Ashland Post Fire Landscape
United States Assessment Forest Depart ment of Service Agriculture Ashland Ranger District Custer National Forest Powder River and Rosebud Counties, MT May 2014
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Ashland Post Fire Landscape Assessment 2014 2
Table of Contents 1.0 Introduction ...... 10 1.1 Ashland Ecological and Social/Economic Niche ...... 11 1.1.1 Livestock Grazing ...... 11 1.1.2 Mixed Prairie and Forest ...... 11 1.1.3 Disturbance Processes ...... 12 1.1.4 Habitat and Watershed Conservation ...... 12 1.1.5 Forest Products ...... 12 1.1.5 Recreation ...... 13 2.0 Conservation Goals ...... 13 2.1 Watershed ...... 13 2.2 Aquatic and Riparian Systems, Groundwater Dependent Ecosystems ...... 13 2.3 Hardwood Draw and Broadleaf Deciduous Woodland Ecosystems ...... 13 2.4 Mixed Grass Prairie Ecosystems ...... 14 2.5 Ponderosa Pine Ecosystems ...... 14 3.0 Biophysical Context ...... 14 3.1 Climate (weather station data) ...... 14 3.1.1 Historic climate variability ...... 14 3.2 Biophysical Environment – Ecological Units ...... 16 3.2.1 Northern Great Plains, Powder River Basin-Scoria Hills Sub-region ...... 17 3.2.2 Landscape Characteristics ...... 17 3.2.3 Climate ...... 17 3.2.4 Potential Natural Vegetation ...... 18 3.2.5 Landtype Associations, Ashland Ranger District ...... 18 3.3 Disturbance Processes ...... 21 3.3.1 Fire (Fire history, literature, Fire Regime) ...... 21 4.0 Biological Diversity Existing Condition ...... 22 4.1 Biological Diversity ...... 22
Ashland Post Fire Landscape Assessment 2014 3 4.1.1 Vegetation ...... 22 4.1.2 Forest and Woodlands ...... 22 4.1.3 Shrubland and Grassland ...... 23 4.1.4 Riparian and Wetland Areas ...... 24 4.1.5 Badlands-Sparse Vegetation ...... 25 4.1.6 Vegetation Dynamics ...... 25 4.2 Aquatic, Riparian Hardwood Draw, and Broadleaf Deciduous Ecosystems Existing Conditions ... 28 4.2.1 Aquatic and Riparian Systems ...... 28 4.2.2 Areas with Limited Riparian ...... 30 4.2.3 Forest Plan Associated Riparian Key Habitats and Indicator Species ...... 30 4.2.4 Relationship of Hardwood Draws and Riparian ...... 30 4.2.5 Hardwoods Overview ...... 31 4.3 Mixed Grass Prairie Ecosystem Existing Condition ...... 36 4.3.1 General Description ...... 36 4.3.2 Uplands ...... 37 4.3.3 Upland Vegetation Existing Condition ...... 37 4.3.4 Transitory Range Created by Recent Fires ...... 38 4.3.5 Invasive Species ...... 38 4.3.6 Forest Plan Associated Mixed Grass Prairie Key Habitats and Management Indicator Species ...... 40 4.4 Ponderosa Pine Ecosystem Existing Condition ...... 40 4.4.1 Introduction ...... 40 4.4.2 Past Large Wildfire on the Ashland District – 1988 to 2012 ...... 42 4.4.3 Ponderosa Pine Cover Impacted by Wildfire from 2000 to 2012 ...... 43 4.4.4 Extent of Forest Cover and Change as a Result of Large Wildfires from 1990 to 2012...... 43 4.4.5 Individual Forest Types and Change in Cover Extent as a Result of Large Wildfires from 1990 to 2012 ...... 46 4.4.6 Extent of Ponderosa Pine Cover by Canopy Cover and Size Class and Change From 1990’s to 2012...... 50 4.4.7 Acres Suitable For Timber Product Post Wildfire Disturbance ...... 56 4.4.8 Reforestation Assessment and Strategy for Return of Forest Cover for Large Wildfires 2000 to 2012...... 58
Ashland Post Fire Landscape Assessment 2014 4 4.4.9 Average Structure for the Dominant Size and Cover Classes on Moist and Dry Aspects for Unburned Ponderosa Pine Forested Areas...... 62 4.4.10 Current Beetle Hazard in Unburned and Low Severity Ponderosa Pine Areas ...... 64 4.4.11 Potential Mortality from Pine Engraver Beetle and Woodborer in 2012 Burned Areas ...... 71 4.4.12 Ponderosa pine forested areas that have been burned over in large wildfires form 1990’s to 2012 that have a potential re-burn risk as a result of increased surface fuels from fallen fire killed trees...... 73 4.4.13 Past Management Activities from 1986 to 2012 ...... 75 4.4.14 Forest Plan Associated Terrestrial Key Habitats and Management Indicator Species - Forested Systems (ponderosa pine, rocky mountain juniper ...... 78 4.4.15 Fire Disturbance ...... 88 5.0 Soil and Water Existing Condition ...... 92 5.1 Water quantity ...... 92 5.2 Channel and draw morphology ...... 94 5.3 Hydrogeology and Groundwater Dependent Ecosystems ...... 96 5.4 Watershed Condition ...... 97 5.5 Soil Productivity and Capability ...... 102 6.0 Social and Economic System Existing Condition, ...... 105 6.1 The Five County Area ...... 105 6.2 Livestock Grazing Management ...... 107 6.2.1 Grazing Capability ...... 108 6.2.1 Stocking Rates ...... 108 6.3 Timber Management ...... 110 6.4 Recreation ...... 111 6.4.1 The Recreation Setting ...... 111 6.4.2 Recreation Opportunity Spectrum ...... 113 6.4.3 Recreational Use ...... 114 6.5 Heritage Resources ...... 115 6.5.1 Introduction ...... 116 6.5.2 Cultural Landscapes of the Ashland District ...... 117 6.5.3 Heritage Resource Record ...... 119 7.0 Infrastructure – Roads, Trails, Facilities Existing Condition ...... 123 7.1 Transportation System ...... 123
Ashland Post Fire Landscape Assessment 2014 5 7.1.1 Operational maintenance versus objective maintenance levels...... 124 8.0 Desired Conditions ...... 127 8.1 Aquatic, Riparian Systems, and Groundwater Dependent Ecosystems ...... 127 8.2 Hardwood Draw and Broadleaf Deciduous Ecosystems ...... 127 8.3 Mixed Grass Prairie Ecosystem...... 128 8.4 Ponderosa Pine Ecosystem...... 130 9.0 Opportunities and Potential Management Tools to Move from Existing to Desired Conditions . 132 Vision/Strategy ...... 132 GIS Project ...... 133 9.1 Mixed Grass Prairie/Shrublands Opportunities ...... 133 9.2 Hardwood Draws Opportunities ...... 135 9.3 Riparian Opportunities ...... 137 9.5 Ponderosa Pine Opportunities ...... 140 10.0 Relationship to Other Regional Assessments & the Forest Plan ...... 144 10.1 Watershed Condition Framework ...... 144 10.2 Northern Region Integrated Restoration and Protection Strategy (IRPPS) ...... 144 10.3 Northern Region Overview ...... 144 10.4 Forest Plan, Forest wide and Management Area Goals, Objectives and Standards...... 144 10.5 Montana’s Comprehensive Fish & Wildlife Conservation Strategy ...... 144
List of Tables
Table 1. Period of Record Monthly Climate Summary for Miles City, MT ...... 15 Table 2. Precipitation amount for 6 and 24-hour events at two, five, and ten-year recurrence intervals on the Ashland District (NOAA, 1973)...... 15 Table 3. Natural Vegetation Classes of the Ashland Ranger District (as of 2006)...... 22 Table 4. Acres of Riparian by Type...... 29 Table 5. Inventoried Riparian Summary...... 29 Table 6. Summary of dominant species composition by layer for undisturbed hardwood draw communities in the green ash/chokecherry habitat type (Girard 1989)...... 35 Table 7. Taylor’s Ecosystem Classification – Plant Communities...... 37 Table 8. Key Changes In Dry Forest Landscapes ...... 41
Ashland Post Fire Landscape Assessment 2014 6 Table 9A. Reforestation Assessment Using Fire Intensity/Severity Mapping, Aspect and Pre Fire Vegetation Classification...... 60 TABLE 9B: Minimum Trees per Acre and % Stocked Area by Suitability for Certification of Regeneration...... 60 Table 10A: Generalized Hazard Assessment for Bark Beetle for Ponderosa Pine...... 70 Table 10B: Existing Combined Beetle Hazard by Management Area ...... 70 Table 10C: Percent of Combined Beetle Hazard by Management Area...... 71 Table 11: Acres of Change in Canopy Cover and Size Classes from 1990’s to 2012...... 74 Table 12. Risk of Re-burn by Acres of Change in Canopy Cover and Size Classes...... 75 Table 13: Acres of Past Management Activities by Treatment Type ...... 76 Table 14. Mule Deer Population Estimates for Various Years Utilizing 10 Year Averages (FWP)...... 79 Table 15. Whitetailed Deer Population Estimates for Various Years Utilizing 10 Year Averages (FWP). .. 79 Table 16. Summary of Confirmed and Potential Goshawk Nest Territories, Ashland RD, Custer NF Before the 2012 Wildfires...... 87 Table 17. Sixth Hydrologic Unit Code numbers, names, and acreage encompassed by the 2012 Ash Creek and Taylor Creek Fires within FS boundaries...... 93 Table 18. Watersheds on the Ashland Ranger District with ratings of 1.6, 1.7, and 1.8 (in transition zone between CC1 and CC2)...... 101 Table 19. Prevalent soil taxonomies found across the Ashland District...... 103 Table 20. Soil series, associated slope classes, and soil textures dominating the Ashland District. From Robinson 2011...... 103 Table 21. The Trend in Volume Cut and Sold for the Custer National Forest and Revenue Received. ... 110 Table 22. Current ROS Classification by Acres and Percent...... 114 Table 23. Historic Landscape Characteristics and Ashland District Features ...... 119 Table 24. Site Density by Inventory Type ...... 120 Table 25. The operational maintenance level of routes (roads and trails) by mile for Ashland Ranger District...... 125 Table 26. The objective maintenance level of routes (roads and trails) by mile for Ashland Ranger District...... 125 Table 27 . Miles of administrative use only roads...... 125 Table 28. Miles of roads open yearlong on and near Ashland Ranger District...... 126 Table 29. Miles of motorized trails by designation type on Ashland Ranger District...... 126 Table 30. Mixed Grass Prairie/Shrublands Opportunities on Ashland Ranger District...... 133 Table 31. Hardwood Draws Opportunities – See Appendices F and G for further management and restoration considerations...... 135 Table 32. Riparian Ecosystem Opportunities on Ashland Ranger District. See Appendices F & G for further management considerations ...... 137 Data source: Range INFRA, NHP Tracker database for aquatic lentic habitat condition...... 138 Table 33. Ponderosa Pine Ecosystem Opportunities on Ashland Ranger District...... 140 Table 34 Social Assessment Opportunities ...... 142 Table 35. Watershed Opportunities ...... 142
Ashland Post Fire Landscape Assessment 2014 7
List of Figures
Figure 1. Otter Creek hydrograph for May 15- June 15, 2013. It is an example of flashy hydrologic response following a high-intensity short duration precipitation event...... 16 Figure 2: Ecological Regions and Sub-regions of the Ashland Ranger District ...... 19 Figure 3. Landtype association ecological units - Ashland Ranger District (Ford et. al. 1997) ...... 20 Figure 4. Percent change in vegetation cover type between non-forest and ponderosa pine-juniper forest 1995 – 2012. Based on data from 1995 SILC 3, 2009 R1 VMap, and 2012 BARC...... 26 Figure 5. Change in forest pattern from 1995 to 2012, Ashland Ranger District...... 27 Figure 6. Map of Riparian Types ...... 28 Figure 7. General Location Map of Green Ash (left). Figure 8. Green Ash Existing Condition – Pre-burn ...... 33 Figure 8. Aspen Locations – Ashland Ranger District...... 36 Figure 9. Ashland Ranger District Noxious Weed Locations ...... 39 Other Invasives ...... 39 Figure 10: Acres of Ponderosa pine forest cover impacted by low, moderate or high wildfire from 2000 to 2012...... 44 Figure 11: Percent of total acres of Ponderosa pine forest cover impacted by low, moderate or high wildfire from 2000 to 2012...... 44 Figure 12: Percent forest and non-forest cover on the Ashland Ranger District 1990’s, 2006 and 2012. 45 Figure 13: Comparison of percent forest cover and non-forest cover by time period on the Ashland Ranger District...... 46 Figure 14: Percent of Forest Cover Change from 1990’s to 2012 post fire on the Ashland Ranger District...... 46 Figure 15: Percent forest cover type for 1990’s and 2006...... 47 Figure 16: Percent forest cover type 2012...... 48 Figure 17: Percent of forest cover type by year...... 48 Figure 18: Percent of forest cover type change over time...... 49 Figure 19: Percent of individual forest cover types...... 49 Figure 20. Ponderosa pine by size class and canopy cover class in 2006...... 50 Figure 21. Comparison of Ponderosa pine size class and canopy cover class in 2012...... 51 Figure 22. Ponderosa pine by percent of size class and canopy cover class in the 1990’s...... 51 Figure 23. Comparison of Ponderosa pine size class and canopy cover class in the 1990’s...... 52 Figure 24. Ponderosa pine by percent of size class and canopy cover class in 2006...... 53 Figure 25. Comparison of Ponderosa pine size class and canopy cover class in the 1990’s...... 53 Figure 26: Percent of Ponderosa pine canopy cover class by year...... 54 Figure 27: Percent of Ponderosa pine canopy cover class change from 1990 to 2012...... 55 Figure 28. Percent of size class by year...... 55 Figure 29. Percent of crown cover change from 1990 to 2012...... 56
Ashland Post Fire Landscape Assessment 2014 8 Figure 30. Acres of Forest Plan Management Areas identified with lands suitable for timber management and having a timber product that have not been affected by large wildfire...... 57 Figure 31. Acres of Forest Plan Management Areas identified with lands suitable for timber management and having a timber product that have been affected by wildfire from 2000 to 2012. Class 1 and 2 were only considered available...... 58 Figure 32. Acres of Ponderosa pine impacted by low, moderate or high severity fire by year and percent of total acres impacted (2000 to 2012)...... 61 Figure 33. Acres of Regeneration Strategy by Management Area...... 62 Figure 34. Height and TPA relationship for moist aspects with 10 to 39% canopy cover...... 64 Figure 35. Height and TPA relationship for dry aspects with 10 to 39% canopy cover...... 65 Figure 36: Height and TPA relationship for moist aspects with 40 to 69% canopy cover...... 65 Figure 37: Height and TPA relationship for dry aspects with 40 to 69% canopy cover...... 66 Figure 38: Height and TPA relationship for moist aspects with 70% and greater canopy cover...... 66 Figure 39: Height and TPA relationship for dry aspects with 70% and greater canopy cover...... 67 Pictures 1 and 2: Typical stocking levels and stem diameters within 15 Elk Project area stands surveyed. Photos by Joel Egan...... 69 Figure 40. District wide beetle hazard (includes unburned to low severity within 2009 to 2012 fire perimeters)...... 72 Figure 41: Fire acreage by burn intensity for 2012 Ash Creek and Taylor Creek Fires...... 72 Figure 42: Percent of burn intensity for 2012 Ash Creek and Taylor Creek Fires...... 73 Figure 43: Acres of change if Ponderosa pine canopy cover and size classes from 1990’s to 2012...... 74 Figure 44: Acres of Management Activities by Time Intervals ...... 77 Figure 45: Percent of Acres by Treatment Type by Time Interval ...... 77 Figure 46. Known and suspected goshawk nests on Ashland Ranger District before the 2012 wildfires. . 86 Figure 47. Otter Creek looking upstream at a cross section within the Twenty Mile administrative site. Bankfull elevation in natural stream channels should correlate with the top of the bank. Top of bank is approximately five feet higher than bankfull at this location...... 95 Figure 48. Photo of recovering stream bank adjacent to an over-widened channel profile (Courtesy of Ashland Range District)...... 96 Figure 49. Percent of watersheds in each Watershed Condition Class for the Ashland District. Class 1 watersheds are rated as Functioning Properly and Class 2 watersheds are rated as Functioning at Risk...... 98 Figure 50. Ashland Ranger District Watershed Condition Class Ratings...... 100 Figure 51. 1960 photo of contour furrowing on the southern part of the Ashland District...... 105 Figure 52. Distribution of Forest Service Grazing Fees ...... 107 Figure 53: Trend in Volume Sold and Cut on the Custer National Forest (1997-2009)...... 110 Figure 54. Trend in Timber Revenue on the Custer National Forest (1997-2009)...... 111
Ashland Post Fire Landscape Assessment 2014 9 1.0 Introduction
The Ashland Ranger District (hereafter District) is located in southeast Montana is comprised of 436,546 acres of National Forest System lands. During the 2012 fire season 143,200 acres of National Forest System lands were burned on the District (approximately one third of the District). Two fires, the Ash Creek and Taylor Creek fires, burned the majority of the acreage totaling 142,657 acres of National Forest System (NFS) lands (Ash Creek 88, 465 acres; and Taylor Creek 54,192 acres). Across all ownerships, 312,418acres were burned in 2012 including NFS lands, Northern Cheyenne Reservation lands, State, and private lands.
The past 20 years have seen a momentous difference in the size and effects of wildfire on the District landscape. This District alone has seen more than 380,000 acres of lands burned by wildfires within that timeframe. This, in part, compels us to conduct a comprehensive assessment of current conditions, trends and management practices in response to the 2012 fires in the context of the fire history over the past 20- 30 years.
This assessment represents our understanding of the ecosystem components, conditions, processes, and interactions across the District and the ecosystem services (niche) supported by these ecosystems components. It provides context for describing the niche (role for goods and services) the District has fulfilled and continues to fulfill locally and regionally and how changed conditions associated with disturbance processes affect management strategies and opportunities for the future. The assessment utilizes available information gathered and analyzed by a 14 person interdisciplinary team, guided and directed by District Ranger Walt Allen.
This assessment is organized into 10 sections and appendices. Section 1 identifies the need for conducting this assessment and presents the niches the District has fulfilled and continues to fulfill for strategizing management direction into the future. Section 2 describes the overarching conservation goals. Section 3 presents the Biophysical context for the District. Sections 4, 5, 6, and 7 describes the existing conditions on the District for Biologic Diversity that includes aquatic and riparian systems, hardwood draws and broadleaf deciduous ecosystems, mixed grass prairie ecosystem, ponderosa pine ecosystem, soil and water that includes watershed conditions, the social and economic system, and infrastructure. Section 8 describes the Desired Conditions for each of the principal ecosystems that include the aquatic and riparian systems, hardwood draws and broadleaf deciduous ecosystem, mixed grass prairie ecosystem, ponderosa pine ecosystem, and soils and water. Section 9 outlines opportunities to move from existing conditions to desired conditions. Section 10 presents the relationship of this assessment to other regional assessments. The Appendices incorporate additional material needed to more fully understand the assessment.
In June 1987, Regional Forester James C. Overbay selected Alternative 10 as the alternative to guide the management of the Custer National Forest into the future. He selected alternative 10 because he said the “decision speaks to many of the resources of the land” and that it was responsive to the issues. He recognized “people as part of the environment”, but also wanted “to ensure a caring for the land and to provide choices for future generations.” No one single factor or individual consideration constituted the total rationale for his decision. Instead, it was the consideration of many factors and their interrelationships and interconnectedness as being key in determining a reasonable balance that led to his decision. This remains important today because the 1986 Land and Resource Management Plan (hereafter Forest Plan) for the Custer National Forest is the guiding direction for the Forest today. The Forest Plan identifies forest-wide and management area goals, objectives and standards under which the
Ashland Post Fire Landscape Assessment 2014 10 District and Forest are managed (pp. 3 through 110). Forest Plan goals and objectives for the various resources emphasize an integrated management approach designed to attain healthy and productive soil, air and water and provide for diversity of vegetation and habitats.
This landscape assessment describes human (social and economic), biological and physical conditions, processes and interactions across the District in consideration of the large wildfires that have occurred over the past 20 to 30 years. The assessment will focus on specific issues or management questions, values and uses associated with watersheds and mixed grass prairie, riparian and hardwood draws, and ponderosa pine ecosystems that comprise the District landscape. For each of the principal ecosystems, the assessment will describe past trends, existing conditions, and desired conditions for both biophysical and social elements that are essential for making sound management decisions. Utilizing a framework centered around the major ecosystems, management opportunities will be identified for later project specific NEPA analysis and decision making.
1.1 Ashland Ecological and Social/Economic Niche
The following are brief descriptions of the niches the District fulfills locally and regionally. A brief discussion of the disturbance processes that have shaped the ecological, social and economic environments is also included.
1.1.1 Livestock Grazing In this sparsely populated region grazing by large herbivores , principally ungulates such as deer and elk, has been occurring for centuries. In about the 1880s livestock grazing was introduced into the region and became a large part of the landscape. The District permits over 20,000 head of cattle and adds over $12 million in livestock value annually. Archaeologically, there is little evidence that buffalo numbers or duration was equivalent to the kinds of cattle numbers introduced to (what became the Otter Creek Forest Reserve) this landscape in the 1880’s. However, many of the vegetative communities occurring on the District have evolved under the influence of grazing systems, either by domestic livestock or big game. Mixed grass prairie ecosystems on the District are extremely diverse providing habitat diversity and opportunities that are appreciated today for recreation, hunting, economic benefits, and ecosystem health.
1.1.2 Mixed Prairie and Forest What is known today as the Ashland Ranger District was first set-aside in 1907 as the Otter Creek Forest Reserve (citation). This speaks to a notable ‘forest’ in the eastern Montana plains grassland setting. This ‘forest’ might best be described biologically as a patch mosaic of Ponderosa Pine stands within a mixed grass prairie. It has a matrix of grasslands maintained by fire with multiple patches of differing ages of ponderosa pine stands. An extension of the Wolf Mountains, this low-elevation mixed conifer/grassland landscape also supports mixed deciduous-conifer wooded draws with perennial and intermittent streams giving rise to hardwood-shrub riparian communities. Our conservation of this prairie-forest ecosystem is dependent on our understanding of how the biophysical environment (climate, physical landscape, erosive sedimentary badlands) defines our arrangement of the prairie (grassland/shrubland, ponderosa pine) species and riparian (green ash,
Ashland Post Fire Landscape Assessment 2014 11 aspen, cottonwood) species. Our next challenge is recognizing disturbance agents (fire, dynamic erosion, climate change, grazing) and their effects and trends.
1.1.3 Disturbance Processes Cattle grazing and wildfire are the two major disturbance processes that actively drive the successional arrangement and composition of the vegetative landscape across the District. Livestock- grazing is a socially and economically accepted disturbance in the Ashland region because it is the primary and nearly exclusive economy. Fire is also a socially accepted disturbance in the Ashland region because it is recognized as the primary means for grassland maintenance in this pine/prairie ecosystem where the Ponderosa Pine plays such a limited role economically. Ecologically, fire is the primary disturbance agent in setting and/or re-setting our forest/grassland patch mosaic. For the past 20 years, our fire paradigm has been “patching-up” the ponderosa pine stands and increasing the inter- connectedness of the grasslands matrix at the expense of the ponderosa pine forest. From a livestock- grazing perspective, this trend is positive; reducing conflicts with wildlife and creating more ‘edge’ habitats important to so many indicator species. Fire on this landscape challenges our understanding of landscape resiliency and the dynamic nature of our shifting habitat boundaries and diversity. This can best be described as a ‘shifting patch mosaic’, a powerful ecological concept as a management strategy.
1.1.4 Habitat and Watershed Conservation Our key terrestrial habitats are dynamically being shaped these past twenty years primarily by fire, but again significantly by the introduction of cattle since the 1880’s. Conservation of these habitats is guided through indicator species identified in the Forest Plan (i.e. deer, goshawk, sage grouse, sharptail grouse, Brewer’s sparrow, etc.). Conservation and restoration of aquatic habitats has gained increased importance with the recognition of several high interest species of amphibians and macro- invertebrates. Recognizing climatic, fire and grazing trends and how they are changing and shaping the biophysical environment and ecosystem capability is our primary need in this Ashland Post Fire Landscape Assessment.
1.1.5 Forest Products The District has a long history of logging and harvest activities. Early uses of timber were for homes, buildings, fences and firewood, up until about 1920. From the 1920’s until the 1950’s considerable harvest occurred primarily to supply ties for the railroads (Ashland Unit Plan, 1979). The 1986 Forest Plan predicated the 3.5 MMBF of timber harvest to occur mostly on the Beartooth Ranger District, but in fact most of the harvest activities have occurred on Ashland and Sioux ranger districts. Markets and demand fluctuate over time; however, the District and Forest has a share of the market, albeit it has been relatively small over the years. The market dynamic (demand) may have changed as a result of mill closures (for example, Ashland Mill, Pope and Talbot, and Wyoming Sawmills) but recently some companies have also demonstrated a willingness to travel further for a particular species or product (Tri-Con (a western Montana based company that has considered bids on projects treating ponderosa pine stands in Ashland). Harvest activities will continue to play a role in helping meet the
Ashland Post Fire Landscape Assessment 2014 12 various land and resource management objectives for the District. The public has also expressed a desire to see the District manage the forest.
1.1.5 Recreation The District is one of the single, largest contiguous blocks of public land in southeast Montana. Given the abundance of big game (deer and elk) in the general area (Ashland, Miles City, Broadus) and the many opportunities for big game hunting, it is one of the primary recreation activities on the District. Turkey and other upland game birds hunting is also an important activity on the District, as well. Hence, the majority of the recreation activity occurs during fall and spring hunting seasons. Also, the District has hosted the Fort Howes Endurance Ride and will likely to continue to be a venue for World Cup Endurance Rides.
Local communities have a relatively strong connection to recreation opportunities provided by the District (2008 Recreation Facilities Analysis). This connection appears to include a general connection with the District as well as connections with site-specific locations such as Poker Jim Butte, Red Shale Campground, and Whitetail Cabin.
Approximately 40,000 acres, or slightly more than nine percent, of the District lies within three areas where public motorized use is prohibited – the Cook Mountain, King Mountain, and Tongue River Breaks hiking and riding areas. These areas provide opportunities for solitude and non-motorized activities, such as non-motorized hunting. There are no system trails within the three hiking and riding areas. There is a limited amount of motorized use for the administration of grazing permits within these areas that does occur; although this use is not considered public motorized use (Forest Plan, pp. 72-74).
The Ashland Travel Management decision (2009) allows motorized travel up to 300 feet off existing designated motorized routes but only to access dispersed campsites. Dispersed vehicle camping occurs along routes throughout the District. Heaviest use occurs during the fall hunting seasons.
2.0 Conservation Goals 2.1 Watershed Manage for watershed conditions and processes that restore hydrologic function where departed from natural range of variability and support water quality, diversity of riparian vegetation, aquatic ecosystems, and riparian habitats.
2.2 Aquatic and Riparian Systems, Groundwater Dependent Ecosystems Manage aquatic, riparian, and groundwater dependent ecosystems for maintenance of hydrologic function or improvement where departed from natural range of variability, long term soil productivity, and intact and diverse native species assemblages. 2.3 Hardwood Draw and Broadleaf Deciduous Woodland Ecosystems Manage for healthy, self-perpetuating plant communities that have a diversity of understory and overstory native vegetation. Diverse vegetation means plant communities with varied composition, structure, and age classes that provide habitat diversity and meet key habitat characteristics for ovenbird, spotted towhee, and other species associated with broadleaf deciduous woodlands (e.g. aspen). Manage for vegetation composition, patterns, and age and size classes that are resilient to natural and human
Ashland Post Fire Landscape Assessment 2014 13 disturbances (e.g. fire, drought, and livestock grazing), maintain watershed processes, and soil productivity. 2.4 Mixed Grass Prairie Ecosystems Manage for a diversity of native grass and upland shrub dominated communities with diverse native species composition and structure and that are resilient to natural disturbances (e.g. fire, drought, and herbivory). Maintain watershed processes and soil productivity. Provide forage, browse, and habitat diversity and meet key habitat characteristics for a variety of species. 2.5 Ponderosa Pine Ecosystems Manage for a heterogeneous forested landscape with a diverse age and size structure (including old growth), understory structure and composition, patch size, and pattern that are resilient to natural disturbances (e.g. fire, insect/disease, climate change). Maintain watershed processes and soil productivity. Provide habitat diversity, including habitats associated with standing snags, down wood, savannas, and deciduous woodlands and meet key habitat characteristics for goshawk, whitetail deer, king bird, and big game.
3.0 Biophysical Context The Biophysical Context helps identify and establish land capability and potential, ecosystem drivers, and disturbance processes.
3.1 Climate (weather station data)
3.1.1 Historic climate variability Eastern Montana is considered part of the Northern Great Plains climate region. Through a combination of moisture being blocked from the west and the significant distance from the Gulf of Mexico, the area’s climate regime qualifies as semi-arid and continentally controlled. Significant seasonal temperature and precipitation fluctuations are common (US Dept. of Commerce, 2013).
With a dearth of long-term climate data in Southeast Montana, climate is best discussed in reference to Miles City climate records, which extend back to 1892. Though Miles City is over 100 miles from Ashland, temperature and precipitation patterns align closely (NOAA, 1973).
Southeast Montana has distinct summers and winters with short spring and fall seasons. Strong seasonal temperature fluctuations are common, with average maximum temperatures in the high eighties in July and August and highs consistently topping 100 degrees F. Average minimum temperatures in January and February are below 10 degrees F with temperatures commonly falling below zero (Figure 1- High Plains Regional Climate Center (HPRCC) 2013; NOAA 2013).
Ashland Post Fire Landscape Assessment 2014 14 Table 1. Period of Record Monthly Climate Summary for Miles City, MT1 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Annual Average Max. Temperature 27.3 32.2 44.2 59.6 70.7 79.7 89.2 87 74.8 61.8 44.6 32.8 58.7 (F) Average Min. Temperature 5.7 9.8 20.9 34 44.8 53.7 59.9 57 46.3 35.1 22.4 12.1 33.5 (F) Average Total Precipitation 0.55 0.43 0.73 1.1 2 2.57 1.5 1.13 1.07 0.89 0.56 0.53 13.08 (in.) Average Total 6.6 5 6.2 2.6 1.1 0 0 0 0.2 1.1 4 5.7 32.5 SnowFall (in.) Average Snow 3 3 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 2 1 Depth (in.)
Long term average annual precipitation is approximately 13 inches. The majority of precipitation falls as rain between April and September (Table 1, HPRCC). This precipitation is primarily a result of strong convective thunderstorms that occur during the summer months throughout the region. These storms frequently produce short duration high-intensity rainfall events that may translate to flashy runoff events with strong, short-lived peak flows (Table 2; Figure 1).
Table 2. Precipitation amount for 6 and 24-hour events at two, five, and ten-year recurrence intervals on the Ashland District (NOAA, 1973). 6-hour precipitation 24-hour Recurrence interval (yr.) (in.) precipitation (in.)
Two 1.0 1.4 Five 1.35 1.9 Ten 1.55 2.25
1 Period of Record: 1/1/1893 to 7/31/1982. Though not shown, annual averages between 1982 and present are similar. In-depth synthesis of climate data and long-term trend analysis for climate variables is beyond the scope of this assessment and as such has not been included. Source: High Plains Regional Climate Center, http://www.hprcc.unl.edu.
Ashland Post Fire Landscape Assessment 2014 15
Figure 1. Otter Creek hydrograph for May 15- June 15, 2013. It is an example of flashy hydrologic response following a high-intensity short duration precipitation event.
Average monthly snow depths during the winter are usually minimal and generally fall between November and March. While a spring runoff peak does occur (usually in March), magnitude of peak runoff produced during high intensity storms often exceeds spring snowmelt peaks.
Southeast Montana is prone to significant inter-annual precipitation variability. Above average precipitation was received in both 2011 and 2013, bracketing a year of record low annual precipitation in Miles City. For 2013, annual precipitation has exceeded the thirty year average by approximately four inches (HPRCC, 2013). The region has experienced moderate to exceptional drought in 6 of the 13 years since 2000 (National Drought Mitigation Center 2013).
3.2 Biophysical Environment – Ecological Units The Forest Service utilizes a hierarchical ecological classification and ecological unit map system to describe ecosystems and ecosystem processes at appropriate scales for National, Regional, Sub-regional, forest, and project level planning, assessments, inventories, resource mapping, and monitoring (USDA-FS 2013). A benefit of hierarchical ecological classification and ecological map units are to identify land areas at different levels of resolution that have similar patterns, capabilities, and potentials for management and disturbance response. The Hierarchical Framework of Ecological Units (Cleland et.al. 1997) is a multi-factor regionalized classification and mapping system used for stratifying the earth into progressively smaller homogenous units of ecological types and ecological units (continental to project scales). The units describe biophysical environments (i.e. abiotic, biotic relationships) which indirectly or directly express energy, nutrient and moisture gradients that regulate the structure and function of ecosystems; and influence ecological capability and response (McNab et. al. 1994). The abiotic and biotic
Ashland Post Fire Landscape Assessment 2014 16 factors used to regionalize and differentiate ecological types and ecological map units include climate, physiography, water, soils, air hydrology, and potential natural communities. An underlying principle of a hierarchical framework and multiscaled systems is that the upper level provides the environment that lower levels evolve from (Bourgeron and Jensen 1993). Understanding relationships and interactions between abiotic and biotic factors at appropriate scales facilitates our ability to make predictions about ecosystem response to management or disturbance processes (Bourgeron et. al. 1993). For example, on the Ashland Ranger District the distribution, pattern, density, and understory species associated with ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) varies with how topographic relief modifies climatic factors and moisture and temperature gradients locally. Ponderosa pine, which is widely distributed in eastern Montana, varies in terms of density and associated understory species. On northerly aspect slopes, cooler more mesic environment, ponderosa pine tends to have higher densities with shrub dominated understories. While ponderosa pine on southerly aspects, warm and drier environments, tend to have lower densities with grass dominated understories. An understanding of climate as a driving environmental factor being modified by finer scale topography (i.e. elevation, slope, slope position and shape, aspect) and soil properties provides a context for downscaling effects of climate change on moisture and temperature gradients locally and possible differential influences on vegetation patterns, response, abundance, and productivity. Other interpretative uses of ecological units include stratification for coarse filter analysis and modeling or understanding differential ecosystem responses to disturbances at different scales.
Ecological units associated with the Ashland Ranger District have been mapped and described at the section, subsection, and landtype association level. Section and sub-section ecological units are differentiated based on regional climate, geology, and broad potential vegetation associations. Landtype associations are a further stratification of ecological units to describe landscape biophysical characteristics and patterns. Landtype associations (LTAs) ecological units are mapped at 1:100,000 scale. Local climate, geology, geomorphology, and plant associations or habitat type groups are factors used to differentiate and describe LTAs. The Ashland Ranger District is located within the northern Great Plains Province and the Powder River Basin-Scoria Hills Section and Sub-section in southeastern Montana (See Figure 2).
3.2.1 Northern Great Plains, Powder River Basin-Scoria Hills Sub-region The Powder River Basin-Scoria Hills Sub-region is characterized by a cold continental climate regime (warm summers, dry winters), hills and plains formed from sedimentary geologic material.
3.2.2 Landscape Characteristics Predominant landforms include gently rolling to steep dissected plains and hills, flat-topped buttes, terraces and fans, and river breaks and badlands along river valleys formed from non-marine sedimentary rocks (sandstone, shale, and siltstone). The sedimentary rocks are cretaceous and lower tertiary in orgin.
3.2.3 Climate Mean annual precipitation ranges from 10 to 14 inches, about 20 percent falling as snow and majority as spring and summer rain. Soil temperature regime is frigid. The moisture regimes are aridic to ustic. Growing season ranges from 120 to 140 days,
Ashland Post Fire Landscape Assessment 2014 17 3.2.4 Potential Natural Vegetation Characteristic potential vegetation includes northern plains grasslands, sagebrush-steppe, and ponderosa pine forest. Kuchler mapped potential vegetation as grama-needle-grass-wheatgrass association with eastern ponderosa pine forest.
3.2.5 Landtype Associations, Ashland Ranger District Landtype associations are landscape level ecological map units (1:100,000 scale) that are a sub- division of sub-sections or groupings of landtypes. They depict dominant geomorphic processes, similar landforms, surficial and near-surface geology, associations of soil families and potential natural vegetation (Winthers et. al. 2005). Potential natural vegetation is broader than a habitat type, and more similar to habitat series level or habitat type group. Landtype association ecological units describe landscape level abiotic and biotic ecosystem elements and relationships. They represent units where suitability for some land and resource uses, response to disturbance processes or management, ecological capability may differ due to underlying geology, geomorphic landform, terrain, broad soil characteristics and dominant potential vegetation characteristics. The most useful application is as a stratification tool to organize planning landscapes and rank areas relative to suitability for desired use or resource concern. Other applications include organization of data elements for mapping disturbance regimes, assessing landscape disturbance processes and dominant patterns based on differential ecological response, evaluating and characterizing habitat elements, and as a coarse filter for conserving biodiversity (Winthers et al 2005).
Six landtype association ecological units have been mapped and described for the Ashland Ranger District (Figure 3). These maps represent a further refinement of section and subsection ecological units to describe the composition of landscapes by similarities and repeatable patterns of landforms, formative processes, and underlying geologic materials (Ford et. al. 1997). They were develop for use as an interpretative tool for predicting differences in ecological processes controlled and influenced by geomorphic properties, such as nutrient-water-plant relationships.
Finer scale maps depicting soils and vegetation patterns are also available and can be overlaid and nested within the landtype associations. These include Ecosystems of the Ashland Ranger District (Taylor and Holtz 1974) and the Powder River Area Soil Survey (USDA-Soil Conservation Service 1971). These finer scale classifications and maps can provide more detailed descriptions of associated soil characteristics and vegetation associations.
Ashland Post Fire Landscape Assessment 2014 18
Figure 2: Ecological Regions and Sub-regions of the Ashland Ranger District
Ashland Post Fire Landscape Assessment 2014 19
Figure 3. Landtype association ecological units - Ashland Ranger District (Ford et. al. 1997)
Ashland Post Fire Landscape Assessment 2014 20 3.3 Disturbance Processes
3.3.1 Fire (Fire history, literature, Fire Regime) Based on the LANDFIRE Black Hills Potential Natural Vegetation Group (PNVG), the historic fire return interval for southeastern Montana is approximately 15-35 years. In addition, Paul Sneed, Ph.D. conducted a fire history study on the Ashland Ranger District in 2005. His research indicated fire return intervals between 1 and 28 years on the Ashland Ranger District (Sneed, 2005).
Historically, frequent low-intensity fires cleared dry ponderosa pine forests of brush and grass but left trees alive and healthy (Graham et al., USDA, 2004). It would not have been uncommon to see blackened bark on the lower portion of the boles of most of the overstory trees. The majority of the landscape was comprised of relatively open canopy stands. Stand replacing fire events were uncommon, and high severity burning (greater than 75% mortality of the overstory trees) was limited to the closed canopy of mid and late development structure classes or during times of extended drought (Hann et al., 2005).
Since 1995, the Ashland Ranger District has experienced a tremendous increase in the number and size of large wildfires. Between 1986 and 1995, the district burned 31,149 acres or 7% of the district; and of those 31,149 acres, 17,917 or 58% were in one year (1988). Since 1995, the district has burned 258,829 acres or 59% of the land mass with large wildfires occurring regularly beginning in 2000. Some areas of the district have seen multiple large fires since 2000; such as the area between Home Creek and Three Mile Creek.
Prescribed fire by Native Americans, and Europeans to a lesser degree, has also been a part of the historic disturbance regime on the Ashland Ranger District. However, acres treated by prescribed fire have been on a gradual decline in the period between 1986 and 2012. Ashland RD treated an average of 2,550 acres per year in the decade 1986 – 1995, which dropped to 1,700 acres per year in the decade 1996 – 2005. The most recent period, 2006 – 2012, has seen further reduction with an average of 950 acres per year treated with prescribed fire, although the district did burn 5,000 acres in a two year period from 2011 to 2012.
Most of the areas treated by prescribed fire in the decade 1996 to 2005 have also subsequently been burned by wildfire with the exception of the Brewster Gulch project in the southwest corner of the district. Fire return intervals and fuel accumulations since the initial prescribed fire entry have resulted in conditions that suggest another prescribed fire entry is in order. Recent prescribed fire projects in Three Mile and Timber Creek are ongoing and have not been affected by wildfire. The earliest entries at Timber Creek are within 1-3 years of reaching conditions similar to Brewster Gulch.
Ashland Post Fire Landscape Assessment 2014 21 4.0 Biological Diversity Existing Condition
4.1 Biological Diversity
4.1.1 Vegetation The Ashland Ranger District landscape is a mosaic of forested and rangeland vegetation types. Intermingled within this landscape matrix are ecologically important riparian and hardwood draw vegetation types. These vegetation types have been described and mapped utilizing a hierarchical existing vegetation classification system (Brohman and Bryant 2005, FGDC 2008). The broader classes are described using the US National Vegetation Classification System (US-NVCS) and the finer scale (mid-level) classes utilize dominance type group classes described in the Region One Classification System (Barber et al 2009) and Region One VMap (Barber and Vanderzanden 2009).
The following Table provides a summary of the dominant forest and rangeland natural vegetation classes on the Ashland Ranger District as of 2006. Rangelands are characterized as shrubland and grassland vegetation type classes. The acres and classes are derived by grouping Region One dominance type groups into broader NVCS vegetation classes based on growth form. They are presented here to provide context and a crosswalk between Region One VMap and the Region One Classification System and statewide mapping and classification system utilized by the Montana Heritage Program, the Northwestern ReGap Project, and the LANDFIRE project to map and describe existing land cover for eastern Montana. The latter classifications are utilized by other Federal and State agencies for Regional Assessments and developing conservation and management strategies, such as Montana’s Conservation Strategy (Montana’s Comprehensive Fish and Wildlife Strategy, Executive Summary. 2005).
Table 3. Natural Vegetation Classes2 of the Ashland Ranger District (as of 2006). Vegetation Class Acres Percent Forest-woodland 165,000 38% Shrubland-grassland 269,600 62% Rock/Barren/Badlands/Sparse Vegetation 3,200 < 1%
4.1.2 Forest and Woodlands Coniferous forest and woodland dominated by ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) make up approximately 38 percent (Table 3) of the National Forest System landscape based on R1 VMap (Barber and Vanderzanden 2009). Great Plains Ponderosa Pine Woodland and Savannas (also described as Northwestern Great Plains-Black Hills Ponderosa Pine Woodland and Savanna) (Vance and Luna 2010) is the predominant coniferous forest and woodland component. This type is part of the landscape matrix associated with Great Plains grasslands and shrublands. Ponderosa pine is the dominant coniferous species. The type occurs as large patches of moderately closed canopy forest on mesic, north facing slopes and draws to small open patches on drier sites. Canopy cover ranges from open stands (10% - 40% cover) to moderately closed and closed stands (greater than 40% cover).
2 Vegetation classes were derived by cross referencing 2009 R1 VMap lifeform classes to Montana Heritage Program NVCS vegetation classes. Acres and percent area reflect vegetation types as of 2006.
Ashland Post Fire Landscape Assessment 2014 22 Rocky mountain juniper (Juniperus scopulorum) is an associated species in places and may be a dominant species on badland and river break slopes. Common associated understory species on mesic, north aspects include chokecherry (Prunus virginiana), western snowberry (Symphoricarpos occidentalis), creeping barberry (Mahonia repens). Understory species on drier, south aspect slopes are commonly bluebunch wheatgrass (Pseudoroegneria spicata), Idaho fescue (Festuca idahoensis), sun sedge (Carex inops ssp. heliophila), little bluestem (Schizachyrium scoparium), and side-oats grama (Bouteloua curtipendula).
Deciduous dominated woodlands have been broadly classified and described as Great Plains Wooded Draw and Ravine (Vance and Luna 2013). This type is a landscape element associated with the more extensive Great Plains ponderosa pine forest and woodland and grassland and shrubland vegetation types. It is a minor, but ecologically important type that is part of the northern Great Plains vegetation matrix. These types are typically narrow (< 200 ft. wide) linear features associated with intermittent or ephemeral streams or within canyon bottoms and draws where soil moisture and topography produce higher available moisture. Green ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanicus) and boxelder (Acer negundo) are typically the dominant overstory tree species. Within wider valley bottoms along tributary streams, plains cottonwood (Populus deltoides) is an associated and often dominant over story species which is further described as the Great Plains Riparian class (Vance et al. 2010). Aspen (Populus tremeloides) is another tree species that may occur as aspen dominated patches in mesic upland settings or an associated species within draws. The understory shrub layer dominants include chokecherry (Prunus virginiana) and western snowberry (Symphoricarpos occidentalis). American plum (Prunus americana), service berry (Amelanchier alinifolia), Douglas hawthorne (Crataegus douglasii), and silver buffaloberry (Shepherdia argentea) are other shrub species associated with this type. These shrub types may also occur as small patches within draws or adjacent to draws without a tree overstory. The lowest herbaceous layer is composed of a variety of grass and forb species. Western snowberry may be dominant along with Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis) within draws with a long history of continuous grazing disturbance.
Habitat type associated with this vegetation class have been described by Girard et al. (1989) and Hoffman and Hansen (1987). Uresk (2009) has described seral stages and key species associated with the Green Ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica)-Prunus Ecological Type.
4.1.3 Shrubland and Grassland Shrubland and grassland vegetation types are the other major vegetation element on the Ashland Ranger District. They make up approximately 62 percent of National Forest System lands (Table 3) as a mosaic of intermingled grass and shrub dominated communities, which together represent the rangeland component. The amount of shrub cover differentiates grasslands from shrublands. Grasslands have less than 10 percent shrub cover and tree cover, while shrublands have greater than 10 percent cover and less than 10 percent tree cover. Grassland vegetation types are intermingled and adjacent to sagebrush steppe and deciduous shrubland types. Grasslands have been described as Great Plains Mixed Grass Prairie (Luna and Vance 2010) with extensions of Lower Montane, Foothill, and Valley Grasslands (Vance and Luna 2010). The latter is characterized by vegetation communities associated with the presence or dominance of Idaho fescue (Festuca idahoensis). The presence of Idaho fescue is a differentiating factor with mixed grass prairie communities. Other important native grass species include western wheatgrass (Pascopyrum smithii), sun sedge (Carex inops ssp. heliophilia), needle-and-thread grass (Hesperostipa comata), green needlegrass (Nassella viridula) prairie junegrass (Koeleria macrantha), and Sandberg’s bluegrass (Poa secunda). Non- native species which may be found include Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis), smooth brome
Ashland Post Fire Landscape Assessment 2014 23 (Bromus inermis), and Japanese brome (Bromus japonicus). These communities are found in upland parks and plateaus surrounded by ponderosa pine forest and woodland.
Great Plains Mixedgrass Prairie grassland communities are characterized by mix of short and mid grass species. The presence and dominance of western wheatgrass is a characteristic of this system. Associated mid grass species include thickspike wheatgrass (Elymus lanceolatus), green needle grass, and needle-and-thread grass. Little bluestem (Schizachyrium scoparium), big bluestem (Andropogon gerardii) communities are intermingled and a component of the mixed grass prairie system. Associated shortgrass species include Sandberg’s bluegrass, prairie junegrass, blue grama (Bouteloua gracilis), threadleaf sedge (Carex filifolia), and non-native Kentucky bluegrass and Japanese brome. Smooth brome and crested wheatgrass (Agropyron cristata) are introduced non-native grass species that are also present in some settings. Great Plains Sand Prairie (Luna and Vance 2010) is a minor component within the mixed grass prairie system occurring as small patches intermingled with mixed grass prairie communities. It is associated with coarse textured soils derived from sandstone parent material that has weathered in place. Needle-and-thread grass is a dominant species. Associated species include, threadleaf sedge and little bluestem. On very coarse textured, sandy soils, prairie sandreed (Calamovilfa longifolia), sand bluestem (Andropogon hallii), and big bluestem are more prevalent. Skunkbush sumac (Rhus trilobata) and soapweed yucca (Yucca glauca) are associated shrub types that can be found on coarse texture soils.
Big Sagebrush Steppe (VMap xeric shrub) and Deciduous Shrub (VMap mesic shrub) types are the predominant shrubland vegetation types. The Big Sagebrush Steppe is the more extensive of the two and has been described by Vance, Luna and Cooper (2010). It is found on sites ranging from rolling plains, valley terraces, badland slopes, and plateaus adjacent too or intermingled with mixed grass prairie grasslands. It is represented by small to large patches of sagebrush dominated by Wyoming big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentate ssp. wyomingensis) or silver sagebrush (Artemisia cana) intermingled with mixed grass prairie grassland communitees, which gives it the characteristic steppe appearance. Predominant understory species include western wheatgrass (Pascopyrum smithii), blue grama (Bouteloua gracilis), Sandberg’s bluegrass (Poa secunda), bluebunch wheatgrass (Pseudoroegneria spicata), prairie junegrass (Koelaria macanthra), and threadleaf sedge (Carex filifolia). The deciduous shrubland has been described as Rocky Mountain Lower Montane-Foothill Shrubland (Vance and Luna 2010c). This type is best characterized as small patch shrublands nested within the more predominant mixed grass prairie grassland. It occurs as small patches or narrow bands in uplands adjacent too riparian areas or wooded draws. Western snowberry is probably the most extensive shrub type associated in swales, draws, or concave slope positions where there is more available moisture. Other shrub species that may be dominant or grow in association with each other include chokecherry, American plum, or Douglas hawthorne. Skunkbrush sumac (Rhus trilobata) is found on more xeric, south aspect slopes.
4.1.4 Riparian and Wetland Areas Riparian and wetland areas are small, but ecologically important landscape features. They are generally too small to be detected and mapped given the spatial resolution associated with mid-level vegetation map products, such as VMap. They occur as unmapped inclusions within the larger VMap covertype map units. They are found along permanent, intermittent, and ephemeral streams, and associated with groundwater dependent springs and seeps. Vegetation communities include forest and woodland, shrub, and herbaceous dominated plant communities. Riparian areas in eastern Montana have been characterized as Great Plains Riparian (L.K. Vance, C. McIntyre, T. Luna b 2010). Associated aquatic systems include Great Plains Intermittent Streams, Great Plains Prairie Steams, and Great Plains Springs (Stagliano 2005). Plains cottonwood is usually the dominant in wider valley
Ashland Post Fire Landscape Assessment 2014 24 bottom woodlands. Green ash and boxelder may be associated co-dominants. Characteristic species in shrub dominated communities may be chokecherry, western snowberry, willow (Salix spp.). Subirrigated areas may support tallgrass meadows dominated by big bluestem (Andropogon gerardii) or prairie cordgrass (Spartina pectinata), sedge species (Carex spp.) and a variety other grass and forb species.
4.1.5 Badlands-Sparse Vegetation Sparse vegetation types are areas where total vegetation cover is less than nine percent. These areas are principally associated with the river breaks along the Tongue River and Otter Creek. Vegetation on these areas is typically sparse with a mix of shrub and graminoid species. Rocky Mountain juniper may also be present on north aspect slopes. Typical shrub species found include include Wyoming big sagebrush, silver sagebrush, rabbitbrush, (Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus, Ericameria nauseosa), greasewood (Sarcobatus vermiculatus), and saltbush (Atriplex species). Common grass species found may include western wheatgrass, bluebunch wheatgrass, needle-and-thread grass, little bluestem, side- oats grama (Boutelous curtipendula), and Indian ricegrass (Achnatherum hymenoides).
4.1.6 Vegetation Dynamics Disturbance processes, principally fire, grazing, and periodic drought (i.e. climatic variability) are the principal drivers of vegetation change on the Ashland Ranger District. Of the three, fire is driving factor determining the amount and pattern of forest cover. Recent large fires have changed the amount and pattern of forest cover across the Ashland Ranger District. Figure 4 illustrates the change in forest cover from 1995 to 2012 resulting from several large fires during this time period. Utilizing the 1995 Satellite Image Land Cover (SLIC 3) vegetation map as a base line, and 2009 R1 VMap as a comparison, forest cover declined from 40 percent to 38 percent between 1995 and 2005. A more dramatic change in forest cover has occurred when comparing 1995 to 2012, where it appears forest cover has declined from about 40 percent to about 25 percent, during this period. Though R1 VMap was published in 2009, vegetation cover classes were derived from 2005 LANDSAT imagery, which is why the comparison is to 2005 and not to 2009. The 2012 estimated forest cover is based on an assumption that there was 100 percent tree mortality on areas where fire severity was mapped as severity class two or three. Forest cover for 2012 was derived by intersecting the Burned Area Reflection Classification (BARC) burn severity with R1 VMap. Areas mapped as high and moderate burn severity that intersected R1 VMap tree lifeform segments were assumed to have 100 percent tree mortality. These segments were re-coded as non-forest. The assumptions and approach may not reflect the true effects of the 2012 fires. However in the absence of an updated vegetation map based on post 2012 imagery, it provides an approximation of current forest cover for the Ashland Ranger District. More recent imagery applied in an updated vegetation layer will provide a more accurate level of actual tree mortality, vegetation change, and current forest cover.
Ashland Post Fire Landscape Assessment 2014 25 80 70 P 60 e 50 r c 40 Ponderosa Pine e 30 n Non-forest t 20 10 0 1995 2005 Assumed 2012 Year
Figure 4. Percent change in vegetation cover type between non-forest and ponderosa pine-juniper forest 1995 – 2012. Based on data from 1995 SILC 3, 2009 R1 VMap, and 2012 BARC.
Figure 5 is a graphical representation of the change in forest pattern from 1995 to 2012. The change in the percent area covered by forest depicted in Figure 5 is reflected in a changed forest pattern. In 1995 the forest pattern is relatively contiguous across the Ashland Ranger District. In 2006 and 2012 the pattern is less contiguous as depicted by the large areas on non-forest in the north half, south central and southeast part of the District.
Ashland Post Fire Landscape Assessment 2014 26
Figure 5. Change in forest pattern from 1995 to 2012, Ashland Ranger District.
Ashland Post Fire Landscape Assessment 2014 27 4.2 Aquatic, Riparian Hardwood Draw, and Broadleaf Deciduous Ecosystems Existing Conditions
4.2.1 Aquatic and Riparian Systems Figure 6 and Table 4display existing riparian types that occur across the District.
Figure 6. Map of Riparian Types
Ashland Post Fire Landscape Assessment 2014 28 Table 4. Acres of Riparian by Type. Riparian Types NFS Acres NFS & Private within Total Number Polygons District Boundary within District Boundary Freshwater Emergent Wetland 38 42 147 Freshwater Pond 65 67 279 Riparian Emergent 0 Trace 1 Riparian Forested 815 1261 905 Riparian Scrub-Shrub 111 156 236 River 2 16 6 Grand Total 1031 1542 1574
Journeyman level specialists whose credentials are sufficient to make proper determinations given their training in the Proper Functioning Condition Methodology (PFC), knowledge of stream types, and supplemented with their experience and knowledge of the local area hydrology, soils, and vegetation ecology conducted PFC assessments over many allotments within the District. Table 5 summarizes field survey findings. See Appendix B for PFC photos and inventory findings.
Table 5. Inventoried Riparian Summary. Allotment Location Segment Functioning Desired Riparian Mileage/Acreage ID# Condition Condition
Taylor Cr Wolf Den Spg. TC1 PFC3 Same as current <1.0 ac Petrified Log TC2 PFC Same as current <1.0 ac Spg. Indian Cr Spring Unit IC1 PFC Same as current <1.0 ac
Lower Spring IC2 PFC Same as current <1.0 ac Unit with potential for improvement in hardwood age class diversity Taylor Cr IC3 PFC Same as current <1.0 ac
E Tooley Bear Cr ET1 PFC Same as current <1.0 ac
Riparian areas frequently differ from adjacent uplands in vegetative composition and structure, geomorphology, hydrology, microclimate, and fuel characteristics. These features may contribute to different fire environments, fire regimes, and fire properties (frequency, severity, behavior, and extent) in riparian areas relative to uplands. In certain forested riparian areas, fire frequency has
3 PFC is an acronym for Proper Functioning Condition
Ashland Post Fire Landscape Assessment 2014 29 generally been lower, and fire severity has been more moderate than in adjacent uplands, but in other areas, fires have appeared to burn riparian areas with comparable frequency. Impacts of land use and management may strongly influence fire properties and regimes in riparian areas. Fire suppression, livestock grazing, logging, damming and flow regulation, agricultural diversions, channel modifications, and introduction of invasive species can lead to shifts in plant species composition, structure and distribution of fuel loads, and changes in microclimate and areal extent of riparian areas. Cumulative impacts of human alterations are likely to exert the most pronounced influence on fire behavior during periods of drought and under conditions of extreme fire weather.
Riparian plant species possess adaptations to fluvial disturbances that facilitate survival and reestablishment following fires, thus contributing to the rapid recovery of many streamside and seep habitats. Given this, the existing condition/function of riparian types post fire are likely similar to pre- fire conditions with the exception of potential for more water quantity due to less forested vegetation using water from the ground.
4.2.2 Areas with Limited Riparian There are no extensive reaches of perennial water within the Reanus, Stewart, South Lee, Stag Rock, Brian-Gooseberry, East O’Dell, and Paget Creek Allotments. Water in the allotments is limited to isolated spots below developed springs.
4.2.3 Forest Plan Associated Riparian Key Habitats and Indicator Species Northern oriole (Riparian – Tree) and Yellow warbler (Riparian – Shrub)
Tree and shrub habitat for species dependent on riparian and hardwood draws declined as a result of recent wildfires and past activities. . Appendix A, Post-burn District-wide. “ Of the 2133 NFS acres of green ash draws and isolated pockets occurring on the District, approximately 780 acres or 37% were burned in recent fires (since 1988). Of the 780 acres burned, 35% (275 acres) of green ash stands burned with high severity, 38% (297 acres) with moderate severity, and 27% (207 acres) with low severity (see Appendix A for burn severity on green ash draws by Allotment and Pasture).” A shift in riparian associated species distribution might occur until vegetation structure is recovered.
4.2.4 Relationship of Hardwood Draws and Riparian Native hardwoods (see Appendix A for more detail, including management considerations) are a component of the vegetation mosaic of the mixed grass prairie within the Ashland Ranger District and are sometimes found in or adjacent to riparian areas (see Appendix B for more detail on Riparian existing condition and Appendices F & G for management considerations). It is estimated that riparian areas constitutes less than one percent of the District, as do hardwood stands. Although this represents a very small portion of the District, the ecological values associated with them are very important for hydrologic function, soil stability, and biotic integrity (biological diversity).
Hardwood draws can be classified into two groups on the District: Hardwood draws in higher gradient, constricted valley bottoms (most often ephemeral and intermittent streams); riparian with interspersed hardwood clusters in lower gradient, wider valley bottoms (ephemeral, intermittent, or perennial stream segments).
Ashland Post Fire Landscape Assessment 2014 30 The establishment and survival of hardwoods is closely linked to topography and usually restricted to areas of increased moisture, which helps explain their limited distribution in semi-arid climate (Girard et. al., 1989, p. 2). Due to a semi-arid climate, hardwood stands are restricted to areas of increased moisture such as along drainage-ways, streams, springs, floodplains, and north-facing slopes. A number of factors, in addition to topography and climate, influence the hardwood draws such as microenvironment, fire, moisture regimes, wildlife, livestock, and disease and insects (Girard, 1985. p.1).
Hardwood draws are associated with areas of higher soil moisture (i.e. drainage-ways, stream sides, north aspect slopes, ephemeral draws). While soil moisture has been described as important, too much soil moisture and lack of soil aeration may be more influential in some situations of low gradient prairie streams. Aeration limits tree root penetration that in turn limits water and nutrient absorption (Girard, 1989). This may be an explanation for the lack of extensive hardwood stands along riparian wetlands in wider valley bottoms of lower gradient streams.
4.2.5 Hardwoods Overview Evidence from studies throughout the Northern Great Plains between 1978 and the present suggest that the majority of green ash woodlands have declined (Lesica & Marlow, 2013). Many of those in eastern Montana and the adjacent Dakotas are relatively open with few young trees and understories dominated by snowberry, grassland forbs and rhizomatous, usually exotic grasses. The healthier woodlands have a relatively dense tree canopy, ash trees of all ages and understories dominated by chokecherry, wild plum, hawthorn, serviceberry, Sprengel’s sedge and shade-loving forbs. Most ash woodlands are intermediate in composition between these two extremes. The following describes these condition classes as healthy, at risk, and unhealthy in more detail.
There are several causes for the decline of green ash woodlands in Montana including woodcutting, grazing, deer browsing, introduction of invasive, rhizomatous sod grasses (i.e. Kentucky bluegrass), and climate. Tree recruitment is reduced by competition with sod grass. Even though recent livestock grazing and wildlife use have been implicated as the primary causes of woodland decline, the current condition of green ash draws may be more a reflection of past (1880-1930) grazing pressure (Lesica & Marlow, 2013). Regardless, it is essential to manage livestock in ways that are compatible with good- condition woodlands. Generally, higher density of green ash seedlings and saplings were in stands that had multiple-pasture, rotational grazing. Higher tree recruitment is generally found in winter pastures compared to summer pastures, as well as in stands farthest from water developments.
The following information is presented for both the remote sensing data as well as the specific field inventoried data that describes existing conditions for both pre-burn (pre-1995) and post burn (post 1996) settings. See Appendix A for maps of the following characterizations.
Pre-burn District-wide. Approximately 2,133 NFS acres4 of green ash draws and isolated pockets occur on the Ashland Ranger District. This is less than 1/10 of a percent of the total Ashland landscape acreage of 436,546. Approximately 8,411 NFS acres of mesic shrubs, such as chokecherry or snowberry, occur on the Ashland Ranger District. Mesic shrubs are often associated plant species
4 Source: VMAP
Ashland Post Fire Landscape Assessment 2014 31 found within green ash draws, but it is unknown whether these areas have site potential to support green ash (See Appendix A for maps and acreage by Allotment and Pasture).
Of the 2,133 NFS acres of green ash draws and isolated pockets occurring on the District, approximately 780 acres or 37% were burned in recent fires (since 1988). Of the 780 acres burned, 35% (275 acres) of green ash stands burned with high severity, 38% (297 acres) with moderate severity, and 27% (207 acres) with low severity (see Appendix A for burn severity on green ash draws by Allotment and Pasture).
Pre-burn Inventoried. Approximately 299 NFS acres5 of main stem hardwood draws were inventoried and their condition classified prior to recent fires. Of the 299 acres, approximately 21% were considered healthy, 54% considered at risk, and 25% considered unhealthy prior to recent fires (see Appendix A for pre-burn condition by Allotment and Pasture).
Of the 299 inventoried NFS acres, 142 acres or 47% were burned in recent fires. Of the 142 acres burned, 22% (31 acres) of healthy stands burned, 54% (77 acres) of at risk stands burned, and 24% (34 acres) of unhealthy stands burned. Of the 31 acres of healthy stands burned, 15 acres were burned at moderate and high burn severity where these areas may likely be set back to “at risk” conditions (see Appendix A - Inventoried Hardwood Draws - Post-burn Severity by Allotment/Pasture and by Fire Year).
5 Source: Inventory data located at the Ashland Ranger District Office with a few stands being assessed by professional judgment. Acreage derived from buffering linear GIS features by using a 20 foot centerline (40 foot valley bottom width for the buffer. District personnel recommended this figure as being representative as an average hardwood draw width across the district.
Ashland Post Fire Landscape Assessment 2014 32
Figure 7. General Location Map of Green Ash (left). Figure 8. Green Ash Existing Condition – Pre-burn
Ashland Post Fire Landscape Assessment 2014 33
Only trace amount of hardwood draws burned in secondary rangeland (0.001 Ac. in Ash Creek and 0.005 Ac. in Cub Creek Allotment. Because this is a GIS exercise, applicable areas may exist on the ground. (See Appendix A for close-up maps of these two areas). About 145 Acres of hardwood draws in secondary rangeland were unburned. Their condition is undetermined (See Appendix A for NFS Acreage by Allotment and Pasture).
The 15 acres of inventoried healthy hardwood draws found within moderate to high severity are found in Ash Creek, East Fork, West Home, East Home, King Cree, Coal Creek, and Beaver Creek Allotments. See Appendix A for locations.
There is an ongoing beaver relocation project within the Stag Rock Wildfire area which has resulted in the establishment of numerous dams on Cow Creek and Stocker Branch. The planning was identified in the Ashland Wildfire Restoration Project FEIS, Dec. 2000
The felling of colonizing ponderosa pine trees within or adjacent woody draws or aspen stands has been completed within selected prescribed burning projects.
A wide range of fire regimes is described for green ash habitats. The savannah-like prairie-forest ecotones are more likely to experience frequent fire than are wet bottomland deciduous habitats. However, a variety of anthropogenic, climatic, and environmental conditions have affected and continue to affect the fire ecology of green ash habitats. In the Northern Great Plains Prairie-Ponderosa Pine settings, fire frequency of these habitats is largely unknown. Although broadleaf stands/draws of the Northern Great Plains are typically moister, greener, and more humid than surrounding grasslands and forested lands, the narrow size of these draws, coupled with the high frequency of grassland fires before active fire suppression in the area, suggests that fires did burn these areas especially during drought conditions (Sieg, 1997). Other researchers have suggested that green ash/chokecherry habitats are fire adapted because most associated species display some fire tolerance and/or postfire sprouting ability (Hansen, et. al., 1995). Based on research that suggested low-severity fires promoted regeneration by thinning stands and promoting sprouting, Lesica (1989) reasoned that some level of fire was important to the maintenance of upland green ash stands in eastern Montana. In a study designed to test his hypothesis, Lesica (2003) found more sprouts, fewer seedlings, and more dead trees on burned sites than on similar nearby unburned sites. All sites burned in wildland fires. The low number of seedlings on burned sites suggested that fire killed green ash seed on or near the soil surface, making seedling recruitment dependent on seed- producing trees, a lot of which were killed by fire. However, green ash sprout production was greater on burned sites suggesting that asexual reproduction may compensate for a temporary lack of sexual recruitment. The community, when maintained by fire, will have a mosaic of different age classes within a watershed. Browse for ungulates will increase. The structural complexity of the community will be maintained.
Example Conditions Examples of undisturbed and disturbed green ash stands have been characterized. Girard (1989) and Hanson and Hoffman (1988) described a late successional undisturbed green ash/chokecherry community for the Green Ash/Choke Cherry Habitat Type. The characteristics of this community best correspond to
Ashland Post Fire Landscape Assessment 2014 34 the desired condition for meeting the Forest Plan goal of providing for healthy self-perpetuating plant communities with optimum diversity and density of understory vegetation.
Undisturbed green ash stands are typically characterized by three layers of woody vegetation (see the following Table ), a closed canopy overstory layer dominated by green ash, a middle layer composed of tall shrubs and green ash saplings, and a lower layer mid and low shrubs, and herbaceous vegetation layer (Girard et al 1989, Hanson and Hoffman 1988). This contrasts with disturbed stands, which are typically woodlands with an open overstory (< 69% tree foliar cover) and a single understory layer of low shrubs and herbaceous vegetation dominated by snowberry and Kentucky bluegrass. The abundance of chokecherry (Prunus virginiana) is also reduced in disturbed communities. The middle layer of tall shrubs and green ash saplings is often missing (Hanson and Hoffman 1988).
Table 6. Summary of dominant species composition by layer for undisturbed hardwood draw communities in the green ash/chokecherry habitat type (Girard 1989). Mean Relative Mean Total Cover Green Ash Habitat Type Basal Cover height Percent Area Percent
Green Ash overstory 26 17 119 (55-233) 82
Box elder overstory 20 22 27 18
Green ash sapling middle layer (> 6 ft) 13 .79 40 51
Chokecherry middle layer (> 6 ft) 10 .18 29 37
Chokecherry lower shrub layer (1-6 ft) 3.0 53 66
Snowberry lower shrub layer (1-6 ft) 1.8 22 27
Green ash seedlings herbaceous layer (< 3 ft) 6 4
Snowberry herbaceous layer (< 3 ft) 24 (0-30) 15
Kentucky bluegrass 32 (0-52) 20
Quaking Aspen, Cottonwood, and Buffaloberry Other minor deciduous trees and shrubs occurring in the landscape include isolated small pockets of aspen, cottonwood, and buffaloberry. Existing conditions are unknown at this time.
Ashland Post Fire Landscape Assessment 2014 35
Figure 8. Aspen Locations – Ashland Ranger District.
4.3 Mixed Grass Prairie Ecosystem Existing Condition
4.3.1 General Description Domestic Livestock have grazed in the project area since the late 1800’s. The project area was grazed as a large public commons until 1907 when the Otter Reserve, or Ashland Ranger District was formed and the management was under the authority of the Forest Service. With the formation of the district, allotments were formed and water developed. Rotational grazing systems developed in the mid-1900s. This trend has continued and there are currently 44 allotments on the Ashland Ranger District, most of which employ some type of rotational grazing system and have numerous structural improvements.
Ashland Post Fire Landscape Assessment 2014 36 Most allotments have been grazed under a grazing management plan, using some type of rotation or deferred rotation grazing systems for up to 40 years. Structural improvements, including fences, reservoirs, pipelines, and water troughs have been established throughout the District. The primary focus for the grazing management plans was to improve distribution away from heavily used areas through the development of water in the uplands and converting secondary range to primary range. One change that has taken place on the Ashland Ranger District is the implementation of holding livestock off the allotment until an average range readiness date. This has meant turning livestock out on May 20 or June 1, rather than May 1, which was previously used as a turnout date. Review of allotment inspection notes, monitoring data, and field reviews show that these plans as a whole have been successful; however there are areas of each allotment where use levels exceed Forest Plan Standards and existing conditions do not meet Forest Plan Goals. In addition, inspection notes filed in the 2210 files for each of the allotments indicate that high utilization and undesirable conditions have occurred in some years under current management.
4.3.2 Uplands Upland vegetation can be generally described using “Grass and Shrub Plant Community Classification” (Taylor, 1976). Through descriptions of each of these ecosystems can be found in the supporting documentation. According to the classification and mapping effort the allotment is comprised of the following ecosystems:
Table 7. Taylor’s Ecosystem Classification – Plant Communities
Ecosystem 1. Creek Bottoms 2. Creek & Lower Slope Fan Terraces 3. Open Hillsides 4. Scoria-Sandstone Outcrops 5. Grassland Parks 6. Dry Slope Ponderosa Pine 7. Moist Slope Ponderosa Pine 8. Upland Prairie - Grassland 9. Upland Prairie -Sagebrush 10. Upland Prairie -Bunchgrass
4.3.3 Upland Vegetation Existing Condition The existing condition of upland vegetation varies across the landscape. In general, with the advent of cross-fencing to move most units from season long to rotation grazing, installing offsite water developments (away from riparian and hardwood draw areas), having improved range readiness entry dates, and shorter duration grazing with more opportunity for plant recovery upland rangelands overall have shown improvement over time.
Data from many Parker Three Step transects are used during scheduled allotment assessments. Data forms, photos, and locations of transects can be found in the individual 2210 files for each allotment. Several of the transects that have been re-read were established in the 1950’s and 1960’s, and have a history of readings with intervals from five years to twenty years. By
Ashland Post Fire Landscape Assessment 2014 37 comparing the readings at these intervals over a long period of time, trend, which is change in condition, can be determined.
According to the information in the 2210 files, a large part of the District is in less than “Good” condition. Since Forest Plan goals state that we are managing for range in “Good” condition, there is a departure from this direction. However, there is a large proportion of the range in “High Fair” suggesting conditions are improving.
4.3.4 Transitory Range Created by Recent Fires There is 3,472 acres of high canopy cover Ponderosa Pine on slopes less than 35% (grazable within one mile to water) that experienced moderate to high severity burns from recent wildfires will shift to more grass and forb species and eventually shift back to shrubs and Ponderosa over time. This shift is estimated to take about 20 years. North, northeast, and east aspects will likely sprout mesic shrubs with very little grass forage. West, southwest and south aspects will likely express a grass/forb cover (see Appendix D for Allotment and Pasture specific information).
4.3.5 Invasive Species
Noxious Weeds There are about 20,430 gross acres of state listed noxious weeds and seed banks present on the District. Net acres annually treated range from 400-1000. Large infestations of spotted knapweed are located in the Paget Creek area and Horse Creek with a large infestation of leafy spurge in the Bloom Creek and Powder River Breaks area. These areas, along with other road right-of-way infestation and isolated infestations, which is primarily spotted knapweed, have been monitored and treated for many years (See Appendix C for further detail).
Ashland Post Fire Landscape Assessment 2014 38
Figure 9. Ashland Ranger District Noxious Weed Locations
Other Invasives Undesirable plants, primarily nonnative, include Kentucky bluegrass, dandelion, and Japanese and downy brome.
Due to old reseeding practices on a minor part of the landscape, some allotments have a significant amount of smooth brome, an introduced species. Grazing practices have focused on using these species in the spring months to try to reduce the spread.
One of the most problematic undesirable plants in the project area are the annual brome grasses (see Appendix C for more detail). The density and distribution of these grasses varies greatly dependent upon the moisture regime, and in some cases can actually dominate a site, robbing native plants of nutrients. Due to the fact that these plants tend to invade bare spaces on native
Ashland Post Fire Landscape Assessment 2014 39 rangeland, it is important to manage for a healthy, diverse plant community, which has minimal amounts of bare soil, and higher plant densities. For example, after slash piles are burned, the sites often are invaded by annual bromes and Canada thistle and noxious weed treatments should be considered as a best management practice following pile burning.
4.3.6 Forest Plan Associated Mixed Grass Prairie Key Habitats and Management Indicator Species
Forest Plan Habitat Indicator Terrestrial Species
Sharp-tailed grouse (Prairie grassland) - There has been a short-term (up to 2 year) decrease in grassland habitat (structure and cover, rather than loss of grassland species) as a result of wildfires. After that time grasslands and residual cover are expected to recover to pre-wildfire conditions. It is assumed there has been a temporary displacement of sharp-tails to unburned areas and annual production of young may have been decreased for up to two years.
Forest Plan Sensitive Terrestrial Species Greater sage grouse (Sagebrush steppe) and Brewer’s Sparrow (evergreen shrubs - sagebrush) – Wildfires have reduced areas of big sagebrush which re-establishes slowly from seed (10ft/year from live plants) and temporarily reduced silver sage which re-sprouts immediately after wildfires. Current limitations of aerial imagery prevent an acreage estimate, though entire drainages were removed in past wildfires.
Prairie Dog Towns – Recently reduced in some areas due to sylvatic plague and under post- wildfire conditions are potentially able to expand. Grasslands – Structure – need high structure (sharp-tailed grouse) and low structure (active prairie dog habitat).
4.4 Ponderosa Pine Ecosystem Existing Condition
4.4.1 Introduction Prior to Euro-Americans settlement, dry ponderosa pine forests, such as those on the Ashland Ranger District, were burned by frequent low or mixed severity fires (Hessburg, Agee, Franklin, 2005, Brown, Sieg, 1996 and Sneed, 2005). These mostly surface fires maintained low and variable tree densities, light and patchy ground fuels, simplified forest structure, and favored a patchy cover of associated fire-tolerant shrubs and herbs (Hessburg, Agee, Franklin, 2005). Low severity fires maintained fire-resilient structures by elevating tree crown bases and scorching or consuming many seedlings, saplings, and pole-sized trees. Such fires cycled nutrients from branches and foliage to the soil, where they would be used by other plants, and promoted the growth and development of low and patchy understory shrub and herb vegetation. Finally, surface fires reduced the long-term threat of running crown fires by reducing the fuel bed and metering out individual tree and group torching, and they reduced competition for site resources (nutrients,
Ashland Post Fire Landscape Assessment 2014 40 light, and water) among surviving trees, shrubs and herbs. Rarely, dry forest landscapes were affected by more severe climate-driven events (Hessburg, Agee, Franklin, 2005) (See Table 1).
Dry forests no longer appear or function as they once did. Changes in disturbance processes (high frequency low severity to low frequency high severity) have resulted in large landscapes that are homogeneous in their compositions and structure, and these landscape are set up for severe, large fire and insect disturbance events (Hessburg, Agee, Franklin, 2005).
Small fires, if they had been allowed to burn in the early 20th century, or were intentionally lit, would have broken up the dry forest thereby reducing the size of the area influenced by uncontrolled wildfires that we are experiencing today. Changes that have occurred and the effects of those changes from wildfire suppression (management) have been discussed in the literature (Hessburg, Agee and Franklin, 2005). Table 1 compares key changes and their effect on the landscape.
Table 8. Key Changes In Dry Forest Landscapes Change Effect Reduced grassland and shrubland area in Increased homogeneity of the landscape vegetation and fuels forest potential vegetation settings and mosaic. expanded forest area. Increased homogeneity of the landscape vegetation and fuels Reduced old and new forest area. mosaic reduced spatial isolation of areas prone to high- severity fires. Reduced likelihood of low-severity fires with increasing Loss of grass and shrub understories. * flame length, fireline intensity, rate of spread, increased fuel ladders and likelihood of crown fire. Increased tree canopy cover, and canopy Increased fuel ladders, potential flame lengths, fireline layers. * intensity, rate of spread, and likelihood of crown fires. Increased landscape homogeneity, reduced fire tolerance, Increased young multi-story forest area. * increased fuel ladders, potential flame lengths, fireline intensity, rate of spread, and likelihood of crown fires. *Indicates a strong correlation with current severe fire behavior.
Changes in disturbances process have also been noted in the literature and include (Hessburg, Agge, Franklin, 2005): 1. Elevated fuel loadings and increased connectivity of high fuel loading; 2. Increased potential for running crowning fires; 3. Increased vulnerability to many insect and disease disturbances; 4. Increased likelihood of severe fire behavior in forest stands or patches with respect to flame length, rate of spread, and fireline intensity; 5. Increased contagion or spatial aggregation of vulnerability to severe fire and insect and disease disturbances.
There is little evidence that current patterns in dry forest today are sustainable and this has important ecological consequences (Hessburg, Agge, Franklin, 2005). The unburned forested area on the Ashland Ranger District, without disturbance, is increasing in homogeneity in its composition and structure, and the landscape is set up for severe, large fire and/or potential insect disturbance events. To date, some wildland fires alone have not created ecological outcomes that
Ashland Post Fire Landscape Assessment 2014 41 are desired by society or that are consistent with natural ecosystem functioning (See Table 8 and changes in disturbance processes above).
Not all fires are undesirable by society. The effects from severe and large wildfires are what some of society finds undesirable. These types of fire put a number of important values at risk as exemplified by the destruction of more than 3,600 homes in the wildfires that burned in southern California in 2003 (Graham, Jain, Matthews, 2004, p. 2). Homes are the most recognized value at risk, but there are other values at risk including critical infrastructure (power grids, drinking water supplies, and fences), sensitive or protected fish and wildlife habitat, firefighter health and safety, public health and safety, soil productivity, aesthetics, clean air, and other important components of forest ecosystems (Graham, Jain, Matthews, 2004, p. 2). For the Ashland District the destruction of fence lines, livestock loss and the disruption of the permitted grazing on Forest Service lands has tremendous impacts for the local ranching community.
4.4.2 Past Large Wildfire on the Ashland District – 1988 to 2012 From 1988 to 1994, approximately 31,149 acres were burned. This amounts to 7% of the Forest Service lands within the administrative boundary. In this time period Forest Plan Management Areas (MAs) G and J had the largest amount of individual management area acres impacted (15% and 11%), MAs B and D both had 6%.
From 1995 to 2012, approximately 258,829 acres burned or 59% of Forest Service lands within the administrative boundary. For this time period the amount of individual MA acres burned in descending order was: MA’s B, D, G, J, P, and F (122,180; 85,419; 30,067; 20,898; 262; 4).
Large wild fires from 1988 to 2012 have burned 289,978 acres or 66% of the Forest Service lands within the administrative boundary. The largest wildfire years were 1988, 2000 and 2012.
Maps and summarized data are found at the following file path name: O:\NFS\Custer\Project\Ashland\AshlRapidAssess2013\Maps\FireHisMA8695041713.pdf O:\NFS\Custer\Project\Ashland\AshlRapidAssess2013\Maps\FireHisMA951211X17.pdf O:\NFS\Custer\Project\Ashland\AshlRapidAssess2013\Spreadsheets\All1986to12FireByMA0415201 3.xlsx
These large wildfires have impacted forest land on the district, more specifically the Ponderosa pine. Following is a discussion on the existing condition for the Ponderosa pine post 2012 fire events. Three time periods are compared 1990’s, 2006, and 2012. Two vegetation data sets have been used to portray the existing conditions (Forest Strata and 2006 VMap). The Forest Strata vegetation layer done in late 1980’s to early 1990’s which incorporates the conditions post 1988, 1989 and 1992 wildfires, will be used as a baseline for 1990’s. This data set was chosen as the 2006 imagery used for VMap classification, portrays regenerating or not regenerating pre 2006 high to moderate burn severity fire areas as grasslands not as forestland. Using this data set gives a better representation of Forestland for this time period.
Ashland Post Fire Landscape Assessment 2014 42 The current forest vegetation layer VMap was used to portray conditions in 2006 (Various dates of imagery in summer 2005). For 2012 a derived product using 2006 VMap imagery for which moderate and high severity fires have been clipped out. The following topic areas have been identified:
1. Ponderosa pine cover impacted by wildfire from 2000 to 2012. 2. Amount of forest cover (and individual forest types) in 1990’s, 2006 and 2012 and the net change from 1990’s to 2006, 2006 to 2012, and 1990’s to 2012. 3. The extent of Ponderosa pine forest cover represented by Size and Canopy Cover classes in 1990’s, 2006 and 2012 and the net change from 1990’s to 2006, 2006 to 2012, and 1990’s to 2012. 4. Current acres suitable for a timber product. 5. Reforestation Assessment for large fires from 2000 to 2012 and a strategy to ensure lands are reforested. 6. Average structure conditions in the dominant size and cover classes on moist and dry aspects for unburned lands. 7. Current beetle hazard for unburned and low severity Ponderosa pine forested areas. 8. Expected beetle and woodborer caused mortality in 2012 fire areas. 9. Re-burn risk for Ponderosa pine forested areas that were burned over in the large wildfires. 10. Past Management Activities from 1986 to 2012.
4.4.3 Ponderosa Pine Cover Impacted by Wildfire from 2000 to 2012 The Ashland district has experienced several large wildfire disturbances since 2000 that has shaped the existing forest cover across the Ashland Ranger District. From 2000 to 2012 approximately 87,034 acres of Ponderosa pine forest cover within large wildfire perimeters have been impacted by low, moderate or high severity fire (Figure 9). Large wildfires were absent in years 2001, 2002, 2008, 2009 and 2010 (Figure 9). Of the 87,034 acres the largest acreage impacted was in years 2000 and 2012 (Figure 9). In 2012, 55% and in 2000, 23% of these acres were impacted by wildfire (Figure 10).
4.4.4 Extent of Forest Cover and Change as a Result of Large Wildfires from 1990 to 2012 High severity/intensity fires in forested areas result in high levels of mortality and directly changes the cover type from forest to non-forest (grassland or shrubland). This cover change can be a short term or long term dependent on the size of the fire area and its proximity to a seed source. Additional loss (delayed mortality) of forest cover occurs as an indirect effect in the fire areas. Trees damaged during the fire (crown scorch, bole damage, root damage from heating) create stress on the trees that attract Ipps beetles and wood borers. When fire damaged trees are attacked by these insects it generally results in mortality. This indirect effect has been observed on past large wildfires on the Sioux and Ashland Ranger Districts with a wave of mortality 1 to 3 years post fire. The end result of this wave of mortality has the same effect as high severity fire areas – loss of the forest cover. This wave of insect mortality will have additional forest cover loss over the next few years.
Ashland Post Fire Landscape Assessment 2014 43 Acres of Ponderosa Pine Cover Impacted by Wildfire 50000 A 40000 c 47694 Acres of r 30000 Ponderosa Pine e 19928 20000 Cover Impacted… s 4747 4606 10000 4478 2950 2016 615 0 2000 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2011 2012 Year
Figure 10: Acres of Ponderosa pine forest cover impacted by low, moderate or high wildfire from 2000 to 2012.
Percent of Ponderosa Pine Cover Impacted by Wildfire
60.0% P e 50.0% Percent of r 40.0% 54.8% Ponderosa Pine c 30.0% 22.9% Cover Impacted e 20.0% by Wildfire n 5.5% 5.3% 5.1% 3.4%
10.0% 2.3% t 0.7% 0.0% 2000 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2011 2012 Year
Figure 11: Percent of total acres of Ponderosa pine forest cover impacted by low, moderate or high wildfire from 2000 to 2012.
Past and present vegetation layers were analyzed to assess the impacts that wildfires have had on the forest cover across the district and determine the approximate forest cover post 2012 wildfire. Three time periods were chosen to compare (1990’s, 2006, and 2012). The 1990’s vegetation coverage was derived from the early 1990’s forest strata classification (Appendix L). This classification stratified the entire district into vegetation cover types and for the ponderosa pine it
Ashland Post Fire Landscape Assessment 2014 44 further classified them into size and canopy cover classes. The 2006 analysis used the VMap coverage that was based on LANDSAT and National Agricultural Image Program (NAIP) imagery that allows stratification of the vegetation into dominant cover types and the Ponderosa pine into size and canopy cover classes. The 2012 analysis used the 2006 VMap coverage and derived estimates of cover change based on cover loss from the burn severity maps of the large fires (O:\NFS\Custer\Project\Ashland\AshlRapidAssess2013\Spreadsheets O:\NFS\Custer\Project\Ashland\AshlRapidAssess2013\Maps). There were large wildfires in 1988, 1989 and 1992 totaling 31,029 acres. Reviewing the 1990’s data set (Appendix M), it appears the forest strata classification had accounted for those disturbances. In both classification systems forest cover was defined as canopy cover > to 10%. In the 1990’s forest vs. non forest cover was approximately equal at a 50% (Figures 3 and 4). The 2006 VMap coverage would have incorporated disturbances prior to 2006, including the large wildfires of 2000, 2003, 2004 and 2005. Forestland that experienced stand replacement events in this time period would be classified as non-forest (grassland or shrubland) in the 2006 VMap coverage. In 2006, 38% of the district had forest cover and 62% was classified as non-forest cover (Figures 3 and 4). For the derived existing cover type for 2012 (post fires), the forest cover decreased to 27% and non-forest increased to 73% (Figures 12 and 13).
From 1990’s to 2006 forest cover decreased by approximately 13% with the respective increase in non-forest cover due to wildfire disturbance (Figure 5). For the period of 2006 to 2012 the loss of forest cover and increase of non-forest cover was 11% (Figure 5). From 1990’s to 2012 the district experienced a net decrease of forest cover of approximately 24% and gain of non-forest cover of 24% (Figure 14).
Considering only forested acreage in 1990’s approximately 219,214 acres were classified with forest cover, in 2012 approximately 116,708 acres were classified as forested. The net change is a 47% reduction of the forest cover from what occurred in the 1990’s.
1990's Percent 2006 Percent Cover Types- Cover Types -
Forest Strata VMap 37.7 % Forested Forested 49.7 50.3 % % Non- Non- forest 62.3 forest % Figure 12: Percent forest and non-forest cover on the Ashland Ranger District 1990’s, 2006 and 2012.
Ashland Post Fire Landscape Assessment 2014 45 Forest and Non-forest Cover by Year
P 73.3% 80.0% 62.3% e 50.3% 49.7% r 60.0% 37.7% c 40.0% 26.7% Forested e n 20.0% Non-forest t 0.0% 1990's 2006 2012 Year
Figure 13: Comparison of percent forest cover and non-forest cover by time period on the Ashland Ranger District.
Forest Non-forest Cover Change 30.0% 23.6% 20.0% P 12.6% e 10.0% 11.0% r c 0.0% Forested e 1990's to 2006 2006 to 2012 1990's to 2012 Non-forest -10.0% n -12.6% -11.0% t -20.0% -23.6% -30.0% Time Interval
Figure 14: Percent of Forest Cover Change from 1990’s to 2012 post fire on the Ashland Ranger District.
4.4.5 Individual Forest Types and Change in Cover Extent as a Result of Large Wildfires from 1990 to 2012 Comparing the data sets (1990’s Forest Strata, 2006 VMap, and 2012 derived VMap) there is an overall decrease in individual forest cover types. Hardwoods (aspen, green ash, box elder, and cottonwood) and juniper occur as small isolated communities and are mixed with ponderosa pine across the district. This mixture and small patch size were not always detected for either vegetation
Ashland Post Fire Landscape Assessment 2014 46 classifications (1990’s Forest Strata and 2006 VMap) and therefore does not give a true representation of individual forest types.
Ponderosa pine is the dominant tree cover on the district comprising over 97% of the forest cover across all three time periods (1990’s, 2006 and 2012). Ponderosa pine makes up 97.5% of forestland in 1990’s, 99.5% in 2006, and 99.4% in 2012. In 1990’s Juniper represented 1.9%, in 2006 0.1% and in 2012 0.4%. Hardwoods in 1990’s was at 0.6%, in 2006 0.2%, and in 2012 represented less the 0.1% of the forestland. See Figure 18.
Utilizing what has been mapped a change in cover types (as a percent of total forest/non-forest acres) can be noted across the time periods. Ponderosa pine coverage in 1990’s, 2006 and 2012 was 50%, 38%, 27% (Figures 14, 15 and 16). Classified Juniper was .3%, .1% and .1% (Figures 14, 15 and 16). Hardwoods coverage went from .3% to .1% to <.1% (Figures 15, 16 and 17).
Figure 18 displays the change in individual forest cover types from wildfire across the 3 time periods (1990’s to 2006, 2006 to 2012 and 1990’s to 2012) as compared to total Forest Service acres across the District. Ponderosa pine cover was reduced from 1990’s to 2012 by 22%, Juniper by .8% and hardwoods by .3%. Existing ponderosa pine cover is at approximately 27% of the district acres. Existing Juniper cover is at .1% and hardwoods at less than .1% of the District acres.
1990's Percent Forest 2006 Percent Forest
Type Type
49.0% Ponderosa Pine 49.7% Ponderosa Pine 37.6% Juniper Juniper 62.2%
Hardwoods Hardwoods 0.3% 1.0% 0.1%
Non-forest 0.1% Non-forest
Figure 15: Percent forest cover type for 1990’s and 2006.
Ashland Post Fire Landscape Assessment 2014 47 2012 Percent Forest Type
26.7%
0.1% Ponderosa Pine 0.0% Juniper 73.2% Hardwoods Non-forest
Figure 16: Percent forest cover type 2012.
Forest Cover Type by Year
80.0% 73.2%
70.0% 62.2% P 60.0% 49.0% 49.7% e 50.0% Ponderosa Pine r 37.6% c 40.0% Juniper e 26.7% 30.0% Hardwoods n t 20.0% Non-forest 0.3% 0.1% 0.0% 10.0% 1.0% 0.1% 0.1% 0.0% 1990's 2006 2012 Year
Figure 17: Percent of forest cover type by year.
Ashland Post Fire Landscape Assessment 2014 48 Forest Cover Change Over Time 23.5% 25.0% 20.0% 12.5% 15.0% 11.0% P Ponderosa 10.0% e 0.0% Pine 5.0% r 0.0% Juniper c 0.0% 1990's to 2006 2006 to 2012 1990's to 2012 Hardwoods e -5.0% n -0.8% -10.0% -0.8% Non-forest t -11.4% -0.2% -11.0% -0.3% -15.0% -20.0% -25.0% -22.4% Time Period
Figure 18: Percent of forest cover type change over time.
Forest Cover
97.5% 99.5% 99.4% 100.0% 90.0% P 80.0% e 70.0% r 60.0% Ponderosa Pine c 50.0% e 40.0% Juniper n 30.0% Hardwoods 1.9% 0.3% t 20.0% 0.4% 10.0% 0.6% 0.2% 0.1% 0.0% 1990's 2006 2012 Year
Figure 19: Percent of individual forest cover types.
Ashland Post Fire Landscape Assessment 2014 49 4.4.6 Extent of Ponderosa Pine Cover by Canopy Cover and Size Class and Change From 1990’s to 2012 This analysis for canopy cover and size class is the representation or amount of canopy cover classes on the Forest Service lands across the district during various time periods and not meant to discern fully the effects of fire on crown cover or size class reductions. There are effects going on in changes noted in 1990’s to 2012 data sets worth mentioning. The first is fires in 1988, 1989 and 1992 where crown canopy was reduced and moved into a lower class these would be reflected in the 1990’s and 2006 layer. Similar analogy for size class, some small size classes regenerating would have been incorporated in these data sets. For the 2000 to 2005 fires where crown canopy was reduced these would also be reflected in the 2006 layer. For fires after 2006, where moderate and high severity areas were mapped, these were essentially clipped out and considered as going to non-forest, thus a reduction in the canopy cover class and size class they existed in. Additional data sets and monitoring would need to be obtained to determine potential canopy reductions and areas moving into smaller size classes for fires after 2006. For this analysis it is assumed from past wildfires that the majority of moderate and high severity fires on large wildfires ultimately end up with 0 to 10% canopy cover (non-forest cover).
Approximately 117 thousand acres of Ponderosa pine is currently projected to occur on the District that has not been impacted by wildfire. Sixty two percent is in a size class of 10 inches and greater (Figure 13 and 14). Less than 1 percent is in a size class 15 inches or greater (Figures 13 and 14). Ten percent is in a small size class of less than 5 inches and 27% is in a size class of 5 to 9 inches (Figures 13 and 14).
Thirty six percent of the ponderosa pine not impacted by wildfire has a canopy cover class of 40% to 59.9% (Figure 20 and 21). Twenty nine percent is in a canopy cover class of 25 to 39.9% and 33% occur in a canopy cover class between 10 and 24.9 % (Figure 20 and 21). A small percent (2%) has a canopy cover class of 60% or greater (Figure 20 and 21).
2012 - Percent of 2012 - Percent of Ponderosa Pine by Size Ponderosa Pine by Class Canopy Cover Class
0.9% 10.0% 2.4% 0 - 4.9" 10 - 24.9% 35.7% 33.0% 27.0% 5.0 - 9.9" 25 - 39.9% 62.1% 10.0 - 14.9" 28.9% 40 - 59.9% 15"+ 60%+
Figure 20. Ponderosa pine by size class and canopy cover class in 2006.
Ashland Post Fire Landscape Assessment 2014 50 2012 - Percent of Ponderosa Pine by Canopy Cover Class by Size Class 35.0% 30.5% 30.0% P e 25.0% 0 - 4.9" r 5 - 9.9" 20.0% 15.1% 15.1% c 10.0 - 14.9" 15.0% 11.6% 10.9% e 15"+ 10.0% 6.3% n 4.2% 1.5% 2.8% 0.3% t 5.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.7% 0.4% 0.2% 0.5% 0.0% 10 - 24.9% 25 - 39.9% 40 - 59.9% 60%+ Canopy Cover Class
Figure 21. Comparison of Ponderosa pine size class and canopy cover class in 2012.
In 1990’s approximately 214 thousand acres were classified as ponderosa pine. Ninety three percent occurred in a size class 9.0 inches and larger, 5% in a size class between 5 and 8 inches, and 2% in a size class less than 5 inches (Figures 22 and 23). The dominant canopy cover class in the 1990’s was 40 to 69% representing 45% of the Ponderosa pine (Figures 22 and 23). Thirty eight percent occurred in the 10 to 39% class, and 13% in the 70% and greater class (Figures 22 and 23). Harvested stands and/or stands that were burned by wildfire that resulted in less than 10% canopy cover represented 4% of the ponderosa pine (Figures 22 and 23).
1990's - Percent of 1990's Pecent of Ponderosa Pine by Size Ponderosa Pine by Class 2.2% 5.0% Canopy Cover Class
13.4% 3.9% < 10% 0 - 4.9" 37.5% 10 - 39% 92.8% 5.0 - 8.9" 45.2% 40 - 69% 9.0 "+ 70%+
Figure 22. Ponderosa pine by percent of size class and canopy cover class in the 1990’s.
Ashland Post Fire Landscape Assessment 2014 51
1990's - Percent of Ponderosa Pine by Canopy 43.0% 45.0% Cover by Size Class
40.0% 34.6% P 35.0% e 30.0% r 25.0% c 20.0% 0 - 4.9" e 12.0% 5.0 - 8.9" n 15.0% t 10.0% 0.9% 9.0 "+ 0.6% 3.1% 2.4% 1.9% 5.0% 0.2% 0.5% 0.2% 0.5% 0.0% < 10% 10 - 39% 40 - 69% 70%+ Canopy Cover Class
Figure 23. Comparison of Ponderosa pine size class and canopy cover class in the 1990’s.
Sixty three percent of the approximately 167 thousand acres of ponderosa pine in 2006 were in a size class of 10 to 14.9 inches (Figures 24 and 25). Twenty six percent were represented in a size class between 5 and 9.9” and 9% in a size class less than 5 inches (Figures 24 and 25). Two percent of the acreage occurred in a size class of 15 inches or greater (Figures 24 and 25). Forty one percent of the ponderosa pine acreage in 2006 had a canopy cover of 40 percent or greater (Figures 24 and 25). Twenty eight percent were represented with a canopy class of 10 to 24.9% and 31% between 25 and 39.9% (Figures 24 and 25). Less than 5% of the acreage had a canopy cover of 60% or greater. Thirty one percent fell in a canopy cover class of 40 to 59.9% (Figures 24 and 25).
Ashland Post Fire Landscape Assessment 2014 52 2006 - Percent of 2006 - Percent of Ponderosa Pine by Size Ponderosa Pine by Class Canopy Cover Class
4.7% 2.1% 8.9% 0 - 4.9" 26.0% 28.3% 10 - 24.9% 5.0 - 9.9" 36.5% 25 - 39.9% 63.0% 10.0 - 14.9" 30.6% 40 - 59.9% 15"+ 60%+
Figure 24. Ponderosa pine by percent of size class and canopy cover class in 2006.
2006 - Percent of Ponderosa Pine by Canopy Cover Class by Size Class 35.0% 31.0% P 30.0% 0 - 4.9" e 25.0% r 5 - 9.9" c 20.0% 16.2% 13.1% 10.0 - 14.9" e 11.6% 15.0% 9.9% n 10.0% 2.6% 15"+ 5.3% 4.1% t 2.7% 0.4% 5.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.7% 0.7% 0.3% 1.4% 0.0% 10 - 24.9% 25 - 39.9% 40 - 59.9% 60%+ Canopy Cover Class
Figure 25. Comparison of Ponderosa pine size class and canopy cover class in the 1990’s.
To assess the amount and percent of the existing Ponderosa pine canopy cover classes for the 3 time periods (1990’s, 2006 and 2012) the 4 canopy cover classes of both the forest strata classification and the VMap classification were put in relative classes of low/moderate, high, and very high. This was done because the class breaks did not occur at the same interval. Low/Moderate class is canopy covers from 10% to 39%, High 40 to 59-69%, and Very High 60- 70% and greater.
Ashland Post Fire Landscape Assessment 2014 53 In 1990’s 42% of the ponderosa pine acreage (213,687) had a low/moderate (generally <40%) and 58% had a high or very high (generally >40%) canopy cover. For the 166,542 acres in 2006 low/moderate was at 59% and high to very high at 41%. The 116,513 acres in 2012 are represented by 62% in the low/moderate and 38% in the high to very high canopy cover class. The general trend from 1990’s to the 2012 is an increase in representation of the <40% canopy cover class and a decrease in the >40% class for the Ponderosa pine acreage in each period. See Figure 26.
Percent of Canopy Cover Class by Year
70.0% 58.8% 61.9% P 60.0% 45.2% e 50.0% 41.4% 36.5% 35.7% r 40.0% 1990's c 30.0% 13.4% 2006 e 20.0% 4.7% 2012 n 10.0% 2.4% t 0.0% low/moderate high very high Canopy cover Class
Figure 26: Percent of Ponderosa pine canopy cover class by year.
Based on the ponderosa pine acreage in each time period (1990’s ~ 213,687; 2006 ~ 166,542; 2012 ~116,513) the percent of change in the high and very high canopy cover classes have had a continual reduction in representation on the district since the 1990’s. The low/moderate displays a gain in representation on the district. Past large wildfires have had the greatest impact on extent of Ponderosa pine with canopy cover classes greater than 40%. In other words fires have burned in locations on the district that were comprised of a higher representation of canopy cover classes greater than 40%.
For the time interval of 1990’s to 2006 the low/moderate class representation increased by 17.4%, the high and very high both decreased by 8.7%. From 2006 to 2012 the same trend is noted but in smaller proportions; low/moderate had a 3% gain, high a .8% loss, and very high a 2.2% loss. The impacts of large wildfires are seen in the comparison of changes in the representations of these canopy cover classes from the 1990’s to present. The low/moderate class had a gain of 20.5% of representation and the only class that increased. High had a 9.5% loss and very high a 11% loss. See Figure 27.
Ashland Post Fire Landscape Assessment 2014 54 Percent of Canopy Cover Class Change by Time Period 25.0% 20.5% 17.4% P 20.0% e 15.0% 10.0% r 3.0% low/moderate c 5.0% high e 0.0% n -5.0% 1990's to 2006 2006 to 2012 1990's to 2012 very high t -10.0% -8.7% -8.7% -0.8% -2.2% -11.0% -15.0% -9.5% Time Interval
Figure 27: Percent of Ponderosa pine canopy cover class change from 1990 to 2012.
Changes in the percent of size class representation were done by assigning a relative size class of small, medium and large. This was done as the two classifications had a 1 inch size break difference on one of the size classes (5 to 8.9” vs. 5 to 9.9”). The 15 inch and greater class in the VMap classification was assigned a large size. In 1990 93% of the ponderosa pine acreage was in the large size class (>9”), 5% in the medium class (5 to 8.9”), and 2% in the small size class (less than 5”). In 2006 65% was large size (> 10”), 26% medium (5 to 9.9”) and 9% small (< 5”). In 2012, the existing condition 63% of the acreage was in the large size (> 10”), 27% medium (5 to 8.9”) and 10% in the small size class (< 5”). See Figure 28.
Size Class by Year
92.8% 100.0% P 80.0% e 65.1% 63.0% r 60.0% Small c Medium e 40.0% 26.0% 27.0% n 8.9% 10.0% Large 20.0% 2.2% 5.0% t 0.0% 1990's 2006 2012 Year
Figure 28. Percent of size class by year.
Ashland Post Fire Landscape Assessment 2014 55 From 1990’s to 2012 wildfires had the greatest reductions in the representation of the large size class of a reduction of 30%. From 1990’s to 2006 the small size class representation increased by 7%, medium size increased by 21% and a 28% reduction in large size. From 2006 to 2012 the small and medium classes increased by 1% and the large size representation decreased by 2%. The impact of acreage burned in wildfires on size class representation is seen the best when comparing the change from 1990’s to the existing condition post 2012 disturbances. The large size class had a 30% reduction, the medium a 22% increase and the small class an 8% increase in representation of total ponderosa pine acreage. Wildfires have had the greatest impact on areas of ponderosa pine that were generally older, larger size and with higher crown canopies. Stands that mature into larger size classes and increased crown canopies, without disturbance generally develop ladder fuels as understory trees develop. This succession increases the risk for loss during a wildfire.
4.4.7 Acres Suitable For Timber Product Post Wildfire Disturbance The Ponderosa pine that has not been affected by wildfire was assessed for timber product availability to aid in determining if timber management can be a tool to meet desired conditions. Areas were assessed based on Forest Plan Management Areas (MA) that has identified lands suitable for timber management in their goals and/or management standards. This includes Management Areas B, D, F, and G. All Ponderosa pine areas outside the large wildfire perimeters since 2000 were included in this analysis. The 2006 VMap coverage was used and queried for all areas that had at least 10% canopy cover (forested) and greater than or equal to a 5 inches diameter class (a post pole product is 5 to 7.9”, a saw timber product is 8” and larger).
Size Class Change 30.0% 21.1% 20.0% P 22.1% 6.7% 7.8% e 10.0% Small 1.1% 1.0% r Medium c 0.0% e 1990's to 2006 2006 to 2012 1990's to 2012 Large -2.1% n -10.0% t -20.0%
-30.0% -27.7% Time Interval -29.8%
Figure 29. Percent of crown cover change from 1990 to 2012.
Ashland Post Fire Landscape Assessment 2014 56 Fifty thousand eight hundred and seventeen acres were identified as having a timber product. MA’s D and B have the largest acres of 22,360 and 18,666. MA G has 9,742 acres and MA F 48 acres. See Figure 30. Map (Appendix R) and summarized data found at the following hyperlinks.
O:\NFS\Custer\Project\Ashland\AshlRapidAssess2013\Spreadsheets\AshTimberSuit091613.xlsx O:\NFS\Custer\Project\Ashland\AshlRapidAssess2013\Maps\PotentialSuitabiltiy2.pdf
Acres of Land Suitable for Timber Product Not Affected by Fires from 2000 - 2012 22360 25000 18666 20000 A c 15000 9742 r 10000 e 5000 s 48 0 B D F G Management Area
Figure 30. Acres of Forest Plan Management Areas identified with lands suitable for timber management and having a timber product that have not been affected by large wildfire.
Fire killed trees and anticipated mortality in the high and moderate severity fire areas of 2012 reduce the potential for feasibility of timber management. Fire killed trees begin to deteriorate (weather checks, blue stain, etc.) and about 12 to 18 months after the fire become unsuitable for a timber product recovery. Areas within fire perimeters that have had unburned to low severity may have the potential for timber management. Within the fire perimeters of 2000 to 2012, 20,072 acres (unburned and low severity) have been identified as having a timber product. Nine thousand eight hundred and eighteen acres were identified in MA B, 6,883 acres in MA D, 3,367 acres in MA G, and 4 acres in MA F. See Figure 31. In total (outside and inside fire perimeters) currently about 70,888 acres have been identified with having a timber product.
Ashland Post Fire Landscape Assessment 2014 57 Acres Suitable for Timber Product Affected by Fires From 2000-2012
15000 12074 A 9690 c 10000 7349 6983 1 - Unburned to Low Sev 5726 r 2771 2 - Low Severity e 5000 2469 2963 2493 1157 874 1677 3 - Moderate Severity s 4 0 1 0 0 4 - High Severity B D F G Management Area
Figure 31. Acres of Forest Plan Management Areas identified with lands suitable for timber management and having a timber product that have been affected by wildfire from 2000 to 2012. Class 1 and 2 were only considered available.
4.4.8 Reforestation Assessment and Strategy for Return of Forest Cover for Large Wildfires 2000 to 2012. An effect from large stand replacement fire events is a potential loss of the ponderosa pine forest cover (deforestation) for long periods of time. Ponderosa pine has a thick bark that acts as an insulator and long needles that protect its buds to withstand effects from frequent low intensity fires. Ponderosa pine has a large, heavy seed and does not have the ability to reseed large disturbance areas in short time frames like other small winged pine species such as lodgepole pine. Average seed cast is 1 to 3.5 tree heights (Shepperd and Battaglia 2002; Minore and Laacke, 1992). Ponderosa pines large seed and cone generally are destroyed and do not remain after stand replacement fire events. If all the trees have been killed no seed source is available to reforest the area. Ponderosa pine forests that have had large fires over the last 20 to 25 years in eastern Montana have demonstrated this. Left alone portions of these fires would take several decades to reforest. This loss of the forest has impacts to wildlife that are dependent on forested communities. The Kraft Springs fire is an example of this (Sandbak, Clark, 2005). The forested landscape was reduced (deforested) by 69% (Sandbak and Clark 2005) from fire caused mortality from the 1988 Brewer Fire and the 2002 Kraft Springs Fire. Several thousands of acres were deforested with limited seed sources. Many of these acres were put into a delayed regeneration strategy (forest cover return taking few to several decades) and natural regeneration strategy (forest cover return < 10 years). Areas assessed that were lacking a seed source and on the cooler, moist sites that were deemed important for timely reforestation were artificially reforested. See Figure 31.
To comply with the National Forest Management Act, Forest Service Directives, and meet forest cover management goals and standards in the Forest Plan the Custer National Forest has identified
Ashland Post Fire Landscape Assessment 2014 58 three strategies for ensuring forest lands impacted by fires are maintained or put on a trajectory to return forest cover post wildfire disturbance. Those strategies include:
1. On forest land where fires have resulted in low mortality those areas will be monitored to assess the forest cover. An assessment will include potential delayed mortality from the fire or insects and if the forest cover will still meet the intent of the management direction in the Forest Plan. No Treatment: No further treatment and no further monitoring needed or Natural Regeneration: Monitoring for natural regeneration success to meet the Forest’s certification standards. 2. On forest land where fires have resulted in moderate mortality those areas will be monitored to assess the forest cover. An assessment will include potential delayed mortality from the fire or insects and if the forest cover will still meet the intent of the management direction in the Forest Plan. Natural Regeneration: Where adequate seed source is available, monitoring for natural regeneration success to meet the Forest’s certification standards. Artificial Regeneration: Where adequate seed source is not available on moist sites (N, NW, NE and E) to restock to certification standards in 5 to 10 years post fire, artificial planting will be evaluated. Delayed Regeneration: Where adequate seed source is not available on dry sites (SE, S, SW, and W) to restock to certification standards in 5 to 10 years post fire these areas will be put into a delayed regeneration status with long natural recovery periods anticipated. 3. On forest land where fires have resulted in high mortality those areas will be monitored to assess the forest cover. An assessment will include potential delayed mortality form the fire or insects and if the forest cover will still meet the intent of the management direction in the Forest Plan. Natural Regeneration: Where adequate seed source is available, monitoring for natural regeneration success to meet the Forest’s certification standards. Artificial Regeneration: Where adequate seed source is not available on moist sites (N, NW, NE and E) to restock to certification standards in 5 to 10 years post fire artificial planting will be evaluated. Delayed Regeneration: Where adequate seed source is not available on dry sites (SE, S, SW, and W) to restock to certification standards in 5 to 10 years post fire these areas will be put into a delayed regeneration status with long natural recovery periods anticipated.
Post fire the Forest has developed logic to apply to large fire perimeters to assign a regeneration strategy based on fire intensity/severity mapping, aspect and vegetation labels from either the Forest Strata layer or 2006 VMap (Table 9A).
Ashland Post Fire Landscape Assessment 2014 59 Table 9A. Reforestation Assessment Using Fire Intensity/Severity Mapping, Aspect and Pre Fire Vegetation Classification. Fire Regeneration Strategy Label Intensity/Severity Aspects TSMRS Stratum VMap
Natural Regeneration Low All All 100’s and 200’s All PIPO >10% canopy cover Natural Regeneration Moderate N, NE, NW, All 100’s and 200’s All PIPO >10% E canopy cover Delayed Natural Regeneration Moderate S, SE, SW, All 100’s and 200’s All PIPO >10% W canopy cover Planting High N, NE, NW, All 100’s and 200’s All PIPO >10% E canopy cover Delayed Natural Regeneration High S, SE, SW, All 100’s and 200’s All PIPO >10% W canopy cover
Reforestation stocking goals have been developed for Ponderosa pine sites on the Sioux and Ashland Ranger Districts by habitat type and aspect (Table 9B) (USDA Forest Service, 2006). Trees per acre (TPA) ranges and percent of area stocked with those TPA have been identified to use for assessment of treatment needs. This table is used in the field to validate the regeneration strategy and make changes as conditions warrant. It is also used as the title implies, for purposes of certifying regeneration stocking objectives post disturbance.
TABLE 9B: Minimum Trees per Acre and % Stocked Area by Suitability for Certification of Regeneration. Habitat Type1 Aspect TPA % Stocked Area2 Suitability 110, 130, 191 All 15 - 25 15 - 25 Unsuitable 140, 141, 192 SW, W, S, SE 15 - 25 15 - 25 Unsuitable 140, 141, 192 NW, N, N, NE, E 50 - 100 25 - 50 Unsuitable 170, 171, 172, 180, 181, 182 193, 194, 195 SW, W, S, SE 50 - 100 25 - 50 Unsuitable 170, 171, 172, 180, 181, 182 193, 194, 195 NW, N, N, NE, E 100 - 200 80% + Suitable 1 Pfister, Robert D., Kovalchik, Bernard L., Arno, Stephen F., and Presby, Richard C.. 1977. Forest Habitat Types of Montana. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-34. Ogden, UT: USDA, Forest Service. 174 p. Hansen, Paul L. and George R. Hoffman. 1988. The Vegetation of the Grand River/Cedar River, Sioux,and Ashland Districts of the Custer National Forest: A Habitat Type Classification. Gen. Tech. Rep.RM-157. Fort Collins, CO; USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 68 p. 2Percent capable growing area stocked to the minimum TPA for certification listed to the left.
Using the reforestation assessment logic defined above (Table 7A) all fires from years 2000 to 2012 were assigned a reforestation strategy and summarized by year of fire and MA. Seventy eight percent of the ponderosa acres were impacted by the 2000 and 2012 fires. The fires of 2012 impacted 56%. The largest amount of Ponderosa pine acreage impacted fell in MA B (37,934), followed by MA D (32,059), then MA G (12,736), then MA J (4,302), and the least in MA F (3). See Figure 33.
Ashland Post Fire Landscape Assessment 2014 60 Acres of Ponderosa Percent of Ponderosa Pine Cover Impacted by Pine Cover Impacted by Wildfire Wildfire 50000 60.0% A P 50.0% c 40000 e Acres of 54.8% 47694 r 40.0% Percent of r 30000 Ponderosa Pine Cover Ponderosa 19928 c e 30.0% 22.9% Pine Cover 20000 Impacted s by Wildfire e 20.0% Impacted n by Wildfire 4747 4606 4478 5.5% 5.3% 10000 5.1% 2950 3.4% 2016 10.0% 2.3% 615 t 0.7% 0 0.0% 2000 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2011 2012 2000 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2011 2012 Year Year
Figure 32. Acres of Ponderosa pine impacted by low, moderate or high severity fire by year and percent of total acres impacted (2000 to 2012).
All 87,304 acres of ponderosa pine within the burned perimeters were assessed and assigned a strategy and mapped (Appendix N). O:\NFS\Custer\Project\Ashland\AshlRapidAssess2013\Maps\PotentialSuitabiltiyRefo.pdf ).
Dry, warm aspects with limited to no seed source (moderate to high fire mortality) are generally what compose the delayed natural regeneration strategy. These sites may take a decade to several decades for pines to start colonizing. Natural processes will drive whether these sites will return to pine cover or remain as grasslands or shrublands or scattered open savannah communities. Nineteen thousand two hundred and forty two acres fall in this regeneration strategy. The highest amount of acres falls in MA D (8,154), followed by MA B (7,511), then MA J (765), and then MA G (2,812). See Figure 33.
The natural regeneration strategy has the highest amount of acres (57,480) as would be expected since the moderate fire severity has the widest range of mortality and was typed as the highest fire type for the period 2000 to 2012. Moist, cool aspects with adequate seed source (moderate fire mortality) are generally the makeup of the natural regeneration strategy. All low burn severity areas are included due to adequate seed source (low amount fire killed trees) to fill in small burned areas. Seed crops and properly timed moisture (spring and early summer) will drive the time frames that Ponderosa pine will successfully reestablish. Past monitoring on large fires on the Sioux and Ashland ranger districts indicate that in as little as 2 years and up to 13 years when there is an adequate seed crop for successful Ponderosa pine reestablishment. MA B has the highest amount of acres in this strategy (27,140), followed by MA D (18,784), than MA G (8,101), than MA J (3,452) with MA F the smallest at 3 acres. See Figure 33.
Ashland Post Fire Landscape Assessment 2014 61 Planting had the lowest amount of acreage assessed (10,312). This is 12% of the total Ponderosa pine acres burned from 2000 to 2012. MA D has the highest amount of acres identified in the planting strategy at 5,121, MA B next at 3,283, than MA G at 1,823, and the lowest in MA J at 85. See Figure 25. This is largely a function of the total amount or Ponderosa pine acreage burned in each MA as stated above (Appendix N).
For the 2000 fires (Tobin, Stagg and Watt fires) planting was identified for approximately 1,200 acres. To date most of the planting has been identified on the ground for these fires. The total that has or will be planted is approximately 1,500 acres. Additional acres in the moderate fire severity acres were found that had an inadequate seed source. Making the current planting strategy at approximately 9,000 acres (vs. 10,312) after the 1,200 planting acres is adjusted out.
Regeneration Strategy by Management Area 30000 27140
25000 Delayed A 18784 20000 Natural c Regeneration r 15000 Natural e 8154 8101 Regeneration 10000 7511 s 5121 3283 3452 Planting 5000 2812 1823 0 3 0 765 85 0 B D F G J Management Area
Figure 33. Acres of Regeneration Strategy by Management Area.
4.4.9 Average Structure for the Dominant Size and Cover Classes on Moist and Dry Aspects for Unburned Ponderosa Pine Forested Areas. A component of landscape ecology involves resiliency and sustainability. It is presumed that before human intervention, the structure, composition, and function within a forest, and the processes that affected forests, represented a dynamic equilibrium. While there is no definitive point in time or stand conditions that can be described as “the right answer”, there are relationships between forest conditions and processes, which interact and which may be described as resilient and sustainable. Management practices have interfered with some of the processes (such as wildland fire suppression) shifting forest composition, structure, and function.
Historically, frequent low-intensity fires cleared dry type ponderosa pine forest types of brush and grass but left trees alive and healthy (Graham, et. al, USDA 2004). Extreme fires were
Ashland Post Fire Landscape Assessment 2014 62 uncommon. By excluding fire from the natural cycle through decades of fire suppression, extended drought and other changes, the result is greater tree densities and a buildup of flammable vegetation across large areas of the forest landscape resulting in large stand replacement fire. The 2000 Stag-Tobin Fire Complex on the Ashland RD that burned over 71,000 acres is an example and more recently the 2012 fires.
The buildup of vegetation provides “ladders” for wildfire to climb into the treetops. In areas where trees are densely packed, the fires can spread rapidly from tree-to-tree in a phenomenon known as “crowning.” Crown fires are intense, fast moving and nearly impossible for fire fighters to contain. They threaten communities and can damage key resources, including timber, fish and wildlife habitat, soils and drinking water quality.
Currently 63% of the remaining Ponderosa pine cover is in the large size class (>9”), therefore this class was selected to compare average structure across the low, moderate and high canopy classes.
The data used to demonstrate average structure in the unburned forested areas was compiled from a timber compartment inventory done from 1986 to 1990 and field inventories done from 1981 to 2004.
The 1986 to 1990 timber compartment inventory was based on photo interpretation attributes of crown diameter, dominant species or cover type, height and canopy cover percent. With ground reconnaissance and the use of these attributes all the stands within the project area were assigned a stratum label. This stratum label defines the stand according to size, species, canopy cover and whether it is forested or non-forested. An attached copy of the defined stratum classification is in Appendix L.
In 2007, an average stand condition for each of the ponderosa pine stratums was developed using all the field-sampled data to date, across the district. A copy the average stand attributes used in this analysis is in Appendix O). This is the data set used to give a graphical depiction of average structure in large (> 9”) and low (10 – 39%), moderate (40 to 69%) and high (70%+) canopy cover stands on dry (SE, S, SW, and W) versus moist (NW, N, NE, and E) aspects.
Structure (simple-single to 2 stories or complex-multi story) is created by small disturbances or lack of disturbances such as insects, diseases, windstorms, snowstorms, management or fire. These sampled stands have not had major disturbances and have developed multistory structures. Ladder fuels, moderate to high canopy cover and surface fuels all contribute to uncontrollable wildfire behavior. The stand conditions in the Figures 33 to 38 below help understand why the large fires from 2000 to 2012 were able to get as large as they did and reduce the amount of forest cover they did.
Across all aspects and canopy classes average stand structure is multistory (Figures 34 to 39). Multiple layers (ladder fuels) occur with a reverse J shape curve on trees per acre (higher TPA in smaller diameter trees). What trend is consistent is less average TPA occurs on dryer aspects. On moist aspects as you go from low to moderate to high canopy cover classes average TPA increases (1171, 1886, 3219) with 6 height classes represented in all conditions (Figures 34, 36, 38). Dry sites increase, but carry fewer average TPA (928, 1171, 2283) with six height classes represented (Figures 35, 37, 39).
Ashland Post Fire Landscape Assessment 2014 63 4.4.10 Current Beetle Hazard in Unburned and Low Severity Ponderosa Pine Areas Since the last dry period (1930’s) climate in the western United States has been relatively moist, promoting regeneration and development of large amounts of forested vegetation (Graham, Matthews, 2010). Prior to this period and historically native insects and diseases infected and killed the very old or stressed individuals, which tended to diversify vegetation on the landscapes. The changes that have occurred in the vegetation in present forests have facilitated development of unprecedented epidemic levels of insects and diseases in many areas. Weather events, such as ice storms, windstorms and periodic droughts can encourage further buildup of these agents. Epidemic levels of bark beetles have been observed in western and central Montana and in the Black Hills Forests over the past decade and have resulted in thousands of acres of beetle killed trees.
Moist Aspect - Average Structure
T 10 - 39% Canopy Cover r e 900 812 e 800 0 - 1" s 700 1 - 3" / 600 A 500 3 - 5" c 400 5 - 7" r 300 182 7 - 9" 200 72 e 36 46 58 32 32 100 2 11 20 29 26 14 9 - 14" 0 14" + Height Trees Per Acre Diameter Classes
Figure 34. Height and TPA relationship for moist aspects with 10 to 39% canopy cover.
Ashland Post Fire Landscape Assessment 2014 64 Dry Aspect - Average Structure
T 10 - 39% Canopy Cover r e 700 603 e 600 0 - 1" s 500 / 1 - 3" A 400 3 - 5" c 300 5 - 7" r 169 200 7 - 9" e 75 34 44 55 100 3 10 20 27 22 18 29 12 9 - 14" 0 Series7 Height Trees Per Acre Diameter Classes
Figure 35. Height and TPA relationship for dry aspects with 10 to 39% canopy cover.
Moist Aspect - Average Stand Structure 40 - 69% Canopy Cover
T 1374 r 1400 e 1200 0 - 1" e s 1000 1 - 3" / 800 3 - 5" A 600 5 - 7" c 400 244 7 - 9" r 60 109 e 200 3 12 21 31 38 48 52 38 50 20 7 - 9" 0 14" + Height Trees Per Acre Diameter Classes
Figure 36: Height and TPA relationship for moist aspects with 40 to 69% canopy cover.
Ashland Post Fire Landscape Assessment 2014 65
Dry Aspect - Average Stand Structure 40 - 69% Canopy Cover T r 783 e 800 e 700 0 - 1" s 600 / 1 - 3" 500 A 3 - 5" 400 c 5 - 7" r 300 161 7 - 9" e 200 95 36 46 55 38 48 100 3 11 18 29 31 16 9 - 14" 0 14" + Height Trees Per Acre Diameter Classes
Figure 37: Height and TPA relationship for dry aspects with 40 to 69% canopy cover.
Moist Aspect - Average Stand Structure 70% + Canopy Cover T r e 3000 2579 e 2500 0 - 1" s 1 - 3" 2000 / 3 - 5" A 1500 c 5 - 7" 1000 r 318 7 - 9" 500 139 e 3 14 23 34 40 51 63 69 37 56 21 9 - 14" 0 14" + Height Trees Per Acre Diameter Classes
Figure 38: Height and TPA relationship for moist aspects with 70% and greater canopy cover.
Ashland Post Fire Landscape Assessment 2014 66 Dry Aspect - Average Stand Structure
T 70% + Canopy Cover r e 2000 1811 e 1800 0 - 1" s 1600 / 1400 1 - 3" 1200 A 3 - 5" 1000 c 800 5 - 7" r 600 7 - 9" e 146 400 135 59 56 62 200 5 12 23 35 40 48 53 20 9 - 14" 0 14" + Height Trees Per Acre Diameter Classes
Figure 39: Height and TPA relationship for dry aspects with 70% and greater canopy cover.
Dry forests, like the ponderosa pine forests on the Ashland Ranger District have developed dense conditions exacerbated by fire exclusion, increasing the potential for bark beetle activity.
Prominent bark beetles documented on the district that can create the most impact to the ponderosa pine are the mountain pine beetle (Dendroctonous ponderosae) and the pine engraver beetle (Ips species).
Mountain pine beetles generally occur at low levels in ponderosa pine killing weakened trees that are struck by lightning or infected by disease or are too old to resist attack. Pine engraver beetles generally attack young, densely stocked ponderosa pine, killing trees scorched by low-intensity surface fires, recent wind/snow damaged trees and severely disease infected trees.
Forests that were once dominated by vegetative structures and compositions relatively resilient to native insects and diseases, and fire regimes are now more prone to epidemic insect and disease infestation/infections and uncharacteristically large and severe wildfires (Graham, Matthews, 2010). Today because of the change in forest conditions ponderosa pine continues to be susceptible to the mountain pine beetle (Graham, Matthews, 2010). The pine engraver beetle can be destructive with some of the severest outbreaks occurring in the low elevation ponderosa pine forests.
Bark beetles are host specific and susceptibility is dependent on attributes like tree diameter, density, latitude, longitude, elevation, and current beetle activity along with environmental conditions (i.e. drought, wind events, snow breakage, lightning strikes) (Gibson, 2004). Tree size, density and host are variables that can be used for an assessment of potential beetle hazard.
Ashland Post Fire Landscape Assessment 2014 67 Pine engraver beetles are relatively non-aggressive beetles. Most pine engraver beetle (Ips, spp) problems are associated with disturbances such as wind throw and snow breakage, drought in spring and early summer, logging, fires, road construction, housing development or other human activities (Livingston, 2004). Pine slash or weakened trees created by these disturbances attract beetles and provide ideal conditions for population buildup and subsequent tree killing.
Mountain pine beetle is the most aggressive, persistent and destructive bark beetle. Outbreaks generally occur in mature to overmature forests. The economic impact of beetle mortality is largely dependent on the effects of epidemics on allowable cut, regeneration of affected areas, and increased fire risk. For ponderosa pine high risk is associated to single storied stands, mean stand diameter exceeding 10 inches, and basal area per acre exceeds 150 in mean stand diameters of 5 inches or greater (Gibson, 2004).
As described by Gibson in 2004, there are three general stand characteristics that affect ponderosa pine susceptibility to attack: (1) stand structure, (2) average diameter at breast height (dbh) of ponderosa pine component, and (3) stand density as expressed by average basal area per acre.
Single-storied stands are most susceptible to severe damage. They are most likely to become attacked first and to suffer greatest mortality. Two-storied stands and multi-storied stands are generally not as susceptible initially but when beetle populations increase they become more susceptible. As mean stand diameter increases, stand susceptibility increases. Stands greater than a 10-inch average dbh are high hazard, those 6 to 10 inches are moderate, and those less than 6 inches are low (Gibson, 2004). However, more trees in the 6- to 12-inch dbh size classes will be killed once an infestation starts.
The denser the stand within a given average diameter, the more susceptible it will be to severe beetle caused mortality. Gibson (2004) states when stands have an average dbh greater than 5 inches and have more than150 square feet per acre the stand would have a high hazard; those that have 80 to 150 square feet per acre would have a moderate hazard; and those with less than 80 square feet per acre would have a low hazard. This will vary with geographic area, with 120 BA/acre being high risk in some stands (Gibson, 2004).
In 2013 a regional Forest Health Protection specialist visited the district and assessed beetle hazard in the 15 Mile and Elk Creek drainages (15 Elk project area). Ponderosa pine stands within the 15 Elk project area generally rate at a high hazard for beetle-caused tree mortality and are not expected to meet critical wildlife management objectives following the next significant beetle outbreak (Egan, 2013).
Vegetation in this area was pure composition ponderosa pine that ranged in stocking levels depending on stand location. In general, stands with north-facing aspects were generally denser relative to those with south-facing aspects. Two stands that represented general conditions found throughout the project area were visited and evaluated in detail.
The first stand had a north-facing aspect and had ponderosa pines that averaged 13” DBH (range 4-15”) along with scattered, large-diameter pines ranging from 16-20” DBH (Picture 3). One of the large-diameter stems (18” DBH) was cored and annual growth rings indicated it was greater than 150 years of age with basal growth rings that indicated competition-related physiological stress increased within the past 50 years. Stocking levels were generally high typically between
Ashland Post Fire Landscape Assessment 2014 68 100-200 feet2/acre of basal area (range 60-240 within stand). This stand rates at a high hazard for susceptibility to beetle-caused mortality (Egan, 2013).
The second stand had a south-facing aspect and had ponderosa pines that averaged 8” DBH (range 4-20”) (Picture 4). Stocking levels were high and averaged 150 feet2/acre of basal area (range 120- 180). This stand rates as borderline between a moderate and high hazard for susceptibility to bark beetle-caused mortality.
Pictures 1 and 2: Typical stocking levels and stem diameters within 15 Elk Project area stands surveyed. Photos by Joel Egan.
A generalized assessment was done post 2012 fire for bark beetle hazard using the Northern Region Vegetation Mapping Program (Vmap) GIS layer for the Ashland RD. The methodology was developed by this Silviculturist and used for deriving the potential hazard for mountain pine beetle susceptibility follows. This Vmap GIS layer derived from LANDSAT imagery has classified the district’s land base into attributes useful for this analysis such as dominance type (species), tree canopy cover, and tree size class (DBH). As stated above, as stand diameter increases, bark beetle susceptibility increases. The denser a stand is, the more it is susceptible to severe beetle mortality. Stands over 5 inches DBH have a higher beetle susceptibility hazard the denser the stand is. Tree canopy was used as a relative comparison of stand density (the higher the canopy cover the higher the stand density and/or basal area) and the tree size class was used for the dbh determination. Seven tree canopy classes and four tree diameter classes were used to give a general beetle hazard ranging from to none to high (Table 10A). These classes in combination or singly were given a hazard rating as indicated in Table 8A.
These hazard ratings simply measure the susceptibility of forested areas to beetles by evaluating the amount of susceptible host. High and moderate hazard forested areas are more likely to experience significant mortality if beetle populations are present and weather is favorable. Large continuous forested areas of high beetle hazard promote epidemic beetle populations by providing large areas of quality food. When high-hazard areas are small and intermixed with low-hazard areas forest beetle populations are not as likely to grow and cause significant resource impacts.
Ashland Post Fire Landscape Assessment 2014 69 Table 10A: Generalized Hazard Assessment for Bark Beetle for Ponderosa Pine. Attributes GIS Layer Dominance Used Types Tree Canopy % Tree Size Class DBH Beetle Hazard VMAP PIPO1 0%, 1-4%, 5-9%, 10-25% 0 -4.9”, 5-9.9”, 10-14.9”, 15”+ None to Very Low VMAP PIPO1 26-40% 0 – 4.9”, 5 -9.9” None to Very Low VMAP PIPO1 41 – 60%, 60%+ 0 – 4.9” None to Very Low VMAP PIPO1 26-40% 10 – 14.9”, 15”+ Low VMAP PIPO1 41 – 60% 5 – 9.9”, 10 – 14.9”, 15”+ Moderate VMAP PIPO1 60%+ 5 – 9.9” Moderate VMAP PIPO1 60%+ 10 – 14.9”, 15”+ High 1PIPO = Pinus ponderosa
Low-hazard areas have available hosts, but the host is not of high enough quality and/or in large enough quantity to allow beetle populations to build substantially. Beetles may still cause significant mortality in the host components of low-hazard forested areas in a landscape, but losses will be lower than in a landscape where high-hazard forested areas occur across a number of contiguous acres.
Hazard maps derived from these ratings identify areas of highest probability of significant beetle activity. Hazard ratings do not predict when beetles will damage the resources or address insect populations.
Large fire areas with moderate and high severity occurring between 2009 and 2011 were not considered in this analysis. For the fires in 2012 only low and unburned were considered in the analysis. Tables 10B and 10C and Figure 39 shows that 18,382 acres (20.6%) have a low risk and 24,702 acres (27.7%) have a very low to none risk. Forty nine percent (43,743 acres) have a moderate hazard and 2.77% (2,376 acres) are at high hazard. A derived Beetle Hazard Map in Appendix P and at the following hyperlink: O:\NFS\Custer\Project\Ashland\AshlRapidAssess2013\Maps\BBSucLarge2112013.pdf O:\NFS\Custer\Project\Ashland\AshlRapidAssess2013\Spreadsheets\AshBArkBeetle2012102813. xlsx
Table 10B: Existing Combined Beetle Hazard by Management Area Combined Beetle Management Area by Acres Hazard Rating1 B D F G J L P Totals High 435 1473 4 378 74 9 3 2376 Low 6663 6618 15 4124 939 21 2 18382 Moderate 16943 14233 4 8453 3865 234 10 43743 Very Low to None 8800 8939 5 2632 4257 62 7 24702 Totals 32842 31262 28 15587 9135 326 22 89203 1Includes hazard for both Mountain Pine Beetle (Dendroctonus ponderosae) and Pine Engraver Beetles (Ips species).
Ashland Post Fire Landscape Assessment 2014 70
Table 10C: Percent of Combined Beetle Hazard by Management Area. Combined Beetle Hazard Rating1 B D F G J L P Totals High 0.5% 1.7% 0.0% 0.4% 0.1% 0.0% 0.0% 2.7% Low 7.5% 7.4% 0.0% 4.6% 1.1% 0.0% 0.0% 20.6% Moderate 19.0% 16.0% 0.0% 9.5% 4.3% 0.3% 0.0% 49.0% Very Low to None 9.9% 10.0% 0.0% 3.0% 4.8% 0.1% 0.0% 27.7% Totals 36.8% 35.0% 0.0% 17.5% 10.2% 0.4% 0.0% 100.0% 1Includes hazard for both Mountain Pine Beetle (Dendroctonus ponderosae) and Pine Engraver Beetles (Ips species).
4.4.11 Potential Mortality from Pine Engraver Beetle and Woodborer in 2012 Burned Areas Mortality 1 to 3 years after a large fire event is common. This is considered delayed, indirect mortality caused from engraver beetles and wood borers. These beetles are not considered major pests; however they are attracted to damaged/weakened trees. Trees that have had damage from a fire event (i.e. extensive crown scorch, bole heating causing cambium damage on 2 to 3 quadrants, and extensive root damage from soil heating) cause stress on individual trees weakening their defenses. This has been observed on past wildfires on the district. Generally this is most prevalent in moderate severity/intensity burn areas due to the mosaic nature of burn patterns, impacts and range of fire behavior. High mortality areas are susceptible where individual trees or small clumps survived but have experienced fire damage. Low areas are less susceptible mainly due to the low amount of wildfire and less intense fire behavior. This becomes important as additional mortality results in further decrease of forested areas and may reduce or eliminated seed sources for natural regeneration events.
Ashland Post Fire Landscape Assessment 2014 71 Acres of Combined Beetle Hazard by Management Area 16943 20000 High 14233 B a A 15000 8800 8939 r Low c 8453 k r 6663 R 10000 6618 4257 e 2632 i Moderate 5 3865 B s 5000 4124 s 4 62 7 1473 15 234 e 435 939 10 Very Low to None k 4 378 21 e Very Low 0 74 2 Moderate to None 9 Low t B D 3 F High l G J L e Management Area P
Figure 40. District wide beetle hazard (includes unburned to low severity within 2009 to 2012 fire perimeters).
In 2012 the Ash Fire and Taylor Fires burned 63,637 acres of Ponderosa pine forested land (Figure 41). Twenty seven thousand five hundred and eighty acres (26%) were classified as moderate intensity/severity (Figure 42). Eleven thousand three hundred and forty five acres (18%) were classified as high (Figure 43). These acres as well as the burned portions in the low intensity areas should be monitored for beetle and wood borer activity over the next few years to assess additional mortality to aid with treatment decisions.
42993 2012 Fires by Burn Intensity 50000 Unburned to Low 20644 Intensity 40000 Moderate Intensity A 10209 c 30000 15418 High Intensity r 17367 Total 20000 12162 1136 e High Intensity Total 7346 s 10000 Moderate Intensity 0 Unburned to Low Intensity Ash Creek Taylor Creek Fire Name
Figure 41: Fire acreage by burn intensity for 2012 Ash Creek and Taylor Creek Fires.
Ashland Post Fire Landscape Assessment 2014 72 2012 Fires by Percent of Burn Intensity 67.6%
Unburned to Low Intensity 70.00% 58.91% Moderate Intensity 32.4% P 60.00% High Intensity 35.86% 23.75% e 50.00% Percent of Total r 40.00% c 5.50% 30.00% Percent of Total e 40.39% High Intensity n 20.00% 35.59% t 10.00% Moderate Intensity 0.00% Unburned to Low Intensity Ash Creek Taylor Creek Fire Name
Figure 42: Percent of burn intensity for 2012 Ash Creek and Taylor Creek Fires.
4.4.12 Ponderosa pine forested areas that have been burned over in large wildfires form 1990’s to 2012 that have a potential re-burn risk as a result of increased surface fuels from fallen fire killed trees. After large wildfires, where no salvage harvest or other removal of fire killed trees has taken place there is a progression of increased surface fuels. Six to seven years after the fire many fire killed trees have fallen or have had portions wind snapped. Within 10 to 13 years post fire 95% of the fire-killed trees have generally fallen. This results in a high hazard fuels load and risk for a re- burn.
In 2002, that is what happened as a cumulative effect of the 1988 sixty two thousand acre large stand replacement wildfire on the Sioux Ranger District of the CNF. Up to 40 tons per acre of down dead fuels intermixed with flashy light fuels (grass, brush and tree regeneration) dominated the post 1988-pre 2002 burn area. In 2002 this fuel complex is what carried the Kraft Springs fire. As indicated by the fire behavior specialist the continuous large woody debris component was a major carrier of the fire and made suppression operations very difficult (Sandbak and Clark 2005). These re-burns could have a cumulative effect on Ponderosa pine cover by reducing what had previously regenerated and greatly extending the forest recovery period. This would further impact wildlife species dependent on forest cover.
Utilizing the vegetation layers over time an assessment was done to see the acres of change by relative size class of small, medium and large and for low, moderate and high canopy cover classes. These acres are identified in Table 11 and Figure 43. The largest changes are noted in reductions in the large size class across the range of canopy cover classes. Biggest gains in classes were seen in the small and medium size classes. This is because the 2006 satellite imagery picked up the effects from the fires of 1988 to 1992. These picked up effects would be regenerating stands (small size, low canopy cover) and the stands that had canopy cover reductions (medium
Ashland Post Fire Landscape Assessment 2014 73 size, low canopy cover). Some of this change could also be attributed to classification processes between two systems.
Table 11: Acres of Change in Canopy Cover and Size Classes from 1990’s to 2012. Canopy Cover Class
Size Class Low Moderate High Totals
Small 8256 300 -1677 6879 Medium 20859 843 -815 20887 Large -45503 -56092 -23345 -124939 Totals -16388 -54949 -25837 -97174
Change in Acres From 1990's to 2012 30000 20859 20000 8256 10000 300 843 -815 A 0 Low Moderate High Small c -10000 -1677 r Medium -20000 e -23345 Large s -30000 -40000 -50000 -45503 -56092 -60000 Canopy Cover
Figure 43: Acres of change if Ponderosa pine canopy cover and size classes from 1990’s to 2012.
Considering that large trees and higher canopies (higher TPA) equate to higher surface fuel loads when fire killed trees fall, a generalized risk of potential reburn can occur. High rating has been given to those classes where potential is for higher fuel loads (higher numbers of large fires killed trees) and low to those areas that have lower canopy covers (fewer TPA) with small to large size trees. Moderate is in between. Low to high would be those areas that had small trees and low
Ashland Post Fire Landscape Assessment 2014 74 canopy cover and those areas that burned from 1988 to 2006 with stand replacement fire and potentially have high surface fuel loads.
Table 12 takes this methodology and assigns a generalized risk for re-burn. As you move from top to bottom in chart you have an increase in size of fuels expected to be on the ground. As you move from left to right the tonnage of fuels would be expected to increase.
Table 12 displays the potential acres by risk of re-burn. Total low risk is 45,803 acres, moderate at 21,702 acres and high at 80,929 acres. Low to high is at 8,256.
4.4.13 Past Management Activities from 1986 to 2012 Management activities have had much less effect on current vegetation conditions on the District than wildfire, largely due to fewer acres impacted. From 1986 to 2012, 74,894 acres have had fuels, commercial harvest and noncommercial silviculture treatments (Table 11). That is about 35% of the mid 1990’s ponderosa pine forested area. Definitions of the treatment activities in Table 13 are in Appendix Q.
Table 12. Risk of Re-burn by Acres of Change in Canopy Cover and Size Classes. CANOPY COVER LOW MODERATE HIGH
Low to High Low High SMALL (8,256 acres) (300 acres) (1,677 acres) Moderate Moderate High MEDIUM (20,859 acres) (843 acres) (815 acres)
SIZE CLASS SIZE Low High High LARGE (45,503 acres) (56,092 acres) (23,345 acres)
Seventy five percent of the management activities since 1986 have been fuels treatments (predominately prescribed fire). Fifteen percent has been commercial harvest activities and 10% noncommercial silviculture treatments. See Table 13 and Figures 44 and 45.
Total treatment acres have steadily declined from 1986 to 2012. In 1986 to 1995, 41,345 acres were treated compared to 11,977. That is a 71% decrease. Fuels treatments have remained at 70 to 79% of the treatment acres over the 3 time intervals. However, fuels treatments in 2006 to 2012 decreased in acres by 68% from that in 1986 to 1995. Commercial harvest activities have also decreased steadily from 1986 to 2012 (from 8,592 to 196 acres). Commercial harvest treatments have had the largest decrease of 98% from the first time period to the last. Noncommercial silviculture treatments have had an increase of 57% from first to the last time interval. See Table 13 and Figures 44 and 45, below.
Ashland Post Fire Landscape Assessment 2014 75
Table 13: Acres of Past Management Activities by Treatment Type
1986 to 1995 1996 to 2005 2006 to 2012 Fuels Activities Acres Percent Acres Percent Acres Percent Totals Percent Broadcast Burning – Covers a majority of the unit 5791 19.7% 74 0.4% 5579 59.2% 11444 20.5% Underburn – Low Intensity (Majority of Unit) 19667 66.8% 16918 99.2% 1096 11.6% 37681 67.4% Jackpot Burning – Scattered concentrations 67 0.2% 67 0.4% 0 0.0% 134 0.2% Fuel Break 101 0.3% 0 0.0% 101 1.1% 202 0.4% Thinning for Hazardous Fuels Reduction 3825 13.0% 0 0.0% 2642 28.1% 6467 11.6% Fuels Activity Totals 29451 52.7% 17059 30.5% 9418 16.8% 55928 100.0% Commercial Harvest Activities Acres Percent Acres Percent Acres Percent Totals Percent Intermediate Treatments Commercial Thin 1781 28.2% 1199 78.2% 0 0.0% 2980 37.7% Liberation Cut 1830 28.9% 217 14.2% 14 29.8% 2061 26.1% Sanitation (salvage) 2147 34.0% 2 0.1% 0 0.0% 2149 27.2% Special Cut 566 9.0% 115 7.5% 33 70.2% 714 9.0% Intermediate Commercial Treatments Totals 6324 80.0% 1533 19.4% 47 0.6% 7904 100.0% Regeneration Treatments Seed-tree Seed Cut (with and without leave trees) 903 39.8% 610 60.6% 149 100.0% 1662 48.6% Shelterwood Establishment Cut (with or without leave trees) 748 33.0% 296 29.4% 0 0.0% 1044 30.5% Shelterwood Removal Cut 13 0.6% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 13 0.4% Shelterwood Staged Removal Cut 48 2.1% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 48 1.4% Single-tree Selection Cut 317 14.0% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 317 9.3% Group Selection Cut 184 8.1% 100 9.9% 0 0.0% 284 8.3% Stand Clearcut 55 2.4% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 55 1.6% Regeneration CommercialTreatments Totals 2268 66.3% 1006 29.4% 149 4.4% 3423 100.0% Non Commercial Silviculture Treatments Tree Release and Weed 707 21.4% 707 35.8% 518 21.9% 1932 25.3% Precommercial Thin 1536 46.5% 1173 59.4% 1135 48.0% 3844 50.3% Plant 1059 32.1% 94 4.8% 710 30.0% 1863 24.4% Non Commercial Silviculture Treatments Totals 3302 43.2% 1974 25.8% 2363 30.9% 7639 100.0% Totals 41345 55.2% 21572 28.8% 11977 16.0% 74894 100.0%
Ashland Post Fire Landscape Assessment 2014 76 Management Activites by Time Interval 60000 Fuels Treatments 50000 55928
A 40000 Intermediate Commercial
c 29451 Treatments r 30000 e Regeneration 17059 s 20000 CommercialTreatments 9418 7904 7639 10000 6324 Non Commercial 3423 3302 2363 2268 1974 1533 1006 149 47 Silviculture Treatments 0 1986 to 1995 1996 to 2005 2006 to 2012 Total Time Interval
Figure 44: Acres of Management Activities by Time Intervals
Percent of Acres by Treatment Type by Time Interval 74.7% P 80.0% 71.2% Fuels Treatments e 70.0% 79.1% 78.6% r 60.0% c 50.0% Intermediate e Commercial 40.0% Treatments n 30.0% Regeneration t 19.7% Commercial 15.3% Treatments 20.0% 8.0% 7.1% 10.6% 10.2% 9.2% 1.2% 5.5% 4.7% 4.6% Non Commercial 10.0% 0.4% Silviculture 0.0% Treatments 1986 to 1995 1996 to 2005 2006 to 2012 1986 to 2012 Time Interval
Figure 45: Percent of Acres by Treatment Type by Time Interval
Ashland Post Fire Landscape Assessment 2014 77
4.4.14 Forest Plan Associated Terrestrial Key Habitats and Management Indicator Species - Forested Systems (ponderosa pine, rocky mountain juniper
Whitetailed Deer and Mule Deer The District provides habitat for a high mule deer population as well as a relatively stable whitetailed deer population. Mule deer and whitetailed deer provide the largest share of hunting recreation on the District.
Mule deer and whitetailed deer habitat is widely distributed across the District. Mule deer use is evenly distributed across the entire District, whereas, whitetailed deer use is not evenly distributed, being located in pockets of suitable habitat. Whitetails preferentially inhabit riparian-hardwood draws and dense, mesic pine habitats that are, in many instances, adjacent to or nearby agricultural croplands. The animals do not migrate to lower elevations at the onset of winter. Rather, they use the same habitats that they use throughout the year.
The Forest Plan requires that habitat be maintained and improved for whitetailed deer, a habitat indicator species (also known as Management Indicator Species, MIS) for dog hair ponderosa pine (pp. 17, 18). Forest-wide standards provide for coordination with state and Federal agencies in the management of key species and habitats. Mule deer is the selected species for the maintenance or improvement of habitat in D Management Areas on the District, of which there are approximately 136,680 acres. Selected species are not indicator species, but are species for which management is prescribed for by area and by Ranger District (Forest Plan, p. 53).
At the time the Forest Plan was signed (1987), the Forest consisted of seven ranger districts (Beartooth, Ashland, Sioux, Medora and McKenzie (both part of the Little Missouri National Grassland), Grand and Cedar River NG, and the Sheyenne NG) across three states (Montana, North Dakota and South Dakota, totaling nearly 2.4 million acres. The Forest Plan FEIS indicates the Forest provided habitat for approximately 27,000 deer, but had the potential to provide for 40,000 deer, but does not indicate how those numbers might have been allocated among the ranger districts (p. 124); thus it would be difficult to say how many deer for which Ashland might have been providing habitat, at that time.
Today, the Forest consists of three ranger districts, Ashland, Sioux and Beartooth on nearly 1.2 million acres across seven counties (Carbon, Stillwater, Sweetgrass, Carter, Powder River, and Rosebud in Montana, and Harding Count in South Dakota) and two states Montana and South Dakota. In the near future the Custer will be combined with the Gallatin.
The Forest Service coordinates with and relies upon reports published periodically by Montana Fish Wildlife and Parks (FWP) to help inform assessment and analysis work regarding population numbers since the State is responsible for animal populations, setting hunting limits and seasons, and licensing numbers, etc. in the State. National Forest System lands provide habitats. In eastern
Ashland Post Fire Landscape Assessment 2014 78 Montana, Ashland Ranger District and part of the Sioux Ranger District lay within the MT FWP’s Region 7, Hunting Districts 702, 704, and 705 which are a subset of the total number of hunting districts in the Region. State inventories and population estimates are most often reported by Region.
Tables 14 and 15 summarize information from Fish Wildlife and Parks tables for 2008, 2012, and 2013 for mule deer and 2011, 2012, 2013 whitetailed deer in Region 7 show total estimated number of deer in the Region (FWP http://fwp.mt.gov/fishAndWildlife/management/deer/
Table 14. Mule Deer Population Estimates for Various Years Utilizing 10 Year Averages (FWP). Mule Deer Mule Deer Population Years Used for 10 Year Total Status Estimates 10 Year Average Year Average 2008 59,880 1999-2008 33,950 2011 57,155 2001-2010 48,380 2012 56,183 2002-2011 59,100 2013 56,480 2003-2012 40,250 The estimates for mule deer populations are based upon population modeling with survey harvest inputs. Mule deer estimates are not comprehensively validated with site specific research or enhanced monitoring efforts. Mule deer estimates are not framed with confidence intervals and are subject to adjustment.
Table 15. Whitetailed Deer Population Estimates for Various Years Utilizing 10 Year Averages (FWP). Whitetailed Whitetailed Deer Years Used for 10 Year Total Deer Status Population Estimates 10 Average Year Year Average 2011 13,572 2001-2010 13,550 2012 11,906 2002-2011 9,650 2013 11,887 2003-2012 13,770 The estimates for white-tailed deer populations are based upon population modeling with survey harvest inputs. Whitetailed deer estimates are not comprehensively validated with site specific research or enhanced monitoring efforts. Whitetailed deer estimates are not framed with confidence intervals and are subject to adjustments.
Ashland Post Fire Landscape Assessment 2014 79 Many factors influence big game herd health (food, water, and cover being the principal components), and population numbers are just one indicator that might help indicate the health of herds. Table 13 and Figures 44 and 45 show some of the various management activities that have occurred since the Forest Plan was put into effect. Over time the Forest Service has worked cooperatively with its state and Federal partners in managing for mule deer and whitetailed deer habitat in project planning and implementation on the District. Of interest is that deer populations have been stable and/or increasing since 1987 while a full suite of management activities has occurred across the District (prescribed burning, timber harvest, grazing, hunting, recreation, travel management). As noted above, management activities on the District have had far less effect on vegetation than has wildfire.
Figures 26 and 27 reveal the general trend from 1990’s to 2012 is an increase in representation of the <40% canopy cover class and a decrease in the ≥ 40% class for the ponderosa pine acreage in each period. That is, wildfires reduced the number of larger diameter trees that made up the closed canopy stands with ≥40% canopy cover. Figures 28 and 29 show an increase in the percent of small diameter Ponderosa pine (trees less than 5” in diameter) from the 1990’s to 2012 of nearly 8 percent. The large size class had a 30% reduction, the medium a 22% increase and the small class an 8% increase in representation of total ponderosa pine acreage. That means an increase in smaller diameter trees that would make up the dog-hair ponderosa pine stands providing habitat for whitetailed deer. Not so much the 10-24.9% canopy cover class because of the lower canopy cover and fewer stems per acres, but the medium 25-39.9% canopy cover class where there is more canopy cover and still high stems per acre (Figures 34 and 35). Wildfires have had the greatest impact on areas of ponderosa pine that were generally older, larger size and with higher crown canopies. Stands that mature into larger size classes and increased crown canopies, without disturbance generally develop ladder fuels as understory trees develop. This succession increases the risk for loss during a wildfire.
As noted in the Ponderosa Pine section above, across all aspects and canopy classes average stand structure is multistory (Figures 34 to 39). Multiple layers (ladder fuels) occur with a reverse J shape curve on trees per acre (higher TPA in smaller diameter trees). What trend is consistent is less average TPA occurs on dryer aspects. On moist aspects as you go from low to moderate to high canopy cover classes average TPA increases (1171, 1886, 3219) with 6 height classes represented in all conditions (Figures 34, 36, 38). Dry sites increase, but carry fewer average TPA (928, 1171, 2283) with six height classes represented (Figures 35, 37, 39).
In the Prairie Grassland section above, it is noted that there has been a short-term (up to 2 year) decrease in grassland habitat (structure and cover, rather than loss of grassland species) as a result of wildfires. After that time grasslands and residual cover are expected to recover to pre-wildfire conditions.
Green ash woodlands are important elements of mule and white-tailed deer, sharp-tailed grouse, wild turkeys, coyotes, weasel, red fox, bobcats, deer mice, squirrels, and many non-game birds including neo-tropical migrants. The ovenbird, requires dense ground cover and leaf litter.
Ashland Post Fire Landscape Assessment 2014 80 Several raptors use these settings and they include great-horned owl, long-eared owl, Swainson’s hawk, and red-tailed hawk.
Green ash and boxelder are capable of sprouting from the root collar if the trunk is destroyed and was observed occurring in some woody draws after the Ash Creek and Taylor Fires. Appendix G provides a detailed description of conservation and restoration considerations for hardwood draws.
Ponderosa pine forest and deciduous hardwoods play important roles in the habitat for whitetailed deer and mule deer. While significant portions of those habitats have been reduced or affected by wildfires on the District, whitetailed deer and mule deer populations have been stable and/or increasing in south east Montana and the FWP hunting district within which the District is contained. There are dog-hair ponderosa pine stands dispersed across the District and deer populations that are stable or increasing is an indicator that Forest Plan standards are effective.
Elk Elk are not a Forest Plan Habitat Indicator Species on Ashland District. In 1987, 90 percent of the elk on the Forest were on the Beartooth Ranger District and the Forest was providing habitat for about 950 elk, of which approximately 100-150 elk were in North Dakota on the Little Missouri National Grassland (Forest Plan, pp. 180, 181; and FEIS p. 124). That means there would be about 700 elk on the Forest, of which about 630 elk were on the Beartooth District. The Northern Region Guide identified 700 elk on the Forest in 1981. It is assumed those 700 were mostly on Beartooth RD. Personal communications with District personnel indicate there were some elk present on the District at the time, but provide no estimated population or herd size numbers.
Recent project level analyses have used elk as a surrogate for deer, mule and whitetailed. The rationale for this based on the large amount of overlap in habitat use and needs between deer and elk on the District; the amount of scientific literature available for elk and the effects are expected to be very similar for these three species.
The Montana Final Elk Management Plan gives population objectives and general habitat management strategies for each Elk Management Unit (EMU) (Montana Fish, Wildlife and Parks 2005). Habitat objectives stated in the plan for the Custer Forest EMU (the EMU encompasses the entire Ranger District but is smaller than FWP Region 7) are to work cooperatively with private and public land managers to maintain and improve existing elk habitat. The Custer Forest EMU is located in Big Horn, Treasure, Rosebud, Custer, Fallon, Powder River, and Carter Counties in southeastern Montana. The Custer Forest EMU encompasses 14,378 square miles of land where about 45% (6,400 square miles) provides elk habitat.
About 25% of the EMU lay on public land with the rest being on private property. About 63% of the current elk distribution is on private lands. State big game managers estimate that approximately 800 to 1000 elk are present in the EMU. Elk numbers are currently managed based on the level of landowner tolerance to elk depredation on private lands. The State is currently trying to maintain 500 post-hunting season elk in the EMU.
Of interest is that elk populations have been increasing since 1987 while a full suite of management activities has occurred across the District, even before the Ashland Travel Management decision in 2009 reduced the miles of routes available for public motorized
Ashland Post Fire Landscape Assessment 2014 81 transportation. As noted above, management activities on the District have had far less effect on vegetation than has wildfire.
The elk population has been increasing (2013 Statewide Elk Estimate for the web). Dean Waltee, FWP Wildlife Biologist, reports that elk populations in southeast Montana have doubled in the past nine years (Billings Gazette June 2013). Data collected from aerial surveys conducted in Hunting Districts 704 and 705 showed nearly 1,500 elk present; more than double the 2004 estimate of 600 for the same area. Preliminary survey results showed a minimum of 300 additional elk in Hunting District 702.
Post-wildfire habitat conditions include a major reduction in the area covered by forest (Figures 4 and 5). Figures 26 and 27 reveal the general trend from 1990’s to 2012 is an increase in representation of the <40% canopy cover class and a decrease in the ≥ 40% class for the ponderosa pine acreage in each period. That is, wildfires reduced the number of larger diameter trees that made up the closed canopy stands with ≥40% canopy cover. Figures 28 and 29 show an increase in the percent of small diameter Ponderosa pine (trees less than 5” in diameter) from the 1990’s to 2012 of nearly 8 percent. This has reduced or eliminated horizontal screening cover from hunters and increased visibility from some roads open to motor vehicle travel. Vegetative screening plays a role in elk security, but being ½ mile or more distant from a route, as well as the topography is part of the security equation, as well. Post-fire conditions may contribute to elk displacement from public lands where they are available for recreation viewing and hunting, to adjacent private lands where hunting for the general public is precluded or allowed primarily through fee hunting. Coordination with MTFWP has identified, as an opportunity, roads or portions of roads and trails for which changes in travel management could be considered to help maintain elk security.
Elk displacement to private ranches could result in forage conflicts with cattle. FWP has stated that it works with private land owners and tries to manage herd sizes to reduce or minimize those conflicts. Recreation opportunity on public lands associated with elk may be reduced because animals may be displaced from public to private lands; however it appears that elk use over the District is fairly well distributed.
While it is acknowledged that forest cover plays an important role as a part of elk habitat and that there has been a significant loss of forest across the Ashland Ranger District, elk numbers are increasing in the FWP Hunting Districts 702, 704, and 705 , which includes the Ashland Ranger District. While elk are not a management indicator species in the Forest Plan, they are a highly sought after hunted species. This is indicative that Forest Plan standards could be considered as being effective in considering elk habitat on Ashland Ranger District.
Goshawk (Management Indicator Species for old growth). The Forest Plan requires that habitat be maintained and improved for goshawk, which is a Management Indicator Species for old growth forest (USDA, 1986, pp. 17-18). The Forest Plan for the Custer National Forest (USDA, 1986) does provide standards for old growth but these standards do not provide specific recommendations that direct how old growth habitat should be maintained or improved for goshawk.
Ashland Post Fire Landscape Assessment 2014 82 Regional Direction (Tidwell 2007) and the Northern Goshawk, Northern Region Overview (Brewer et al. 2009) provide a process to analyze project level effects to goshawk, summarize the best available science for goshawk, and leaves options open for professional judgment at the local level (Tidwell 2007).
The Forest Plan defines overmature timber (cross references to old growth timber), but does not define old growth forest (USDA, 1986, pp. 135, 136). Therefore, the Forest uses Region One’s definition of old growth as documented by Green and others (Green et al. 2007). The Forest uses the National Forest Inventory and Analysis (FIA) program data, which provides a congressionally mandated, statistically based, continuous inventory of the forest resources (Bush et al. 2006) to assess whether a FIA plot meets old growth minimum criteria as defined by Green et al 2007. Minimum values are documented by habitat type group in the Green document and are the key attributes in identifying old growth. Based on FIA data, no forested stands on the Ashland RD meet the R1 definition of old growth forest as derived by Green et al. (2007).
Estimating effects at the project level is done using a five step process outline in the Northern Goshawk, Northern Region Overview (Brewer et al., 2009), hereafter called “Overview,” which provides a consistent means of conducting effects analysis at the project level. The Overview outlines, “Methods used to classify goshawk habitat at multiple-spatial levels (from the Regional scale to the Forest scale to the home range and project level scales) and follows the architecture supported by the R1Multi-Level Classification, Mapping, Inventory, and Analysis System (Berglund et al. 2009). This system provides a consistent methodology to classify vegetation dominance type, tree size class, and tree canopy cover for R1-VMap and inventory data residing in FSVeg.”
Context Several investigations have established the Regional context for goshawk distribution, status and trend based on habitat and goshawk detection estimates:
• In its 12-month status review of the species, the USFWS concluded, “that the goshawk population is well distributed and stable at the broadest scale (63 FR 35183, June 29, 1998). • It is estimated that goshawks across the Region are a part of one population (Samson 2006a). • The species is considered globally secure, and in Montana, the population is considered stable and moderately vulnerable to threats to habitat or population and ranked G5, S3 (MTNHP 2010). In South Dakota it is ranked G5, S3B, S2N (SDNHP, 2008). • Based on habitat and goshawk detection estimates, breeding goshawks and their habitat appear abundant and well distributed across the USFS Northern Region (Kowalski 2006, Map – Northern Goshawk Historic Active nests 2000-2005, and Map – Northern Goshawk Detection Survey 2005; Samson 2006a, Appendix 07, Map - goshawk well distributed; MTNHP 2010; NRIS Wildlife – R1 Wildlife Species Distribution, 2010). • Each R1 National Forest has enough habitats to contribute to a viable regional population of goshawks (Samson 2006b). Compare the amount of nesting, Post-Fledgling Family Area (PFA), and foraging habitat on the Forest to Samson’s (2006b) and Bush and Lundberg (2008) estimate of 30,147 acres needed for a minimum viable population in the entire Region.
Ashland Post Fire Landscape Assessment 2014 83 At the Forest level and before the 2012 wildfires, wildlife habitat analysis from satellite imagery and TSMRS data from 2002 to 2008 indicate mature forest declined by up to 27%, primarily due to wildfires (Note: VMAP data was not available until 2009). Based on 2009 R1-VMap data, over 181,000 acres of middle-aged (10-14.9 inches dbh) and mature forest (> 15 inches dbh) occurs on the Beartooth RD, 22,000 on the Sioux RD and 23,000 on the Ashland RD. Since the entire available habitat has not been surveyed on the Forest, all potential nesting habitats is managed as occupied by goshawks (part of the MIS concept rationale). Assumed but not validated is that the removal of nesting habitat would eliminate pairs rather than displace them to vacant habitat. Surveys over years have detected several active goshawk nests on the Forest, although it is likely not all nests have been detected. Before the 2012 wildfires up to 14 goshawk nest territories were known to occur on the Ashland RD (Figure 46 and Table 16), 3 on the Sioux Rd and 8 on the Beartooth RD (USDA Forest Service, 2010.05.24). A Forest Plan Standard requires the forest to provide for the maintenance and improvement of habitats for Habitat Indicator species (USDA, 1986, P. 18).
In 2010, Forest Service personnel completed Common Stand Exams (CSE) for goshawks following the Regional protocol. Numerous exams were completed across the Forest on 23 stands. Data collected from these exams indicate that goshawks are primarily using mid-aged stands across the Forest, and using mature stands to a lesser degree.
A goshawk territory encompasses the nest stand, the post-fledging family area (PFA), and foraging habitat, which collectively encompass about 5,000 acres per pair of goshawks. At this time, consistent with the Overview guidance are the following considerations at the project level:
• Nesting habitat in the foraging area - Maintain at least 240 acres of nesting habitat per 5000- acre foraging area in stands of at least 40 acres.
• Nest area no activity buffer for known occupied sites that will be protected - At recently occupied goshawk nests (defined in Overview glossary), maintain a minimum 40-acre no activity buffer around nest trees to maintain existing conditions in the nest stand.
• Activity timing in PFAs - Allow no ground disturbing activities inside known occupied PFAs from April 15 through no sooner than August 15 to protect the goshawk pair and young from disturbance during the breeding season until fledglings are capable of sustained flight.
• Reynolds et al (1992) recommends that potential foraging and nesting habitat include: • 20% development stages 1 – 3 (non-forest, grass/forb, seedling/sapling) • 20% development stage 4 (young forest) • 20% development stage 5 (mid-aged forest) • 20% development stage 6 (mature forest) • 20% development stage 7 (old forest)
These considerations may change depending on updates to the Overview.
On the Ashland RD, goshawk habitat has been reduced in terms of acres, and known and potential territories since the development of the Forest Plan (USDA, 1986), principally as a result of large wildfires. As noted above, there were 14 known goshawk nest locations before the 2012 wildfires.
Ashland Post Fire Landscape Assessment 2014 84 At least seven goshawk nest territories have been affected by the wildfires. In some instances direct tree mortality from the wildfires is clearly evident. In other instances tree mortality will likely occur several years after the wildfire and not be evident until that time. Therefore effects to some goshawk habitat may not be known for several years.
Goshawk nest and PFA habitat is located in existing patches of ponderosa pine forest scattered across the District. Soils, site conditions (natural grassland/forest mosaic, past wildfire, and past vegetation treatments) and topography (slope and aspect) affect the spatial arrangement of habitat across the District.
Figure 46 displays the known or suspected goshawk nests located on the Ashland RD before the wildfires in 2012. The existing habitat is distributed in patches across the District. Before the 2012 wildfires, mature forest and goshawk nest territories tended to be concentrated in the northern portion of the Ashland RD, .
Overall home range size for goshawks are likely larger (total acres) on the Ashland Ranger District because of lower precipitation (less productive site) and more fragmented ponderosa pine stands (potentially less interior stand habitat and more grassland or shrubland) than in the southwestern US where Reynolds et al. (1992) guidelines were developed. Bassett et al. (1994) point out that the achievable Vegetation Structural Stage (VSS) percentage, as described in Reynolds et al. (1992), should be determined by considering existing local factors that influence forest establishment and growth, expected management intensity, and tree longevity. Brewer et al. (2009) summarizes the best available science for goshawks and leaves options open for professional judgment at the local level (Tidwell 2007). For a definition of active territory see Brewer et al. (2009, glossary). Note that Brewer et al (2009) considered La Sorte et al. (2004), Squires and Kennedy (2006), Reynolds et al. (1992) and numerous other goshawk related literature to justify Regional recommendations on habitat such as percent crown cover provided for goshawk habitat. Custer NF biologists have documented that goshawks are primarily using mid-aged stands across the Forest, and using mature stands to a lesser degree due to availability.
Ashland Post Fire Landscape Assessment 2014 85
Figure 46. Known and suspected goshawk nests on Ashland Ranger District before the 2012 wildfires.
Ashland Post Fire Landscape Assessment 2014 86
Table 16. Summary of Confirmed and Potential Goshawk Nest Territories, Ashland RD, Custer NF Before the 2012 Wildfires. 2010 Status: Last Past Past Past Monitoring Burned in Date Territory Confirmed Territory No. Wild Rx Timber Results 2012 Comment Confirmed Name Active -fire Fire Harvest (USFS, Wildfires Active 2010.05.24) 1985 2004 R1F08D04-01 Logging No No ? Attempted Yes. Need Historic Cr. monitoring – to logging? results determine inconclusive effects. 1985 1985 R1F08D04-02 Willie Yes No No Not No Wildfire – Bull monitored Foraging habitat Prong removed. 1987 1987 R1F08D04-03 Upper Yes No Yes Not No Wildfire – Hay Cr. monitored Habitat removed. 1987 2003 R1F08D04-04 West Yes No No Not Yes. Need Wildfire – Dailey monitored to Habitat removed determine effects 1990 1992 R1F08D04-05 Chelsea Yes No Yes Not Yes. Need Wildfire/Salvag monitored – to e – Habitat unsuitable determine removed. habitat effects 1991 2010 R1F08D04-06 Lemonad Yes No Yes Active No Wildfire – e Habitat removed 1990 2006 R1F08D04-07 Timber Mini Yes Yes Attempted No Timber Cr. Cr. mal monitoring – prescribed burn results inconclusive 1996 2003 R1F08D04-08 N. Fork. No Yes Yes Not Yes. Need Goodspeed Taylor Cr. monitored to prescribed burn determine effects 1980 2009 R1F08D04-09 Green No No Yes Attempted No Creek monitoring – results inconclusive 1995 2010 R1F08D04-10 Holiday No No Yes Active Yes. Need Springs to Campgro determine und effects 1995 1996 R1F08D04-11 Upper No No Yes Not No Timber Harvest Wilbur monitored – Status Cr. Undetermined Potential None P-R1F08D04- Soft No No No? Not No Threemile EIS 1999 A Water monitored Potential Springs (R1F08D04- 12) 2003 2010 R1F08D04-13 Sartin No No No Active Yes. Need Draw to Springs determine effects 2003 2004 R1F08D04-14 Surprise No No No Attempted Yes. Need Liscom Butte Spring monitoring – to Prescribed Burn results determine inconclusive effects
Ashland Post Fire Landscape Assessment 2014 87 Table 16. Summary of Confirmed and Potential Goshawk Nest Territories, Ashland RD, Custer NF Before the 2012 Wildfires. 2010 Status: Last Past Past Past Monitoring Burned in Date Territory Confirmed Territory No. Wild Rx Timber Results 2012 Comment Confirmed Name Active -fire Fire Harvest (USFS, Wildfires Active 2010.05.24) 2004 2005 R1F08D04-15 Davis No Yes No Not Red Rock Prong monitored prescribed burn 2013 2013 R1F08D04 Dalzells No No No N/A No Spring
Potential None P - S. Fork Yes ? No Not No Erickson Spring R1F08D04- B Threemile monitored Wildfire Potential Cr. Territory Potential None P - Elk Cr. No No No Not No Large intact R1F08D04- C Sawmill monitored stand of mature Potential Springs forest - Taylor- Territory Ten Area 1 See goshawk monitoring reports: USDA Forest Service, 2010.05.24. Monitoring of goshawk nest territories - 2009. Custer National Forest, USDA Forest Service Northern Region, Monitoring Report No. 01-08-2010.05.24; and USDA Forest Service, 2011.01.24. Monitoring of goshawk nest territories - 2010. Custer National Forest, USDA Forest Service Northern Region, Monitoring report No. 01-08-0211.01.24.
Ruffed grouse (aspen) – Ruffed grouse and associated habitat characteristics do not occur at Ashland.
Kingbird (open savanna) – Savannas are open widely spaced trees. Montana Heritage includes forested areas up to 25% cover as savanna. Overall change in habitat can be estimated by deriving savanna acreage utilizing the 10-25% cover class for ponderosa pine. Doing so reveals that in the 1990’s that 41.4% of canopy cover was in the 39% or less canopy cover class. In 2006 28% of ponderosa pine acreage was in the 10-24.9% cover class, and by 2012 33% of ponderosa pine forest was in the 10-24.9% canopy cover class, an increase of 5%. Isolated green trees were reduced in some areas and gained acreage in other areas where scattered trees remain grasslands.
Black-backed Woodpecker – (R-1 sensitive) – The wildfires of 2012 created extensive habitat for the black-backed woodpecker, a bird that nests and forages in recently fire-killed coniferous forest. Habitat for this bird is expected to be abundant and extensive for the next 5 to 10 years because of the large number of trees killed by the wildfires of 2012. After a decade there may be a reduction in habitat, however, as this assessment points out, wildfire is a recurrent disturbance event on the District and there likely will continue to be available habitat for black-backed woodpecker.
4.4.15 Fire Disturbance
4.4.15.1 Fire Regime Condition Class (FRCC) The natural fire regimes at the Ashland Ranger District consist of a mix of Fire Regime I and Fire Regime II according to the 2008 LANDFIRE mapping. Both regimes include frequent fire return intervals of 0-35 years. Regime I is low to mixed severity, represented by the drier Ponderosa Pine sites, and Regime II is high severity (stand replacement), represented by the moist north slopes.
Ashland Post Fire Landscape Assessment 2014 88 Sneed (2005) conducted a study on the Ashland Ranger District and concluded the fire return interval to be 1-28 years with primarily low intensity wildfires except for the moist north slopes and ravines.
Fire Regime Condition Class (FRCC) is a classification of the amount of departure from the natural regime. FRCC is a composite estimate of vegetation characteristics (species composition, structure stage, canopy closure, etc.); fire frequency, severity and pattern; fuel composition; and other disturbances. Condition Class 1 is within the natural range of variability, Condition Class 2 is moderate departure and Condition Class 3 is high departure.
A coarse look at FRCC based on fire frequency, severity, fuel composition and canopy closure can help to validate intuitive assessments of fuel loads and crown fire potential across the district. The large wildfires from 2000-2007 with heavy concentration of standing dead and down dead have fuel loadings moderately departed from the natural regime and that have missed one fire return interval. There are approximately 17,300 acres in this condition (FRCC 2). Areas that have not seen large wildfire and have canopy closure greater than 40% are moderately to highly departed and have missed one or more fire return intervals. There are approximately 30,000 acres in this condition (FRCC 2-3).
The information to crosswalk LANDFIRE Potential Natural Vegetation Groups to existing condition to provide additional FRCC context is contained in Appendix T.
4.4.15.2 Recent Fire History, Acres Burned 1986 – 2012 The Ashland Ranger District has experienced a tremendous increase in the number and size of large wildfires since 1995. Between 1986 and 1995, the district burned 31,149 acres or 7% of the district; and of those 31,149 acres, 17,917 or 58% were in one year (1988). Since 1995, the district has burned 258,829 acres or 59% of the land mass with large wildfires occurring regularly beginning in 2000. Some areas of the district have seen multiple large fires since 2000; such as the area between Home Creek and Three Mile Creek. The 2012 fire season brought extensive large fires unprecedented in the modern era. Ash Creek, Taylor and Dutch fires burned a combined 152,531 acres.
4.4.15.3 Prescribed Fire Treatments 1986 – 2012 Using prescribed fire to mimic natural disturbance and as a hazardous fuels reduction tool has been part of the management strategy at Ashland RD for decades. However, because of short historic fire return intervals, natural regeneration and natural fuel accumulation, prescribed fire treatments prior to 1996 were considered to have no effect on the current landscape and were not identified in the assessment.
Acres treated by prescribed fire have been on a gradual decline in the period between 1986 and 2012. This gradual decline can be attributed to large wildfires, management preferences, longer wildfire seasons, and response to social-political considerations. Ashland RD treated an average
Ashland Post Fire Landscape Assessment 2014 89 of 2,550 acres per year in the decade 1986 – 1995, which dropped to 1,700 acres per year in the decade 1996 – 2005. The most recent period, 2006 – 2012, has seen further reduction with an average of 950 acres per year treated with prescribed fire, although the district did burn 5,000 acres in a two year period from 2011 to 2012.
Most of the areas treated by prescribed fire in the decade 1996 to 2005 have also subsequently been burned by wildfire with the exception of the Brewster Gulch project in the southwest corner of the district. Fire return intervals and fuel accumulations since the initial prescribed fire entry have resulted in conditions that suggest another prescribed fire entry is in order. Recent prescribed fire projects (2005 to present) in Three Mile and Timber Creek are ongoing and have not been affected by wildfire. The earliest entries at Timber Creek are within 1-3 years of reaching conditions similar to Brewster Gulch.
4.4.15.4 Existing sustained crown fire potential due to expansive closed canopy forest The Ashland RD still has some extensive tracts of Ponderosa Pine forest with greater than 40% canopy cover, particularly in the southwest corner of the district and in the 15 Mile area. These forests are susceptible to sustained crown fire during peak summer and/or drought conditions. Once crown fire is established under these conditions, suppression efforts have proven unsuccessful.
Areas outside of the 2011 and 2012 large fire perimeters were analyzed to determine the amount and location of remaining Ponderosa Pine forest with greater than 40% canopy cover. Even though there are some remnant stands of greater than 40% canopy cover within the large fire areas, they were excluded from the analysis because of their fragmented nature which limits the potential for sustaining crown fire. There are approximately 28,800 acres of 40-60% canopy cover and 1000 acres of greater than 60% canopy cover on the Ashland RD.
4.4.15.5 Large scale wildfire potential due to expansive down and dead fuels in existing and potential future continuous fuel beds Heavy concentrations of standing dead and down dead were analyzed in wildfires 500 acres or larger from 1995 through 2010. These areas of continuous concentrated large diameter fuels have created conditions difficult for wildfire management and are susceptible to large scale wildfires. Large diameter fuels are difficult to extinguish because they create elevated fire intensity and access challenges for personnel and equipment.
There is a total of approximately 17,300 acres of standing dead and down dead across the district. The Stag wildfire of 2000 has by far the greatest expanse of continuous dead fuel. The Watt Draw, Willey and Tobin wildfires (2006, 2003, and 2000, respectively) have interspersed areas of dead fuel accumulations, some of which adjoins areas of 40+% canopy cover. The Lost wildfire of 2007 has areas of dead fuel intermixed with areas of 40+% canopy cover. All three of these conditions have the potential to propagate large scale wildfire with the latter two conditions conducive to crown fire.
Ashland Post Fire Landscape Assessment 2014 90 World image data (ESRI 2011) used to analyze standing dead and down dead in past wildfires was not available for the large wildfires that occurred in 2011 and 2012. Instead, potential areas for heavy continuous concentrations of dead fuel were determined using fire severity mapping. Severity class 3 and 4 areas were identified as likely to have extensive mortality that will become heavy concentrations of dead fuel in 5 – 7 years. Past wildfires indicate that Severity class 3 areas have variable levels of mortality. Therefore, this analysis only identifies potential areas of dead fuel concentrations.
Ash, Taylor, Mill Creek and Little Fork wildfires were analyzed; Dutch and Maverick wildfires were excluded because of the fragmented nature of the stands and the lack of extensive areas of class 3 and 4 severity. There are approximately 64,000 acres of severity class 3 and 16,200 acres of severity class 4 within the fire perimeters. Ash fire had the majority of the severity class 4 acres (13,900).
4.4.15.6 Risk to WUI Infrastructure due to expansive closed canopy forest The intersection of forests with greater than 40% canopy cover and human development are of management concern.
The County Wide Protection Plan (CWPP) for Powder River County has defined the Wildland Urban Interface (WUI) as all private lands within, immediately adjacent to or within 1 ½ miles of the Ashland Ranger District. With such a broad definition of WUI, this assessment has narrowed the focus to infrastructure within the WUI. Infrastructure has been defined as structures, USFS developed recreation sites and power line corridors.
Within the 1 ½ mile WUI corridor, significant concern exists where 40+% canopy cover forests are within ½ mile of infrastructure because of risks to firefighters, the public and the infrastructure under peak summer and/or drought conditions. Threats to firefighters and the public include intense heat, smoke, poor ingress/egress, poor visibility and lack of safety zones. Threats to infrastructure include potential direct flame impingement and likely spotting on or in close proximity to infrastructure. There are approximately 3,400 acres with greater than 40% canopy cover within ½ mile of infrastructure. The majority, 2,900 acres, are along power line corridors.
4.4.15.7 Risk to WUI infrastructure due to existing and potential future continuous fuel beds Significant concern exists where heavy concentrations of standing dead and down dead fuels exist within ¼ mile of infrastructure. A shorter distance to infrastructure, ¼ mile vs. ½ mile, was used for this analysis because these areas lack a canopy to sustain crown fire which greatly reduces the potential spotting distance. The analysis focused on structures, power lines and USFS developed recreation sites. There are approximately 675 acres that meet these criteria, primarily in the Stag wildfire of 2000 and primarily adjacent to power lines.
Ashland Post Fire Landscape Assessment 2014 91 Potential areas for heavy continuous concentrations of dead fuel were determined using fire severity mapping because of the lack of world image data. Severity class 3 and 4 areas were identified as likely to have extensive mortality that will become heavy concentrations of dead fuel in 5 – 7 years. Severity class 3 and 4 acres within ¼ mile of infrastructure were determined, consistent with the standing dead and down dead analysis.
Ash, Taylor, Mill Creek and Little Fork wildfires were analyzed; Dutch and Maverick wildfires were excluded because of the fragmented nature of the stands and the lack of extensive areas of class 3 and 4 severity. There are approximately 1,270 acres of severity class 4 and 5,400 acres of severity class 3 within ¼ mile of infrastructure. Again, the bulk of the acres are along power lines (6,500 acres).
5.0 Soil and Water Existing Condition 5.1 Water quantity Average annual precipitation for the District is approximately 13 inches, with the majority falling during spring and summer months. Under such a precipitation regime, peak flows may occur from both spring snowmelt runoff and high-intensity thunderstorm precipitation. Peaks associated with thunderstorms are generally short duration, while snowmelt runoff peaks are generally longer. With silt- and clay-dominated surface soil textures, semipermeable to impermeable sedimentary geologic strata, and large swaths of rangeland vegetation found in the area, watershed response is generally quite flashy.
The fires of 2012 burned across 22 6th Hydrologic Unit Code (HUC) watersheds within the administrative boundary of the Ashland Ranger District under a range of severities (Table 17). With hydrophobic conditions found throughout the burn perimeter and high rates of overstory mortality within areas burned under moderate to high severity, strong runoff response along with the potential for debris flows is expected for three to five years post-fire (Efta et al. 2012).
This predicted strong runoff response was observed during 2013. Following a year of drought where multiple locations in eastern Montana recorded record low precipitation, greater than 18 inches of precipitation fell at the Sonnette weather station since the beginning of 2013- approximately three and a half inches above the 30 year average at this station. High intensity short duration precipitation from strong convective thunderstorms characteristic of southeast Montana summers resulted in significant runoff and debris flow from drainages within the burned area. For one event in July, bulked runoff was estimated at approximately 4600 cubic feet per second for a 1.3 mi2 watershed (Efta, unpublished data). Similar large peak flow events have been recorded in the past in the vicinity of Ashland in response to short duration high intensity precipitation events (Parrett et al. 2004).
Ashland Post Fire Landscape Assessment 2014 92 Table 17. Sixth Hydrologic Unit Code numbers, names, and acreage encompassed by the 2012 Ash Creek and Taylor Creek Fires within FS boundaries. 6th HUC HUC Name Acres 100901020703 Liscom Creek 2784 100901020505 Tongue River-Bringoff Creek 2103 100901021102 Lower Little Pumpkin Creek 1924 100901020604 Lower Beaver Creek 1300 100901020603 Middle Beaver Creek 4442 100901020602 Ash Creek 7618 100901020504 Tongue River-Colbert Coulee 1425 100901020601 Upper Beaver Creek 12069 100901021101 Upper Little Pumpkin Creek 6838 100901021003 Pumpkin Creek-Fiftyfour Creek 3561 100901020501 Tongue River-Double E Creek 2787 100901020304 East Fork Otter Creek 15443 100901020303 Home Creek 19932 100901021002 Pumpkin Creek-Doonan Gulch 3400 100901020302 Threemile Creek 2194 100901020210 Otter Creek-Brian Creek 3375 100901020208 Elk Creek 3680 100901020206 Lyon Creek 17258 100902070206 Bloom Creek 1274 100901020205 Taylor Creek 20463 100901020204 Indian Creek 8050 100901010803 Lee Creek 556 TOTAL 141921
As hydrophobicity dissipates and understory vegetation recovers, peak flow response will begin to be driven primarily by loss of forest cover. Plot sampling one year post fire found nearly 100% overstory mortality in forested stands burned under moderate to high severity (unpublished data). With reduced canopy interception and sublimation, no transpiration losses, and greater snowmelt deposition in the understory there is high potential for a reduction in peak snowmelt rate and general increase in soil moisture content, both of which are conducive to increased peak flows (Anderson et al. 1976). Previous studies have shown that greater than 40% of forest cover in a given watershed must be removed before a change in peak flow is detectable (Troendle and King 1985). Even when increased peak flows can be detected, only peak flows between the 40th and 90th percentile of observed discharges have been found to be affected (Troendle et al. 2010).
Multiple studies point toward 20% forest cover change as a benchmark where changes in water yield may be detectable (e.g. Bosch and Hewlett 1982; Stednick 1996). Of note is that much of the data associated with watershed response to change in forest cover is from high elevation forests in Colorado. While there is a paucity of data for watershed response to forest cover change in eastern Montana, other studies in southern Idaho and eastern Oregon have backed general conclusions of the Colorado studies with the exception that aspect tends to play a much stronger role in watershed response to change in forest cover.
Ashland Post Fire Landscape Assessment 2014 93 In general, magnitude of watershed response to change in forest cover is smaller in drier areas (Troendle et al. 2010).
As burned stands begin to regenerate post-fire, watershed response will continue recovery to pre-fire conditions. Longevity of hydrologic response to change in forest cover has been shown to be approximately 30 years (Troendle et al. 2010).
In effort to discern which watersheds (or portions thereof) may experience longer term (5-30 year) watershed response to the 2012 fires, an analysis was undertaken where percentages of watershed area burned under varying severities were summed using GIS. In doing so, it was assumed that a) those areas burned under moderate and high severity incurred 100% overstory mortality, b) basal area distribution is homogenous throughout forested areas of watersheds, and c) those areas where moderate and high severity effects occurred were exclusively in forest vegetation. Remotely sensed Burned Area Reflectance Classification (BARC) data was intersected with 6th HUC watershed boundaries and acreages were tallied in each burn severity class.
Only two watersheds were identified with potential for a long-term increase in water yield: Upper Beaver Creek and Lyon Creek. If 100% mortality was also to be assumed for forested areas burned under low severity, Ash Creek, Home Creek and Taylor Creek would also be added to the list of watersheds where there may be a detectable increase in water yield. There are few studies that have evaluated the magnitude of change in water yield, but with 20% to 30% loss of forest cover studies suggest water yield may increase by approximately 1 cm in dry coniferous forest types such as those found on the Ashland District (Bosch and Hewlett 1982; Fowler et al. 1987). Of note is that annual precipitation may play a significant role in how long-term change in water yield is realized; average annual increases over a number of years may come as larger yield increases during a few wet years (Neary et al. 2005)
While there were no watersheds where greater than 30% burned under moderate to high severity, there is a low probability that any burned watersheds will have a detectable increase in peak flow following the 2012 fires.
5.2 Channel and draw morphology The Ashland District contains approximately 55 miles of perennial and approximately 1624 miles of intermittent and ephemeral streams. Many reaches of these channels have altered morphologic characteristics from natural channels of similar landscape position, gradient, sediment supply, and watershed area. Preliminary analysis of channel geomorphic survey data from Otter Creek suggest that the channel is entrenched. This entrenchment, which has been estimated to be as much as approximately five feet, can be readily observed between the Twenty Mile FS administrative site and the Ashland USGS gauge (Omang et al. 1983) (Figure 47). As a result, the Otter Creek floodplain is no longer inundated at regular intervals, and likely has not been for decades. Historic land use impacts contributing to entrenchment may include water diversion or other manipulation of base level.
As a mainstem channel downcuts, tributaries must inevitably downcut to match base elevation. While geomorphic survey data is not available to discern the extent of tributary channel adjustment, it is
Ashland Post Fire Landscape Assessment 2014 94 reasonable to assume that a significant portion of the Otter Creek watershed contains channel reaches that have been altered outside of their historic range of natural geomorphic variability.
Figure 47. Otter Creek looking upstream at a cross section within the Twenty Mile administrative site. Bankfull elevation in natural stream channels should correlate with the top of the bank. Top of bank is approximately five feet higher than bankfull at this location.
Other channel geomorphic changes have been documented over time beyond channel entrenchment. There are numerous locations on the district where historic cattle grazing resulted in bank destabilization and collapse, thereby over-widening the channel cross section. In some locations, these former channels may have permanently transitioned to an ephemeral channel type or riparian community with a high water table and no channel (Figure 48).
The total extent of stream channel alteration across the district is unknown without a systematic inventory. Despite the potential for increase in surface water yield in Upper Beaver Creek and Lyon Creek following the 2012 wildfires, it is possible no downstream benefits may be realized because of downstream channel morphologic changes coupled with the minimal increase in yield.
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Figure 48. Photo of recovering stream bank adjacent to an over-widened channel profile (Courtesy of Ashland Range District).
Given the continued improvements in range management over time, which have included a long- term reduction in AUMs, changes in timing, duration, and intensity of grazing in riparian areas, and redistribution of cattle through implementation of off-site watering, magnitude and extent of on-going channel impacts due to grazing has probably decreased over time.
Existing extent and degree of stream channel alteration due to legacy land use is unknown without a systematic inventory. Analysis of surveyed channel data, basin hydrology, and land use history in a given watershed would be required as a part of this inventory. Beyond geomorphic analysis, further evaluation of channel reaches will be required to understand whether channel alterations are significantly impairing aquatic habitat, ecosystem benefits, and/or beneficial uses for a given channel reach.
5.3 Hydrogeology and Groundwater Dependent Ecosystems In general, groundwater on the Ashland District flows south to north. Though the horizontal stratigraphy of sedimentary geology in the area is impermeable or semipermeable, alluvium has been shown to be sensitive to annual precipitation fluctuation. Springs are sourced from both local and regional aquifer sources. Most groundwater in the vicinity of the district is characterized by high salinity and sodium adsorption ratios as well as high concentrations of calcium and magnesium, in part as a result of porous coal seams serving as aquifers (Meredith and Kuzara 2013).
Following the 2012 wildfires, greater available soil moisture and lack of transpiration loss may result in greater local groundwater recharge (E. Meredith, personal communication, also Meredith and Kuzara 2013). Frequency with which Montana Bureau of Mines and Geology (MBMG) is
Ashland Post Fire Landscape Assessment 2014 96 monitoring wells across the district was increased in effort to better understand local groundwater recharge dynamics following the fire.
In terms of surficial expression of groundwater across the district, 465 springs were identified within the administrative boundary of the district through a query of the Custer NF point of diversion water rights database. Four hundred and one of those are in the name of the Forest Service. Water quantity and quality data for many of these springs is housed within the MBMG’s Ground Water Information Center (GWIC) database. This dataset is extensive and best queried on an as-needed basis. MBMG annual Coal Bed Methane monitoring reports contain trend data for selected sites on and adjacent to the Ashland District. It is not known how many springs across the district are currently undeveloped.
Some of the springs on the district are likely associated with a wetland or wetland complex. The exact number, however, cannot be defined from GIS data sources because water rights locations were based on a centroid defined by the PLSS description in the water right abstract. Wetlands comprise less than half of a percent of the land area within the Ashland Ranger District administrative boundary (see Riparian section Table 4). Riparian areas comprise the greatest extent of wetland types across the district both in terms of total acreage as well as in terms of total mapped polygons.
The Montana Natural Heritage Program has inventoried many of the wetlands and springs within district boundaries from the perspective of assessing habitat for amphibian species of interest. Habitat status was assessed as a part of the field inventory. At the time of writing, that dataset was unavailable for cross-reference with USFS datasets.
Groundwater dependent ecosystems on the Ashland District are extremely small in area. While more data is needed to fully characterize the status of these resources, it is possible that those springs and wetlands in watersheds with high overstory mortality post-fire will have increased discharge through the duration of hydrologic recovery. Monitoring of discharge from springs is ongoing.
5.4 Watershed Condition Watershed condition across the Ashland District is best described using the Forest Service Watershed Condition Framework (WCF). This framework was developed in effort to create a nationally consistent approach for evaluating and tracking watershed condition along with providing a framework for prioritizing watershed restoration activities (Potyondy and Geier 2011). The Watershed Condition Classification System- a component of the WCF- was implemented across the entire NFS system in 2011 and 2012. Forest-level interdisciplinary teams were assembled and worked to classify all 6th Hydrologic Unit Code (HUC) watersheds within forest boundaries. Classes assigned were “Properly Functioning” (Class 1, generally labeled green in map products), “Functioning at Risk”, (Class 2, generally denoted in yellow), or “Impaired” (Class 3, generally denoted in red). The Watershed Condition Framework Technical Guide provides a narrative definition of these watershed classes (excerpt from Potyondy and Geier 2011, pg 2):
Ashland Post Fire Landscape Assessment 2014 97 A watershed is considered to be functioning properly if the physical attributes are adequate to maintain or improve biological integrity. This consideration implies that a Class 1 watershed that is functioning properly has minimal undesirable human impact on its natural, physical, or biological processes, and it is resilient and able to recover to the desired condition when disturbed by large natural disturbances or land management activities (Yount and Neimi 1990). By contrast, a Class 3 watershed has impaired function because some physical, hydrological, or biological threshold has been exceeded. Substantial changes to the factors that caused the degraded state are commonly needed to return the watershed to a properly functioning condition.
The WCC system is based on 12 indicators that represent one of four primary processes: Aquatic Physical, Aquatic Biological, Terrestrial Physical, and Terrestrial Biological. Each indicator has a suite of associated attributes that are rated using criteria outlined in the WCF Technical Guide. While the Technical Guide provided a consistent structure for assigning ratings, the rating scheme was specifically designed to allow for specialist professional judgment in assigning condition classes.
See electronic project record for complete watershed scores for the Ashland District. Nearly two- thirds of the 39 watersheds spanned by the Ashland District were rated as Functioning at Risk (Figure 49), the highest percentage found across the three Custer National Forest ranger districts. No watersheds were found to be not properly functioning across the forest. The majority of these watersheds are clustered in the south-central portion of the district (Figure 50). No watersheds were rated as Class 3 across the forest.
14, 36%
1 2
25, 64%
Figure 49. Percent of watersheds in each Watershed Condition Class for the Ashland District. Class 1 watersheds are rated as Functioning Properly and Class 2 watersheds are rated as Functioning at Risk.
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In effort to better discern the potential for watersheds to transition from Class 2 to Class 1 or vice versa, those watersheds where the watershed score was 1.6, 1.7, or 1.8 were queried from the database (note that these scores are an artifact of the weighted averaging used to delineate watershed classes. Scores less than or equal to 1.6 were Class 1 watersheds, whereas scores of 1.7 or greater constituted Class 2 watersheds). This query yielded 23 “cusp” watersheds (Table 18). Cusp watersheds are those where conditions are close to transitioning from Class 1 to Class 2. Management activities carried out within these watersheds have higher potential to change watershed classes.
Ashland Post Fire Landscape Assessment 2014 99 Figure 50. Ashland Ranger District Watershed Condition Class Ratings.
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Table 18. Watersheds on the Ashland Ranger District with ratings of 1.6, 1.7, and 1.8 (in transition zone between CC1 and CC2).
Watershed Information WCC Scores
NonFS Watershed Watershed FS Land DISTRICT HUC_12 HU_12_NAME Land Class FS Score FS percent percent Ashland Ranger 100901020602 Ash Creek 2 1.8 71 29 District Ashland Ranger 100902070206 Bloom Creek 2 1.8 80 20 District Ashland Ranger East Fork Hanging 100901010804 2 1.7 84 16 District Women Creek Ashland Ranger 100901020304 East Fork Otter Creek 2 1.8 56 44 District Ashland Ranger 100901020208 Elk Creek 2 1.7 60 40 District Ashland Ranger 100901020209 Fifteenmile Creek 2 1.8 58 43 District Ashland Ranger 100901020303 Home Creek 2 1.8 75 25 District Ashland Ranger 100901020204 Indian Creek 2 1.8 45 56 District Ashland Ranger 100901010803 Lee Creek 2 1.8 57 43 District Ashland Ranger 100901020103 Little Bear Creek 2 1.8 11 89 District Ashland Ranger 100901020104 Lower Bear Creek 2 1.8 89 11 District Ashland Ranger Lower Little Pumpkin 100901021102 2 1.8 9 91 District Creek Ashland Ranger 100901020603 Middle Beaver Creek 2 1.8 45 56 District Ashland Ranger 100901020406 O'Dell Creek 2 1.8 88 12 District Ashland Ranger Otter Creek-Brian 100901020210 2 1.8 71 29 District Creek Ashland Ranger Otter Creek-Horse 100901020203 2 1.8 83 17 District Creek Ashland Ranger 100901020207 Paget Creek 2 1.7 96 4 District Ashland Ranger 100901020404 Poker Jim Creek 2 1.8 87 14 District Ashland Ranger 100901020205 Taylor Creek 2 1.8 86 14 District Ashland Ranger 100901020302 Threemile Creek 1 1.6 77 23 District Ashland Ranger Tongue River-Double 100901020501 2 1.8 18 82 District E Creek Ashland Ranger 100901020601 Upper Beaver Creek 2 1.8 87 13 District Ashland Ranger Upper Little Pumpkin 100901021101 2 1.8 27 73 District Creek
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While no watersheds had a master watershed classification of 3 (“Impaired”), numerous watersheds had indicators and attributes that were scored as Class 3. Indicator and attribute scores of 3 were tallied across all watersheds for both the forest and district in effort to identify patterns in land use impacts across these land units. If over 30% of the watersheds across the forest or district was rated as 3 for a given indicator or attribute, that indicator or attribute was deemed indicative of a trend for that attribute or indicator within the area of interest. See Appendix S for the tabular results for the entire Custer as well as the Ashland District. For the Ashland District, the following indicators and attributes were identified as problematic:
a. Aquatic Biota i. Life form presence ii. Native species b. Water Quantity i. Flow Characteristics c. Aquatic Habitat i. Habitat Fragmentation ii. Channel shape and function d. Road condition i. Road maintenance
While there is limited documentation from specialists available regarding why ratings were assigned, general observation of conditions on the ground, along with personal communication with forest specialists can be used to inform why the specific indicators and attributes above are flagged as problematic on the Ashland District. Forest aquatics specialists have indicated that there has been a significant decline in beaver populations from historic times, likely a result of past land management activities. While the historic population and distribution of beaver through the area is unknown, loss of beaver would have translated to loss of associated aquatic habitat and species assemblages along with changes in hydrology. Beyond changes to aquatic habitat associated with loss of beaver, water development has also significantly impacted water resources throughout the district. Water impoundments, spring developments, and surface water diversions are necessities for land management in water limited environments, but also serve to alter natural flow paths and disrupt natural habitat.
5.5 Soil Productivity and Capability Soils across the Ashland District have primarily loamy surface textures. While soils across much of the district generally display minimal profile development, mollisols- found across approximately 20% of the district’s acres- display somewhat greater profile development with organic-enriched surface mineral horizons. The most prevalent soil classes across the district in terms of acreage can be found in Table 19. Dominant soil series represented by these classifications include the Cabba Association, which contains both the Cabba and Midway series. Other well-represented soil series include Farland, Havrelon, Campspass, Barvon, Rapelje, and Heldt, which are differentiated by slope classes (Table 20).
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Table 19. Prevalent soil taxonomies found across the Ashland District.
Average Minimum Maximum Total Map unit Taxonomic Classification map unit map unit map unit acreage count acreage acreage acreage Loamy, mixed (calcareous), frigid, shallow 220650.1 295.8 0.0 31401.6 746 Typic Ustorthents Clayey, montmorillonitic (calcareous), calcareous, frigid, shallow Ustic 101771.2 71.9 0.0 3760.8 1416 Torriorthents Loamy-skeletal over fragmental, mixed, 53533.2 118.7 0.2 7388.9 451 frigid Typic Haplustolls Fine-loamy, mixed (calcareous), superactive, calcareous, frigid Typic 34056.0 378.4 6.7 3050.7 90 Ustifluvents Fine-silty, mixed, superactive, frigid Typic 32698.6 40.9 0.1 953.9 799 Argiborolls Coarse-loamy, mixed, frigid Typic 31158.3 81.8 1.0 1508.9 381 Ustochrepts Loamy, mixed (calcareous), superactive, calcareous, frigid, shallow Ustic 19136.8 34.2 0.1 633.7 559 Torriorthents Fine-loamy, mixed, frigid Typic 17967.1 78.1 0.5 1851.1 230 Haploborolls
Table 20. Soil series, associated slope classes, and soil textures dominating the Ashland District. From Robinson 2011. Soil Association Soil Series Slope (%) Surface Soil Texture Cabba Cabba 15 - 50 Silt Loam Midway 15 - 50 Clay Loam Farland 0 - 20 Silt Loam Havrelon 0 - 6 Silt Loam Campspass 3 - 15 Loam Barvon 2 - 70 Loam Rapelje 1 - 15 Silt Loam Heldt 0 - 25 Sandy Clay Loam
The Official Soil Series Description for the Havrelon series contains description of an organic enriched horizon to 13 inches that has been disturbed by plowing. This series has been mapped in complex with the Farland series across approximately 34,000 acres (7%) of the district. Found primarily in draw bottoms, it is generally indicative of legacy impacts associated with past farming activities.
Ashland Post Fire Landscape Assessment 2014 103 Past restoration efforts across the district have included contour furrowing and fertilizing, to address significant soil erosion issues, have been documented through historic photos and documentation (Figure 51). Evidence of these contour furrows persists in some locations on the district today (M. Bergstrom, personal communication). Soil erosion issues on the district likely stemmed from intensive grazing and timber harvest (Project record for Timber Creek Project, 1956).
Despite the legacy of land management impacts, soils under upland forest canopy have recovered from historic timber harvest (Robinson 2011). Given the continued improvements in range management over time, which have included a long-term reduction in AUMs, overall soil physical and biogeochemical conditions have generally also improved within the District’s rangeland ecosystems.
The frequent low severity fire regime characteristic of southeast Montana is a primary natural disturbance process, and subsequently so are its effects on soils in the area. Soil organic horizons are generally thin or nonexistent across the district. This horizon, along with the A horizon, contains the bulk of available carbon, macronutrients, and biological activity for the soil. Nutrients in litter and organic horizons are readily volatilized during combustion (DeBano 1990). Under a high frequency low severity fire regime, organic matter turnover will occur where a portion of nutrients, cations, and organic material remain available as a result of low severity fires incompletely consuming litter and organic material. Short-lived periodic increases in plant available nitrogen (the most limiting nutrient in these ecosystems) will occur followed by rapid vegetation uptake (Neary et al. 2005). While high-frequency low severity fires are the norm across the Ashland District, atypical years such as 2012 have produced stand-replacing fires historically. With greater organic matter consumption in the forest understory during such events, restoration of pre-fire soil biogeochemistry will take longer.
Field review of soil conditions during the 2012 Ash/Taylor BAER assessment found moderate to strong expression of highly to moderately hydrophobic soil conditions in areas burned under high and moderate severity (Marr et al. unpublished data). The same field plots were re-sampled during the 2013 field season. Informal data analysis and field observation found that hydrophobicity generally had improved to moderate where high immediately post fire and low where moderate immediately post fire. Burn severity class improved in the same pattern. These findings, while preliminary, are supported by research in other areas indicating that hydrophobicity dissipates quickly following wildfire (e.g. Huffman et al. 2001). Reduction in burn severity class, of which hydrophobicity is one factor in determining, is generally indicative of fairly rapid recovery of physical soil properties following last year’s atypical widespread stand-replacing wildfire.
Soils across the Ashland District have sustained varying degrees of impacts as a result of a long history of land use impacts and past management. Relative to wildfire impacts, soil physical properties appear to be recovering rapidly despite the atypical burn conditions encountered during 2012’s wildfires. Given current understanding of forest nutrient cycling and chemical changes following wildfire, those atypical burning conditions experienced last year- i.e. the areal extent burned under high and moderate burn severity and accompanying organic consumption- suggests that soil biogeochemistry will take longer to recover than soil physical properties.
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Figure 51. 1960 photo of contour furrowing on the southern part of the Ashland District.
6.0 Social and Economic System Existing Condition,
6.1 The Five County Area The following information on community demographics, employment, income and specialization are taken from the withdrawn Beaver Creek Landscape Management Project Final Environmental Impact Statement because it is existing information and from a relatively recent analysis. The information is useful because it is from the five county area and not specific to a particular project.
Community Demographics During 2006, 41,294 people lived in the five-county economic impact area (BEA REIS 2006). Between 1970 and 2006, Powder River County, MT contracted from 2,929 to 1,736 residents, Carter County, MT contracted from 1,894 to 1,270 residents, Crook County, WY grew from 4,529 to 6,077 residents, Butte County, SD grew from 7,766 to 9,227 residents, and Lawrence County, SD (the county with the greatest population) went from 17,451 to 22,984 residents.
Employment There were 27,927 part and full time jobs in the five-county area economy during 2006, with nearly half (13,050) of these jobs created since 1970. At roughly 87% growth, or roughly 2.4% average annual growth, this was slower than the three-state aggregate and slower than the national average. Since 1970,
Ashland Post Fire Landscape Assessment 2014 105 the majority (62.5%) of new jobs were wage and salary positions (mainly in the service sector), but during 2006 self-employed proprietors still represented roughly one third of all jobs. During 2006, there were 877 manufacturing employees (including forest products) in the five-county area, and they earned average wages of $34,104.
During 2007, the average annual unemployment rate for the five-county area was 2.7%, which was lower than the three-state average of 3.0% and lower than the national average of 4.6%. There is a clear trend of the lowest unemployment during the late summer months and increased unemployment during the winter months. While all of these numbers have likely increased since the great recession since autumn 2008, they are still much lower than the national averages.
Income Total Personal Income (in 2006 dollars) in the five counties increased from $570 million in 1990 to $1,230 million in 2006 (BEA REIS, 2006). This is growth rate of approximately 116% for the 36-year period was slower than the three-state aggregate and slower than the national average. Per Capita Personal Income, adjusted for inflation increased from 16,532 to 29,793 by 2006. On the other hand, average earnings per job across the five-county area, adjusted for inflation, fell from 29,537 during 1970 to 25,950 by 2006. The explanation is for this discrepancy is that non-labor income grew as a percentage of totals from roughly 26% during 1970 to 41% by 2006. Of this 41%, roughly 24% represented income from dividends interest and rent, and 17% represented transfer payment receipts. For a detailed discussion of the existing economic conditions the project record contains detailed Socio Economic Profiles.
Specialization One measure of economic success and resilience is economic diversity, or the lack of specialization. Some communities that are heavily reliant on only a few industries are economically vulnerable to disruptions. The EPS Economic Diversity Index documents one measure of specialization based on employment data from the 2000 Census. For this index, the total number of employees in the county divides the number of employees in each two-digit industry. This fraction is then squared for the given industry. Results for all industries in the county are then summed. This means that the more even the distribution of employees across all possible industries the smaller the score, where small scores imply greater diversity and large scores imply specialization. The specialization scores for the five-county area are 272. The sectors that most diverge from the US norm are:
• Over reliance on Agriculture, forestry, fishing and hunting (12.0% compared to 1.5% in the US) • Under reliance on Manufacturing (5.4% compared to 14.1% in the US) • Over reliance on Accommodation and food services (11.0% compared to 6.1% in the US) • Over reliance on Mining (5.1% compared to 0.4% in the US)
The specialization scores for the five counties are presented in increasing order: Lawrence County, SD – 227, Butte County, SD – 289, Crook County, WY – 450, Powder River County, MT – 1,901, and Carter County, MT – 3,251. These compare to the median of 961 and a maximum of 3,441 for all 3,209 of the US counties). This information implies that Lawrence County residents are employed more evenly or in a wider spectrum of industries than residents of Carter County. However, it is notable that while these specialization scores tend to decrease as populations increase all counties share a higher than average concentration of employees in the Agriculture, Forestry, Fishing and Hunting sector (Headwaters Economics 2008).
Ashland Post Fire Landscape Assessment 2014 106 6.2 Livestock Grazing Management
The Ashland Ranger District permits cattle grazing equating to over 130,000 animal unit months within 436,000 acres. Fifty seven ranch families are permitted to graze roughly 20,000 head of livestock in 44 allotments (over 150 pastures) each year, with an estimated gross annual income of $12 million. The federal grazing fee, which applies to Federal lands in 16 Western states on public lands managed by the Forest Service, is adjusted annually and is calculated by using a formula originally set by Congress in the Public Rangelands Improvement Act of 1978. Under this formula, as modified and extended by a presidential Executive Order issued in 1986, the grazing fee cannot fall below $1.35 per head month6); also, any fee increase or decrease cannot exceed 25 percent of the previous year’s level. The grazing fee for 2013 was $1.35 per head month, the same level as it was in 2012.
Distribution of Grazing Fee Receipts Under law, one-half of the fund is to be used as directed by the Secretary of Agriculture, and the other half is authorized to be spent in the district, region, or forest that generated the fees, as the Secretary determines after consultation with user representatives. Forest Service regulations provide that half of the monies are to be used in the national forest where derived, and the rest in the FS region where the forest is located. In general, the FS returns all range betterment funds to the forest that generated them.
The Forest Service allocates the remaining 50% (Range Better Funds – RBF) of the collections with 25% of the funds being deposited in the Treasury and 25% are given to the states (16 U.S.C. §500; see Figure52). The U.S. Forest Service shares revenue generated from the sale of commodities on public land with the counties where the activities take place.
Figure 52. Distribution of Forest Service Grazing Fees
The 25% Federal land payments can be restricted to specific uses, or spent at the discretion of county government. Counties elect to receive Secure Rural Schools Payments, or to continue with 25% Fund payments. Powder River County elected to receive Secure Rural Schools payments while Rosebud County elected to continue with 25% fund payments to roads and schools. 7
6 A Head Month is the amount of forage needed to sustain one cow and her calf, one horse, or five sheep or goats for a month 7 The Secure Rural Schools Act (The Secure Rural Schools and Community Self-Determination Act of 2000, Public Law 106- 393) has three titles that allocate payments for specific purposes. Many activities on public lands generate impacts on
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6.2.1 Grazing Capability
Primary, Secondary, and Transitory Rangelands. On mountainous rangeland, cattle congregate on the more convenient gentle terrain such as valley bottoms, riparian and hardwood draw zones, and ridgetops. Primary rangelands are those areas that produce forage and that are near water. Secondary rangelands are those areas that produce forage but may be too far away from water or access is impeded due to natural barriers.
About 336,123 acres or 72% of the District allotments are considered primary rangeland8. About 33,249 acres or 7% of the District allotments are considered secondary rangeland. There were 3,472 acres (~1% of the District allotments) of transitory range created by recent wildfires as closed canopied ponderosa pine shifts to more grass and forb species and eventually shift back to shrubs and Ponderosa over time. This shift is estimated to take about 20 years. About 20% of the District’s allotment acreage is classified as not capable for grazing. See Appendix D for further details.
6.2.1 Stocking Rates
Stocking. Stocking is typically determined for primary rangelands. National Forest grazing permits generally are expressed in terms of animal units per area or total animal unit months (AUMs). One AUM is the amount of forage required by an animal unit (AU equivalent to one 1000 pound cow) for one month, or the tenure of one AU for a one-month period. If one AU grazes on an area of rangeland for six months, that tenure is equal to six AUs for one month or six AUMs. In general, the number of animal units, multiplied by the number of months they are on the range equals the number of AUMs used. An animal unit is defined as a mature (1,000-pound) cow or the equivalent, based on an average consumption rate of 26 pounds of forage dry matter per day. That makes an AUM equal to 30 days x 26 pounds per day or about 780 pounds of air-dried forage per a 30 day month.
Flexible management plans often allow for changes in the kind and class of livestock to be grazed on a particular area. To convert cow/calf AUMs to yearling, sheep or some other category, animal unit conversion factors are used. See Appendix E for animal unit conversion factors which express the forage requirements of particular kinds or classes of animals.
neighboring counties. For example, timber extraction can place wear and tear on county roads that lie between the forest and sawmills or railroad connections. Similarly, recreation activities may require additional law enforcement activities. Revenue sharing is intended to compensate counties for costs imposed by commodity extraction and other activities on public lands within their boundaries. The 25% Fund, established in 1911, was replaced by Secure Rural Schools in 2001.
Restricted Funds: Secure Rural Schools Funds • Title I - payments to counties make up 80 to 85 percent of the total payment and must be dedicated to funding roads and schools. States determine the split between these two services, and some states let the counties decide. • Title II - funds are retained by the federal treasury to be used on special projects on federal land. Resource advisory committees (RACs) at the community level help make spending determinations and monitor project progress. • Title III - payments may be used to carry out activities under the Firewise Communities program, to reimburse the county for search and rescue and other emergency services, and to develop community wildfire protection plans. Unrestricted Funds: PILT, USFWS Refuge Revenue Sharing, and, in most states, Mineral Royalties are unrestricted. PILT are federal payments to local governments that help offset losses in property taxes due to nontaxable Federal lands within their boundaries. Counties have full discretion over how PILT funds are spent. 8 Grazing is not considered a suitable use in Poker Jim Research Natural Area as outlined in the 1987 Custer Forest Plan.
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Heavier Cattle Sizes. Through improved genetics, breeds, and selective breeding the average cow size has increased over the years9 (beyond the 1000 pound cow standard), meaning that more forage is required to maintain that cow. Information was gathered in 2009 from four sale yards around the District that most of the District’s grazing permit holders use. Sales reports for District permittees indicate that cattle weights listed are heavier than the standard 1000 pound cow used for initial AUM stocking calculations. Planned stocking should be done on the conservative side given the heavier cattle weights. When planning, this should be considered to account for the increased forage consumption to assure that over use does not occur. For grazing livestock, most differences in definition relate to how animal unit equivalents should be calculated for weights and classes of livestock other than 1000-pound cows. Different approaches have included estimation based on forage consumption assumptions, linear estimation based on body mass or weight, and estimation based on metabolic body size. The metabolic body size method has been a more predominant method suggested for cattle. See Appendix E for further detail for considerations when determining local adjustments.
Stocking Rates. Livestock grazing is one of the most widespread and important uses of Ashland area rangelands. But range livestock must be managed properly to insure the long-term sustainability of the resource base. Proper grazing management depends in part on determining correct livestock numbers per area of land, known as the stocking rate. Stocking rate is often expressed as acres per animal unit month. Current stocking rates by allotment are further described in Appendix E. Based on local knowledge and experience some stocking rates may be too high and can be used as a red flag for areas to monitor to determine proper stocking rates.
Actual Use. The actual numbers and season of use have varied greatly through time. Actual use numbers often vary from year to year and are reflective of variations in precipitation, changes for permittee convenience (late turn-outs or early removals, yearly differences in numbers of stock), and actions initiated for resource protection such as allowable utilization levels being met or exceeded.
Records of actual use data have been kept through history. In order to properly assess existing management, actual use numbers should be averaged for a long period of time to take into account a variety of climatic conditions and reflects the current management, which has led to the existing vegetative condition.
9 Through increased breeding and selection, average livestock weights have increased in the U.S. (McMurry 2009). Average livestock weight reported by the USDA in North Dakota increased from 1,072 pounds in 1984 to 1,242 pounds in 2004 (Carter 2008). Most cows on the Missouri Coteau in the central portion of the state average between 1,200 to 1,400 pounds (Hancock 1994).
Ashland Post Fire Landscape Assessment 2014 109 6.3 Timber Management
Custer National Forest (CNF) Timber Program
The following is an excerpt taken from the Economics section prepared for the Beaver Creek Landscape Management Project FEIS (2011) and is relevant in describing the role timber management has played on the District. Table 21 displays information regarding the CNF timber program from 1997 to 2009. This display offers a time series perspective for the last twelve years. Even at the current harvest levels, volume produced by the CNFs plays a role in the wood products and home heating economy of five economic impact counties.
Table 21. The Trend in Volume Cut and Sold for the Custer National Forest and Revenue Received.
Figures 53 and 54 graphically illustrate the Custer National Forest cut and sold volumes from 1997 through 2009.
Figure 53: Trend in Volume Sold and Cut on the Custer National Forest (1997-2009).
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Figure 54. Trend in Timber Revenue on the Custer National Forest (1997-2009).
6.4 Recreation
6.4.1 The Recreation Setting The majority of recreation activities occur in conjunction with the motorized travel corridors on the District. The majority of the activity occurs during fall and spring hunting seasons. District staff field observations indicate that OHV use, and in particular ATV use, is relatively low outside of hunting seasons.
Public feedback and staff input during the Forest’s Recreation Facilities Analysis, finalized in May 2008, indicated that local communities have a relatively strong connection to recreation opportunities provided by the District. This connection appears to include a general connection with the District as well as connections with site-specific locations such as Poker Jim Butte, Red Shale Campground, and Whitetail Cabin.
Approximately 40,000 acres, or slightly more than nine percent, of the District lies within three areas where public motorized use is prohibited – the Cook Mountain, King Mountain, and Tongue River Breaks hiking and riding areas. These areas provide opportunities for solitude and non- motorized activities, such as non-motorized hunting. There are no system trails within the three hiking and riding areas.
District staff experience and public input did not indicate any significant conflicts exist between types of recreational activities on the District. Those seeking non-motorized hunting experiences
Ashland Post Fire Landscape Assessment 2014 111 did indicate some difficulty in finding non-motorized opportunities. They indicated that escaping from motorized disturbances could be challenging on the District.
Motorized Recreation Existing system road mileages by type of restriction are shown in Chapter 2, Tables 2-2 and 2-3. The tables show there are 676 miles of road open yearlong in the analysis area.
National Forest system roads are only open to highway legal vehicles. Currently, Forest staff have observed unlicensed off-highway vehicle use on forest system roads by recreation visitors and permittees. While riding on forest system roads with unlicensed vehicles is not uncommon, it is not consistent with state and federal regulations. Under specific circumstances, system roads can be designated as motorized mixed use to all use by both licensed and unlicensed vehicles. There are currently no motorized mixed use routes on the District. The motorized mixed use designation can only be authorized on individual roads following an analysis and evaluation of the risks involved. The opportunity to mix highway legal and unlicensed vehicles has not been evaluated on the District in the past. A preliminary assessment of the Preferred Alternative indicated that the routes proposed for motorized mixed use were suitable for mixing licensed and unlicensed vehicles. The required risk analysis would be completed if any mixed motorized use roads are selected in the final decision.
There are currently no motorized system trails on the District. Motorized system trails allow operation of all off-highway vehicles, licensed or unlicensed.
Implementation of the 2001 Tri-State OHV decision restricted motor vehicles to existing routes (USDA Forest Service 2001), whether system or non-system routes. Some OHV opportunities on the District are located on existing non-system routes. Non-system routes are those that were not designed, constructed, identified, or managed as a part of the forest transportation system. State motor vehicle laws do not address vehicle licensing requirements for non-system routes.
Off-Route Motorized Travel There are no designated cross-country vehicle areas on the District.
Dispersed Vehicle Camping The 2001 Tri-State OHV decision and subsequent regulations implemented in 2001 allow motorized travel up to 300 feet off existing motorized routes but only to access dispersed campsites. Dispersed vehicle camping occurs along routes throughout the District. Heaviest use occurs during the fall hunting seasons.
Hunting Big-game hunting is the primary recreation activity on the District. Turkey hunting is also an important activity on the District, but because the use numbers are highest during big-game hunting, this season will be used as the indicator for determining if there are potentially significant effects.
The primary hunting seasons include archery deer (September to mid-October), and general deer/elk (late-October through November). The State of Montana Fish, Wildlife, and Parks (FWP) administer hunting within Montana. Hunting locations vary somewhat depending on the game species. Motorized routes provide hunters with access, with some hunters using this access to seek areas more removed from motorized influences, while other hunters may choose to hunt
Ashland Post Fire Landscape Assessment 2014 112 along or near motorized routes.
The District lies within the FWP hunting district 704. The hunting district is generally bounded by the Tongue River on the west, the Powder River on the east, the Yellowstone River on the north, and Montana/Wyoming state line on the south. This area also includes private, state, and other Federal lands. The District represents roughly 10-15 percent of the hunting district.
6.4.2 Recreation Opportunity Spectrum Forest Service recreation management is guided by the Recreation Opportunity Spectrum (ROS), which models outdoor recreation opportunities and activities by natural resource setting. The Forest Service published an ROS Users Guide in 1981 along with an updated Primer and Field Guide in 1990. A National ROS Inventory Mapping Protocol was implemented in 2003. ROS has been used by the Forest Service nationwide for recreation planning and management to provide opportunities and settings consistent with public expectations to realize a desired set of experiences.
Within the District, ROS settings vary from areas dominated by roads classified for highway vehicle use (Roaded Natural), to areas through which high clearance roads and motorized trails pass (Semi-primitive Motorized), to areas away from the sights and sounds of civilization (Semi- primitive Non-motorized). The following are definitions and examples of each setting on the District:
“Roaded Natural” settings extend about one-half mile on each side of a road used by standard highway-type vehicles. All roads used by the public or permittees, and all roads used by private landowners outside the Forest boundary were considered as affecting the recreation setting. Non-motorized recreation is available on within this setting. Quiet areas and opportunities for solitude would be hard to find during the summer and fall. Forest development roads and well-used private roads typically are examples of roaded-natural corridors.
“Semi-Primitive Motorized” settings extend about one-half mile on each side of a road or trail where high clearance vehicles or motorized vehicles are legal to be used. The lack of vegetative screening or the influence of intervening ridges may allow the zone to be wider or narrower than one-half mile. This ROS setting is available to both non-motorized and motorized recreation. By definition, quiet areas and the opportunity for solitude would not occur in this setting during the time of year the routes are open to motorized travel.
“Semi-Primitive Non-Motorized” settings denote areas where stock, hiking, and/or bicycling are the predominant modes of travel (motor vehicles would not be legal to operate in this setting and motorized travel corridors would be at least one half mile in distance). The lack of terrain screening or vegetative screening may occasionally allow the sights and sounds of humans within three miles to influence the setting. The area does not meet the size, distance, or lack of human disturbance criteria established for “primitive” settings. By definition, this would be a primary area for quiet areas and an appropriate setting to provide opportunities for solitude.
District ROS Settings Added together, the data in the Table 22 shows that 94% of the District is influenced by motorized
Ashland Post Fire Landscape Assessment 2014 113 use based on ROS settings. Six percent of the District is in non-motorized settings. Although the hiking and riding areas on the District represent approximately nine percent of District lands, the effects of motorized route corridors adjacent to the boundaries of these areas extend into these areas based on the 2001 ROS Mapping Protocol.
Table 22. Current ROS Classification by Acres and Percent10. ROS Classification Acres Percent Roaded Natural 116,928 23% Semi Primitive Motorized 337,798 67% Semi Primitive Non-Motorized 47,533 10%
6.4.3 Recreational Use Recreation Activities – National Visitor Use Monitoring The Custer National Forest conducted a National Visitor Use Monitoring (NVUM) survey in 2001-2002 with the data resulting from the survey compiled and made available in 2003. The NVUM protocol is designed to be repeated every 5 years. Locations for surveys are established by the Forest based on field observation of potential sites to interview visitors about their activities as they exit the forest, a trail, or developed recreation site. The survey dates, times and places are assigned on a random basis and capture a range of use levels at different sites and areas across the Forest. The schedule is assigned to the Forest by the national NVUM working group.
The relatively high recreational use on the Beartooth Ranger District resulted in selection of only a handful of NVUM surveys on the District. The result is that the data generated from this effort is relatively reliable for the Beartooth District, but does not appear to be representative of recreational activities on either the Sioux or Ashland Ranger Districts. Consequently, NVUM data is not helpful in conducting site-specific analysis for the Ashland District, but can be useful in identifying national and regional trends.
Hunting It is difficult to determine how many hunters use the District during big-game hunting season, or how many may be on the District at any one time. FWP issues unlimited permits for general and archery deer in the area. For elk, they issue unlimited archery permits (approx. 600 issued in 2008) and 300 general permits. Hunter surveys conducted by FWP indicate that in the past three years 3,000-5,000 deer hunters have used the 704 hunting unit (FWP 2008a). FWP staff suspect that the majority of these hunters use the District National Forest lands for deer hunting (FWP 2008b).
The opening weekend of big-game hunting season typically has the highest number of hunters on the District.
Recreation Trends Recreational OHV use in Montana grew by 40% in the last decade and is expected to continue to grow (Montana Fish, Wildlife and Parks 2000). Similarly, the analysis area has experienced additional use over the last decade based on District staff field observations.
10 Calculations were based on National Forest system lands within the District boundary. Acres were derived from GIS mapping. All numbers were rounded to the nearest whole percent.
Ashland Post Fire Landscape Assessment 2014 114 The Forest Service produced a national report on OHV use titled Off- Highway Vehicle Use on National Forests: Volume and Characteristics of Visitors, Special Report to the National OHV Implementation Team - 5 August 2004. Data used in this analysis came from the National Visitor Use Monitoring (NVUM) program. The research methodology for this program is documented in a General Technical Report (English, et al., 2002). The first sampling cycle occurred from January 1, 2000 to September 30, 2003. During that period, on-site surveying occurred on nearly 23,000 sample days around the country. Over 90,000 visitors finishing a recreation visit were interviewed about their activities, experiences, length of stay, and demographic characteristics. The survey data shows that OHV use is a specialized use of forests and not a major recreational use for most forests. Slightly more than 2,000 of surveyed visitors indicated OHV use was a primary activity, and a little less than 5,400 indicated participation in OHV activity during their visit.
Nationally, about 2.5% (5.2 million visits) of the 205 million recreational visits to National Forest have OHV use as their primary activity11. A slightly larger percentage (3.1%) has OHV use as a secondary activity. That is, about 6.3 million visitors reported participating in OHV use, but not as their primary activity. These would include people who engaged in OHV riding during their visits, but who came to the forest primarily for some other activity.
The total numbers of National Forest visits that have OHV use as either a primary or secondary activity is about 11.5 million. The estimates of primary OHV use visitation are similar for most National Forest regions (range 12 – 16% of the national total), except Region 1 (includes the Custer National Forest) and 10 (Alaska). Only 5% (about 274,000 visits) of the total primary OHV use for all National Forests occurs on forests in Region 1. None of the visitors surveyed in Region 10 indicated that OHV use was their primary recreational activity.
Trends in Other Recreation Activities Recently, a decline in overall participation in outdoor activities has been noted, attributed partially to the growth of leisure choices now available such as the Internet and satellite TV (Roper 2003). Despite this recent trend, with increasing population and growth in income, outdoor recreation participation is expected to grow (Cordell 1999).
A U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (2004) report indicates that overall hunting participation decreased nationally between 1991-2001, although big-game hunting participation generally remained level and turkey hunting increased. The report indicated that big-game hunting in Montana reflected this trend.
Studies sponsored by FWP and the Forest Service concur with these trends (FWP 2005). However, they also indicate that demand for big-game hunting opportunities is expected to exceed supply for opportunities beginning in 2010. This suggests that hunting opportunities in Montana are expected to level off in the near future (the supply will be at a maximum). 6.5 Heritage Resources
11 Percentages presented here include visitors who did not provide information on their primary and/or secondary recreation activities. Using just those who did provide that information as a base yields primary OHV use at 3.0%, and those listing OHV as a secondary activity at 3.5%. (English: Off- Highway Vehicle Use on National Forests: Volume and Characteristics of Visitors, Special Report to the National OHV Implementation Team - 5 August 2004)
Ashland Post Fire Landscape Assessment 2014 115 “Among the Cattle-Ranching people of the Montana-Wyoming area rivers and their tributary creeks were the main points of reference and probably always will be to some extent… Therefore, peoples tend to group themselves and each other according to creeks and rivers.
The Tongue River people…have both shale and gumbo roads and can almost always be spotted in town by their muddy cars. They are most likely to stop and help each other or even strangers on the lonely stretches and high divides between Rosebud and Miles City. They are friendly and warm to an unusual degree for this day and age, and they never lock their doors.
The Otter Creek people with mostly gumbo roads, who are always rescuing each other. They are separated from Tongue River by the high land of the Custer National Forest, dominated by its widely named butte, Poker Jim, which accommodates a key Forest Service lookout station fire tower. They don’t visit back and forth much with the Tongue River people. No hard feelings. It just isn’t the custom.
A tributary tribe of Tongue River people includes the Hanging River Creek Dwellers. They count as original, basic Tongue River, with its pioneer aura and hospitality, not only among their own families but to later settlers and temporary visitors as well.
All these people are resourceful and fiercely independent, above the bourgeois concept of social distinction by automotive scale. They don’t even wash off their cars very often. They are people whose money, or lack of it, doesn’t show and isn’t important as in a sort of silent, unplanned aristocratic pattern….”
From Tongue River Panorama by Edmund “Ned” Randolph, Beef, Leather and Grass, 1981
6.5.1 Introduction The Ashland District contains a rich, complex history of numerous cultures in a location where “time has done little to change the landscape”. From pre-contact period there remain physical representations of ancient human activity in the form of campsites, bison kills, tipi rings, and vision sites. From the 19th century there are sites representing the cultural clashes of indigenous peoples with the US army and the formation of Indian reservations. The late19th and early 20th centuries brought the “settlement “period with homesteads, ranches, and Federal Government management.
Over the last 100 years, land use practices such as logging, mining, grazing, recreation, road systems, establishment of Indian reservations, and policies of fire suppression have changed or altered heritage resources in the Project Area. These changes have contributed to the development of the historical landscape as seen and experienced today.
The distinctive topography of the project area is the result of the down cutting of the Tongue and Powder rivers into the flat plateau of the Fort Union formation. This ancient plateau now serves as the drainage divide for these two major rivers. The Tongue River member of the Paleocene age Fort Union formation consists of multiple beds of sandstone, sandy shale, shale and coal. The shale and sandstone were eroded while the shales and coal beds did not, forming shale
Ashland Post Fire Landscape Assessment 2014 116 escarpments, scoria and sandstone buttes, badlands and steep stream valleys. Sandstone is often found in beds of up to 100 feet thick and commonly erodes into isolated buttes, cliffs and knobs. These sandstone outcrops serve as vast palettes for rock art and historic signatures and also erode into habitable rock shelters and overhangs. Stag Rock and Needle Rock have become local landmarks.
Lignite coal beds are also found throughout the formation and it is the past fires in these beds that metamorphosed the surrounding shales into scoria clinkers, porcellanite and fused glass. Outcrops of porcellanite and fused glass dot the project area and were a primary lithic resource material utilized by prehistoric inhabitants of the region.
The project area is divided by Otter Creek, which flows north to join the Tongue River at the town of Ashland. Otter Creek is fed by numerous west to east flowing tributaries within the project area including Brian, Chromo, Cow and Horse Creeks. O’Dell Creek drains the west part of the project area, flowing northward into the Tongue River. The large tributary creeks have wide floodplains, and distinct terraces can be found on many of the side drainages. As a result of these various factors, the project area presents an intricate environmental mosaic with the possibility of numerous archaeological locations situated on major access route between the Tongue and Powder Rivers.
6.5.2 Cultural Landscapes of the Ashland District A preliminary overview and assessment of the cultural landscapes of the Ashland District, its historic themes and cultural resource site types was made to determine if the District, or parts of the District may qualify as a “Rural Historic Landscape defined as “a geographical area that historically has been used by people, or shaped or modified by human activity, occupancy, or intervention, and possess a significant concentration, linkage, or continuity of areas of land use, vegetation, building and structures, roads and waterways, and natural features.” (National Park Service Bulletin 30:3). It closely follows and expands on the 2007 Montana Preservation Alliance study of the Cultural Landscapes of the Upper Tongue River Valley which borders the west and south boundaries of the District (see Montana Preservation Alliance 2007). Recognition of the District as a cultural landscape may point to the need to preserve and maintain this landscape through careful resource management and support of the many life ways that have formed this landscape.
The Ashland District is a landscape where changes through time have not obscured evidence of the past. Historic sites, ancient and recent, are still readily found, representing changing life ways that have left their mark on the landscape. Rural landscapes commonly reflect the day-to-day occupational activities of people engaged in traditional work such as various types of agricultural. Historic themes represent these life ways and are used to develop historic context as a means to characterize a rural historic landscape. A number of historic themes have been identified that represent the changing life ways thru time. They include: 1. Precontact Occupation; 2. Tribal Homelands; 3. Ranching Settlement; 4. Homesteading; 5. Establishment of the Custer National
Ashland Post Fire Landscape Assessment 2014 117 Forest; 6. Civilian Conservation Corps; 7. Forest Service Management. Historic site types and associated resources and themes were found that centered on the development of historic agricultural use such as homesteads, ranches, barns, irrigation systems, dugouts, trash dumps, fences, roads, and campsites. Other uses and site types include historic mining, sawmills, schools, and historic inscriptions.
As described in National Register Bulletin 30, Guidelines for Evaluating and Documenting Rural Historic Landscapes, the rural historic landscape is one of the categories of cultural property qualifying for listing in the National Register as a historic site or district. A rural historic landscape is defined as a geographical area that historically has been used by people, or shaped or modified by human activity, occupancy, or intervention and that possesses a significant concentration, linkage, or continuity of areas of land use, vegetation, buildings and structures, roads and waterways, and related natural features. A preliminary compilation of historic landscape characteristics in Bulletin 30 and comparative features found within the Ashland district is presented in the Table 23. It has been adapted from Aaberg (2006).
Ashland Post Fire Landscape Assessment 2014 118 Table 23. Historic Landscape Characteristics and Ashland District Features Characteristics Ashland District Features Land Uses and Fields, pastures, open range, small-scale mining, irrigation, and logging areas - Activities present Patterns of Spatial Farming areas, ranch clusters, roadways and access, pasture delineations organization (fencing) - present Response to Natural Construction materials of ranches and roads, use of hay bottoms, gravity fed Environment irrigation systems, reservoirs and dams - present Cultural traditions Cattle ranching, ranch buildings, continued Cheyenne traditional use, sawmill locations, patterns of land use (grazing permits) - present Circulation Networks CCC constructed infrastructure, range improvements, recreation campsites (formal and informal) - present Boundary Forest boundary fences, range allotment fences - present Demarcations Vegetation related to Timbered forest, hay fields, woody draws, grasslands - present land use Buildings, Structures Ranch buildings, homesteads, schoolhouses, dugouts, corrals - present and Objects Archaeological sites Hundreds of recorded prehistoric and historic sites related to the District cultural history. Historic sites include roads, homesteads, sawmills, mines, irrigation systems - present Small Scale Elements Cow paths, road markers, gravestones, fence posts, trail ruts, hunting camps, culverts, foundations - present
Guidelines provided in Bulletin 30 emphasize the critical importance of historic integrity, a measure of a property’s evolution and current condition. Changes that have erased historic characteristics can disqualify a property, even if scenic qualities are still present. While the entire Ashland District may not qualify as a property, smaller subunits based on geographic similarities may. Threats to the integrity of the landscape such as wildfire, flooding, and non-characteristic development such as coal mining may threaten the eligibility of the District for nomination as an eligible property.
In addition to the Historic Landscape, two distinct American Indian landscapes can be identified: 1. A Prehistoric Archaeological landscape; and 2. A tribal Ethnographic Landscape. Both landscapes contain a number of intact archaeological and ethnographic districts and individual sites and are worthy of further research and identification. This research would be in cooperation with tribal historians and traditionalists for appropriate treatment and identification, especially in areas of current use such as fasting areas and sacred springs.
6.5.3 Heritage Resource Record The archaeological and historical record recorded to date includes 1296 prehistoric sites, several ethnographic and currently used Cheyenne locations, and 169 historic sites. Since 1979, approximately 141,764 acres (33% of the Forest administered acres within the District boundaries) have been inventoried to a varying degree in support of Forest activities such as timber sales, prescribed fire, and range improvements. Timber sales greater than 500 acres were
Ashland Post Fire Landscape Assessment 2014 119 predominantly located in three of the ten ecozones located on the District: Dry Slope Ponderosa Pine, Moist Slope Ponderosa Pine and peripheral edges of Grassland Parks. Low site densities were found historically in the sale areas, suggesting that these areas were not selected for prehistoric occupation (see Table 24.). Subsequent inventories conducted within salvage units post wildfire, however, revealed much higher site densities and it is now thought that deep pine needle duff may have obscured the sites.
Table 24. Site Density by Inventory Type Report Number Project Name Survey Acres Number of sites Sites per acre D478008 Stocker Branch 1067 2 1/533 D478016 Green Crk-Gooseberry 2005 4 1/501 D480006 Wilbur Creek Salvage Sale 1035 4 1/258 D485001 Lemonade 1650 0 0 D485003 Davis Prong 700 0 0 D485038 Camps Pass 2000 4 1/500 D487022 Hay Creek 721 4 1/180 D488017 Dead Horse 575 2 1/288 D489001 Schiller Fire Salvage Sales 6065 131 1/46 D489002 Flex Fire Salvage 500 11 1/45 D491002 Timber Creek 1443 7 1/206 D492001 Lyon Creek A 3000 2 1/1500 D494001 Lyon Creek B 1282 9 1/142 D497001 Fly Wilbur Vegetation Management 2190 28 1/78 D400009 Three Mile Stewardship Synthesis 11,105 126 1/88 D401007 Tobin and Fort Howes Complex Fire Restoration 5497 21 1/262 D402029 Three Mile Stewardship 835 22 1/38
Fire has always been a factor to contend with in the project area. Numerous fires burned both the grasslands and timber in the region in 1886, just prior to the devastating winter of 1886-1887. In the more recent past, the Cow Creek fire burned 30,000 acres in 1976. The Chalsea, 3 Mile, and Fifteen Mile Fires consumed over 3000 acres. The Ft. Howes Complex (2000) and the Ash Creek/Taylor (2012) combined burned almost two thirds of the entire District, reburning over several past fires. Archaeological sites on the Ashland District were no doubt burned over numerous times in the past, but not with the burn intensity of todays' fires caused by a combination of heavy fuels loads and extreme drought conditions.
Early historic accounts, ethnographic studies and field fire history studies show that fires were more common before the twentieth century implementation of fire suppression policies (Lent et al 1992; Wettstaed 1993). A growing body of information, based on early historic accounts and ethnographic research and field fire studies suggest that nearly all tribes in the western United States and most of those in the plains used burning to manipulate and control their environment. Many uses for controlled burning have been documented for various Indian groups – food plant production, improvement of wildlife forage, communication, game drives, promoting ease of travel, cleaning campsites, clearing lands for farming, ritual activity and others. The results of Native American controlled burning are impressive, for not only were tribal economies boosted, but also there is also some evidence to indicate that the ponderosa pine/Douglas fir forests in Montana evolved as a result of frequent fire disturbance (Timmons n.d.).
Ashland Post Fire Landscape Assessment 2014 120 Fires in the Pine Parkland have burned in a mosaic of burned and unburned areas, depending upon the fuels, wind and topography. This mosaic also has implications for prehistoric land use and site location. Post-fire vegetation succession may include a number of plant species economically important to prehistoric and historic peoples that are not common in climax forest. Historic and ethnographic information suggests that aboriginal peoples worldwide recognized this and, in fact, frequently used fire to maintain earlier stages of succession for access to those resources (Conner and Cannon 1991:5). Site areas presently in areas of climax forest may have been occupied when the area was in or near an earlier stage of succession with a higher biotic productivity. Encroaching Ponderosa may have filled in areas that may have been more open, grassy flats.
The effect of frequent prehistoric fires may suggest that the ecozones that currently exist may not correspond to those of earlier periods, making predictive modelling based on present ecozones suspect (Kuntz and Aaberg 2001). Data indicates that the climate of southeastern Montana has experienced both large and small fluctuations throughout prehistory and fires may have had a large factor in the local ecology. With the possibility that fires were once more frequent, and were at times deliberately set, suggests that fire may have had a significant influence on the prehistoric landscape. As suggested by Kuntz and Aaberg, the Ashland forest in A.D. 2001 may actually more closely resemble the District as it was in A.D.1001! It was in the Scandic environmental episode (1550-1050 B.P.) that precipitation decreased and annual temperatures increased. Drought may have been a problem to prehistoric populations at this time as a drop in bison was likely. Strategic cultural use of fire to enhance desirable plant resources or to increase bison grazing land, along with the increase of wildfire encouraged by dry weather and conditions, may have played a significant role in the character of the landscape. This change would affect the types, locations and amounts of certain “ecozones” present (Kuntz and Aaberg 2001). Change in land use since the establishment of the Custer national Forest has also likely resulted in an environment that does not directly correspond to the paleoenvironments that once existed.
The greatest potential damage to archaeological sites resulting from wild fire may be associated with increases in storm runoff, peak discharge, and erosion and down slope sedimentation. Badly burned areas may fail to revegetate quickly and may develop soils with a hydrophobic layer, greatly reducing rates of water infiltration. This would increase the number of discharge events and the quantity of water discharge during each event. Increased rates and frequency of discharge (e.g. runoff) result in substantially higher rates of erosion that may last for years following the fire. Archaeological material located at the bottom of the slope may be buried by sediment, or archaeological materials at the top of the slope may be redeposited or eroded. Soil movement may also increase following a fire with shallowly buried sites possibly being exposed and destroyed. Mass wasting of soil can remove entire hillsides and redeposit or bury archaeological sites.
Site level effects include total site destruction (when the site is composed of combustible materials such as scarred trees, corrals, historic structures, cribbed log structures, wickiups), artifact burning and charring, and rock face spalling where historic or prehistoric rock art may exist. The amount of heating depends upon the burn severity, which in turn is dependent on a number of variables including soil moisture, occurrence of woody fuels, duff layer or other organic litter, duration of burn. Artifacts on the ground surface are subject to transport by water, wind and gravity. The removal of vegetation by fire can result in increased rates of movement of artifacts, particularly on slopes. Several sites burned by the Schiller, Fort Howes Complex, Ash Creek/Taylor and Brewer Fires in 1988 experienced post-fire erosion, resulting in artifact movement across the site, burying of the artifacts, or being entirely removed from the site area.
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Another byproduct of fire, which affects the archaeological record, is the accelerated tree fall resulting from trees killed or damaged by fire. Damage to site structure and buried components are also cause by trees falling after the fire uprooting soils when the roots tear out large portions of the ground and rock. Even when only a portion of the tree is burned the injury opens the way for insect attack and decomposer organisms that lead to mortality. Not only does this increase soil bioturbation but also may create basin-shaped features which can serve to catch charcoal and soil, leading future archaeologists to identify such features as fire hearths or, especially on the District, rock lined storage basins or cairns.
As the dead trees fall, fuels loads increase on the sites creating additional site damage from intense heat and baking. While the amount of heat a site is subjected to depend on the intensity of the burn, soil moisture, and duration, site effects from intense, long duration burning from high fuel loads have been found to completely alter or consume many site attributes. Shattering, smudging, spalling, cracking and breaking of lithic artifacts have been observed. Rock art sites where fuels are adjacent or on the site have been damaged by fire – soot blackening, scorching, and spalling have been found. Fire effects can be devastating on these fragile resources.
The historic record has fared much worst that the prehistoric record, however. The Ash Creek/Taylor fires burned at least 10 historic sites previously recorded and an untold number of historic features as yet not found/recorded. This burning of the physical remains of the last 100 years of historic record is a great loss and the little that remains outside of the wildfire perimeters becomes all the more important.
At least 707 sites, roughly half of the recorded heritage sites on the district, are known to have been burned over by wildfire over the last 25 years. Initial analysis and modelling identifying locations where there is a high potential for increased fuel loads suggests that at least 36 recorded sites are within past wildfire perimeters where dead and down trees greater than 10cc are found(see appendix A). Eleven of these sites are historic, six of which are rock art inscriptions. Reduction of these fuels within site perimeters is recommended through hand removal and prescribed fire.
Additional analysis and modelling was conducted in areas of low severity /unburned trees locations to help define opportunities to reduce green fuels on heritage sites that are susceptible to wildfire. These locations included locations with 10” DBH and greater than or equal to 40% cc (see appendix B). Over 170 recorded sites were found within these locations, 28 of which are historic sites. The historic sites include the William Ridenours Homestead (1923); the Sutton Homestead (1908); Mason Springs (1896); Brenner Homestead (1931); Pierce Homestead (1922); Palmer Homestead (1923) and the Olaf Kelly Homestead (1900’s). A program of fuel reduction around these sites, through prescribed burning and timber sales, should reduce the effects of wildfire on these resources. This handful of homesteads will be lost should fuel treatment and reduction not be accomplished before the next wildfire.
A targeted program of heritage inventory should also be conducted in the “green” forested locations. Research into the historic record of the District along with ground verification would
Ashland Post Fire Landscape Assessment 2014 122 help fill in the gaps in the historic and prehistoric record. This information will also help in the description and evaluation of the Ashland District rural historic landscape.
Heritage Resources Summary and Desired Future Condition
The District is an area settled by stockmen and is still predominantly ranching country. Under the sound grazing on public lands achieved by grazing permit systems the area is economically stable and the population is largely made up of long-established ranch families. Threats to this system and landscape remain primarily weather changes (Climate Change??) and resultant wildfire. Large fires such as those in 2000 and 2012 burned much of the available grass, and burned fence lines and range improvements at such a scale that recovery and rebuilding of structures may take a number of years. These wildfires may cause original ranch families who have faced many challenges in the past to move on…. Making a more fire resistant landscape to reduce such large scale fires may help insure the ranching lifeway, and the protection and preservation of cultural resource sites that represent a part of this lifeway. Further research and evaluation of the Ashland District rural historic landscape is needed to identify what locations retain integrity and can be considered eligible for nomination to the National Register of Historic Places.
Today, the Ashland District faces changes surrounding the land unit due to the known vast coal resources and possible oil and gas resources. The district is probably soon going to face significant changes in a new industrialized manner – coal mining along with the infrastructure and influx of workers into previously quiet communities of Ashland, Broadus, Birney…. These developments may jeopardize the current rural landscape which will need documentation as a means to preserve this outstanding landscape.
Ranching, Timber harvest, fuels treatment are fundamental activities that have shaped and maintained this intact landscape. Continuation of these activities on the scale that has demonstrated in the past as an integral function of the local economy and culture is important for the maintenance of this historic landscape where heritage and tradition live on in the people who carry on the legacy.
7.0 Infrastructure – Roads, Trails, Facilities Existing Condition
7.1 Transportation System On May 19, 2009 Forest Supervisor Mary Erickson selected Alternative B Modified for implementation of the Ashland Travel Management FEIS. Included in that decision was the designation for public motorized use the existing system roads on the District that are currently available for public use, with the following changes to the system: 1. Some system roads were converted to system motorized trails, which are identified in the Alternative B Modified table of FEIS Appendix C. 2. Some unauthorized (non-system) routes were converted to system roads and system motorized trails, which are identified in the Alternative B Modified table of FEIS Appendix C. 3. Some system roads would become Maintenance Level 1 routes that are candidates for future decommissioning. These are identified in the Alternative B Modified table of FEIS Appendix C. 4. Some routes would be reserved for administrative use only, which are also identified in the Alternative B Modified table of FEIS Appendix C.
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In addition, with this decision, the following apply to motorized use on the District: • The season of use on all motorized routes would be yearlong unless a different season of use has been identified for a specific route in the Alternative B Modified table of FEIS Appendix C. • The type of vehicle designated for system roads will be highway legal vehicles, except where motorized mixed use has been identified in the Alternative B Modified table of Appendix C of the FEIS. • The type of vehicle designation for motorized system trails will be either open to all off-highway vehicles or open to vehicles 50 inches or less in width as specified in the Alternative B Modified table of Appendix C of the FEIS. • Dispersed vehicle camping within 300 feet of motorized routes is designated District-wide.
The selected alternative, alternative B Modified, included the following actions (see FEIS Appendix C for route specific actions and rationale): • Added 64 miles of non-system routes to the transportation system as either roads or motorized trails; 26 miles for public motorized use and 38 miles for administrative use. • Identified 80 miles of system roads as candidates for decommissioning. • Identified 80 miles of existing system roads for administrative use. • Converted 400 miles of system roads to system motorized trails open to all motor vehicles. • Designated 37 miles of system roads for mixed motorized use. • Designated a season of use of December 2 – August 31 on 27 miles of system roads and motorized trails.
7.1.1 Operational maintenance versus objective maintenance levels. These terms are defined thusly:
Operational Maintenance Level - The Maintenance level currently assigned to the road considering today's needs, road condition, budget constraints and environmental concerns; in other words it defines the level to which the road is currently being maintained. FSH 7709.59 Chapter 60, Transportation System Operations and Maintenance Handbook
Objective Maintenance Level - The maintenance level to be assigned at a future date considering future road management objectives, traffic needs, budget constraints, and environmental concerns. FSH 7709.59 Chapter 60, Transportation System Operations and Maintenance Handbook
Considering the above definitions Table 25 shows the operational maintenance level and Table 19 shows the objective maintenance level of roads and trails on the District. The difference in miles between the objective and operational maintenance levels presents opportunities to bring operational maintenance miles to objective maintenance levels. Refer to Appendix D of the Ashland Travel Management Record of Decision and attendant FEIS for road and trail restoration and rehabilitation related opportunities. Table 26 shows there are 8.58 miles of road that have been identified for decommissioning.
Ashland Post Fire Landscape Assessment 2014 124 Table 25. The operational maintenance level of routes (roads and trails) by mile for Ashland Ranger District. 12 Operational Maintenance Level Sum of Miles 1 - BASIC CUSTODIAL CARE (CLOSED) 85.26 2 - HIGH CLEARANCE VEHICLES 248.54 3 - SUITABLE FOR PASSENGER CARS 69.09 4 - MODERATE DEGREE OF USER COMFORT 0.18 Grand Total 403.07
Table 26. The objective maintenance level of routes (roads and trails) by mile for Ashland Ranger District.13 Objective Maintenance Level Sum of Miles 1 - BASIC CUSTODIAL CARE (CLOSED) 96.72 2 - HIGH CLEARANCE VEHICLES 223.74 3 - SUITABLE FOR PASSENGER CARS 73.84 4 - MODERATE DEGREE OF USER COMFORT 0.18 D - DECOMMISSION 8.58 Grand Total 403.0763
There are 155.96 miles of administrative use only roads on the District (Table 27).
Table 27 . Miles of administrative use only roads. Use Type Miles
Administrative Use 155.96
12 Query applied to roads on Ashland Ranger District MVUM GIS spatial data12/10/2013.
13 Query applied to roads on Ashland Ranger District MVUM GIS spatial data12/10/2013.
Ashland Post Fire Landscape Assessment 2014 125 Table 28 shows the miles of roads open yearlong that are either on or near the District.
Table 28. Miles of roads open yearlong on and near Ashland Ranger District. Miles of Roads Open Yearlong Miles 1 Roads Open to All Vehicles, Yearlong 36.67 3 Roads Open to Highway Legal Vehicles Only, Yearlong 103.12 14 State or US Highway 412.14 15 Other Public Roads 248.06 Grand Total 799.98
A somewhat unique part of the Ashland Travel Management decision was the decision to convert 392 miles of system motorized roads to system motorized trails. Table 29 shows that there are almost 381 miles or motorized trails open yearlong, and almost 27 miles of motorized trails subject to a season of use. The season of use is December 2 through August 31.
Table 29. Miles of motorized trails by designation type on Ashland Ranger District. Motorized Trails by Type of Special Designation Miles 7 Trails Open to Vehicles 50" or Less in Width, Yearlong 16.28 11 Special Designation, Yearlong 380.90 12 Special Designation, Seasonal 26.65 Grand Total 423.84
Deferred road maintenance has been identified as an issue across the entire forest. Roads and associated infrastructure, while a necessity, serve as a significant long term soil and water resource impact on the landscape. Roads can shortcut drainage networks, alter hillslope and channel hydrology and geomorphology, and may serve as a chronic source of fine sediment to downstream waterbodies (Jones et al. 2000; Montgomery 1994; Wemple et al. 1996; Luce 2002). Given these potential impacts, a key management question is identification of road/stream (or road/draw) crossings that require maintenance or replacement in order to provide for adequate discharge and sediment conveyance as well as aquatic organism passage needs. Further, there is a need to identify roads appropriate for decommissioning.
INFRA data for the district identifies 1602 culverts and drainage features. Sixty-five of the drain relief culverts were identified as in need of replacement while 108 were in need of maintenance. Of the nine road/draw crossings included in the database, one road/draw crossing was identified as in need of replacement. Note that
Ashland Post Fire Landscape Assessment 2014 126 no effort was made to assess whether stream/draw conveyance structures were adequately sized; such an effort is beyond the scope of this assessment.
In 2013, 65 miles of road maintenance was performed within the 2012 burn perimeters under BAER authority. Concurrently, seven road/draw crossings were replaced to accommodate projected increases in post-fire runoff. While it is assumed that a portion of the deferred maintenance items contained in INFRA was addressed, further work is required to update INFRA to include the recent road improvements. This work is beyond the scope of this assessment.
8.0 Desired Conditions 8.1 Aquatic, Riparian Systems, and Groundwater Dependent Ecosystems Riparian areas should be properly functioning or in an upward trend. Natural fluctuations in surface water and groundwater discharge and associated water surface elevation will govern riparian ecosystem dynamics. Riparian vegetation will occur in site-appropriate age and size class diversity so as to maintain and protect intact stream banks and provide floodplain roughness. Active reproduction of vegetative species will be occurring to the degree necessary to provide for plant species diversity and plant community stability over time. Plant species include sedges, prairie cordgrass, bulrushes (Scirpus spp.), spikerushes (Eleocharis spp.), inland saltgrass, plains cottonwood, and willows.Intact riparian ecosystems will support unimpaired or minimally impaired water quality through provision of filtration processes.
Native aquatic communities appropriate to a given site will be present and self-sustaining. Non-native aquatic and terrestrial species will be present in sufficiently small quantities so as to not significantly affect native species condition and habitat extent. Riparian areas will maintain diverse native plant and animal communities, including the management indicator species, northern oriole in tree-dominated systems and yellow warbler in shrub-dominated systems. Where applicable, beaver may serve as a keystone species through which hydrograph dynamics, aquatic species diversity, and riparian vegetation will be altered. Organic matter and hydric soil conditions are recognized as a sensitive soil condition unique to wetland and riparian habitats. Management activities will promote maintenance and improvement of these ecosystem attributes.
Where capable, manage for restoring and maintaining hydrologic/aquatic (network of draws/stream- courses) systems’ function and process. Restored systems associated with streams should be able to support some level of beaver population. 8.2 Hardwood Draw and Broadleaf Deciduous Ecosystems Hardwood draws and broadleaf deciduous woodlands should be managed to maintain or perpetuate a network of multi-layer and multi-age class of herbaceous plants, shrubs and trees. These systems associated with deciduous tree stands should be properly functioning or in an upward trend. Long-term soil productivity and properly functioning water cycles are maintained. Properly functioning water cycles are characterized by high infiltration rates, low soil compaction, and minimal overland flows. Energy flow and nutrient cycling are functioning properly to maintain diverse, native plant, and animal communities. Canada thistle and other associated non-native species will be reduced. Predominant species included in the draws are green ash, box elder, chokecherry and snowberry. Hillslope aspen stands include
Ashland Post Fire Landscape Assessment 2014 127 a variety of understory shrub and herbaceous species. Habitat characteristics important for ovenbird (management indicator species) and terrestrial mollusks will be maintained or restored on suitable sites. Terrestrial mollusks are dependent on deciduous leaf litter associated with these systems.
Climate Change Considerations
The northwestern Great Plains semi-arid environment is marginal for tree growth, and green ash is at the western, most arid margin of its range in eastern Montana. Green ash is primarily a tree of humid to sub- humid climates, occurring mainly in bottom lands, so it is reasonable to assume that hydrology is an important limiting factor for the growth of green ash in eastern Montana. In the first decade of the 21st century, winter (December-February) precipitation was approximately 25% lower than the 20th century average in southeast Montana. Perhaps more importantly, the winters averaged more than 3°F warmer than in the last century (Lesica & Marlow, 2013). These conditions have probably reduced snow accumulations, early spring flows and the deep water penetration into the soil compared to the past. Hydrologic conditions conducive to recruitment and growth of green ash seedlings in eastern Montana may have been sporadic, even prior to the introduction of Eurasian sod grasses into the woodland understory (Lesica & Marlow, 2013). These conditions may be even less common now in a warmer, drier climate.
An increase of more drought-tolerant, grazing-adapted species and a decline in tree seedling recruitment might be expected with a decrease in precipitation even in the absence of grazing. More open stands are associated with drier sites or regions. It is likely that the future climate of the northwestern Great Plains, in particular, might be characterized by decreases in precipitation and increases in temperature and the frequency of extreme climatic events. Such changes could make recruitment of green ash from seed a rare occurrence in many stands at the arid edge of the tree’s geographic range (Lesica & Marlow, 2013).
8.3 Mixed Grass Prairie Ecosystem. Desired condition for grasslands is a diversity of warm and cool season grass and forb species and structure that includes tall (for example: big blue stem, prairie cord grass, prairie sand reed), medium (for example western wheat grass, green needle grass, needle and thread, Idaho fescue) and short grass (for example blue grama, prairie June grass, sun sedge thread leaf sedge) species associated with mixed grass prairie communities. Desired condition for shrublands is a diversity of shrub communities (i.e. Wyoming sage, silver sage, buffalo berry, and chokecherry). Noxious weeds will be reduced. Communities will exhibit or be progressing toward a healthy, productive, diverse population of native and or desirable plant species, and functioning disturbance processes appropriate to the ecological site capability.
Habitat diversity will be provided and key habitat characteristics for a variety of species will be met which includes Brewer’s sparrow (sagebrush management indicator species) and sage grouse (sagebrush- steppe communities), prairie dog, sharp-tail grouse (prairie grassland communities) and other grassland and shrubland dependent species (i.e., mule deer, elk, and migratory grassland birds).
Management practices to maintain healthy ecological sites should include: prescribed fire, prescribed natural fire, mechanical manipulations, specialized prescription herbivory, chemical treatments, re- seeding, or combinations of treatments. All treatments must consider site capability, current site conditions and associated thresholds (i.e., current status in state-and-transition model appropriate for the
Ashland Post Fire Landscape Assessment 2014 128 site). In addition, factors such as ecological site, presence of undesirable species (e.g., invasive or noxious species), adjacent plant communities, current use or management status, and position in the watershed must be considered prior to treatment application.
Sagebrush Communities Create and maintain a diversity of sagebrush age and cover classes on the landscape through the use of prescribed fire, prescribed natural fire, mechanical, biological, and/or chemical means to provide a variety of habitats and productive conditions. Vegetation treatments should be of appropriate size to meet land management objectives. Where possible, inclusions of intact sagebrush should be left scattered within the treated area or in relatively close proximity to provide a seed source for recruitment. Distribution of residual plants will determine in part, the time period required for the successional process to proceed toward sagebrush recruitment.
Where initial condition has a depleted herbaceous understory, vegetation treatment should include native seeding with desirable species suited or adapted to site conditions. Seeding methods and dates should be appropriate to the plant materials and site conditions.
Where a mosaic of age and cover classes already exists, maintain landscape diversity through fuels management and periodic disturbance. Given the 20 plus years before sagebrush returns after fire, periodic disturbance should be defined temporally as 20-30 year intervals. Periodic disturbance from fire with shorter intervals may eliminate sagebrush. Recognize the system is dynamic, and suitability of the plant community for any given specie or group of species will change over time. Maintenance of diverse habitat conditions will provide a continuous suite of seasonal habitats over time.
Colonization Where pine or juniper trees have encroached into grassland or sagebrush communities, use best management practices to remove trees and re-establish understory species.
Noxious Weeds Encourage practices to eliminate new noxious species entry and limit current infestations to existing levels. For noxious weed monocultures and noxious weed infested areas, utilize an Integrated Weed Management approach that consists of chemical, biological, and/or mechanical means to control noxious species. If seeding is done, use native perennial species to reduce dominance of noxious species.
Managers recognize the need to restore the role of fire to the area after decades of fire suppression. In addition to natural ignitions, management-ignited fire is also considered. However, there is great concern that fire will allow these weeds to gain a foothold from which they may spread throughout a burned area, in effect trading one problem (lack of fire) for another (noxious weeds). Managers may have to determine whether noxious weeds are likely to invade naturally-ignited or management-ignited burn areas, by analyzing tradeoffs between restoring fire and the potential for introducing noxious weeds or increasing exiting infestations, as well as planning mitigation strategies for weeds in those areas where their invasion is most likely. For example, Spotted knapweed plants present before burning may sprout from root crowns, and seedlings may emerge from the soil seed bank or establish on bare ground from an off-site seed source following fire. Fire studies generally support the observation that where propagules are available, spotted knapweed is likely to establish, persist, and/or spread following fire in that geographic area.
Ashland Post Fire Landscape Assessment 2014 129 8.4 Ponderosa Pine Ecosystem That the forested landscape be managed to provide a pattern of life history stages ranging from early development to mature forest that are distributed across the District. The pattern and proportions may change over time in response to disturbance events (e.g. wildfire, insects, disease, flood or wind events) or management activities. The desired condition is to have a resilient forested landscape that contains a diversity of composition, life history stages, and size, density and pattern to respond to disturbance and perpetuate through regeneration. Increased vegetation diversity allows the landscapes the capacity for renewal and recovery form a wide range of disturbances (i.e. wildfire, insects, and climate change), while providing for, recreation, habitat for Management Indicator Species (MIS), common and sensitive wildlife species (i.e. big game, goshawk), defensible space from severe fire, carbon sequestration, and products and services (i.e. saw-logs, grazing), in the short and long term.
Where large stand replacement wildfire disturbances have occurred since 2000, the desired condition is to have these fire altered landscapes reforested with reduced fuel loadings (fire killed trees). The intent is to have a low risk for a large re-burn event. Strategic areas selected for long term fuel reduction on the landscape that will allow for better control and containment to reduce large scale re-burns.
Creating a pattern of diverse ponderosa pine forest cover that will be more resilient in the face of large disturbances will promote the current uses of the forested landscape and maintain a ponderosa pine forest future uses. Management goals should include:
• Manage and promote resilient Ponderosa pine forests on the landscape (short and long term). • Ensure that reforested landscapes, post-disturbance, are based on the Reforestation Strategy for the Forests. • Manage and promote a pre-dominate fire type of surface. • Reduce stand conditions that promote active, conditional crown and passive fire types. • Promote by managing for reduced threats for extensive re-burns in large post-2000 wildfire areas (reduce potential of high fuel loads by ameliorating high fuel loads in strategic areas and/or creating fuel break zones). • Promote and manage for low levels of beetle hazard. • Manage for a heterogeneous forested landscape with a diverse age and size structure that includes old growth, understory structure and composition, patch size, and pattern that are resilient to natural disturbances. • Manage for stand composition and structure that reduce the size and severity of large fire events to promote lower intensity, less severe, surface fires.
. Treat priority areas to improve chances for successful suppression and/or treat those areas so that wildfire would be beneficial (surface fire with limited mortality of large diameter trees). . Break up the areas of continuous canopy cover (>40-50%) and down/dead to achieve ecological objectives. . Attempt to keep fire acreage to socially acceptable size, impacts to allotments, short duration suppression effort. . Reduce canopy cover to 40% or less from 0 to ½ mile away from ranch headquarters, other structures/developments, and Forest Service campgrounds.
Ashland Post Fire Landscape Assessment 2014 130 . Power-lines. . Reduce heavy concentrations of down and dead (or future down and dead in the next 0-5 yrs.) 0-1/4 mile away from ranch headquarters and other structures/developments.
• Forested pattern and patch size is influenced by aspect. Where north aspects are predominately forested with moderate to closed canopies, and south aspects are open canopy. Manage for a more patterned forested landscape where forest patches are predominately associated with north aspect slopes with lower density/stocking levels, separated by predominately non-forested vegetation patches. • Promote and manage for the restoration of fire (wildfire as a process and prescribed fire) on the landscape. • Promote and manage for low tree densities and longer periods of no ponderosa pine on south, southwest and west aspects.
A long term desire is to maintain forest cover on the Ashland District. Uncharacteristic disturbance events, wildfires totaling 380,000 acres in the last 20 years have reduced the extent of forest cover (see Figures 4 and 5 for changes in forest cover since 1995 to 2012 post fire). Long term the desire is to have a mosaic of resilient forest cover and re-establish forest cover across the Ashland District.
Management strategies on attributes of the landscape can create a patch mosaic and diversity of size, age classes, and densities. Promoting lower tree density and extent on dryer, warmer aspects (SE, S, SW, W) and higher tree densities on moister, cooler aspects (NW, N, NE, E). Dryer more exposed sites are typically the bunchgrass dominated systems, whereas the cooler less exposed sites have a presence of chokecherry and snowberry shrubs.
Discuss pre forest cover in acreage by cover groups and post 2012 by fire groups, Discuss aspects and desired conditions in general sense by stocking. Focus in on target stand conditions and desired conditions for forest cover by aspect tpa and % stocked. Describe in a fire area vs. unburned area. Define goals for restoring pine cover and rough timelines. Mentions forest plan goals for forest cover per wildlife, etc. to ensure over time.
Ashland Post Fire Landscape Assessment 2014 131
9.0 Opportunities and Potential Management Tools to Move from Existing to Desired Conditions
It is necessary to define what is meant by ecological restoration and ecological resilience. Reynolds et al define these terms in their recently published Restoring Composition and Structure in Southwestern Frequent-Fire Forests: A science based framework for improving ecosystem resiliency (2013). We are using the definitions from that publication for the purposes of this Assessment. They are defined as follows:
Ecological restoration is the process of assisting the recovery of an ecosystem that has been degraded, damaged, or destroyed. Restoration initiates or accelerates ecosystem recovery with respect to its health (productivity), processes, and functions (biodiversity, food webs, and sustainability) (adapted from SER 2004).
Ecological resiliency is the ability of an ecosystem to absorb and recover from disturbance without altering its inherent functions (SER 2004).
Vision/Strategy In consideration of the above definitions, the information from the assessment has identified management actions to restore ecosystems elements, where departed, and improve or maintain ecosystem resilience. Also understood is that ecosystem health is much broader than just productivity. It incorporates processes and functions as well as essential elements of an ecosystem that are intact and properly functioning. The next steps include developing strategies that integrate management activities which will achieve the Conservation Goals identified in section 2.0 of this assessment. These efforts will be consistent with Forest Plan direction to provide for the multiple uses of the Forest’s renewable resources in perpetuity while maintaining the long-term health and productivity of the land. This goal is achieved by an integrated approach to planning and implementing projects, management actions, or strategies designed to achieve desired conditions.
Conservation goals were derived from the niche statements and Forest Plan direction. The niche statements describe the ecological, social, cultural, and economic services the District has fulfilled over time. The niches identified for Ashland Ranger District and described briefly in the Assessment are: Livestock grazing; Mixed Prairie and Forest, Disturbance Processes (grazing and wildfire); Habitat and Watershed Conservation; Forest Products; and, Recreation.
Considering the niches the District has fulfilled over time and mindful of Forest Plan direction, the team developed Conservation Goals. These goals were used to help describe Desired Conditions and ultimately the Opportunities to integrate management actions that that could move Existing Conditions toward Desired Conditions.
Ashland Post Fire Landscape Assessment 2014 132 GIS Project A GIS project was developed as part of the Ashland Post Fire Landscape Assessment. It plays an integral role in understanding landscape patterns, visually displaying changed conditions, and communicating opportunities for integrating restoration or conservation management activities. This Assessment is not complete without also using the GIS project designed for the Ashland Post Fire Assessment work. The GIS project and the assessment narrative are meant to be used together to identify project locations, and plan project work that will achieve desired conditions.
The GIS Project assembles existing geospatial data layers for the assessment area, as well as those developed specifically for the Assessment in one place, the project directory. The directory contains the source data and derived geospatial features and maps used to address various resource management questions. These data, derived geospatial features, and maps document the answers to questions posed by the ID Team to describe and evaluate existing condition on the District (See Appendix U, Conservation Goals, Information Needs, and Desired Conditions for each of the ecosystems that the Assessment focused upon). These data sets and derived geospatial features can be queried to address future questions about landscape elements or patterns on the District and assist resource managers in identifying and describing integrated management practices or plan projects consistent with the Conservation Goals and Forest Plan direction.
The GIS project can be found at the following link:
T:\FS\NFS\Custer\Project\Ashland\AshlRapidAssess2013\GIS\MXD
Specific instructions on how to download and use the Project are found in Appendix J of the Assessment. Users should contact Mary Gonzales, Custer National Forest GIS Coordinator, for help related to the download and use of the Project.
9.1 Mixed Grass Prairie/Shrublands Opportunities Table 30. Mixed Grass Prairie/Shrublands Opportunities on Ashland Ranger District. Restoration Resilience
As a general rule, do not increase permitted AUMS based on increased With transitory increased capacity, there will be opportunities to shift stocking post-fire carrying capacity (short term flush of forage production 3-5 years rates to accommodate shorter durations in both burned and unburned – shorter and approximately 3,472 acres of transitory range up to 20 years). Instead, durations can improve these systems use any increased carrying capacity to finesse recovery of upland, riparian and hardwood draws as well as provide reserve capacity during times of drought, and higher flexibility when coordinating Rx burns.
Under this AUM status quo recommendation, burned area response will provide a new livestock distribution pattern that will likely benefit upland
Ashland Post Fire Landscape Assessment 2014 133 Table 30. Mixed Grass Prairie/Shrublands Opportunities on Ashland Ranger District. Restoration Resilience recovery.
Allows for monitoring recovery response relative to carrying capacity and any new distribution patterns.
With transitory increased capacity, it may allow for more flexibility to move livestock around accommodating prescribed burning that will likely be a heavily used tool to strategically break up uncharacteristic fuel arrangements and restore systems for increased resiliency to future disturbances.
With transitory temporary increased capacity, there will be opportunities to shift stocking rates to accommodate shorter durations in both burned and unburned – shorter durations can improve these systems. General Grazing Management. Through permit administration, manage the intensity and timing of grazing during critical periods to maintain or improve mixed grass prairie and shrubland communities. Grazing deferment or rest with shorter duration use should be emphasized. Allotments with recent NEPA decisions and those scheduled for upcoming NEPA should be given priority for monitoring. In additions, fully stocked season-long allotments and allotments suspected to have high stocking rates should be given priority for monitoring and potential permit modifications that will move toward areas toward desired conditions.
Mitigation measures beyond adjusting the timing and intensity of livestock grazing through implementation of planned grazing systems include a variety of tools that will improve livestock distribution. As opportunities arise, changes in class of livestock from cow/calve to yearlings may also help. Yearlings tend to disperse more and concentrate less.
Local adjustments in stocking can be considered when there is sufficient information on heavier cattle weights being reported. Caution needs to be exercised when determining local conversion factors and need to reflect the accuracy inherent in available conversion equations and local livestock weight information. When addressing this issue, local officers should consider consulting with area universities and other experts to better understand what the higher weights mean for management. Continue to treat weeds in known areas, detect and treat in suppression line Continue to treat weeds in known areas and avoid prescription fire treatments in and fire areas, and avoid prescription fire treatments in known leafy spurge known leafy spurge and spotted knapweed infestations. May explore trade-offs and spotted knapweed infestations. May explore trade-offs of Rx treatment of Rx treatment in infested areas with pre-treatment of weeds (may take in infested areas with pre-treatment of weeds (may take multiple years) in multiple years) in scheduled long-term restoration areas identified for Rx burn scheduled long-term restoration areas identified for Rx burn treatments. treatments. Cheat grass - may be a monitoring element, and design consideration for burning. Observation – see lots of weeds in the large burn piles. In core sage grouse areas explore planting big sagebrush seedlings within To the extent possible maintain remaining big sagebrush stands in unburned wildfire areas to establish a seed source and restore sagebrush grasslands. areas and individual shrubs (seed source) in past wildfire areas. In grass/shrub increase frequency of burning to decrease the amounts of snowberry on the uplands (not in the swales and draws).
Ashland Post Fire Landscape Assessment 2014 134
9.2 Hardwood Draws Opportunities Table 31. Hardwood Draws Opportunities – See Appendices F and G for further management and restoration considerations. Restoration Resilience
As a general rule, do not increase permitted AUMS based on increased With transitory increased capacity, there will be opportunities to shift stocking post-fire carrying capacity (short term flush of forage production 3-5 years rates to accommodate shorter durations in both burned and unburned – shorter and approximately 3,472 acres of transitory range up to 20 years). Instead, durations can improve hardwood draw and riparian recovery use any increased carrying capacity to finesse recovery of hardwood draws as well as provide reserve capacity during times of drought, and higher flexibility when coordinating Rx burns.
Under this AUM status quo recommendation, burned area response will provide new livestock distribution patterns that will likely benefit riparian and hardwood draw recovery.
This recommendation would allow for monitoring recovery response relative to carrying capacity and distribution patterns.
Depending on water capacity in particular units, this recommendation may allow for targeting certain areas for hardwood draw recovery through use of use one year and rest two years in a unit.
With transitory increased capacity, there will be opportunities to shift stocking rates to accommodate shorter durations in both burned and unburned – shorter durations can improve hardwood draw and riparian recovery.
Attempt to offset hot season grazing and late season grazing in targeted hardwood draw and riparian recovery areas. Continue to treat weeds in known areas. Monitor, detect and treat in Continue to treat weeds in known areas. Continue detection monitoring. suppression line and fire areas. Consider opportunities to put fire in hardwood (woody) draws. What about Consider opportunities to put fire in hardwood (woody) draws. What about putting fire in riparian? Forest Plan allows for planned ignitions to clean up putting fire in riparian? Forest Plan allows for planned ignitions to clean up debris and benefit wildlife. How do we currently operate? MT State (DNRC) debris and benefit wildlife. How do we currently operate? MT State (DNRC) prohibits burning in riparian areas. Is a waiver a possibility? prohibits burning in riparian areas. Is a waiver a possibility?
Ashland Post Fire Landscape Assessment 2014 135 Table 31. Hardwood Draws Opportunities – See Appendices F and G for further management and restoration considerations. Restoration Resilience
Investigate/Inventory for opportunities for active Planting/Coppicing (pruning to ground level); planting nurse shrubs: Minimize High Investment (fence/fence maintenance) by looking at secondary range/exclosures/administrative sites Investigate/Inventory for opportunities for Conifer removal as a treatment that can be considered to provide moderate to full sun conditions. Unknown locations. Investigate/Inventory for opportunities for Conifer felling to impede livestock access to draws is a treatment that can be considered to provide moderate to full sun conditions. Unknown locations General Grazing Management. Through permit administration, manage the intensity and timing of grazing during critical periods to maintain or increase shrub and tree densities in decadent hardwood draws. Grazing deferment or rest with shorter duration use should be emphasized. “At risk” draws should be given priority – biggest bang for the buck.
Mitigation measures beyond adjusting the timing and intensity of livestock grazing through implementation of planned grazing systems include a variety of tools that will improve livestock distribution and discourage livestock from concentrating in hardwood draws. These include riding/herding, placement of supplements (salt, protein, mineral blocks etc.) in uplands, control access to water located in draws, and developing water sources in uplands to the extent possible. As opportunities arise, changes in class of livestock from cow/calve to yearlings may also help. Yearlings tend to disperse more and concentrate less.
Local adjustments in stocking can be considered when there is sufficient information on heavier cattle weights being reported. Caution needs to be exercised when determining local conversion factors and need to reflect the accuracy inherent in available conversion equations and local livestock weight information. When addressing this issue, local officers should consider consulting with area universities and other experts to better understand what the higher weights mean for management.
Grazing systems can be designed to schedule use at times when livestock are least likely to utilize and congregate in hardwood draws. These are typically late spring and early summer when upland vegetation is green and palatable. Grazing during times when livestock tend to utilize woody species (fall) or tend to congregate in draws (mid to late summer) should be scheduled to provide at least 1 year in two of deferment during these periods but ideally should provide 2 out of 3 years of deferment and should be coordinated with any proposed silvicultural treatments. Season Long Livestock Use. Through permit administration, during season-long use, shorten the grazing period during the hot summer period to reduce impacts. Assess shifting to deferment/rest periods. Wet/Moist Season Livestock Use. Through permit administration, avoid long durations during wet or moist seasons to minimize compaction and provide opportunity for recovery. Growing Season Livestock Use. Through permit administration, rest or deferment periods during the growing season to provide for reproduction and seedling establishment. In some instances, additional periods of rest may be required to improve or maintain the community. Hot Summer Season Livestock Use. Through permit administration, during the hot summer season, livestock use should be reduced. This can be done by placing salt blocks on the uplands away from these woody draws, providing livestock water sources outside the draws, and in some instances, by placing cross fences (or drift fences) at appropriate intervals perpendicular to the linear stand or fell conifers in a fashion to impede livestock access. This method is most appropriate for stands located in V-shaped draws or ravines. These short fences will prevent livestock from trailing down the center of the stand. On disturbed sites, it may be necessarily to fence out a portion of the stand for a period of five or more years to allow regeneration of trees and shrubs. After an appropriate time, the fence can be moved to another part of the stand.
Ashland Post Fire Landscape Assessment 2014 136 Table 31. Hardwood Draws Opportunities – See Appendices F and G for further management and restoration considerations. Restoration Resilience
Fall Livestock Use. Through permit administration, during fall use, minimize grazing effects, through a variety of management techniques to improve livestock distribution patterns and minimize concentrated use in hardwood draws (i.e. class of livestock, proper salting practices, protein and mineral supplements, riding/herding, proper stocking rates). A switch from foraging to browsing indicates the need to move livestock from these areas to maintain or improve the shrub and tree community. Winter Livestock Use. Through permit administration, where feasible, accommodate winter grazing with proper use. Proper stocking rate should minimize, trampling and rubbing that can detrimentally impact the woody plants. Proper livestock use should avoid use during spring thaw when the frost is going out of the ground and a great deal of soil churning and compaction can occur. Where applicable, livestock should not be fed within one-eighth to one-quarter mile of wooded draws Sites Adjacent to Streams. Sites adjacent to streams are extremely vulnerable to streambank sloughing, particularly when soils are moist. Excessive livestock use will increase soil compaction and decrease stability. Management through permit administration should emphasize the importance of understory shrub and riparian communities for streambank stabilization. Shorter grazing periods and adequate regrowth after grazing are recommended to provide for plant recovery and protection of streambanks against high-flow events. Salt/Supplements. Through permit administration, do not allow salting within a ¼ mile of these systems.
9.3 Riparian Opportunities Table 32. Riparian Ecosystem Opportunities on Ashland Ranger District. See Appendices F & G for further management considerations Restoration Resilience
As a general rule, do not increase permitted AUMS based on temporary With transitory increased capacity, there will be opportunities to shift stocking increased post-fire carrying capacity (short term flush of forage rates to accommodate shorter durations in both burned and unburned – shorter production 3-5 years and approximately 3,472 acres of transitory range up durations can improve hardwood draw and riparian recovery to 20 years). Instead, use any increased carrying capacity to finesse recovery of riparian as well as provide reserve capacity during times of drought, and higher flexibility when coordinating Rx burns.
Under this AUM status quo recommendation, burned area response will provide a new livestock distribution pattern that will likely benefit riparian and hardwood draw recovery
Allows for monitoring recovery response relative to carrying capacity and
Ashland Post Fire Landscape Assessment 2014 137 Table 32. Riparian Ecosystem Opportunities on Ashland Ranger District. See Appendices F & G for further management considerations Restoration Resilience distribution patterns
Depending on water capacity in particular units, this recommendation may allow for targeting certain areas for hardwood draw recovery through use of use one year and rest two years in a unit.
With transitory increased capacity, there will be opportunities to shift stocking rates to accommodate shorter durations in both burned and unburned – shorter durations can improve hardwood draw and riparian recovery
Attempt to offset hot season grazing and late season grazing in targeted hardwood draw and riparian recovery areas Continue to treat weeds in known areas, detect and treat in suppression line Continue to treat weeds in known areas. and fire areas. Expand the ongoing beaver relocation project to suitable habitat areas across Expand the ongoing beaver relocation project to suitable habitat areas across the the RD. RD. Maintain riparian pastures – reconstruct fences – eg - Gobblers Garden, Maintain riparian pastures – reconstruct fences –, Gobblers Garden, Little Bear, Little Bear, Jackson Water Gap, Taylor Creek, Davis Prong, etc. Jackson Water Gap, Taylor Creek, Davis Prong etc. Maintain fences associated with riparian and wetland sites (ie- Cow Creek, Maintain fences associated with riparian and wetland sites (ie- Cow Creek and and Black’s Pond, Mud Turtle). Black’s Pond, Mud Turtle). Maintain native fish populations in known locations across the district (i.e. Maintain native fish populations in known locations across the district (i.e. Otter Otter Creek, Stocker Branch, Horse Creek, and Taylor Creek). Where Creek, Stocker Branch, Horse Creek, and Taylor Creek). Where management management will permit and habitat can be realized, undertake native fish will permit and habitat can be realized, undertake native fish and aquatic habitat and aquatic habitat restoration. restoration.
Conduct district-wide rapid field inventory of stream and draw conditions to characterize extent of channel morphologic alteration throughout the district. Make use of existing PFC data to supplement the inventory.
Complete characterization of spring and wetland condition across the District. Cross reference POD spring query with Range INFRA. Use Montana NHP habitat condition rating as a guideline for identifying wetland and/or spring locations of concern. Evaluate existing condition of historic CCC infrastructure.
Data source: Range INFRA, NHP Tracker database for aquatic lentic habitat condition.
Ashland Post Fire Landscape Assessment 2014 138 Table 32. Riparian Ecosystem Opportunities on Ashland Ranger District. See Appendices F & G for further management considerations Restoration Resilience
Ensure that water developments have through-flow mechanisms (valves, Ensure that water developments have through-flow mechanisms (valves, reservoir spillway or outflow structures). reservoir spillway or outflow structures).
Data source: Ashland POD springs query from water rights DB, Range Data source: Ashland POD springs query from water rights DB, Range INFRA, INFRA, NHP Site Survey data/ratings for aquatic lentic sites, NHD polygon, NHP Site Survey data/ratings for aquatic lentic sites, NHD polygon, INFRA INFRA (reservoir infrastructure) (reservoir infrastructure)
General Grazing Management. Through permit administration, manage the intensity and timing of grazing during critical periods to maintain or improve riparian communities. Grazing deferment or rest with shorter duration use should be emphasized. “At risk” systems should be given priority for monitoring and potential permit modifications that will allow for upward trend.
Mitigation measures beyond adjusting the timing and intensity of livestock grazing through implementation of planned grazing systems include a variety of tools that will improve livestock distribution and discourage livestock from concentrating in riparian areas. These include riding/herding, placement of supplements (salt, protein, mineral blocks etc.) in uplands, control access to water, and developing water sources in uplands to the extent possible. As opportunities arise, changes in class of livestock from cow/calve to yearlings may also help. Yearlings tend to disperse more and concentrate less.
Local adjustments in stocking can be considered when there is sufficient information on heavier cattle weights being reported. Caution needs to be exercised when determining local conversion factors and need to reflect the accuracy inherent in available conversion equations and local livestock weight information. When addressing this issue, local officers should consider consulting with area universities and other experts to better understand what the higher weights mean for management.
Grazing systems can be designed to schedule use at times when livestock are least likely to utilize and congregate in riparian areas. These are typically late spring and early summer when upland vegetation is green and palatable. Grazing during times when livestock tend to congregate in riparian areas (mid to late summer) should be scheduled to provide shorter durations. Season Long Livestock Use. Through permit administration, during season-long use, shorten the grazing period during the hot summer period to reduce impacts. Assess shifting to deferment/rest periods. Wet/Moist Season Livestock Use. Through permit administration, avoid long durations during wet or moist seasons to minimize compaction and provide opportunity for recovery. Growing Season Livestock Use. Through permit administration, rest or deferment periods during the growing season to provide for reproduction and seedling establishment. In some instances, additional periods of rest may be required to improve or maintain the community. Hot Summer Season Livestock Use. Through permit administration, during the hot summer season, livestock use should be reduced. This can be done by placing salt blocks on the uplands away from riparian areas, providing offsite livestock water sources, and in some instances, by placing cross fences (or drift fences) at appropriate intervals perpendicular to the linear stand or fell conifers in a fashion to impede livestock access. Assess use of mid and late season grazing to reduce the mechanical damage caused from livestock grazing on highly saturated soils early in the season. Avoiding this damage in turn reduces the collapsing of undercut banks. Another advantage of mid to late season grazing is that many of the sedge and rush species become less palatable as the plants mature.
Ashland Post Fire Landscape Assessment 2014 139 Table 32. Riparian Ecosystem Opportunities on Ashland Ranger District. See Appendices F & G for further management considerations Restoration Resilience
Fall Livestock Use. Through permit administration, during fall use, minimize grazing effects, through a variety of management techniques to improve livestock distribution patterns and minimize concentrated use in riparian areas (i.e. class of livestock, proper salting practices, protein and mineral supplements, riding/herding, proper stocking rates). Winter Livestock Use. Through permit administration, where feasible, accommodate winter grazing with proper use. Proper livestock use should avoid use during spring thaw when the frost is going out of the ground and a great deal of soil churning and compaction can occur. Where applicable, livestock should not be fed within one-eighth to one-quarter mile of riparian areas. Salt/Supplements. Through permit administration, do at a minimum do not allow salting within a ¼ mile of these systems.
9.5 Ponderosa Pine Opportunities
Table 33. Ponderosa Pine Ecosystem Opportunities on Ashland Ranger District. Restoration Resilience
Manage remaining mature ponderosa pine forest (MIS goshawk) to minimize Reduce the potential for large scale wildfire within recent wildfire areas. additional loss of habitat to wildfires. 2. Thin selected remaining sapling to pole sized trees to increase growth and accelerate development into mature stands.
Design outcome based projects that focus on the grassland – forest mosaic and Design outcome based projects that focus on the grassland – forest mosaic strategic reduction in wildfire risk as an outcome rather than acres treated (for and strategic reduction in wildfire risk as an outcome rather than acres example: Rx fire, timber harvest, planting, etc.). treated. Using our tools in the tool box we want to create the mosaic (for example Rx fire, timber harvest, planting, etc.). Promote stand composition and structure that reduce the size and severity of large crown fire events to promote lower intensity, less severe, surface fires. Break up the areas of continuous canopy cover (>40%+).
Design treatments from a landscape scale that build on the grasslands (non-woody fuels) and pine forest (woody fuels) to create a mosaic of fuel levels. Treatments such as prescribed fire would focus on breaking up the continuity of the future sea of saplings and pole stands that would grow in
Ashland Post Fire Landscape Assessment 2014 140 Table 33. Ponderosa Pine Ecosystem Opportunities on Ashland Ranger District. Restoration Resilience the next 20 to 30 years. Promote for low to moderate beetle hazard in green.
Promote and manage for low tree densities and longer periods of no Promote and manage for low tree densities and longer periods of no ponderosa ponderosa pine on south, southwest and west aspects. pine on south, southwest and west aspects.
8. Utilize the Forest Reforestation Strategy (delayed natural, natural and artificial regeneration) to implement reforestation efforts on the post- disturbance landscape.
Treat ingress/egress and priority infrastructure areas to improve chances for Treat ingress/egress and priority infrastructure areas to improve chances successful suppression. Reduce canopy cover to 40% or less from 0 to ½ mile for successful suppression. Reduce down and dead from 0 to ¼ mile away away from ranch headquarters, power-lines, other structures/developments, and from ranch headquarters, power-lines, other structures/developments, and Forest Service campgrounds. Forest Service campgrounds.
11. Treat priority assets sites (historic & cultural) to improve chances for successful Treat priority assets sites (historic & cultural) to improve chances for suppression and protection. Where appropriate remove or reduce live and dead successful suppression and protection. Reduce down and dead fuels from down fuels as needed. 0 up to ¼ mile away from the site.
12. Consider resiliency treatments that enhance areas that emphasize recreation Consider restoration of vegetation characteristics that enhance areas that (developed campgrounds and dispersed campsites as, well as the J management emphasize recreation (developed campgrounds and dispersed campsites area). as, well as the J management area).
Treat the burned/unburned edge to help maintain existing green areas Treat the burned/unburned edge to help maintain existing green areas (plantations and remnant forested areas). (plantations and remnant forested areas).
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Table 34 Social Assessment Opportunities RESTORATION RESILIENCE
Conduct assessment of the cultural and historic landscape that can be used Preserve and maintain the historic landscape through continued traditional use. to demonstrate the significance of the history and pre-history embodies in its landscape. Assessment of coal seam fires.
Table 35. Watershed Opportunities RESTORATION RESILIENCE
Reduce deferred road maintenance across the district in effort to minimize erosion and stream and draw sedimentation.
Data source: Watershed Condition Framework Re-size, replace, or remove impair road drainage structures, AOP/low water crossings, and conveyance culverts where damaged or limiting movement of water, sediment, or aquatic organisms.
Data source: INFRA Where management objectives allow, reduce total road mileage through Where management objectives allow, reduce total road mileage through decommissioning. decommissioning. Data source: Custer INFRA decommissioning feature class Data source: Custer INFRA decommissioning feature class Where habitat can be realized, undertake geomorphic channel reconstruction Where habitat can be realized, undertake geomorphic channel reconstruction in effort to in effort to augment native prairie (aquatic) and riparian restoration. augment native prairie (aquatic) and riparian restoration.
Data source: Numerous, field inventory/review also required Data source: Numerous, field inventory/review also required
Ashland Post Fire Landscape Assessment 2014 142 Analysis opportunities:
Update existing INFRA database information for district. Cross-reference Update existing INFRA database information for district. Cross-reference BAER road work BAER road work with existing database to identify which work items have with existing database to identify which work items have yet to be implemented. yet to be implemented. Data source: INFRA Data source: INFRA
Conduct field inventory of road/draw crossings and adjacent road segments to identify full extent of water quality and AOP impacts as well as identify Conduct field inventory of road/draw crossings and adjacent road segments to identify full all work opportunities. extent of water quality and AOP impacts as well as identify all work opportunities.
Data source: INFRA Data source: INFRA
As a part of the annual soil monitoring program, continue to evaluate legacy soil impacts and identify locations susceptible to management impacts as a result of legacy management.
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10.0 Relationship to Other Regional Assessments & the Forest Plan
10.1 Watershed Condition Framework
10.2 Northern Region Integrated Restoration and Protection Strategy (IRPPS)
10.3 Northern Region Overview
10.4 Forest Plan, Forest wide and Management Area Goals, Objectives and Standards
10.5 Montana’s Comprehensive Fish & Wildlife Conservation Strategy
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