mate change. Increased vegetation decreases urban heat island effects and reduces air pollution. Chicago originally started using green roofs to control stormwater, but now views them as a primary defense against heat waves. Urban trees can absorb carbon dioxide and a variety of air pollutants. Given lim- ited budgets, communities will be

92 Natural Security: How Sustainable Water Strategies are Preparing Communities for a Changing Climate American Rivers 93 12 Field, C.B. et al. 2007. op. cit. p. 619. 25 Madsen, T. and E. Figdor. 2007. When It ENDNOTES Rains, It Pours: climate change and the Ris- 13 Field, C.B. et al. 2007. op. cit. p. 622. ing Frequency of Extreme Precipitation in

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94 Natural Security: How Sustainable Water Strategies are Preparing Communities for a Changing Climate 40 Walker, B. and D. Salt. 2006. Resilience 52 Wolf, M. 2007. Protecting and restoring the 66 ibid. thinking: Sustaining ecosystems and people Willamette River. Oregon Department of 67 in a changing world. Island Press: Washing- Environmental Quality Fact Sheet 03-WR- City of Portland. Bureau of Environmental ton, DC. 008a. Services, Grey to Green Program. op. cit.

53 68 41 Gamble, J.L. et al. 2008. Analyses of the ef- Oregon State Parks. 1998. Willamette River ibid. fects of global change on human health Recreation Guide. http://www.oregon- 69 City of Portland, Bureau of Environmental and welfare and human systems. U.S. Cli- stateparks.org/images/pdf/will_river_guide. Services. November 1, 2008. Annual Com- mate Change Science Program: Washing- pdf (accessed December 30, 2008). pliance Report No. 13—FY 2006-2007. ton, DC. 54 ibid. http://www.portlandonline.com/bes/index.c 42 City of Portland. Bureau of Environmental 55 City of Portland. Bureau of Environmental fm?c=48933&a=216970 (accessed December Services. 2008. Grey to Green Program Services, Combined Sewer Overflows Pro- 2, 2008); City of Portland. Bureau of Envi- Brochure. gram, ronmental Services, Stormwater Manage- http://www.portlandonline.com/Bes/index.c http://www.portlandonline.com/bes/index.c ment Plan. fm?a=192797&c=50367. fm?c=31030 (accessed December 2, 2008); http://www.portlandonline.com/bes/index.c Personal contact: Linda Dobson, Portland fm?c=46961&a=98424 (accessed December 43 City of Portland. Bureau of Environmental Bureau of Environmental Services (con- 2, 2008). Services. 2000. Portland’s Clean River Plan, tacted November 2008). http://www.portlandonline.com/bes/index.c 70 Mann, Linc (Portland Bureau of Environ- 56 fm?c=34834 (accessed September 2, 2008) City of Portland. Bureau of Environmental mental Services). January 2010. Personal Services, Grey to Green Initiative, Communication. 44 ibid. http://www.portlandonline.com/bes/index.c fm?c=47203 (accessed December 3, 2008). 71 City of Portland, Bureau of Environmental 45 National Research Council. 2008. Urban Services. 2006. Stormwater Management Stormwater Management in the United 57 City of Portland. Bureau of Environmental Facility Monitoring Report. States. The National Academies Press: Services, Downspout Disconnection Pro- gram Brochure, http://www.portlandon- Washington, DC. 72 Mann, Linc (Portland Bureau of Environ- line.com/bes/index.cfm?c=43081 (accessed mental Services). January 2010. Personal 46 Rose, J. et al. 1999. Microbial Pollutants in November 11, 2008). Communication. Our Nation’s Water: Environmental and 58 City of Portland. Bureau of Environmental Public Health Issues. American Society for 73 City of Portland. Bureau of Environmental Microbiology: Washington, DC. Services, Clean River Rewards Program, http://www.portlandonline.com/bes/index.c Services, Ecoroof Incentive Program. op. cit. 47 U.S. EPA. 2001. Notice of Proposed Rule- fm?c=43444& (accessed October 30, 2008). 74 Personal contact: Clean River Rewards Of- making, National Pollutant Discharge Elim- 59American Society of Landscape Architects. fice, Portland Bureau of Environmental ination System (NPDES) Permit ASLA announces 2006 professional awards. Services (contacted October 2008). Requirements for Municipal Sanitary Sewer Press Release. Accessed on October 30, 2008; 75 Collection Systems, Municipal Satellite Col- American Society of Landscape Architects. Mrazlk, S. 2007. Oregon water quality lection Systems, and Sanitary Sewer Over- April 9, 2007. ASLA announces 2007 profes- index summary report: water years 1997- flows. sional awards. Press Release. (Accessed Oc- 2006. Oregon Department of Environmen- tober 30, 2008.) tal Quality. Report DEQ07-LAB-0047-TR. 48 ibid. 60 City of Portland. Bureau of Environmental 76 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Total 49 Simpson, M. 2006. Reducing bacterial pol- Services, Green Street Program, Maximum Daily Loads—Columbia Slough. lution in the Willamette Basin. Oregon De- http://www.portlandonline.com/bes/index.c http://iaspub.epa.gov/tmdl_waters10/en- partment of Environmental Quality Fact fm?c=44407 (accessed October 29, 2008). Sheet 04-WQ-005. viro.control?p_list_id=OR1226470455820_0 61 City of Portland. Bureau of Environmental _8.5&p_cycle= (accessed Decemeber 30, 50 Boyd, J. 2000. The new face of the Clean Services, Grey to Green Program. op. cit. 2008); U.S. Environmental Protection Water Act: a critical review of the EPA’s pro- Agency. Total Maximum Daily Loads— 62 posed TMDL rules. Resources of the Future ibid. Lower Willamette River. Discussion Paper 00-12; Environmental Pro- 63 City of Portland. Bureau of Environmental http://iaspub.epa.gov/tmdl_waters10/en- tection Agency. Total maximum daily Services, Ecoroof Workshop, viro.control?p_list_id=OR1227618456580_0 loads. http://iaspub.epa.gov/tmdl_wa- http://www.portlandonline.com/BES/index. _24.8&p_cycle= (accessed December 30, ters10/enviro.control?p_list_id=OR12276184 cfm?c=48723&a=201579 (accessed Decem- 2008). 56580_0_24.8&p_cycle=2006 (accessed De- ber 3, 2008). cember 30, 2008). 77 Personal contact: Rick Bastasch, City of 64 City of Portland. Bureau of Environmental Portland River Renaissance Initiative Coor- 50 White, B. 2000. Middle Willamette River Services, Ecoroof Incentive Program, dinator (contacted January 2009). Fish Consumption Study. Oregon Depart- http://www.portlandonline.com/bes/index.c ment of Environmental Quality, Fact Sheet. fm?c=48724 (accessed December 3, 2008). 78 ibid.

65 Personal contact: Linda Dobson. Op. cit.

American Rivers 95 79 City of Portland. Bureau of Environmental 90 City of Portland. Water Bureau, Historic Use 103 National Research Council. 2008. Urban Services, Tabor to the River. of Groundwater. http://www.portlandon- Stormwater Management in the United http://www.portlandonline.com/bes/index.c line.com/water/index.cfm?c=30043&a=309 States. Washington, DC: The National fm?c=47591&a=199738 (accessed October 65 (accessed November 6, 2008). Academies Press. 15, 2008). 91 ibid. 104 U.S. EPA. Septic (onsite) systems. 80 Personal contact: Linda Dobson. op. cit. http://cfpub.epa.gov/owm/septic/index.cfm 92 City of Kansas City, Water Services Depart- (accessed January 28, 2009). 81 Climate Impacts Group. 2004. Overview of ment. 2008. Overflow Control Plan. 105 Climate Change Impacts in the U.S. Pacific http://www.kcmo.org/water/KCWetWeath- U.S. EPA. Decentralized Approaches to Northwest. http://www.ef.org/westcoastcli- erCityNav/images/PDFs/ocpnov2008.pdf Wastewater Treatment. Powerpoint Presen- mate/D_PNW%20impacts.pdf (accessed (accessed January 13, 2009); Driever, S.L. tation. January 12, 2009). and D. M. Vaughn. 1988. Flood hazard in http://www.epa.gov/owm/septic/pubs/sep- tic_presentation.pdf. 82 Palmer, R.N. and M. Hahn. 2002. The im- Kansas City since 1880. The Geographical pacts of climate change on Portland’s water Review 78(1):1-19. 106 Rose, J. et al. 1999. Microbial Pollutants in supply: an investigation of potential hydro- Our Nation’s Water: Environmental and 93 Environmental News Service. June 27, 2006. logic and management impacts on the Bull Public Health Issues. American Society for Kansas City’s Dream—10,000 Rain Gar- Run system. Portland Water Bureau. Microbiology: Washington, DC. dens. http://www.ens- 83 Chang, H. 2008. Water quality in urban newswire.com/ens/jun2006/2006-06-27-01. 107 ibid. streams: impacts of climate. Urban Ecosys- asp (accessed January 13, 2009). 108 Personal contact: Allen Aigen, New York tem Research Consortium of Portland/Van- 94 10,000 Rain Gardens. Local Rain Gardens City Department of Public Health, Staten Is- couver Brown Bag. Abstract; Institute of Count to Date. land Resident (contacted February 2009). Natural Resources. 2004. Scientific Consen- http://www.rainkc.com/index.cfm/fuseac- sus Statement on the Likely Impacts of Cli- 109 tion/portfolio.main/index.htm (accessed Vokral, J., D. Gumb, R.D. Smith and S. mate Change on the Pacific Northwest. Mehrotra. 2001. Staten Island Bluebelt Pro- January 13, 2009). Corvallis: Oregon State University. gram—A Natural Solution to Environmen- http://www.oregon.gov/ENERGY/GBLWRM/ 95 City of Kansas City, Water Services Depart- tal Problems. Stormwater 3(3). docs/Global-AppendixC.pdf (accessed Janu- ment. 2008. Overflow Control Plan. op. cit. http://www.stormh2o.com/may-june- ary 12, 2009). 2001/staten-island-bluebelt.aspx (accessed 96 City of Kansas City, Water Services Depart- August 26, 2008); Vokral et al. Wetlands at 84 National Wildlife Federation. 2005. Fish out ment. 2008. KC-One City-Wide Comprehen- work. op. cit. of water: A guide to climate change and Pa- sive Stormwater Management Plan cific Northwest rivers. 110 Executive Summary Draft. O’Rourke, M.P. 2006. The Staten Island http://www.nwf.org/nwfwebadmin/binary- Bluebelt, New York City, USA. http://www.kcmo.org/water/KCWetWeath- Vault/Fish_Out_of_Water_2005_FINAL.pdf http://courses.umass.edu/greenurb/2006/m erCityNav/images/PDFs/kcone.pdf (accessed (accessed January 12, 2009). o%27rourke/index.html (accessed August January 13, 2009). 29, 2008). 85 ibid. 97 Gonzalez, V. October 26, 2008. Green Roofs: 111 Vokral, J. et al. Wetlands at work. op. cit; 86 Calculated using historical rainfall averages They can save energy, be a source of beauty. Personal contact: Dana Gumb, New York of winter months (December, January, Feb- http://www2.journalnow.com/con- City Department of Environmental Protect, ruary and March). http://www.worldcli- tent/2008/oct/26/green-roofs-they-can-save- Staten Island Bluebelt Director (contacted mate.com/cgi-bin/data.pl?ref=N45W122+2 energy-be-a-source-of-be/ October 2008). 200+356749C (accessed January 9, 2009). 98 Taylor, D.A. 2007. Growing green roofs, city 112 Gumb, D. 2005. Seminar for US EPA Urban 87 Personal contact: Virgil Adderley, Portland by city. Environmental Health Perspectives Watershed Management Branch—Edison, Bureau of Environmental Services (con- 115(6): A306-A311. NJ. US EPA Urban Watershed Research Sem- tacted January 2009). inar Series. 99 Natural Resources Defense Council. 1999. 88 Northwest Cable News. January 5, 2009. Stormwater Strategies: Community Re- 113 The City of New York. 2007. PlaNYC. Next rainstorm threatens to cause more sponses to Runoff Pollution. http://www.nyc.gov/html/planyc2030/html Ore. slides. http://www.nwcn.com/state- http://www.nrdc.org/water/pollution/storm/ /downloads/the-plan.shtml (accessed De- news/oregon/stories/NW_010509WXN_ore_ stoinx.asp (accessed December 18,2008). cember 19, 2008). rain_flooding_LJ.3f5de6fa.html (accessed January 9, 2009). 100 Vokral, J., D. Gumb, A.D. Cavallaro, S. 114 Vokral, J.. D. Gumb, A.D. Cavallaro, N. Mehrotra and E. Rosenberg. 2003. Wetlands Overall, F.A. McCullough and E. Rosenberg. 89 City of Portland, Department of Transporta- at work. Civil Engineering 73:56-63. 2003. Restoring Staten Island’s riparian tion. January 2, 2009. Heavy Rain Creates a ecology. Stormwater 4(7) Number of Hazards in Portland Metro Area. 101 Personal contact: Marie Bodnar, South http://www.stormh20.com/november-de- Press Release. Richmond Community Board District Man- cember-2003/staten-island-riprarian-ecolol- http://www.portlandonline.com/Transporta- ager (contacted October 2008). ogy.aspx (accessed August 26, 2008). tion/index.cfm?a=224526&c=39132 (ac- cessed January 9, 2009). 102 Vokral, J. et al. Wetlands at work. op. cit. 115 Vokral, J. et al. Wetlands at work. op. cit.

96 Natural Security: How Sustainable Water Strategies are Preparing Communities for a Changing Climate 116 Vokral, J. et al. Restoring Staten Island’s ri- 134 New York City, Mayor’s Office of Opera- 146 Mintz, H. 1983. Soldiers Grove: Wisconsin’s parian ecology. op. cit. tions. 2008. NYC Feedback Citywide Cus- solar community…an interview with Tom tomer Survey. Hirsch. The Human Scale. University of Wis- 117 Vokral, J. et al. Wetlands at work. op. cit. http://www.nyc.gov/html/ops/html/nyc_fe consin—Madison, Center for Community edback/nyc_feedback.shtml (accessed Feb- Technology. 118 O’Connor, T.P. and J. Rossi. 2006. Monitor- ruary 3, 2009). ing of a retention pond before and after 147 Village of Soldiers Grove. The Floods. maintenance. World Environmental & 135 Vokral, J. et al. Staten Island Bluebelt pro- http://www.soldiersgrove.com/Floods.htm Water Resources Congress 2006, Omaha, gram—a natural solution to environmental (accessed January 26, 2009). NE. problems. op. cit. 148 FEMA. 2007. Small Wisconsin village leads 119 Personal contact: Dana Gumb. op. cit. 136 Vokral, J. et al. Restoring Staten Island’s ri- the nation: Rebuilds above floodwaters. parian ecology. op. cit; Tiner, R. W. 2000. http://www.fema.gov/mitigationbp/best- 120 New York City Water Board. Wetlands of Staten Island, New York: Van- PracticeDetailPDF.do;jsessionid=A26CE6EAF http://www.nyc.gov/html/nycwaterboard/ht ishing urban wetlands. U.S. Fish and D7006CA97CA81ABE1EEA229.WorkerPub- ml/home/home.shtml (accessed February 3, Wildlife Service, Ecological Services, North- lic?mitssId=4886 (accessed January 26, 2009). east Office: Hadley, Massachusetts. Cooper- 2009). ative National Wetlands Inventory 121 Staten Island Advance. October 8, 2007. Publication. 149 Becker, W.S. 1994. Rebuilding for the fu- Staten Island flashback: $22M for Bluebelt. ture: A guide to sustainable redevelopment http://www.silive.com/news/index.ssf/2007/ 137 New York City, Department of Environmen- for disaster-affected communities. United 10/staten_island_flashback22m_for.html tal Protection. 2008. The NYC DEP climate States Department of Energy. (accessed January 15, 2009). change program assessment and action http://www.smartcommunities.ncat.org/ar- plan. 122 Media-Newswire. October 25, 2007. Staten ticles/RFTF3.shtml (accessed February 17, http://www.nyc.gov/html/dep/html/news/cl Island to Receive Sewer Upgrade. Stormwa- 2009). imate_change_report_05-08.shtml (accessed ter Solutions. December 18, 2008). 150 Becker, W.S. 1983. Come rain, come shine: http://www.estormwater.com/Staten-Island- A case study of a floodplain relocation proj- to-Receive-Sewer-Upgrade-NewsPiece14735 138 ibid. ect at Soldiers Grove, Wisconsin. Wisconsin (accessed January 15, 2009). 139 ibid. Department of Natural Resources; Kickapoo 123 Personal contact: Dana Gumb. op. cit. Valley Reserve. http://kvr.state.wi.us/cate- 140 Patz et al. 2008. Climate Change and Wa- gory.asp?linkcatid=1859&linkid=945&locid 124 Vokral, J. et al. Wetlands at work. op. cit. terborne Disease Risk in the Great Lakes Re- =115 (accessed March 2, 2009). gion of the U.S. American Journal of 125 151 Nalgep. 2006. Local Government Stormwa- Preventative Medicine 35(5): 451-458. Becker, W.S. 1983. op. cit. ter Management Innovations Web Cast. 152 Notes. 141 Personal contact: Dana Gumb. op. cit. ibid.

http://www.nalgep.org/ewebeditpro/items/ 153 142 U.S. Census Bureau. Historical Income Ta- O93F10056.pdf (accessed January 15, Calculations made based on projections in: bles, Table H-6 Regions—All Races by Me- 2009). New York City, Department of Environmen- tal Protection. 2008. op. cit. dian and Mean Income: 1975-2006. 126 Chan, S. August 8, 2007. Why the subways http://www.census.gov/hhes/www/in- 143 flood. New York Times. Low, T. et al. 2008. Light Imprint Hand- come/histinc/h06ar.html (Accessed Febru- book: Integrating Sustainability and Com- ary 13, 2009). 127 Personal contact: Marie Bodnar. op. cit. munity Design. Duany Plater-Zyberk, 154 Charlotte, North Carolina. Becker, W.S. 1983. op cit. 128 ibid. http://www.lightimprint.org/G_griffinpark.p 155 ibid. df (accessed February 23, 2009); Langdon, P. 129 November 7, 2007. $35m sewer upgrade January 2007. Natural drainage systems 156 biggest ever on Staten Island. Real Estate ibid. can cut NU’s development costs. New Urban Weekly. News. 157 ibid.

130 Hevesi, D. February 1, 1998. An island in 144 FEMA. 2007. Mitigation best practices port- 158 Village of Soldiers Grove. op cit; July 3, time weighs its growth. New York Times; folio: 2nd Avenue SEA Street, Seattle, Wash- 1978. 4 dead in Midwest floods: rains ease. Current number is an estimate from: Per- ington. Los Angeles Times. sonal contact: Marie Bodnar. op. cit. http://www.fema.gov/mitigationbp/best- 159 PracticeDetail.do;jsessionid=673FC06B832B Becker, W.S. 1983. op. cit. 131 Gumb, D. 2005. op. cit. 1480DA92443A19AFFB0D.Worker2Pub- 160 ibid. 132 Rosenberg, E. 2005. A study of water qual- lic?mitssId=5246 (accessed February 23, ity benefits provided by storm water BMPs 2009). 161 ibid. in the Staten Island Bluebelt. US EPA Urban 145 Horner, R. et al. 2002. Hydrologic monitor- 162 Watershed Research Seminar Series. Lerner, S. 1997. Eco-Pioneers: Practical vi- ing of the Seattle ultra-urban stormwater sionaries solving today’s environmental 133 The City of New York. op. cit.; Personal management projects. Department of Civil problems. MIT Press: Cambridge, Massa- contact: Dana Gumb. op. cit. and Environmental Engineering, University chusetts. of Washington. Water Resources Series Tech- nical Report Number 170. 163 FEMA. 2007. op. cit.

American Rivers 97 164 Village of Soldiers Grove. op. cit. 179 Tobin, G.A. 1992. Community response to 192 Charles River Watershed Association. floodplain relocation in Soldiers Grove, Wis- Charles River Watershed. 165 Personal contact: Betty France and Dan consin. Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, http://www.crwa.org/watershed.html (ac- Thoftne, residents (contacted March 2009). Arts and Letters 80:87-96. cessed December 19, 2008).

166 FEMA. 2007. op. cit. 180 Christensen, J.H. and B. Hewitson. 2007. 193 Weiskel, P.K., L.K. Barlow and T.W. Regional Climate Projections. In Soloman, Smieszek. 2005. Water Resources and the 167 David, E. and J. Mayer. 1984. Comparing S. et al. (Editors), Climate Change 2007: The Urban Environment, Lower Charles River costs of alternative flood hazard mitigation Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Watershed, Massachusetts, 1630-2005. US plans: The case study of Soldiers Grove, Wis- Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Geological Survey, Circular 1280, p.29. consin. American Planning Association Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on http://www.pubs.usgs.gov/circ/2005/1280/p 50:22-35. Climate Change. Cambridge University df/cir1280.pdf (accessed January 8, 2009). Press: Cambridge, UK. 168 Village of Soldiers Grove. op. cit. 194 Calculated Using the Consumer Price 181 Trenberth, K.E. Conceptual framework for 169 Jones, M. June 13, 2008. Gays Mills might Index on: Williamson S.H. 2008. Six Ways changes of extremes of the hydrological seek higher ground. Milwaukee Journal to Compute the Relative Value of a U.S. Dol- cycle with climate change. Climate Change Sentinel. lar Amount, 1774 to present. 42 (1999):327–39. http://www.jsonline.com/news/wiscon- http://www.measuringworth.com/uscom- pare/ (accessed February 18, 2009). sin/29471269.html (accessed January 27, 182 Christensen, J.H. and B. Hewitson. 2007. 2009). op. cit. 195 The Weather Channel. Storms of the Cen- 170 Johnson, M. August 20, 2007. Doyle says 183 Patz, J. et al. 2008. Climate Change and tury: 1955 Hurricane Diane Floods. http://www.weather.com/newscenter/spe- Wisconsin flood damage approaches $20 Waterborne Disease Risk in the Great Lakes cialreports/sotc/honorable/1955.html (ac- million; Tours Vernon and Crawford Coun- Region of the U.S. American Journal of Pre- cessed January 8, 2009); Notardonato, F. ties. Vernon Broadcaster. ventative Medicine 35(5):451-458. and A.F. Doyle. 1979. Corps takes new ap- 171 ibid. 184 Smith, G. and L. Brown. 2008. A Survey of proach to flood control. Civil Engineering Downtown Businesses in Gays Mills, Wis- 49:65-68. 172 Seely, R. June 10, 2008. Water in some consin. http://www.uwex.edu/ces/cty/craw- 196 areas starting to recede; bridges a concern. ford/cnred/documents/ASurveyofDowntown Barron, R. 1989. Protecting the Charles Wisconsin State Journal. http://www.madi- Businessesin GaysMills-Report2.pdf (ac- River Corridor. National Wetlands Newslet- son.com/wsj/topstories/290694 (accessed cessed February 13, 2009). ter. January 27, 2009). 185 ibid. 197 Doyle, A.F. 1987. The Charles River Water- 173 June 11, 2008. Flood-ravaged Gays Mills shed: A Dual Approach to Floodplain Man- 186 Brown, L. et al. 2007. The economic impact had just approved study for flood preven- agement. Proceedings of the National of August 19, 2007 flood on the Crawford tion. Channel 3000 News. http://www.chan- Wetland Symposium, September 16-18, county economy. Crawford County Univer- nel3000.com/news/16572376/detail.html 1987, Chicago, Illinois. sity of Wisconsin Extension. (accessed January 27, 2009). http://www.uwex.edu/ces/cty/crawford/cnre 198 Pearce, D.W. and R.K. Turner. 1990. Eco- 174 Richmond, T. October 14, 2008. Wisconsin d/documents/EconomicImpactofFloodingin- nomics of natural resources and the envi- town fights to survive after 2 floods. USA CrawfordCounty.doc (accessed February 18, ronment. John Hopkins University Press: News Today. 2009). Baltimore, Maryland. http://www.usatoday.com/news/na- 187 Samet, M. and J. Wu. 2006. Unnatural dis- 199 Notardonato, F. and A. F. Doyle. 1979. op. tion/2008-10-14-2939037119_x.htm (ac- asters, natural solutions: Lessons from the cit. cessed January 27, 2009). flooding of New Orleans. American Rivers: 200 Washington, DC. http://www.american- Doyle, A.F. 1987. op. cit. 175 November 5, 2008. Gays Mills decides on rivers.org/site/DocServer/Katrina_Publica- relocation options. Courier Press. 201 Notardonato, F. and A. F. Doyle. 1979. op. tion-take2.pdf?docID=4481 (accessed http://www.prairieduchienarea.com/courier cit. February 4, 2009). /ARCHIVES/Nov%203-5,%202008.htm (ac- 202 Barron, R. 1976. Natural Valley Storage: A cessed January 27, 2009). 188 Flink, C. et al. 2001. The Greenway Plan: partnership with nature. New England Divi- Grand Forks, ND and East Grand Forks, 176 sion, Army Corps of Engineers: Waltham, Gillett, D. and N. Pine. 2003. Soldiers Grove MN. Greenways Incorporated: Cary, North Massachusetts. Public Information Fact soldiers on. Solar Today. http://www.ece.vil- Carolina. lanova.edu/~nick/Soldier...On.pdf (accessed Sheet 1. January 27, 2009). 189 Samet, M. and J. Wu. 2006. op. cit. 203 Faber, S. 1996. On borrowed land: Public 177 Becker, W.S. 1983. op. cit. 190 Patton, A. 1993. From harm’s way: Flood- policies for floodplains. Lincoln Institute of hazard mitigation in Tulsa, Oklahoma. Land Policy: Cambridge, Massachusetts; 178 U.S. Census Bureau. Population Finder: Sol- Tulsa Department of Public Works. Russo, C. May 25, 2006. Land along the diers Grove, Wisconsin. http://www.smartcommunities.ncat.org/pu Charles more than scenic; sponge effect pre- http://www.census.gov/ (accessed January bs/harmsway/index.shtml (accessed Febru- vents floods. The Boston Globe; Williamson 27, 2009). ary 4, 2009). S.H. 2008. op. cit.

191 ibid. 204 Barron, R. 1976. op. cit.

98 Natural Security: How Sustainable Water Strategies are Preparing Communities for a Changing Climate 205 Barron, R. 1989. op. cit.; Doyle, A.F. 1987. 228 Barron, R. 1976. op. cit. 248 Frumhoff, P.C. et al. 2007. Confronting cli- op. cit. mate change in the Northeast: Science, im- 229 Army Corps of Engineers. Charles River pacts and solutions. Union of Concerned 206 Barron, R. 1978. Natural Valley Storage: A Natural Valley Storage Area. op. cit. Scientists Publications: Cambridge, Massa- Partnership with Nature. New England Di- chusetts. http://www.northeastclimateim- vision, Army Corps of Engineers: Waltham, 230 Barron, R. 1989. op. cit. pacts.org/pdf/confronting-climate-change-i Massachusetts. Public Information Fact n-the-u-s-northeast.pdf (accessed January Sheet 3. 231 Personal contact: Merlon Basset. op. cit. 28, 2009).

207 Doyle, A.F. 1987. op. cit. 232 ibid. 249 ibid.

208 Weiskel, P.K., L.K. Barlow and T.W. 233 Doyle, A.F. 1979. op. cit. 250 ibid. Smieszek. 2005. op. cit. 251 234 Schuyt, K. and L. Brander. 2004. Living ibid. 209 Notardonato, F. and A. F. Doyle. 1979. op. cit. Waters: The economic values of the world’s 252 Barron, R. 1976. op. cit. wetlands. World Wildlife Fund: Washington, 210 253 ibid. DC. http://assets.panda.org/downloads/wet- FEMA. 2006. Napa River flood protection project—A “living” river concept. 211 landsbrochurefinal.pdf (accessed January ibid. http://www.fema.gov/mitigationbp/brief.do 28, 2009). ?mitssId=3045 (accessed February 4, 2009). 212 Personal contact: Rita Barron, Executive Director of Charles River Watershed Associ- 235 Russo, C. May 25, 2006. Land along 254 Samet, M. and J. Wu. 2006. Unnatural dis- ation 1973—1988 (contacted January Charles more than scenic; sponge effect pre- asters, natural solutions: Lessons from the 2009); Barron, R. 1976. op. cit. vents floods. The Boston Globe. flooding of New Orleans. American Rivers: Washington, DC. http://www.american- 213 Personal contact: Merlon Bassett, Charles 236 ibid. rivers.org/library/reports-publications/un- River Natural Valley Storage Area Project natural-disasters-natural.html (accessed Director, Army Corps of Engineers (con- 237 ibid. February 4, 2009). tacted November 2008). 238 Army Corps of Engineers. Charles River 255 Napa Flood and Water Conservation Dis- 214 Barron, R. 1977. Natural Valley Storage: A trict. Creating Flood Protection. Partnership with Nature. New England Di- Natural Valley Storage Area. op. cit. http://www.co.napa.ca.us/GOV/Depart- vision, Army Corps of Engineers: Waltham, 239 ments/DeptPage.asp?DID=6&LID=1691 (ac- Massachusetts. Public Information Fact Schuyt, K. and L. Brander. 2004. op. cit. cessed February 4, 2009). Sheet 2. 240 ibid. 256 Truckee River Flood Project. 2008. The Liv- 215 Barron, R. 1989. op. cit. 241 Natural Resources Defense Council. 1999. ing River Plan Draft—11/14/08. http://truc- 216 Barron, R. 1977. op. cit. Stormwater strategies: Community re- keeflood.us/ (accessed February 5, 2009).

sponses to runoff pollution. 257 217 Army Corps of Engineers. Charles River Stooksbury, D.E. November 13, 2008. Natural Valley Storage Area. http://www.nrdc.org/water/pollution/storm/ Drought tightens its grip on north Georgia. http://www.nae.usace.army.mil/recreati/crn stoinx.asp (accessed January 28, 2009). Press Release. /crnfc.htm (accessed January 28, 2009). http://georgiafaces.caes.uga.edu/getstory.cf 242 ibid. m?storyid=3570 (accessed November 20, 218 Thibodeau, F.R. and B.D. Ostro. 1981. An 2008). economic analysis of wetland protection. 243 Schuyt, K. and L. Brander. 2004. op. cit. Journal of Environmental Management 258 US Army Corps of Engineers. Lake Sidney 12:19-30. 244 Johnston, C.A. 1991. Sediment and Nutri- Lanier. ent Retention by Freshwater Wetlands: Ef- http://lanier.sam.usace.army.mil/faqs.htm 219 Personal contact: Merlon Bassett. op. cit.. fects on Surface Water Quality. CRC Critical (accessed December 9, 2008). 220 Doyle, A.F. 1987. op. cit. Reviews in Environmental Control 21(5-6): 259 Thomas, M. 2005. Sustainable water re- 491-565.; sources management by Georgia utilities: 221 Vileisis, A. 1997. Discovering the unknown Clayton County Water Authority. Proceedings landscape: A history of America’s wetlands. Vorhoeven, J. et al. 2006. Regional and Global of the 2005 Georgia Water Resources Conference, Island Press: Washington, DC Concerns over Wetlands and Water Quality. Athens, Georgia. April 25-27, 2005. 222 Barron, R. 1976. op. cit. Trends in Ecology and Evolution. 21(2): 96- 260 Clayton County Water Authority. Water 103. 223 Vileisis, A. 1997. op. cit. Reclamation. http://www.ccwa1.com/opera- 245 Charles River Watershed Association. tions/water.reclamation.aspx (accessed Oc- 224 Doyle, A.F. 1987. op. cit.; Barron, R. 1976. tober 23, 2008). Charles River Watershed. op. cit. op. cit. 261 ibid. 246 225 Barron, R. 1976. op. cit. Schuyt, K. and L. Brander, 2004. op cit. 262 Personal contact: Jim Poff, Clayton County 226 ibid. 247 ibid. Water Authority (contacted October 2008).

227 Personal contact: Merlon Bassett. op. cit.

American Rivers 99 263 Clayton County Water Authority. Water 280 Saporta, M. August 24, 2008. Praise flows reuse: a solution to drought in the Florida production. http://www.ccwa1.com/opera- freely for Clayton County’s water system. wetlands. The Christian Science Monitor. tions/water.production.aspx (accessed Feb- Atlanta Journal-Constitution; Associated http://www.csmonitor.com/2007/1107/p02s ruary 24, 2009). Press. October 19, 2007. No backup plan in 04-usgn.html?page=1 (accessed February place for drought-stricken Atlanta. Fox 20, 2009); Florida Department of Environ- 264 Clayton County Water Authority. Residen- News. mental Protection. June 2004. Grassy Wa- tial toilet rebate program. ters Preserve/City of West Palm http://www.ccwa1.com/customer.service/toi- 281 Armistead, T.F. October 24, 2007. Southeast let%20rebate.aspx (accessed December 10, drought sparks brawls but reuse meets one Beach Water Catchment Area. 2008). utility’s needs. Engineering News Record. http://www.dep.state.fl.us/southeast/eco- sum/ecosums/Grassy%20Waters.pdf (ac- 265 Clayton County Water Authority. 2001. 282 Personal contact: Jim Poff. op. cit. cessed February 20, 2009). Watershed Assessment and Management 283 Clayton County Water Authority. Melvin L. 295 Plan. CH2MHill: Atlanta, GA. The Nature Conservancy. Big Darby Head- Newman Wetlands Center. waters Nature Preserve. http://www.na- 266 Zimmerman, K. and M. Thomas. 2002. A http://www.ccwa1.com/facilities/wetlands.c ture.org/wherewework/northamerica/states/ team-based approach to watershed man- enter.aspx (accessed November 13, 2008). ohio/preserves/art23970.html (accessed Feb- agement plan implementation. American ruary 23, 2009). 284 Armistead, T.F. 2007. op cit. Water Resources Association Hydrology and 296 Sharon, J. Ohio: A second chance for a Watershed Management Technical Com- 285 Clingan, C. June 2, 2008. Green infrastruc- small but mighty stream. The Nature Con- mittee Update 1. ture highlights American Wetlands Month. servancy. http://www.nature.org/wherewe- National Association of Counties, County 267 work/northamerica/states/ohio/bigdarby/h Thomas, M. 2005. op. cit; Hicks, D.W. and News:Washington, D.C. S. P. Opsahl. The underground waters of the abitat/art23270.html (accessed February 23, 2009). Flint River Basin. 286 Armistead, T.F. 2007. op cit. http://www.sherpaguides.com/georgia/flint_ 297 Meyer, J. et al. 2007. Where rivers are born: 287 Christensen, J.H. and B. Hewitson. 2007. river/sidebars/underground_waters.html the scientific imperative for defending small Regional Climate Projections. In Soloman, (accessed January 12, 2009). streams and wetlands. American Rivers and S. et al. (Editors), Climate Change 2007: The the Sierra Club 268 ibid; Personal contact: Jim Poff. op. cit. Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment 298 US Census Bureau. Population of Counties 269 Thomas, M. 2005. op. cit. Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on by Decennial Census: 1900 to 1990. Climate Change. Cambridge University 270 ibid. http://www.census.gov/population/cen- Press: Cambridge, UK. counts/wa190090.txt (accessed December 271 Clayton County Water Authority. 2005. 50 11, 2008); US Census Bureau. Fact Finder: 288 ibid. years of insight: the story of Clayton County King County, Washington. Water Authority (1955-2005). Morrow, GA. 289 Diffenbaugh, N.S., J.S. Pal, R.J. Trapp, and http://factfinder.census.gov/ (accessed De- F. Giorgi. 2005. Fine-scale processes regulate cember 11, 2008). 272 Clayton County Water Authority. 2001. the response of extreme events to global cli- op. cit. 299 Seattle Public Utilities. Water system. mate change. Proceedings of the National http://www.ci.seattle.wa.us/util/About_SPU/ 273 Clayton County Water Authority. 2006. Academy of Sciences 102: 15774-15778. Water_System/index.asp (accessed Decem- 2005 Master Plan Update. CH2M Hill: At- ber 11, 2008). 290 Clayton County Water Authority. 2008. GA lanta, GA. EPD approves modified drought restrictions 300 Seattle Public Utilities. 1998. Water conser- 274 Personal contact: Jim Poff. op. cit. for Clayton County. News for Clayton vation potential assessment. County Water Authority Customers 10(7):1. http://www.seattle.gov/util/stellent/groups/ 275 Clayton County Water Authority. 2006. op. public/@spu/@csb/documents/webcontent/s 291 Meyer, J. et al. 2007. Where rivers are born: cit. pu01_002152.pdf (accessed December 11, the scientific imperative for defending small 2008). 276 Clayton County Water Authority. 2001. op. streams and wetlands. American Rivers and cit. the Sierra Club. 301 Personal contact: Rich Gustav, Seattle Pub- lic Utilities (contacted October 2008). 277 Clayton County Water Authority. Stormwa- 292 Atlanta Regional Commission. Source ter Fee. water assessment project: An assessment of 302 Federal Emergency Management Agency. http://www.ccwa1.com/stormwater/fee.aspx potential for pollution of surface drinking 1995. National Mitigation Strategy: Partner- (accessed December 9, 2008). water sources. ships for Building Safer Communities. http://www.atlantaregional.com/docu- Washington, D.C. 278 Georgia Environmental Protection Divi- ments/CLAYTON_RESULTS.pdf (accessed sion. 2002. Guidelines for constructed wet- February 25, 2009). 303 Emergency Management Division, Wash- lands municipal wastewater treatment ington Military Department. 2007. Wash- 293 facilities. Georgia Department of Natural Center for Watershed Protection. 2003. Im- ington State Enhanced Hazard Mitigation Resources. pacts of impervious cover on aquatic Plan. http://emd.wa.gov/plans/washing- ecosystems. Watershed Protection Research ton_state_hazard_mitigation_plan.shtml 279 ibid. Monograph No. 1 (accessed January 6, 2009).

294 Frogameni, B. November 7, 2007. Water 304 ibid.

100 Natural Security: How Sustainable Water Strategies are Preparing Communities for a Changing Climate 305 ibid. 318 Seattle Public Utilities. Cedar River Water- 333 Yelton, T. 1991. Water Conservation Plan- shed. ning Handbook. Washington Department 306 Stiffler, L. August 22, 2001. Drought Devas- http://www.seattle.gov/UTIL/About_SPU/Wa of Ecology: Olympia, WA. tates Salmon Fry Count. Seattle Post-Intelli- ter_System/Water_Sources_&_Treatment/Ce 334 gencer. dar_River_Watershed/index.asp (accessed U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 2005. Habi- December 11, 2008). tat Conservation Plans: Working Together 307 Seattle Public Utilities. Water Rates. for Endangered Species. 319 Seattle Public Utilities. Tolt River Water- http://www.ci.seattle.wa.us/util/Services/Wa http://www.fws.gov/endangered/pubs/HCP- shed. Brochure/HCPsWorkingTogether5- ter/Rates/index.asp (accessed December 11, http://www.seattle.gov/util/About_SPU/Wat 2005web%20.pdf (accessed December 22, 2008). er_System/Water_Sources_&_Treatment/Tolt 2008). _River_Watershed/index.asp (accessed De- 308 ibid. cember 11, 2008). 335 Seattle Public Utilties. Water System Plan. 309 Washington State Building Code Council. 320 Natural Resources Defense Council. 2003. http://www.seattle.gov/util/About_SPU/Wat 2006. Uniform plumbing code and uniform What’s on tap? Grading Drinking Water in er_System/Plans/2007WaterSystemPlan/ind plumbing code standards. U.S. Cities. ex.asp (accessed December 22, 2008); Seat- tle Public Utilities. Conservation Accom- http://www.sbcc.wa.gov/docs/codes/UPC06. http://www.nrdc.org/water/drinking/usci- ties/contents.asp (accessed December 22, plishments. pdf (accessed December 22,2008). 2008). http://www.seattle.gov/util/About_SPU/Wat

310 er_System/Reports/Conservation_Accom- Seattle Public Utilities. Sewer (wastewater) 321 Seattle Public Utilities. Water conservation plishments/index.asp (accessed December Rates. http://www.ci.seattle.wa.us/util/Ser- potential assessment. op. cit. 22, 2008). vices/Drainage_&_Sewer/Rates/COS_00357 322 ibid. 0.asp (accessed December 11, 2008). 336 Seattle Public Utilties. 2000. Habitat Con- 323 servation Plan. 311 Seattle Public Utilities. 2008. op. cit. Seattle Public Utilities and Purveyor Part- http://www.seattle.gov/util/About_SPU/Wat 324 ners. 1998. Regional water conservation ac- Climate Impacts Group. Case study: Seattle er_System/Habitat_Conservation_Plan— complishments 1990-1998. Public Utilities. HCP/Documents/index.asp (accessed De- http://www.seattle.gov/util/stellent/groups/ http://cses.washington.edu/cig/fpt/cases- cember 22, 2008). tudyspu.shtml (accessed Decemeber 11, public/@spu/@csb/documents/webcon- 2008). 337 Seattle Public Utilities. 2008. op. cit. tent/1990-98re_200406181017535.pdf (ac- cessed December 11, 2008). 325 ibid. 338 ibid.

326 312 Seattle Public Utilities. 2008. Saving Water ibid. 339 ibid; Seattle Public Utilities and Purveyor Partnership 2007 Annual Report. 327 Seattle Public Utilities. 2002. op. cit. Partners. 1998. op. cit.

http://www.seattle.gov/util/stellent/groups/ 340 328 ibid. public/@spu/@csb/documents/webcontent/s Personal contact: Rich Gustav. op. cit. 341 pu01_003765.pdf (accessed December 11, 329 ibid. Washington State Department of Ecology. 2008). 2006. Impacts of Climate Change on Wash- 330 Chan, S.P. August 2, 2008. Seattle could ington’s Economy: A Preliminary Assess- 313 ibid. face utility-rate increases in ’09. Seattle ment of Risks and Opportunities. Times. http://www.ecy.wa.gov/pubs/0701010.pdf 314 Saving Water Partnership. Rebates. http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/lo- (accessed February 12, 2009). http://www.savingwater.org/rebates.htm#re calnews/2008087464_seattlerates02m0.htm sidential (accessed December 11, 2008). l (accessed December 22, 2008); Lilly, D. 342 Seattle Public Utilities. 2006. Official Yield February 12, 1991. Seattle turns-up water- Estimate and Long-Range Water Demand 315 Saving Water Partnership. Industrial and rate case flow –boost to affect districts in Forecast. Commercial. South King County. Seattle Times. http://www.seattle.gov/util/About_SPU/Wat http://community.seattletimes.nwsource.co http://www.savingwater.org/business_indus- er_System/Plans/index.asp (accessed Febru- m/archive/?date=19910212&slug=1265894 trial.htm (accessed December 22, 2008). ary 12, 2009). (accessed December 22, 2008). 343 316 Sherman, K. November 7, 2001. Tacoma, Saving Water Partnership. About us. 331 Personal contact: Al Dietemann, Seattle Wash., Council Approves $237 Million http://www.savingwater.org/about.htm (ac- Public Utilities (contacted January 2009). Water Project. The News Tribune; Tacoma cessed December 11, 2008). 332 Washington State Department of Health, Public Utilities. The Regional Water Supply 317 Seattle Public Utilities. 2002. Ten year con- Division of Environmental Health, Office of System. http://www.mytpu.org/tacomawa- servation program plan. http://www.seat- Drinking Water. ter/water-system/supply/regional-water- http://www.doh.wa.gov/ehp/dw/Pro- supply/Default.htm (accessed December 22, tle.gov/util/stellent/groups/public/@spu/@cs grams/wue.htm (accessed December 12, 2008). b/documents/webcontent/cos_002837.pdf 2008); Seattle Public Utilities and Purveyor (accessed December 10, 2008). Partners. 1998. op. cit. 344 Personal contact: Rich Gustav. op. cit.

American Rivers 101 345 Seattle Public Utilities. Habitat Conserva- 355 Gleick et al. 2000. Water: Potential Conse- 367 EPA. 2008. Arizona wins WaterSense State tion Plan. quences of Climate Variability and Challenge. http://www.ci.seattle.wa.us/util/About_SP Change for the Water Resources of the http://www.epa.gov/region09/waterinfra- U/Water_System/Habitat_Conservation_Pl United States. US Global Change Research structure/az-watersense-award.html (ac- an—HCP/index.asp (accessed December Program: Washington, DC; Boland, J.J., cessed February 19, 2009). 1997. Assessing urban water use and the 12, 2008). 368 role of water conservation measures under ibid. 346 Christensen, J.H. and B. Hewitson. 2007. climate uncertainty. Climatic Change 369 City of Tucson. Tucson Water—Reclaimed Regional Climate Projections. In Soloman, 37:157-176; Boland, J.J. 1998. Water sup- Water. http://www.ci.tucson.az.us/water/re- S. et al. (Editors), Climate Change 2007: ply and climate uncertainty. Journal of claimed.htm (accessed February 19, 2009). Contemporary Water Research and Educa- The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of tion 112:55-63; Intergovernmental Panel 370 Michor, D.J. 2003. People in nature: envi- Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment on Climate Change. 1996. Hydrology and ronmental history of the Kennebec River, Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Freshwater Ecology. In Watson, R.T. et al. Maine. Master’s Thesis, University of Maine: Climate Change. Cambridge University (Editors), Climate Change 1995: Impacts, Orono, Maine. Press: Cambridge, UK; Climate Impacts Adaptations, and Mitigation of Climate 371 Group. 2009. The Washington climate Change. Meadows, R. 2001. Turning a radical idea change impact assessment. into reality: removing Edwards Dam in Au- 356 http://cses.washington.edu/cig/res/ia/wac- Meyer, J. 2007. Where Rivers are Born: The gusta, Maine. Conservation in Practice 2(1): cia.shtml (accessed February 12, 2009). Scientific Imperative for Defending Small 32-36. Streams and Wetlands. American Rivers 372 Michor, D.J. op. cit. 347 ibid. and the Sierra Club. 373 357 ibid. 348 Climate Impacts Group. 2009. op. cit. ibid. 374 358 The Kennebec Coalition. 1999. A river re- 349 Climate Impacts Group. 2009. op. cit. Mote. 2003. Trends in snow water equiva- born: benefits for people and wildlife of the lent in the Pacific Northwest and their cli- 359 City of Seattle. 2006. op. cit. Kennebec River following the removal of Ed- matic causes. Geophysical Research Letters wards Dam. Natural Resources Council of 360 30:3.1-3.4. Texas Water Matters. 2005. The San Anto- Maine: Augusta, Maine. nio Conservation Story. http://www.texas- 350 Wiley, M.W. 2004. Analysis Techniques to watermatters.org/pdfs/SanAntonio_case_stu 375 Lowry, W.R. 2003. Dam politics: restoring Incorporate Climate Change Information dy.pdf (accessed January 16, 2009). America’s rivers. Georgetown University into Seattle’s Press: Washington, DC. 361 San Antonio Water System. Conservation. 376 Long Range Water Supply Planning. Univer- http://www.saws.org/conservation/ (ac- The Kennebec Coalition. 1999. op. cit. sity of Washington, Master’s Thesis. cessed January 16, 2009). 377 ibid. http://www.tag.washington.edu/papers/pa 362 ibid. pers/Wiley_Thesis_2004.pdf. (accessed De- 378 Lowry, W.R. 2003. op. cit. cember 12, 2008). 363 ibid. 379 Personal contact: Steve Brooke, former Di- 351 Pelto, M.S. Updated June 2008. Impact of 364 Barkin, R. January 1, 2008. Rainmakers. rector of Kennebec Coalition (contacted No- climate change on glacial termini and sur- American City and County. http://ameri- vember 2008). cancityandcounty.com/water/infrastruc- vival. http://www.nichols.edu/depart- 380 ibid. ments/glacier/globalwarming.html ture/rainmakers/index.html (accessed January 16, 2009). 381 (accessed February 12, 2009). Grossman, E. 1999. Watershed: the un- damming of America. Counterpoint: New 365 City of Tucson. Tucson Water—Recharged 352 City of Seattle. 2006. Seattle Climate Ac- York. Water. tion Plan. http://www.seattle.gov/climate/ http://www.ci.tucson.az.us/water/recharged 382 Meadows, R. 2001. op. cit. (accessed December 22, 2008); Wiley, M.W. _water.htm (accessed February 19, 2009). 2004. op. cit. 383 Lowry, W.R. 2003. op. cit. 366 Carruth, R.L., D.R. Pool, and C.E. Ander- 353 Climate Impacts Group. 2009. op. cit. son. 2007. Land subsidence and aquifer-sys- 384 Natural Resources Council of Maine. His- tem compaction in Tucson Active tory of Edwards Dam. 354 Margaret A Palmer et al. 2007. Climate Management Area, south-central Arizona, http://www.nrcm.org/historyedwards.asp change and the world’s river basins: antic- 1987-2005. U.S. Geological Survey Scientific (accessed January 30, 2009). ipating management options. Frontiers in Investigations Report 2007-5190. 385 Ecology and the Environment 6(2): 81-89. http://pubs.usgs.gov/sir/2007/5190/sir5190. Meadows, R. 2001. op cit. pdf (accessed February 19, 2009); Gelt, J. et 386 Personal contact: Steve Brooke. op. cit. al. 2004. Water in the Tucson area: Seeking sustainability. University of Arizona, Water 387 Trout Unlimited. Kennebec Valley Chapter, Resources Research Center. http://ag.ari- Kennebec River, Maine zona.edu/AZWATER/publications/sustain- http://www.tu.org/site/c.kkLRJ7MSKtH/b.32 ability/report_html/index.html (accessed 63797/k.34F4/Kennebec_Valley_Chapter__K February 19, 2009). ennebec_River_Maine.htm (accessed De-

102 Natural Security: How Sustainable Water Strategies are Preparing Communities for a Changing Climate cember 15, 2008). 405 City of Augusta. 2008. op. cit. Press: Cambridge, UK.

388 The Kennebec Coalition. 1999. op. cit. 406 Miller, K. December 19, 2008. $5M distrib- 424 ibid. uted for riverfronts. Bangor Daily News. 389 425 Malakoff, D.A. 1997. Agency says dam http://www.bangornews.com/de- Union of Concerned Scientists. 2006. Cli- should come down. Science 277(5327):762. tail/95528.html (accessed January 14, mate Change is the U.S. Northeast. Union of Concerned Scientists Publications: Cam- 390 2009). Harden, B. November 26, 1997. U.S. orders bridge, Massachusetts. Maine dam destroyed; for the first time, fish 407 Personal contact: Steve Brooke. op. cit. habitat takes priority over a hydroelectric 426 Palmer et al. 2008. op. cit. dam. The Washington Post: Washington, 408 Meadows, R. 2001. op cit. 427 DC. Helvoigt, T.L. 2008. Regional economic im- 409 Barrett, T. July 5th, 2008. Striped bass ap- pacts of recreation on the Wild and Scenic 391 Meadows, R. 2001. op. cit. pear to be taking summer off from Maine Rogue River. ECONorthwest, Eugene, Ore- waters. Kennebec Journal: Augusta, Maine. gon. 392 Natural Resources Council of Maine. 2000. http://www.savethewildrogue.org/Rogue_Ec 410 Bennett, N. 2005. Panel—Dam removal on Environmental benefits of Edwards Dam re- onReport_090508.pdf (accessed February 3, Kennebec River: improving fisheries and moval. Augusta, Maine. 2009). water quality. Universities Council on Water 393 Natural Resources Council of Maine. 1998. Resources Annual Conference: Portland, 428 Natural Resources Board. 1995. Outstand- Agreement reached to remove Edwards Maine, July 14, 2005. ing and Exceptional Resource Waters: Dam. Augusta, Maine. Analysis of Effects on Marinette County, WI. 411 Lewis, L.Y., C. Bohlen and S. Wilson. 2008. Wisconsin Department of Natural Re- 394 City of Augusta. 2008. Capital Riverfront Dams, dam removal, and river restoration: sources. Improvement District Annual Report (ac- a hedonic property value analysis. Contem- http://www.dnr.state.wi.us/org/water/wm/w cessed January 30, 2009). porary Economic Policy 26(2):175-186. qs/orwerw/Marinette.pdf (accessed February 395 Adams, G. April 16, 2006. Forgotten arse- 412 Personal contact: David Courtemanch, 3, 2009). nal gets a new shot at vitality. Associated Maine Department of Environmental Pro- 429 U.S. Department of Energy. Grand Junc- Press tection (contacted November 2008). tion, Colorado: Processing site and disposal http://www.boston.com/news/local/maine/ 413 site. articles/2006/04/16/forgotten_arsenal_gets_ ibid. http://www.lm.doe.gov/documents/sites/co/ a_new_shot_at_vitality/?page=2 (accessed 414 ibid. gj_d/fact_sheet/grandjunction.pdf (accessed January 14, 2009); Remal, G. March 26, February 19, 2009). 2007. Kennebec arsenal sale http://ken- 415 Robbins, J.L. and L.Y. Lewis. 2008. Demol- nebecjournal.mainetoday.com/news/local/3 ish it and they will come: economic benefits 430 Wiggins, M. November 29, 2005. It could 749665.html (accessed January 14, 2009). of restoring a recreational fishery. Journal of be a Grand Junction after all. Grand Junc- American Water Resources Association tion Daily Sentinel; Personal contact: Brian 396 Kennebec River Rail Trail. 44(6):1488-1499. Mahoney, founding member of the Grand http://www.krrt.org (accessed December 16, Junction/Mesa County Riverfront Commis- 2008). 416 ibid. sion and Grand Junction Lions Club mem- 397 Murch, D. August 15, 2008. Fort Halifax 417 Lewis, L.Y., C. Bohlen and S. Wilson. 2008. ber (contacted October 2008). Dam a victim of economics: cons out- op cit. 431 Sullivan, S. September 9, 2008. Locals weighed pros. Kennebec Journal. 418 Michor, D.J. 2003. op. cit. honor Jim Robb. Grand Junction Free Press. 398 Kennebec River Initiative. 2008. Kennebec http://www.gjfreepress.com/arti- 419 River Corridor Action Plan. http://www.kc- Spring Running Festival. cle/20080909/COMMUNITY_NEWS/809089 swcd.org/Projects/KRI%20info/Action%20Pl http://www.springrunning.com/ (accessed 973/0/HEALTH&parentprofile (accessed an%20Page.htm (accessed December 16, December 16, 2008). February 17, 2009).

2008). 420 Personal contact: Dana Morse, University 432 Museum of Western Colorado. Grand Junc- of Maine Marine Extension Team (con- 399 ibid. tion History in Pictures Project. tacted December 2008). http://www.gjhistory.org (accessed January 400 U.S. Water News Online. June 1998. His- 7, 2009). 421 City of Augusta. 2008. op. cit. toric agreement reached to remove Edwards 433 Anna Maria Basquez. June 3, 2008. Retire- Dam. 422 Palmer et al. 2008. Climate Change and ment Magazine Touts GJ. Grand Junction http://www.uswaternews.com/archives/ar- the World’s River Basins: Anticipating Man- Daily Sentinel. cpolicy/8hisagr6.html (accessed December agement Options. Frontiers in Ecology and 29, 2008). the Environment 6(2):81-89. 434 Personal contact: Brian Mahoney. op. cit.

401 ibid. 423 Christensen, J.H. and B. Hewitson. 2007. 435 ibid. Regional Climate Projections. In Soloman, 402 Natural Resources Council of Maine. 2000. S. et al. (Editors), Climate Change 2007: The 436 Colorado Riverfront Foundation. 2004. op. cit. Physical Science Basis. Contribution of People, parks and trails: A guide and his- 403 Lowry, W.R. 2003. op. cit. Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment tory for the Colorado Riverfront Trail in Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Mesa County. Pyramid Printing: Grand 404 Meadows, R. 2001. op. cit. Climate Change. Cambridge University Junction, Colorado.

American Rivers 103 437 Personal contact: Brian Mahoney. op. cit. 457 Moorman, J.W. and P.S. Moorman. 1995. 469 Christensen, J.H. and B. Hewitson. 2007. The Riverfront Commission Trail Survey. op. cit. 438 Colorado Riverfront Foundation. 2004. op. Mesa State College of Colorado. cit. 470 Colorado Water Conservation Board. 2008. 458 Colorado Riverfront Foundation. op. cit. 439 City of Grand Junction. 2007. Las Colonias http://www.riverfrontproject.org/events.htm 471 Park Master Plan. l (accessed February 17, 2009). ibid.

http://www.ci.grandjct.co.us/CityDeptWeb- 472 459 ibid. Pages/AdministrativeServices/CityClerk/PDF Headwater Economics. 2008. Impacts of Energy Development in Colorado with a /2007%20Agendas/CityCouncilWorkshop- 473 Bates, B.C. et al. 2008. Climate change and Case Study of Mesa and Garfield Counties. March19-2007.pdf (accessed February 13, water. Technical paper of the Intergovern- Bozeman, Montana. www.headwaterseco- 2009). mental Panel on Climate Change. IPCC nomics.org/energy (accessed January 5, Secretariat, Geneva. p. 4. 440 ibid. 2009); City of Grand Junction. 2001. 2001 Five-year Consolidated Plan and Action 474 ibid. 441 ibid. Plan for the Community Development Block Grant Program. http://www.ci.grand- 475 Williams, J. June 6, 2007. Senior Scientist, 442 Personal contact: Brian Mahoney. op. cit. jct.co.us/CityDeptWebPages/CommunityDe- Trout Unlimited: Testimony Before velopment/CommunityPlanning/PDF/CDB 443 City of Grand Junction. South Downtown Subcommittee of Water and Power, Energy G/2001%20Five%20Year%20Consoli- and Natural Resources Committee, US Neighborhood Plan. dated%20Plan/pdf/ExecSummary.pdf (ac- http://www.gjcity.org/CityDeptWebPages/Co cessed January 5, 2009). Senate. http://www.livingrivers.org/pdfs/Con- mmunityDevelopment/CommunityPlan- gressionalTestimony/WilliamsTestimony.pdf ning/PDF/SouthDowntown/FinalDocu- 460 Colorado Advisory Committee to the U.S. (accessed January 7, 2009). ments/Plan%20Report%20-%20Final%20Dr Commission on Civil Rights. 2003. The aft.pdf (accessed February 17, 2009). Grand Junction Report: Issues of Equality in 476 Bates et al. 2008. op cit. the Mesa Valley. 444 Colorado Riverfront Foundation. 2004. op. http://www.usccr.gov/pubs/sac/co0403/gj.p 477 Williamson, S. et al. 2008. Economic Im- cit. df (accessed January 7, 2009). pacts of Climate Change on Colorado. Cen- ter for Integrative Environmental Research. 445 461 Personal contact: Bennett Boeschenstein, ibid. http://www.cier.umd.edu/climateadapta- Mesa County planner and ex-officio River- tion/Colorado%20Economic%20Im- 462 City of Grand Junction. 2001. op. cit. front Commission member (contacted No- pacts%20of%20Climate%20Change.pdf vember 2008). 463 Korte, N. and R. Thul. 1983. US Depart- (accessed January 6, 2009). ment of Energy Facilities—Grand Junction, 446 Colorado Riverfront Foundation. 2004. op. 478 Gamble, J. et al. 2008. Analyses of the ef- Colorado, and Monticello, Utah: 1982 envi- fects of global change on human health cit. ronmental monitoring report. Bendix Field and welfare and human systems. U.S. Cli- Engineering Corporation, U.S. Department 447 Colorado State Parks. 2007. James M. mate Change Science Program, Synthesis of Energy contract AC13-76GJ01664. Robb—Colorado River State Park FY 06-07 and Assessment Product 4.6. Park Facts. http://parks.state.co.us/NR/rdon- 464 Peterson, M.J. et al. 2002. Trace element 479 Fagre, D.B. et al. 2009. Thresholds of Cli- lyres/7BDB1049-005D-4084-B168- contamination in benthic macroinverte- mate Change in Ecosystems. U.S. Climate 67B46C8009F8/0/JMR_ColoradoRiver_FactS brates from a small stream near a uranium Change Science Program, Synthesis and As- heet1107.pdf (accessed January 7, 2009). mill tailings site. Environmental Monitoring sessment Product 4.2. and Assessment 74: 193-208. 448 ibid. 480 Mayor touts Grand Junction’s diversified 465 Personal contact: Brian Mahoney. op. cit. 449 Personal contact: Brian Mahoney. op. cit. economy. 2009. CBS News4 Denver. 466 ibid. http://cbs4denver.com/recession/Grand.Jun 450 Great Colorado Outdoors. GOCO Grants ction.economy.2.931565.html (accessed Awarded in Mesa County Through 6/2008. 467 Colorado Riverfront Foundation. 2004. op. April 10, 2009). http://www.goco.org/Goco_files/5797_Mesa cit. 481 Godschalk, D.R. 2003. Natural hazard mit- %20County.pdf (accessed January 7, 2009). 468 Colorado Water Conservation Board. 2008. igation: creating resilient cities. Natural 451 ibid. Colorado Climate Change: A Synthesis to Hazards Review 4(3): 136-143. Support Water Resource Management and 482 452 ibid. Adaptation. ibid.

http://cwcb.state.co.us/Home/Climate- 483 453 Moore, M. et al. 2006. Linking Human and Colorado Riverfront Foundation. 2004. op. Change/ClimateChangeCOReport.htm (ac- Ecosystem Health: The Benefits of Commu- cit. cessed January 5, 2009); Christensen, J.H. nity Involvement in Conservation Groups. and B. Hewitson. 2007. Regional Climate 454 Ecohealth 3(4): 255-261. Colorado State Parks. 2007. op cit. Projections. In Soloman, S. et al. (Editors), Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science 484 455 ibid. Trinity River Corridor. http://www.trini- Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to tyrivercorridor.org/ (accessed February 18, 456 Colorado State Parks. 2007. op. cit. the Fourth Assessment Report of the Inter- 2009). governmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK.

104 Natural Security: How Sustainable Water Strategies are Preparing Communities for a Changing Climate 485 Otto, B. et al. 2004. Ecological riverfront 498 Milwaukee Metropolitan Sewerage District. Page 6: City of Portland, Bureau of design. American Planning Association: Greenseams. Environmental Services Chicago, Illinois. http://v3.mmsd.com/Greenseams.aspx (ac- Page 7 top: Emily Hauth, City of Portland, 486 cessed March 31, 2009). Mattai, H.F. 1969. Floods of June 1965 in Bureau of Environmental Services the South Platte River Basin, Colorado. U.S. 499 Bodenhamer, DJ and RG Barrows. 1994. op Geological Survey Paper 1850B. cit. Page 7 above: Tim Lindenbaum

487 Christensen, J.H. and B. Hewitson. 2007. 500 Natural Resource Conservation Service, Page 8 top: Michael Buffington, Society of Regional Climate Projections. In Climate Floodplain Easement Program. Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Wetland Scientists http://www.in.nrcs.usda.gov/programs/FEP/ Contribution of Working Group I to the FEPhomepage.html (accessed March 25, Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergov- Page 8 bottom: Greg Kriss 2009). ernmental Panel on Climate Change, S. Page 10: Suburbanbloke Soloman, D. Qin, and M. Manning, Eds.; 501 Hoffner, Jenny. 2008. Hidden reservoirs: Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, why water efficiency is the best solution for Page 11: John Schmidt UK. the southeast. American Rivers. 488 ibid. 502 Southwest Florida Water Management Dis- Page 12 top: Dajabac 489 Kundzewicz, Z.W et al. “Freshwater Re- trict. 2005. Water rates: conserving water Page 12 bottom: Sgt. Oscar M. Sanchez- sources and Their Management.” Climate and protecting revenues. Alvarez Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and http://www.swfwmd.state.fl.us/conserva- Vulnerability. Contribution of Working tion/waterrates/ (accessed March 30, 2009). Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of Page 15: Tim Lindenbaum 503 the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Hoffner, Jenny. 2008. op cit. Change, M.L. Parry et al. Eds., Cambridge: Page 16: City of Portland, Bureau of 504 Solley, WB, Pierce, RR and Perlman, HA. Cambridge University Press, 2007. 173-210. Environmental Services 1998. Estimated use of water in the United 490 Climate Change Science Program. 2008. States in 1995. U.S. Department of the Inte- Page 17: James M. Robb, Colorado State Weather and climate extremes in a chang- rior. P. 20. Park ing climate. Regions of focus: North Amer- 505 Stern, N. 2006. Stern Review: The Econom- ica, Hawaii, Caribbean, and U.S. Pacific Page 18 top: James M. Robb Colorado Islands. A report by the U.S. Climate ics of Climate Change. http://www.hm-trea- State Park Change Science Program and the Subcom- sury.gov.uk/sternreview_index.htm mittee on Global Change Research. Depart- (accessed February 18, 2009). Page 18 bottom: Michael Buffington, ment of Commerce, NOAA’s National Society of Wetland Scientists Climatic Data Center, Washington, DC, USA, P. 100. Page 20 left: City of Portland, Bureau of Environmental Services 491 Union of Concerned Scientists. 2003. Con- PHOTO fronting climate change in the great lakes. CREDITS Page 20 middle: Squid Vicious 492 ibid. Page 20 right: Dr. Tulloch 493 Dorfman, Mark. 2004. Swimming in Cover left: Squid Vicious sewage: the growing problem of sewage pol- Page 21 left: Squid Vicious lution and how the Bush Administration is Cover right: Kevin Perry, City of Portland putting our health and environment at risk. Bureau of Environmental Services Page 21 middle: City of Portland, Bureau of Natural Resources Defense Council and En- Environmental Services vironmental Integrity Project. Inside Cover: Paul Keleher Page 21 right: Jason Clor 494 Denzin, Brent. 2008. Local water policy in- Page ii: Joel Bedford novation: a road map for community based stormwater solutions. American Rivers. Page 22: City of Portland, Bureau of Table of Contents: Christopher Chan Environmental Services 495 Samet, M and Wu, J. 2006. Unnatural dis- asters, natural solutions: lessons from the Page iv top: New York Department of Page 27: City of Portland, Bureau of flooding of New Orleans. American Rivers. Environmental Protection, Staten Island Environmental Services Bluebelt Program 496 Samet and Wu. 2006. op cit. Page 28 left: Adam Kuban Page iv bottom: James M. Robb, Colorado 497 FEMA, Flood Mitigation Assistance Pro- State Parks gram. Page 28 middle: Teresia http://www.fema.gov/government/grant/fm a/index.shtm (accessed March 25, 2009). Page 4: Left: Matt Stansberry Page 28 right: New York Department of Environmental Protection, Staten Island Page 4: Right: Shutterstock Bluebelt Program

American Rivers 105 Page 29 left: New York Department of Page 49 middle: Michael Buffington, Page 73 right: George Manning, Tomorrow Environmental Protection, Staten Island Society of Wetland Scientists Hill Farm Bluebelt Program Page 49 right: Michael Buffington, Society Page 74: Patrick Kaine Page 29 middle: Dave Phillips of Wetland Scientists Page 79: Shutterstock Page 29 right: New York Department of Page 52: Suzanne Brown, Clayton County Environmental Protection, Staten Island Water Authority Page 80 top: Melanie Parvey Bluebelt Program Page 54: Clayton County Water Authority Page 80 bottom: Shutterstock Page 30: Dave Phillips Page 56 left: Michael Porter Page 82 left: John Torpy, Iowa Public Page 33: New York Department of Television Environmental Protection, Staten Island Page 56 middle: Ralph Naess, Seattle Bluebelt Program Public Utilities Page 82 middle: Nelson Ross

Page 34 left: Jerry Quebe Page 56 right: Ralph Naess, Seattle Public Page 82 right: Mundoo Utilities Page 34 middle: Joanne France Page 83 left: Patricia Pennell Page 57: Saving Water Partnership Page 34 right: Joanne France Page 83 middle: Wild Water Adventures, Page 57 left: Seattle Public Utilities LLC Page 35 left: Betty France Page 83 right: Kevin Perry, City of Portland Page 57 middle: Saving Water Partnership Page 35 middle: Village of Soldiers Grove Bureau of Environmental Services Page 57 right: Tree Hensdill Page 35 right: Betty France Page 86: New York Department of Envi- ronmental Protection Page 58: Saving Water Partnership Page 37: Jerry Quebe Page 88: Shutterstock Page 61 top: Seattle Public Utilities Page 39: USDA Natural Resources Conser- vation Service Page 90: Kevin Perry, City of Portland Page 61 bottom: Seattle Public Utilities Bureau of Environmental Services Page 40 left: Steve Masiello Page 64 left: American Rivers Page 93: : Army Corps of Engineers Page 40 middle: Boston Sewer and Water Commission Page 64 middle: Ben Scicluna Back Cover: Dock Drumming

Page 40 right: Erica Simek, New England Page 64 right: Matt Dyer Division, Army Corps of Engineers. Page 65 left: Laura Wildman Page 41 left: Erica Simek, New England Division of the Army Corps of Engineers Page 65 middle: Jennifer Schlick

Page 41 middle: Paul Keleher Page 65 right: Jason Bartlett, Maine Department of Marine Resources Page 41 right: Dan Brody, Newton Conservators Page 68: Jason Bartlett, Maine Department of Marine Resources Page 43: Erica Simek, New England Division of the Army Corps of Engineers Page 71: Chef Andree

Page 44: Dan Brody, Newton Conservators. Page 72 left: George Manning, Tomorrow Hill Farm Page 47: Paul Keleher Page 72 middle: Suburban Slice Page 48 left: Meredith Farmer Page 72 right: Todd Ehlers Page 48 middle: Mark N Page 73 left: George Manning, Tomorrow Page 49 left: Suzanne Brown, Clayton Hill Farm County Water Authority Page 73 middle: James M. Robb, Colorado State Park

106 Natural Security: How Sustainable Water Strategies are Preparing Communities for a Changing Climate To learn more, go to www. AmericanRivers.org.

Many forward-looking communities have become more limited water supplies by embracing green infrastructure. American Rivers has conducted in-depth research on eight communities’ sustainable green infrastructure approaches, and found that these approaches can provide clean water, conserve rivers and ecosystems, and provide a wide array change. This executive summary of “Natural Security” provides an overview of these smarter, greener strategies.

About American Rivers American Rivers is the leading conservation organization fighting for healthy rivers so communities can thrive. American Rivers protects and restores America’s rivers

1973, American Rivers has more than 65,000 members and

Visit www.AmericanRivers.org.

Written by Will Hewes and Kristen Pitts.

This report was made possible with funding from the Anthony A. Lapham Fellowship and an anonymous donor.

Photo: Riparian area along urban river.

Printed on paper that contains

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