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LSU Historical Dissertations and Theses Graduate School
1970 On the Margin of Philosophy: the Abbe Coyer in the French Enlightenment. Jane Payne Kaplan Louisiana State University and Agricultural & Mechanical College
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I 111 . ;■ 1 tat 1 N i IA:. I'LCN M 1 c K' I LM.LP i >. A<' !'; .V A'■ l-H1 \ IV 1.1 ON THE MARGIN OF PHILOSOPHY:
THE ABB0 COYER IN THE FRENCH ENLIGHTENMENT
A Dissertation
Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of the Louir'ana State University and Agricultural and Mechanical College in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy
in
The Department of Foreign Languages
by Jane Payne Kaplan B.A., University of North Carolina, 1959 January, 1970 It:.!1;(_* !io t <; ;
This is ori>', co;-'/, ,one ;
I'nivursitv M i cr<) f I Ins . In honor of my parents, and with humblo thanks to my husband.
11 TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT...... iv
I THE PROBLEMS OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY WHITER AND HIS E P O C H ...... 1
Footnotes Chapter I ...... 33
II THE LIFE AND WORKS OF GABRIEL FRANCOIS COYER . 9 5
Footnotes Chapter II ...... 128
III COYER'S LITERARY PHILOSOPHY ...... I95
Footnotes Chapter III ...... 182
IV AN EXAMINATION OF COYER'S S T Y L E ...... 191
Footnotes Chapter IV ...... 260
V THE ABBE'S HEAVENLY C IT Y ...... 26?
Footnotes Chapter V ...... 290
CONCLUSION 29 b
BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 302
APPENDIX...... 3P0
VITA ...... 323
111 ABSTRACT
In a century which, while boasting of its thinkers and philosophers, granted the special favor of glory to only a few among that number, there existed on the margin of the celebrated philosophers many writers who considered themselves members of that special group. Herein I have attempted a study of Gabriel Francois Coyer, author, and, as he described himself, wpr&tre sans pr&trise". In re viewing the problems of those who chose writing as a pro fession in the eighteenth century, one can see how Coyer, like many authors, had difficulties with censorship, pub lishers, patrons, and with the psychological roadblocks that inevitably fell in his path. Looking at Coyer's life and his works we witness the manner in which he coped with the fact that he was not among the favored few who would remaiii indelibly imprinted upon the pages of literary his tory. His style reflected his problems as a marginal philosopher, and those which followed him as a personality living with an illustrious family, attending salons, seeking membership in academies. The abb® had a well-defined philosophy of literature. He spoke of it often in his writings, and in its own turn, his philosophy proffered much information about the author himself. Coyer's ideal
i / V society showed him to be a man concerned with the ameliora tion of his era. This study of Gabriel Francois Coyer Is not Intended to prove that he was a suffering author mis understood by his contemporaries; rather, to show that he
Is one example of a very large and important segment of
French literary history which, with other similar examples, could open upon an untapped and exciting revelation of in formation valuable to the complete understanding of the cen tury . CHAPTEH I
THE PROBLEMS OK THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY WRITER AND HIS EPOCH
Every literary century in outlined by the famous authors whose names and works outlive the institutions and practices of their era. The number who succeed in leaving their mark is infinitely small compared to the number who tried, ruse for a short while and retreated to the ranks of the* lesser known, both the famous and the unknown spell out truths regarding life, desires, habits, shortcomings and capabilities of their contemporaries. It is a relative t"ufh, necessarily biased by their own point of view, their* private lives, and their temperament s . r’or that reason, when seeking the real substance of the life and times of a century, a reign or a decade, one must forge beyond the facade of what remains as literary h is tory, crystallized after the passage of a certain amount of
Lime, anti delve- into the- richness of contemporary existence by means of the- contemporaries Lhemse i ves — the Jtsser known perhaps more than the celebrated one;;. It is they who re flect tue happenings and habits, the whims and disappointments that the writers in today's anthologies may not have con sidered important. These individuals are hard to find. Once found, they are frequently d ifficu lt to get to know due to the penury of material about, their lives. Their least known
1 2 pieces may have disappeared entirely. They are valuable sources of information because they suffered through the same hardships as the now famous authors. They all ran the same risks, wrote for the same public, arid fought to receive recog nition in the same milieux. No matter what century encompasses their lives, these men of letters are the encyclopedia of its development. The changes they reflect are those which u lt i mately set the stage for the nexL generation.
The light of knowledge in the "circle des lumi£res" often became a spotlight upon the philosophe whose contribution it describes. Candida, Kigaro, Emile, even the EncyciopSdie em body the charismatic personalities of their authors. The mere names of VoLtaire, Beaumarchais, Rousseau and Diderot command attention, Just as did Corneille or Racine in the seventeenth century. But in the case of the seventeenth century writer, the man of letters was often a recluse, famous only fur his literary contributions. His eighteenth century counterpart changed the image of the scholar in public opinion: no longer solitary, he became engagS. especially in the Hitter1 half of the century. Cornell If; and Racine can erroneously represent the body of classical tragedy, or even the whole of neo classical drama. Contrary to this monolithic classification, the following century encouraged m ultiplicity in performance and popularity; many authors shared the public eye in a given genre, and many authors were talented in several genres at the same time.
in tee eighteenth century trie company of the man of le t ters was sought after, considered pres t i g i ous . If meant. something to be able to tell how many authors received one's patronage. Men of letters were found wherever intellectual conversations had free reign. The creation of salons, clubs, dinner's, academies, intellectual and scientific organizations offer concrete testimonies to their1 union with contemporary society . ^ Public taste and desires changed as well as the personal qualities of writers. Obviously not everyone was creative.
Certainly the reading public was small and of unequal educa tion, Although interest in the sciences, intellectual and experimental, expanded, the desires of the reading public were as diverse as the organizations which favored them.
Ways of thinking and philosophies, if philosophies they were, varied according to the circles of society in which one traveled. Duelos describes the cultivation of those who pub
licized their thoughts and Bought patronage:
11 Le gofct des Lett res , des Sciences et des Arts , a gagnS insensiblement, & il est venu & un point, que ceux qui ne l'orit pas d* incl inatiori, I'affectent par air. On a done recherchS ceux qui les cultlvent, & ils ont 5t8 attirSs dans le inonde &. proportion de 1'agrSment qu*on a trouvS dans leur commerce."^
Despite the vastly different tastes and pleasures of society, there was a common measure of value. Duelos points out that men of letters were drawn into society in proportion to the amount of enjoyment which one derived from them, both as individuals, and from their work s.^ Who, then, pleased the eighteenth century intellectual or pseudo-inteLleetual ?
Which authors seduced the cnLighlened mentality? It was not 1+ the true erudite. This type was hard to find because his endeavors were rarely appreciated or pursued. It was' usu al ly not the authors of sciences exactes, although their contributions were recognized and sometimes rewarded. The most desired company were the beaux espr 1 ts , whose rmir. ■■
lid nut always fail easily from the tongue in association w i tn the 1111e philosophes .
The o'asiest to recuAgnize an? of course the shining; per sonalities whose* talents earned them lasting success. The public applauded the Montesquieus, Marmontels, d'Alemberts and Marivauxs. In another* category wore the authors whom? words were deserving and nailed as successes, but whose pres ence contributed nothing to the social gathering. Much pre ferred was the writer "dont I'csprit est d' un usage plus varift, i d1 une application .noins dScidSc & plus Stendue."'1
,Journals such as Les M&moi res de TrSvoux and _Le J our rial des savants abound in curnptes rendus of title s which have beta; forgotten, rarely resurrected for more than statistical studies or tedious monographs. These obscure, usually medi ocre works, by authors without e lee tr i 1'y i ng personalities or* famous names, works which inspired their readers ffeelingly ana were never republished, can depict, however, the opinions and first impressions of the general public.
The reactions of contemporary readers towards what they lived, saw and read are like the reflections in a house of mirror’s where the suine likeness is viewed from myriad angles, who*re each is different in its single aspect, and where no clear path can be seen to point out the living image. The theses maintained by the great voices of the century to whom critics generally accord the paternity of their ideas, are rarely the creator:; of more than the scaffolding and struc ture of what is presented. A largo pertion ef what the famous phi Losophes said had already been said before them.
And what they said, representing the influential oody of cel brated thinkers, was repeated, remoulded, viewed m ultifari ously by the less original, Lesser remembered writer*:;, whom
Mornet calls wri ters of ” t ro i s i^rne ordre , " b The cla ssifica tion and ranking of writers takes place as they become liter ary history, viewed by a posterity which finds a niche, a comfortable shelving, and gradually places lesser read works more and more out of reach, consequently narrowing down and simplifying for the readers who follow. The third rate writer may have had a brief sojourn with author*.; of prem i e r uru re. The author wrote to please the public taste. The lesser known writers mirrored their soc i ety whi1e spread i ng contemporary ideas and the thoughts of famous men among the salons and in the pe ti te bourgeois ie*. <7 Their books, and leaf lets became dog-eared and soiled as they traveled from hand to hand. One has only to consult the correspondences of the century to set; that Thieriot received a pamphlet from Volta 1 read it and passed it on to Bouret or someone else.
While the pol.ygraphe of short-lived fame served the pur pose of reflecting contemporary life and ideas, lie may have felt that., this same society had an unpaid debt, towards him.^ 6
Duclos believed that it was only just for him to cede his p lace to th ose of more l a s t i n g fame.
MLes hommes de talens doivent avoir plus de cftlAbritS, c'est leur recompense. Les gens u* esprit doivent Lrouver plus d'agrement dans It1 commercr-j puispu'ils cn pur* tent, da vantage • • * H 9
A LI facets of the author's .lift; as a member of ru d ely were determinants in his career, Beyond le peuplo, the social and financial standing of the family had an enormous
influence on the budding author. The scope and breadth of his education— its very nature-.-depended heavily on family standing. J 1’ I.he writer's f am i 1 y could afford to give him an education beyond reading and writing nit; name , he gener al 1 y attended a catholic school—a Jesuit one.- if he were
fortunate. Thorn he received a sound classical education where Greek and especially Latin were placed in the primary
per-it ton. The mother tongue was neglected. With this in struction in mind, it would t*' natural to expect the boy to have- a penchant for Lntel 1 retual pursuits, and perhaps to
influence the other hoys of hi;; family towards a e.lerioul or
intellectual ca reer.^ If the family were well placed socially, at court or with other prominent families, once
the writer began to produce, he had a better chance of reach
ing the public for several reasons; the lesser nobility wanted to read what the greater nobility read; and if the appropriate word were spoken to the right person, the author couln a'^oiu most censorship pro Herns, at least in itia lly .
These conditions (the social and financial position of the 7 family, education, and religion) also had considerable sway upon the size of his book market.H
Th" writer who reached maturity before 1750 often had family d ifficu lties vis-&-vis his career. These authors mostly came from modest or less than modest backgrounds which provided little or- r;o material aid in their artistic behalf. On the other hand, i 1' the family was in a position to offer assistance, it usually refused from the first, moment, that interest in a literary career was shown. If the youth stubbornly persisted, he might expect immediate severance from ail family ties for his choice in vocation
In addition to family problems, the author1 suffered other material, woes. His writing conditions were far from desirable. His deck, chair, and lighting were medieval at best, certainly not designed for comfort. Depending upon the size of his room, tie; heating facilities were often
/irossjy i nsu ffi c i ent. 1 5 Once at work, he was lucky if street noises, vendor's* cries, animal sounds, and numerous church bells pealing did not disturb id.; rrteu itation. When he wrote, it was on thick, bulky paper, with a:wan, goes*-, or raven quill pen and inferior ink resembling muddied water. A sub stitute for qui j . Is and ink was lead pencil:-;, with bread as erasers,-^ Worthy of a study in itse lf is the problem of the inadequacy of reference materials. Access to these cum bersome folius could often depend on personal acquisition or the proper contacts, once the source was located. The era of the tincyclop&die saw groat strides in printing techniques, u but possession of large numbers of texts was still reserved for the wealthy. These were not ideal conditions in which a dedicated man would want to spend many hours hard at work, such as did Bernard de Montfaucon (1o t t - l7^1) who for neariy hal f a century spent thirteen to fourteen hour:; each uay at his task . 1J
It is interesting to note what a contemporary considered
necessary criteria lor the professional homme de lettres. hirst he must be judged by a seasoned scholar-. Then,
" ...i l approf ondi ra, il coitiparera, 11 tie eomp- tera ni les lieu res, ri ies jours pour dScouvrir ce qui peut contri buer* & la perfection de son uuvrage." 1(; ills three c r i t i c s were; the author* him self, the jo u rn a lis ts and other cri tiers, and finally the public. The dedication to his profession is hardly less than that of a religious:
" ,..ii doit procurer & son esprit la libertS, a- se choisir urr* situation Lelie quo ee qu'il doit & son corps n 1 a 1 t-Sre jamais son time . Le eftlibat est l'fttat qui lui convient le mieux. Let; muses, touter vierges qu'ellec sent, tie sent pas exempte /Sic7' de la jalousie." ' Celibacy had another advanUpe Lou: there was only one mouth to feed .
The situation was not radically different from the time of Ronsaru. This poet earned riot a cent from the publication of his works, but lived en grand seigneur from numerous pen sions, a curate, two abbeys, several priories, and handsome gifts like the diamonds from hi ir.abeth of England, the silver buffet worth TjUdo francs from nary Ltuar-t.1'1 If a:i author hid not have a n-ime which crew esteem such as donsaru, end if his works, although of value, dia not merit a first place ranking, he s t i i l had a chance to continue his chosen profes sion provided he could attract funds from other sources.
The author who acquired wealth from inheritance or through riis own efforts (not inciusing writing),^ was as fortunate as he who received a lucrative position in the Church, especially given the concentration of the nation's wealth in t.he first estate. he si des acquired wealth arid church bene fices, the scholar could, like Marut and so many others, at tempt to gain favor with people of high r; tand i ng and full, purses who wuulu act as patrons. Lt.su.; wh ims i ral arm sLsuuier were totally unrelated johs which brought in a salary: so l diers, doctors, pharmacist;;, actors, painters, engineers, watchmakers (Beaumarchais). Closer to his true calling were vocations like proofreading, publishing, printing, or journal ism (BrS ron). Many preferred Jaw or1 teaching, which included private tutoring, even in subjects about which one knew nothr ng, ( Houseeau ) .
A steady salary as .a teacher could be a comfort, out. not an especially we 11-paying one. Having just received his
1 i cerice from the Sorbonne in 17f7, I'abbft de Morel let recounts in his Mtmoires the problem of locating a position, IT; ere was absolutely no help from his family. To continue finding shelter under the Sorbonne's roof, Morel let would have had to go on for Mle bonnet de docteur", wiLh fees from 70b to
HOd francs that he certainly could not afford. He could h a v taught, philosophy at one of the col l^ges which the Lor bonne 10 habi tually provided wi th teachers, but nothing was aval1able.
"Me faire prfetre de paroisse, fttait un parti auquel il m'fttait impossible de me rftsoudre. Je ne me croyais pas en Stat de vivre au mfttier d'homme de lettres. Enfin je me voyais, 1ittAralement, & la vei'lle de manquer de toute resource ."
In such a state of abandonment, an author frequently went about with holes in his shoes and stockings, in ragged oloth- ■'> ■> ing, and unkempt hair and body.
if ne could not live from his writings, he could use his pen for- someone rise's words, as a scribe or copyist. Or he could resort- to writing pornorgraph.y , eubMsheu abroau , t,<> earn a sou, btiiL sell i. tie; his pen he could fr- -g u<-nt 1 y find lazy preachers to provide with s e r m o n s .E m a i l wonder that priests were frowned upon as deists or libertines as they read from the pulpit. Just as the preacher found it conveni ent to nave his work done for him, the governmental official began to realize the vaiue of the man whom he* had formerly scorned. Whereas they s t i l l preferred to keep the Ii teralus out of active decision making, the leaders of the state weeu willing to h a v Lhe.ir own ideas expressed in ar: artistic fashion.
"En outre, plus d'un minis,tre, eomprenant nu'i. 1 fallalt compter de plus en plus, avec 1'opinion publique, remarquant quo les Serivains passaient de plus en plus pour eri ^Lre les rep rS: ;antants et m£me les guides, se dit qu'il pouvait fctre profitable de se servir d'eux."^^
Sometimes the author could take credit for his work; just as often, he did not have' the privilege of signing his name.db lie usually received some form of payment. ] 1
Publish trig his work also posed problems for the author.
He has put the finishing touches on his hand-penned manuscript which he then takes to the publisher, a powerful and ruthless man, even with authors who had al ready established a name fur th'srse ] ves , The fuhlish*'r as a businessman r< slices
Shat, a Hook will :; ■ ■ 1 1 well unl.y if' it. is in a genre wiii eh the public is in terested in r'ea.li r;r. He never knows if a hook will succeed. It is tu h i s advantage to t.r< fit n!i authors as thou(gh t.he i rs is assuredly not the one wn i rt will reap a handsome r e t u r n . w
" Le gain quo procure f-j oeuvre;; ue I'erprit tie- dS|oi!ii ( ni 11> leurs qualit? ;1 pr ij.y dirt of his name and previous successes, a famous writer might gamble on continued public favor, and bargai' w i ! h the publish'!’ fur a percentage oj' ids profits, The [jonn-f, lesser known man carrot afford I o wait, cinpl yliuido: for the future he reward or punish bin. fnr re f u pe he ri:ust :a 1 1 ins, work o u trig h t when he brings i: to [»• publ i shed , and while he s e tt le s on format and other r end r t i. err , ne a i r agrees on a price and signs a sealed document stating these details and the fact that he relinquishes all rights to H i whatever ret,urns the publication might y ie ld .1 ' This kind of contract, which Voltaire did not need to sign, certainly did not bother his rt 1 ationrhips with his publishers, as he lived from investment.;' which he made at his bun rs<-- 1 i K* ■ Kerney( from regttes fonc_i j'd’er with 1? quite a few famous French nobles,^' and from diverse enter prises which he brilliantly directed. Voltaire preferred to give away his books to his editors, to his friends, or to make publishing exchanges of the nights to his book in return for1 a .vr lain nural.et' of specially bun mi or : t** ’ ora l.e -1 a u th o r's nopie:;, win r.h ne then d i s t. r i bu t.ed to helpful on potentially helpful acquaintances. lb kept nothing for h i. m:;e l f . ^ Rousseau and bide ret- we re among, the ! y cc pt i o tin. (and exceptional) as authors who eventually fully supported them- reive;., by their literary fruits. bide ret, states that his ■ ■ n t i re career1 prenably brought i rj udfduu ?cu:; (which daeques Proust, one of his recent editors, equate:: to Jfu,dOb frarics or some e,0(ju francs per year: a meager sum for1 a man of letters in Paris in 1 7 0 3 - i'M.s funount was very unevenly dispersed, nine' the Fncy c i opSd i < ■ was the one.1 large source "!j nufig. bide rad approximately lt,odb francs in five year:;, baffcn, however, rcot; i ved lt,7so francs for "act volume of his H i s to i r* .■ natun ■ 1 1 e . Rousseau's cunning witn his. publishers bruuftiL hi i in unequal amount.:; on his various; works. lit r< is a g;ood example of the iifferences ;n contempurary public taste and pus ter i Ly 1 s judgment.: _l_e bi v l n du V1 1 1 age . 1.1 F.; Ja Dio L iunnai re de muni q ue , ' j(dpo p. at. once, or f,d-00 F. paid immediately plus a p>ens ion v i ag£re of nbO F. for the duration of his life (which he accepted, and which lasted twelve years); him li e . 7,0U0 F.; Fa sou vel 1 e H &■ 1 o i s e , d tano p.; a no le J u >. L r’a t so:: ia.l , * , hdo r , ^ J 1 j Such financial records are harder to locate for the second and third rate writer. One can assuire that, since his reputation was Less brillian t, he opted for a lump sum and turned over the rights to the publisher. It is also 1 i k e 1 y '.hat i f his c he t ~d 1 ue u v re was reeor.n i ;’ei as such , a. no he received any one of trie su:.. i - ■ i. t i ■ nee ate-e, ; nd occur re pul ar Ly . He ouuid till main tain his aura as a i i terary arti st l f he could coiiv l nee someone with an uper. pocket book o f his worth. Or he could f la tte r - the p u rse str’j.nps unti i they ■op'-aie.i. die: fawn in,-'. was unpleasant but expected. it was already hmdr-eds uf y>-ars ole. " ...s i j'av-'is [a de d£dier men: i i v re \ que1 qu 1 un , n’aurois pas...jett£ ]es yeux sur urn? personae simplement il lustre pas son ranp ou par su naissarice ; la protection des prands donne pen d1appui dans la rSpubl. ique des Lett res; les dfidicanes ue cette esp?-ee ne peuvent ^ t repile re envisages Sedan bay It , pie oomme une hunnfttL' mend i c i tft . M id Pensions could come1 from royalty or 1'rom the nobility, d f pcnerosity of kinp.s was less than iniplit be ex pec Leu, due to funds channeled - ■ 1 sewhe r-e ; wars, financial cm : arras w - merits. Durinp, the reipn of Louis XIV, the maximum spent for pensions was the relatively modest f/t,d(jp francs, with a mean sum of P'j0,000. Where actual funds ran tnin, the Kinp could add worldly poods Vaupcias received "les biens du feu ThSodore Aprippa d ’AubipnS, cunfisquS /s"ic7 j L e 1. acquis au r o i.”) J Louis XV was even le:;:' ry- ne runs, for several reasons. Firstly, he can inherited hue financial woes, of his pre a ttai id f a the r . ji-sund 1 y , beinp. a natural ly 14 timid person, he preferrori the solitude of the hunt, or an intimate dinner amonr; clone friend:;, to the yl it tori rip; display at the court. 7houp;h as a youth ho worked assiduously at his studio:;, he rarelyinvested time in literarydelights for tii' mere pleasure of r<-ad i up. Th rouc'hou t, his ro i qn h1, sdiow'sl no iin.i.r":;' i r; p y a t works or' authors. If he expressed some favor for the theater, it was undoubtedly because Madame de Pompadour enjoyed acting. I'here is no indication that Louis ever showed the slightest interest in knowing or passing judgment on anything else. He never P'ersrcutei; ' - uniter;: or the ph j i os uphe s , but never pre- ; e : {_nd t-h'ui: e i tdu r . 1 ndeed , hin d i in ' n wan > v jmml whe t. fje was litu c k eij t-v.' i'sarr that KriMl'Ti rl' II had d i m d witn ■;, c ■i ,t a i ■ r*e . h, pew of Lht ki up,1 n Leading m if. inters were any more absorber than their mentor in the literary outburst. they had short forms Mipoup.heut t. h* ■ r» ip!, and would not h a v e had the time to p. lv*: much support, everi If td.be r weighty pro ecru pa L ion:'; r; \ i ad nc; t ! ; verted them . ' ' busies tia. Jeft. a clear pietur* d' Ur- value of court 1 i a i - no for an * hers: "Lee: p/dr; do la Cour .n> a.d. ceux dent 1 »•:: Lett.ru s "fit, le pi U s a S’- leuer, \ !; i 1 t'lVni; an sense i.l i den nor ?i at. honme qui no pout no fa j re jour quo par son esprit, je lui dirois: Pilferer. tout, l'amit. i§ de vor ftpaux; o'cst la plus' stlre, la plus honn&to, & convert. j a pi us. until©! re- s, out. 1 •”; ;ef. its, amis qui rendont les: grandr serv \ oer, sans tyrannise r la r-.1 ;onrio i usance ; mu is . ;i vi us. '*■ void’s' q 11 * ■ des liaisots' do srri5t.£, !':ii f’s'- Is r *1 la \ .or ; oo -o/ ! ■ s j ! us up r? aid >■:; a I-:: meins permutes. I L;; a intent, 5 s’attacher un homme de mSrite. dont la reconno i ssanee peut .avoir* dr 1'Sclat." >8 hot counting; the k i np arid rn i. n i: tern: , t he :no:;k I epical stipend donor:; w er>‘ those who s t i 1 1 had a sou roe fra’ " real ’Tiiirey" ( i;i vfi: t hu friphtful f> earvial state* ■ t Mu- m ialit;, J, r' - mi * ■ 1 / th'* [if', nee:: of the hlet.nl, t' i rune i >• rs , l a fen a an t. , those anion/', the 1 i to rat i who m u ld .'harirrd off ■ m:e tf their1 own profit;1., ar.d foreign rule re:. Grit could hardly !Vay! ' h* e.oo' r'ij;; i ty t-f Fred {■ r i irk towards V o ltaire, Muup* rt.ui ;;, arid other:1 who.'n tu or tired t.o h : s ru* i f-mad e French rourt. at i-'i'l i a; e a r 'hat of father: *:e ! h( fro n t t-o I.1 i ■ a ret., V ■ 1 1 a i r* ■ , !e i: a a ,, At. Mad air e d» ifti ; aii'a.r war t t r ■* nr. i ■ r;. r .■ u: a. • t n< • ; hi i os oph< a a;; a cro u p , ami war a [at. ran to..: !‘ur pin. Am err. i le wealthy phi !osuppers, th.ere ar‘“ HeJv&t, iu s, pat ro t of Marivaux, and Volt. a ire, hauphfy l-Pr e-a,n:; : i ruin*-roar r ul 1 .'Wf’te arid a: p i rear: Is, . ...'are war not the only vehirle of' a patron':, Laiv.osse. fh .e i nuuwinents 'anil d t.ake the form ef !■ opiny (a .hoare ■ r roorn ai; a pi ft , or 1 i v i rip, wiLh t.he fam ily', t.ut.ra nr, Ida ■ ■hildrari r. t.he ffimiiy, the promise' of a pm;: tier, (.m .vre- mental or clerical) whom Ver- it. miph.t fal 1 vaeatit. , fret print: rip by t.he royal press, or1 the promise to ;urenase a v > rep tail: quantity ot hooks, once put 1 ndio: . fhe puvnrn.nent had din'*.-rent, methods of reward it.p it;; favored . There' von many positions t f. 1* fiiltd by ap- : e- i r ■ t men t., like the h i s t i v i us rap/p rs of Kriree, : h* nftTy t f rival lnu hi u p . , • >f impntn: pi i i sj rvs , . f t h< • ■■1 r. P r . f t h ■ ■ 16 Holy Ghost. This involved performance and production. In physical contact with the royal family, there were those d() . appointed readers to hiph royalty. Librarians to the ki rip's lib ra ry received 0,000 francs. Any number of s e c r e ta r ia ts ■■■iff.-red pres 1 i p.r as w* ■ ] I as f i nanr i. a 1 as s : s tun 4 ’ t h* ■ Luuvn ■, e f c . ) Irimm t ra ■ i .chan t J y depicts t. > i cold iinar.t: of an a u th o r1:; lif e w i f h r. i s pa t ro r>. "Wit has been so much thf fashion in Par1 is for1 time that fir- smallest financier's house is fille d wituAcau errs i c i ans .. r* with as pa rant: to an Academy. ;.e v* ■T> 1 h< ■ I > - s:., ir spits- of' this cap era joss , trie fin a n c ier is no 1 st.upia arid t.he author no less: poor1. if h» wants to ho In onto his place, lie must applaud the master's Uid taste; he must think i ike the one anu talk like the: other, he must suffer the haughtiness of the f i r s t and trie whims of t.he la tte r ; he must pair the r;oud will of the fawner”; or rues. - mates uf tdr- house. I n a wom, he must, fawn upon every one, even the most menial of servants: the porter, in order Lo nave entrance at mealtime; tiie flunkeys, in order net Lo be left wait, inp at the ta b le when he asks for somethin/- to drink; the waiting maid, trcauju the- fate of a book often depends upon the udpin'i'l s. he forms of it when she reads it at her mis tress ' t.ui H L. duct;, to te ll Lhe tru th , is the condition ion of oI an an author, ; who frequents the fine he-uses of’ P aras. " V Another means of se 1 f-pro s e r va t i on was in t.he f ir s t or t. a t e . Not only was trie Ghurch a uumpinp. prounds for daughters withuut a dowry, and sons who could not buy rank in Lhe military or r e c e i v e an education in any other way, i t was also a form of pat. ro nape fkrtnyh ‘he jinny hrnefi--es. which were procur-1 1 and prai.t e,i for* rent a n - . i wn: net unu. anl 17 to find multiple posts given to one mar:, which coulo insure financial comfort. Drawbacks such as celibacy were often overlooked, Dee the many parodies on priests who did not behave as one might expect, for1 a mar: of the clo th . Lofty pos i t i ora; l :: t r e n u r e : , hie ranch.* ; U'd. a. r ) an j r i • I e I ■ 1 : . : . : ■ ■ : ■ ' .■/■■■- , t 'U t 1 J o n - a d m I r: 1 S f I’a t 1 V e p o s i - !, luri;: w-r’e available,*' I'rie ' . omiM: d- ■ i e t tr* ■ s , trier., do-a.; prorur- means of sut- ; 1 r i , .r' 1 1 - ij1.:}), „:‘L i ,; a 1 : - o r :> r, i. ;:n i r i r a re a l p u s o t i I f j , ar.d t m- wci ‘u f e n jo y s re..- f m leu wnien re m its from i t . 1 i i>* ■ "!. y involves re re concerns 1: i ( Mconal ac 11 V i 11 e s as w-'l! as wr.at *■.. w rit's;— less fawn is. , few r t'j'dc; writ, t- r on c;munand t fewer1 ' i:': ’in l urns . bv" n 'h is u'wI'oimu freedom did not. s i r-;n l I’i can t 1 y chan -< ■ th*- type;; ,g' hooks writ, Leri. Ch.: ! o;; s e n i ng re s t r’a i it L was rath er a f".,r’:;un;il ana psyrhn- l''.-i;'al rain for tie- a ilh or. Die real nine r’a run , u i me r r r i i ( , i 1 • : until t. ne devolution. Diligence in rens or s n i p increases or decreases during trie century tic cor’d i ng. to who was at, its head, who influ enced lr;e ruling powers at Lh-- moment (f^., had am e :.i s ■ i u :::- p a d o u r ) , and indirectly the opinion ,■!' Lhe ih u rc b ie » r.. . I’ieury or th- Pul i e D ri i g;en i t us ) . As id' from trie d ires te ar ag de la I i brai r i e , several other o ff ic ia l f un-ups nad Llsur say iri Li;-- control of publication: the pari erne rib (with as little success as trie earlier ruling faculty of theology of 'he ’.'ni versify of P aris); in some a : ; s ; p ro m re urs. a —' lawyers ; t lie pe-1 ; re ; arm a in'iic -a ce:s:- , who--*- o- uib* rs lb were classified and bound to their duties in 171KJ by k? catPKories and genres. In several of these bodies, the control was only indirect. Although the Church could not say yes or no to the government1n 'incisions, the 1 rucx I : bru ru :ii grot 1 si t< >run spurt" for ■ tss: 1 I' ami -lie f i na 1 1 y sway oj.'i nion:;, * J ivw^n -aff'T a Ihjk was, p’*lnfeii ana sa l rn-e*-iv'-U permission, it couiu enntinue to !"' plaguea t.,y par 1. emt ■ n t or In" r I er/\y » menaced by th re a ts • >f pros* 'es t i on. I’h is cou Ld eventual 1 y chase1 the publ i oat 1 01, u/Hi-ryi'oJriii , f * wr: i oh u iu net imp'-u" its success at all. there was nothing i i lo.- a bit. of scandai * a ad vert i ;;•* (’or i.h* co 1 ported rs . 1'pe das. ie t'u 1 !\)1' <•’ tiS C'Snil W"Ce set fopth ! n a law pass'-r] by the King's e n u r e ; 1 e, f s ta te ir. 1 7'd'* . in 1 ir i e f , it, r,|.’']uir,'-'i a 1 1 a u th o rs, m joI: s >■ 1 ] f r s , or p rin t' r s t'o submit * i gh t, eupirs"* of their' ; ubi 1 cit.i u,ri, and to deques i e t 'e r r of p riv ile g e . > r * ; r sn j :; s i ,0 n an: Pro1 Jr'-ut deal of tne s u‘. In I’/.'o, mas," anu -Tig.ra v i ntn w-ri i n : 1 uuej in the requ i r*. copy for *■ xarn i nut i on . ..•/ At '..his s fa, / * 1 ne author a no p ubl i she r * ,: problems wepo t . tnporar t 1 y in a void, while th" c e n so r's ■] l.t'l'icul 1 p-:’ nan ju st iu.. was hio. r< t i - i'r'11 1 y res pur,., i nl e for r-vciy word wri tte n , whicr: included the ;:iul t,i .ius ruses of writers win. had we 1 1 _s tad i-u technique for lisguisih,-, wuat, was most 1 LrU l,y o.^a.fer f-. what '.h> censor all owed • 01: c < th- censor had studied the wort, th" fi-'X t d e c isio n was of j;n. at 1 mpor tan re to his c aree r and his w 1 1 - s1: ■ \f \ . If trie booh 1 ■< i ■ 1 \ v ei i ] e rt; i s s i ■ : t., S' has * 1 u ■ ■ I : ■ wr! : c \, f a ha r : ‘‘ 1 1 ■ f na nr r ■ ■ : : 1 r:i h u- w; a 1 :: 19 or permission clandes 11ne (s imple tolerance ).J^ If the book did not receive pennies ion, the examiner mi^ht still have to answer to someone more* powerful than he, who p res sured his decision because of friendship or relationship with, the author, :lo be t ’ t M stivals has char! -'d a yearly ? at is t i oai study r ; t wee t i 1V‘»7 ar t IV'—, ef exactly how many works- rtq ue:; tea pe rm i s. s i o.n, arc of that number, how many receiver it or t * were o' mod, ' urn can immediately draw a numtx r of cor.elu- s i oils from t h i 2 ve ry i nformat i ve c h a r t. ['here is a no I icrab,e ai.d steady iri,r,ea:;*‘ in request; demand'~u , which s upa-a s f s that a i. r. if at f at was ‘‘a v . r > 1 t 1 1 ■ < ■ h r. . ' ■ a 1ad va»r*‘ o , [ .y 1 : or'* as» : ' ' t" r. .it tj* r ■ f wrb ' < ”s , ar;. i : y ■ re w '"re - - : ■ o:. from re;; t rn i nt in r r ■< i 'do nme fa vo ra h : > ■ ■< i ,d : * i e r:;; ;nd weakening of au-hi >r:ty ar*' viol LI. with each cunnre it: urres- t.or. 'fi;t pt ■ r*n. i ; v t - jeuyHy ! “ . "Air . e i e-s i V - m , plus Fa ■ L t': 'o r. f v< ra : ’/ . * !, run* a* vt ra i V d d , ; ra s.pa pi j;. rise j.t s 1 op- pcia , prat : !]ae:i;tn. t a la lii'fasiun do M e s jrrl nouveau. II n'y a plus de lutte veritable '.r: 're la f . i ah t - brotaie arid 1 ‘aut.ori tS • t 1 er i < tfte s , ba hat.ai 1 1 e :. f ! i v rn t r:i re d e;. op i n i e > a ■ , ’.mbit, i hi,: r 1 c cftt®, o.;. s ■' ■; d. : c i sm- : , ; ®_ pa Lions .arid r§ Voltes de ] 1 au L re . " t '■ l’c say Hint a work did not receive pr rniission for print iny. was r.. , sav that. i f war. ; rid e r.noj- - tha t w;i: o no t ne r maIt ' r e u t : r* ■ 1 y , A dry ! i : t. i i p . , f : urn i«■ r::’ , -stew r1 *1 ■ . i t 1 y r it, w mar iy i. < • ; ■ w • r* ; r this ■ ■ i ft ■ s\ ■ r y sm f ■ .it 1 ■ ■ ?() dun to lack of records and to the d if’fuse branches ol’ power which could call for laceration and burning, Hachrnann lists over a thousand between 1710-17Jb, while Hocquain shows around hqo from 1 V’l t until the Hevolution, his figures, i oW' v r , ar< in n >mp 1 e 11 ■ j >, that he has 11 umj i led 1 a, L y those e i ■ ud e in n< ■ d by the1 Jens* il d'Ktat., toe barlornert,, t.he Jhftta let., and the brand Council, ' with no mention of ecclesiastical, p re i nf 1 i a 1 , or other control. 1 11 very troau t.rrms, m n- :;orni:i[ ever since Fr.'Uip. s I aimed he prot* ct r< J i f ■ i or:, eoyalt.y and the individual, ("heresy, sedition, and pe rs 1 an 1 1 i in ! e x s 1 us 1 /e I y " } , tie r 1 was ;i. ■ !' !",:il si f t ■ f. r ini: a.-'. d.l ! i'nfi i l s’t, : i! a * e r i a 1 .Jds 1 re.o r.t-day e. hsurildf is muer. no . r*- r* i s. i u i haii li at d’ t. h* - ■ i r.ntoe-. ’.h -■■-s'ury reyard i iy pt ■ r nop raphv , which at that time became t nuisance to the Llatr only win t: l involved a scarcely dissuiseu ,ind . * r.s itive prominent ; • rs e n . ■- on Jem nod hi 'ok sd r< w a :.[ l o s t.) <: 1 i e n t e [ e „ bar ! .■ 1 < r il'ismi trii as the perfect example f I'uus sn 1 n t. 1 s Le s P oe urs . ."ho "arr^t !u bar J er;|t.fl t," made preci> as a text, wh i on was nearly untouched tit hope i t.s imlii'i' ty , whereas afterwards everyone tasked, "Have you read Le s. Poe urs ?" A sinp.Je eupy mip.ht sai i Ihr’oupn fif ty hands in m tin-e at all. "la pofit d la f'uidvid t.S ru double 'on jour:.; pour les chores .iSf endues ',yJ When such' effective publicity enhanced popularity and raised t.he se 1 1 i np-pr i ce of the book, it. is r.d> rs. laudable why .sm,* authors would urrunpe it. ad vane- t i ■ tor ttr - : r t .0 . y ■ ,, t «■ ■ a 1 en; ne,] . .hey .said w r : ' > ■ on o' e r the cloak of' anonymity to avoid lethal problems, arid when an obvious tie in style betrayed the true creator, he1 could always deny it adamantly. Many Limes Voltaire: put more effort, into denial than he put into the composition. He would deny lorn, '-rtouph at id loud e’S'Urh until fin a lly prop in > i nelieved (or1 feigned to relieve! that it was. to.. The nobility and t.he clergy we-re always tin first * o scoop- up '. e the- for hi dd'-n t ni 1 t.. besides publication unaer ar: assumed n;une, or no name at a l l , there* were endless t ri tkr; to "vade strict censorship limltati ais. otif conic forpe she ilare or' (ublication, w i * ci ■ a- i r i v * s : ham* p - o -! i si * r: , ■ r na v* ■ the wi - tu r printed arr'uad and s m ue,p 1 < ■■: i r. t ‘ he '.-(jijh: ry , I'-i'i'tiile pieces for the colporteur1 who soda thf privately, s i;us J e manteau. It was prudent to seek out a friendly censor, or wait, jnt.il approval arc Ur r auc as 1 n t re -a i j <' t l : r., dedication, or appeadi*. A r V: urne :p. s us'-d ry t n n ;k :■ e i i »■ r s an*! ( u to i s rr ■ re; to encoura...,e ‘-vac i on w‘-re conv i r:e i rip. arid ■ ■ f f i ea ci u u s: even a s* al( l pe'*rri i s s . or. c ",j 1 a not s.jarun t ee .s.ifrfy from la ten condemnat i or:. fenscre w:-n rare 1 y r* s i *• • ted as ,j u l p ’i: , ''ven in tin lr own fields of s ps- 1 la ity . 1 prior in/ riuu wnich carried with it, severe- pumsnmenL fur author, pu t -1 i s: r- r , seller1, censor1, and anyone else who mipht be Lanpentially involved. Yet offenders were pettinp bolder, taking [iiur-’ 1 i N rt. i o. , A man can if tele wh- i * - no jr.h i mpor tan; u o p 1 t . r n s O" n i no r l ;i, ;ipj i n was j 1 < l t.e s * r ■■ ■ r l nd i. * d , 'itid by dint . < f I,:, i: Academic Krani/aise arid the provincial academies, formed a synthesis of magistrates and leaders in every field well founheu in t.h‘- t rad ; t ion whiii.'h tne phi lui; opho s we'> in t. • i»■ process of attack i ny. It was they, the " de fense urs se la trad ! ti on" , who sLrenptheneu tie. ph it usoph.es . It was soon el. epan t to scoff at the prejudices, superstition, and fana ticism all around them, " ir?'s vite m£me on est convaincu qu'ii n'y a pas de dip.uiffi humaine sans la lib erty de pensSe, r: i d'orcr’e social. sans to 1 France. ■Jh.o.L a i ns i -j je |e s map, i s tra ts e ax-m?;mes SO 1 ant Sens complices deS philosopher e f i f rs .■ 1 'u u te ritS -p d ils I'^sonteut, ." ' ' With his army of s upperI cts tne pr s i 1 os opln ■ was w i 1 1 i nr. to risk conf i scat i on of "Mens et ■•orps", fhe Patter could * * sf > ^ Y involve irpprisonment , the pal leva:., the- pillory, even death.' „,,es:.; harmful phy s i ■: a 1 1 y , we r-e d s f r'uc f u 1 r; of socks , p rin t in, equ i pmen t. , saspens i Ljn of pe run i s s i. an or ript.ls to lea! with the public. Hurninp w o k :; was a common penal tj . it x i L e war; lean, frequently use 1 than prison as a punish ment. (Jiivi. the l a t t e r was i mpe up \ rip, tue writer often uiip-uoi t.he former1 or; himself ( . , foyer). Voltaire, MorM- 1 e t , and many others has tasted hi. th . rut it is a fact tii at the well known w riter was much less i neon veil i voiced by his : ncarcerat i on than thf- one of fleetinp fame. Pellisson describes what More] let., ate at one such stay in prison: his uisner* (at. midday ) eur,.: ; ;p , , j , p irons, a soup, be* f, an enti’Sf1, and a d e s s e r t. in the evening he had a roast- and a salad.In the same situation, r’rSron received every possible oomi'ori irciudinp, heat, books, visitors, and amusemerit-.' For evi.-ry author who nisohteyed r m s o r s h L p r -i 1 *.■.: and was ; " jn i :*n* ■ ■ i , * he ’• < w- ■ r■ ■ ' m!:‘ others wni > w*1 re never1 "Vfii appi1 <;i'aej at.-ml what * h: y wrote, eih!s.r because Lh.ey successfully rnanoeu^red their evasive ruses, or the i r topics we r‘e of :as;ri ]’:■* ■ e : ■1 y what ,;ncn c a he, a e-: ewere jn difficult, t a i s ■ ■* :•!. i ■ ■ he . i r1 1 - l<: a"r.:' . f r* ■■ re n . d.a I : r t i e,-; I ‘hi: type ar- ■ : , 1 :.r i : . ’ at i * ar , tot it yet , no a* ra" don* in. 1. 1 . f : 1;';’ r a ‘ nr* wri ■. h w-eilc y i * ■ i ■ i -:a: ; i v e remit:;. r suit i n pe r I pi e r a ! a t an ' ■ a , : i w* v < ■ r , [die m n pet. a pose i d a !' use a:. was written oar-Lop, th*. i r* .iry, ana f ‘e*- v ; - ■ i n: ■ i i i jtn ■; : j | -"I-■ i ! ar : * y fr.-s- ra year .a.nott--r*. hh*e 1 a. e..-,--; ar* ; rt.a.nt. it; tn* : ‘ jay . f ‘re j r.o!’ writer * :'j ''(diij 1,,-y s i *.-•*• n it rate ar .1 full a r e h-t , p.., i r , - . j p y r/i a u : t , ana .: i u ■; n> ■ , \ r. t j ra:, a o t,t ■ rta i t c t what will a *.. w ft,* : n t* r* . s. .. f r. t .. > j ■ r ;: . hr -, ti-r. at l ft- J r$ i1 1 1 a .. ir ■ ■ [ -* r:a >r ta 1 i I i. efor [ *. ‘ * r: f y ,w'r if- t n*. ■aho£ lay t rs its S:;e - a,- 1 r* ' le fd. r. hrc-r.: tint ri a Jy , ; :.l" 1 1 > 1 f a a 1 1 y , at. - i lit* ra r i ! y .a >-♦, *t. -tit fra i . oe i < f y , 11. r- diost tod at !1 ehunp,e is. tin- uss- arpr i s i np, let! it;, nf in te r e s t if. o r't f'.u-l' .j x r-e] i p i oil and Lhenlopy ar:'! flu- rise i r: ' a! j ■ *' ts i ■ i t 1! y ■ i e ; ; ■ : i ■ . ' | , rd : • ■. ■ i i i :* ■ It. } * ■ r:n 1 s i ■ -s. f> t* bp I Jen; 1 • t t rs . , > * : ; wort.nwt, 1 i - t : s.- rv t.u-u t. a * h," same t l t:r , !M*-y s t , 1 1 r< ; >re,.( * ■ t . i ■, r. < - : i, j ; dd pppr. pntoyp of interpst with th'1 rl^htppnth c.pntury klnir, nrl- pncp , whlrh tocret.hpr with hp 1 ] er 1 r t t.rps romponen nearly plrht v ner rent of ! Iip t.nrl* rp nri 1 r r 1 onr and u p t.n six ty per c pn 1 at pa t > 1 If’ pp m 1 r r 1 on.1-' , W h 1 1 p he 1 lor 1 ot t. reschan trod ! 1 t ' I i' -is a >■ i'n > i t ■, t h a r 1 ■ w f ■ r p W i * ' ■ >• l ■' > r 1 i ■ a r i': in a,/ r 1h 1 <' a f 1 < -ri -1; . h<'r 'I'dn l" to Fnrmt ( rnntyy, and tfn n ]ct sslrs rayp ' 7 ) way * n pro" p ( ! d ° fi 1 o t ‘tri op t o t n p w p (jn r o " ( n . ,r, , art an 1 ra] " ' " a p 1 * ) a 1 ■ - p t I . f ■ t-h 1 1 ny n rh 1 r a 1 f a 1 p ) an " l:'J 1 /ht f’ri' o-t 1 n f o !•(■." t 1 M o’-oa" w 1111' h !''iv’r,irl v war a "c- I at 1 vp I '/ unknown ( . r . , r y n t 1 r rn ya ra" and o t fa r t )'a’"d 1 1 t r ra t i j pa ) . py all 1 n ■ M o a t 1 o r; ■: ( ;' a ' p f' a t * >j a " a • 1 t, r TT' o : : t r a ;y (■■■ p < 1 i ' p p * w t a ■ r ] 1 f '■ - 1 ' ■ ■ 11 , and v *' * 1 t ” ,1 1 1. r u a ! do.' d a ’' a r i m '■how' a a e r ! i r i < ■ In it" rp,,1rw" and in rtura or-rat i f*d d ari nr thi" i r rirw1 , Inir is p x n 1 1 m h-1 o warn onr ma 11 mr fhr rhanmr t. aklnr a! am w 1 t h 1 p t hp Jon i'n a-!, l .o . mn pp \n t pppr t. in nr 1 prir p m r op, hat 1 n"" 1 n t f ’ r a t it; t h < ■ ■ ■ t p ■ ■ ) a ! i - ’ “ t or! <■:' t w " 1 r h w r y r ti.arp ■1 1 p 11 in a raft of' n p w 1 v *1 o \ at- 'nr, r i-f't 1 v r r : p r:' i ! 1 ' ■ 1; ■> n r - aal'-. 'dial t\1(. pirn In rplpnrr w r not a'" rnarp a" on*1 tri ,a.| iiyf.pct at t o i r' f1 r ■ < "> f' r 1 r pot hard 'a a t : d p r ■' t a n d j i V'n f t n f V ! - o, y v t ' ' ■) t it J./ \■ l” ^ t V ■ # i f 1 'jmo f> * ] K1* fd'Orf ( !■; Ifi'1, 1 i'Jii at tar a r i -1n n1n r of t v i r m n t a r v, w h i n h w a ’ d y 1n t1 out ; r a t t, p i ■ ( it war t hat k.. - a r r a 1 r ■') h 1 i n in* "i‘“fd w a'1 r.'an on tap rrrPftrr1 ■ >lt ' 'ar M jp t ran 11 p t 1 nri of " „■ r*ru 1 1 n f o it/u' " . 1 hynpt ’'; 1 1 1 d'a r v rtadv mako" t hp strik in g dlrrovorv that In t. won t. y-1. tiro r out of f 1 v a hand rod 1 i hi-a r 1 ca ■ , t Vjr riatai'al a('1onmr ( inrpf'tr and ar; 1 ran 1 " , r 1 1 k nunu f ar t a r< - , r ra ) ri : .pod ar t 1 or; and t rad r ) nrhii 1 <>d on p f 1 f t n o * r ar n t p ’ a 1 , Ehrard and Ho/jer attribute the increase oT historical 7 d output, to i ml; pi rat I on by contemporary eventr.1 The whole natur- of t. i story mo thud ol opy was ehanpinp; from the ricar I’ I c 111 i u’uo qualify at. theope: n i up, of the '■-enfury, to a mure ■ rr a ' t * ■ , t< ■ M > ■ r unit u , r prt t.a t. i < t: ■ t far t . Trie :n; j ; : l. r * -::(oat a: o ■ n ■ • • . ■ ■f -ra: p;: 5a to U. * ■ l r <■ wi, had a way op utni* ■ r I i : i i a, :.Oe w' akr< m e of tie contemporary u a O'■ , ' v i y ., be b i ^ o 1 * ■ ;<■ b* u 1 r hJua liArAiliXll To- r tin. c urn , J_1 li i to i re _h_ bo b:>■: a i ) . v; Tie. o;, ’ .. tiv wt r1’ r1 lat i ly j t. i :;ipo r far b. as.d did not. . - a.; ; \-\.t ■... t p. e. o* . I ' 0- j 1 V, , !., O'! ■ b O' ; a ' ' : . W d - , : re U * ! 1 ■ ; * ‘ U'ai l,y ' ■ a: a . 1- a all w rl e : * o a '‘or i . r- pel '.a ! " art, ' no t -a;l:i 1 u. a -ph> - wr, ■ e : hi rv a r< -a:- i:i t * r> a w; ra-.; i'i.11 " eh.aou!. ;;a 1 L p. - * ■ a l ! i1 a pad ! * ) ra l t : 11 a id.'r: 1 U'' | r ■ 1 1 ■ -1 i ; o , . :;,oy t ■ nr." , t ■. ■ - t aa loop .in XV! * ^ , ;j'a : r^or-oo :/j.- 'p if d* 1 po 1 ! ; n . ph ’ e 1 . " " > u i i■ o v' r wd.a t. i 1 i i ? t.i ■ ;•* ■at " ; ' of j o : . : :aa < • o " , ’ t :; r .a r,y * r- v i ■ w the' r a- c- 1 ■ - a : * p < ■ r : ■ ■:'- P : ei r : a - i i a.: iiu Ehr-aru, a a a. ■ 11 .;, r and t .' i. t 11 ( and then ' ao ■ i t t>. e o o.: o o - ra t, i ■ ■ o t m ■ ■ t a k a ova ■ ■ P orat o I a; :; i ■': ea i < r mu w a t, a t.h< r1 ■ ■ ac t .a..1 ■ 1' a> > 11., '. : t u' f: t.. '■ > ■ t t.h L:. . a a' i *■ ■ t■ v * "Le livre e i: epp,.*, t . ( ,j, j, a. oailj uri'.1 P-'i.: Seri t, imprimS, re.li5, 1.1 ;a oaf Pit i lul-tn^-me. b'e'-ut prir '.in el'fcrl d 1 i o L&f. ra t i ui. quo nous !e n d ruuvon:; moyen pe euiri! un i 0 1 ' i.nn (.-ot. re un au- t." a r '■!, fa r. ra ri; e.: ■ ■'' i a 1 pin:: - u ra. ■ i t::; a t t ra i t q 11e 1 * on tajiiao ■ . ; ,i 1 i 1 i I ;u ■ : t St■ r* i t P"->tr | l a ’ f , Oi'ur * 1 a : re r 1 j -ar t 6i:. ir .' a o. a a ■ a a ' . ; : vr- . - ee t - ■ - an"' tout. C'est, 1'in tention avrmeo on implieite; mnis en rS a lit§ il e st part if . P artic d 1un 'genre' , d*une s peon la t ion , d 1 un mode dfexprer:- sion collective, de moder. aussi. Nous l'enraci- nons en l'humain quand par l%maiy:;e de sa mati&re, la discrimination de res regies, de ses limites ou d*- sea mSoan i erne s , Lee determinations de J'in- f 1 lie nee , nous 1 ' ■ r& tu b 1 1 s s on;-; nans non f 1 e r. re ou nous retrouvor:; la d&rnarebi par quoi il es.t ta i t I amsure : ici 1 t i. i t, ^nature 1 et h is to ir e chem i n* ■ n t de cuiicrrl pour I * a p ; oche i t. !‘o sauvepard du s i npui if r . " ^ > Id: i rip cor: temporary jud^iif rit. a s t a n d a r d of m e a s u re , t d i * ■ ;nus t read huorts wer* < dd i t: net the same one:; wnirh one co n sid er:; nLO.ewf.uMpy to d a y . j t i ■ way ; a b [ L e op L n i ■ r: did md always cnuoce wnat * * lay r* i:ia ; r a.: ' n- ■ ■ d ,'r M ee- ’ f, ■ ‘f r; t.11 ry ' d as s i c s , it is ’ ‘ f' ;111 a ry t . ' as ■ ■ a ■ d ■ ; ■ < r ■ ■ ■ “ M Us- ■ wa: : d 11; ■ tp> S> oac 1 ; Ja nae c i o j i a v- a , ■ r i r- [ -o r as, to lie w j:; a j; y p< u p l 11 w r> ■ c a pa bit of reauiup., and ar. e f. s a d d e r as r 1 s.u : t. o f Mr |u;n i ^ f fir be- >k n r« -an , i__f : b w• r > e •>o , e1 j U wtiu : ■ ou 1 d re a d , r said, 1 tan, than ci* - d f l l':i; i t. i o 1 I'I.oa pel .1J : -,o'. k S . i’i u s t people read wria'“ver "tom be : ous 1 e r Ida in", an,.; r- - re:; t were only i n te r,f ■ te.: u c an,- * rou. t ,i 1;: . the i r sc. le pu id- for' quality or infere..;, wan : a ratio f td :* au lb o , an : c . fo r1 un. i' >i'.'u: fo r 1 p u. i jo. i ■ au t 11 or . 1 t a ; r< ■ i ..till mere pei;:. im ir t L■: an i ; r* e L s> in uiii.t,.; ‘ c ■ r t.y , r id f ty i'1 Jd . 11. 1 \ ' (■*'!' W 1 ■ i * it j l t ■ n * 1 t d . i j | is . n 1 e i s. a; , a' \ 1 t ■ 1 t: a.), id' i t. i " plainarud1 , a: ; m l(!. . ’ ' d . . f i t . . . ; i t 1 ay . 1 A sn*• c i J’ i ■■ xamp 1 *■ r*pa; di r.p, t ■: i b 1 i i ■ t-as t f1 and u 1 t i. n.a tu i a ;■ a s : ! . t y a no v a I u- : . ’ >, t j ; pa:n« ) by da i. l b ' , w.n : a 1 *7 { phi losophie ci <• how ton ; or* in tho natural no i on no a , which spurred pjroat i rite re at, the Du tori author Ci or da r t 's I 1 Hio- Lui re it's insec tea war round in to out of the hOd libraries that Mornet studied, which w;i; :nurh more popular titan L* ■ t t !’■ • our 1 <:.: npoi' ‘on • 1 ■ .~ . I i .; i t; t * ■ to ;; L l up. ■ n> d. • ■ tea*.t o no 1 of Lt; < ■ a hi ■ v * ■ ;io e - ‘ : an a 1 i a-■ ra Lure read anytriinpa*, all to do with jjy po up i < . A1.1. * j ■ > l; f _;r: " phi i osopiiy " l*d't te a r :; ■ d’ ph i i. an ah ropy , de v ■ i op i up, a r i d t. i V i to , at'.: a iVw v i ■■■ :,a '1 > I a i \y wotM.; on ho arpno ; h i *■ ananaji 1 i iy, its ovrnil 'dd'ont it; the peasant • : a. wan t ■ I i i: ■ 1 - . i L ■ ra i. u > .m i i a t t -, ad a mo m v 1 .1 o - ■ " a 1 i p; ■ a 1 , '.to ’to : e ' ■ ■ : [ > -r ‘ wa; r,t.: ■ ■ . A;: ; d * - r, t : o A 1 ':i. tea ■■ ■. wl . : ■ ■ o ' ■1 * .: ; o- a 1 . ' ; ' ■ ■ t ■■ 7 < ry eh , a.- ., t r ■' - ma i t. 1 it'tai'y i r;h t' ’ft au: a ■< ■ : r i v ■. ■ i v e. j e( | ■ : ;, >: ; ■ ■ i tli*1 r joy, i r' tp -a tl. L . " 1 i'u ’ ; r;- * h*’ ! 'W* ■ r c a.-i't a i t.or e; ho y t .; ■ e ■* ■ ah ■ a , t no r' tor 1 ' i * * ■ a , 1 a," p < t ■ i : ■■ ■ ■ * urs»■ !’r ee a en app-t a i < ; *o a ;ni r - r- :'i o ; P-v* ' to, , ao- ou. th.P i::.. j. p r d' . t. a t 1 ■ ■ i i.e. . a ; : h- a , t ru ■ to.* | alar1, an i ’ ra i tea we i an W" O' ■ rar- 1 y"j t . ‘ a .a -; . , w "> i.iac:*- : i co:t ■ ! to ■h - ■ nrewd; "...pare.' j.- t. attr' i po pendent ■ay ant cup j a - ■:: lA itdd no; ■ et to ins pa 1*' numor*" ■ i - ■ puna p.l 1 L o ppo a , i 1 a :‘ui lu 1'air* , pour i-a; p. u.;n i ! ^TTonneu: p- c o d> rn i 1 ra , aiio qountLt^ 1 * So r i a ura-o p o i'ot. puisne lie.- ,;unn p<‘!i;;‘..T, " I a ‘'ici' • nay a * L:: wa • y- ’ at.. ■ •h“ r 1 i ;:i : ‘ a ' i > u *.'< r Ma .% r ; t r !’ ! 1 .:.' ■ ■'■ '; > u .* y , ;: ; e> ••• ■: : ■i i : i ■ e■1 > ■ vv i. ;.. !: : . ■a,. > : ■' a c. , ' w ;. e. a- ' ' ■ i o * ; , a a ' ; ! 1 , - ; ■ fie wan ah a r t at the Imitation of Buff on o r Moritnaajtiiou or another whom riuine hah a trait, of admirers from which hr could profit, as far as s t y l ■ ana nh-.o. . What Caracr i t 1 i 1 r. twelve prr o-tit who chose M pr./d books" miphl cal 1 t r i i a : , v ■ j s i r., ana i ■ * i v ■: i r t .■ : 1 i i ! ■ t ; i ' .1 ' ' . . *'.i* ' ' r . ., r■ i t ■ r wt nan rt op-1 n o : 1 : 1 I 1 [ ' J . w . a,. , .. t ! a ' . ( r ■ a ! on* : a \ ' 1 . !’h1 a:t::11 ■ i "iii,■. I W f1 i • 1 1 V W J s, ’ ■ M : j ; m friend:; m f’ar:;i]y at, home and rereimtrd tda rur'aunr ■ t‘ 1 hr < ' J F ren ch war Id ( e ^ . , Le L Lm r ■•hnioliajL:, n r Le t t.M a; j a i ver. ■' ) ? AJ though C'" nr op:; h i y aii'ied a!, . a; fi t ra ■ 1 i ny, Un- ;u!:our f and kind ■ , j V- : ■ r’ L* * r' r 1 ■ t! 1 e a v. i . ■ h * ■1 1 ■' * a* a i : ' ' a ■ v- ra- ■i*. . - .M' t t: f ■ t11 ■ t!. f. : ' ■ re ■ ■ i et, . - ■. , '<■ ■ r :a 1 ■ i ( t. tea ■ i V ; r .■ i i r< ■ c I. i y i :; f ! > ; i; ■ > : ! e '] r .. y 1 < • . fh* t.* a.i. i .• wh i rb It a . tUtn t;r . ■ re ■< r r fa I i y r : ■■ 1 ■” * ■' ''''l Mar’ ra in! -a* ; en i r hrM ■ r. t . :'n- i'. /w> : an : i i .-(.■■ ■ . ■ " ■. >., : •: r \ a. ,, ■ a ar r : (:1 a 1 a r h“ a;i(t.r..r;:. financial ■ . r ■ da^, ;■ a ■ ir t.an-a- M- j ravi lea. I : :; ■ > : ‘ i ! i t . a Iw t.‘ ■:. ‘ e*1 f1 a r ■ r ' a ‘‘ ' ' * ! 1 ci i J y » r i I i: . i ■ - i ■ Or a r j 11 , a a* ■r y r i ■' w ■ ■ r ■ i, * . ■ ■ . r a r •y , O n in ., ‘ a > : t >. S' 1 a fa-' a' ‘ (■ .a aac > - if i c fi . niia t, L; a . ‘ !.':<■ ear we a ■. ■ ■ r i : '■ , r ■ ' - , ■ eri j * i > ■ a : * ;. ;. i r ■ a a ; ; ; 'a - ra r i 1 . ’a a * : a . a e t' a a ! y M i ri;t : t ; I L a i i ' id" *, r a ■ w r i M ■ r 1 r : r a ' 1 : i* ■ r a* . a, A : a - a- f ■' ■ i ; 1 1 a. ' 1 ‘ a I 1 i ‘ ■ r a i_ i re 11:. Me way ’ r ae r i f -a ■ r . n : 1 : a’ . law a , :r * d i . ■ i r , M - i. ■ ! , vy, - - r ’ e ■ , ! : Mary a i l i ■ ; I t,h * i; - < a v r * t; I ' i L m e v. ■.: a t -u ] a r ’y a ea a i , ; t ; ■ ■ a : : a : ’ !'■■ >.* !' i < 1 dr . A ! r i .ri) i 'a i • .a r‘e a: i -a ■ ■ a .; ! m ; .! a ea : rrji - ■ r e >u r w*'r* t,h“ iC.'Mi-tr,] >'■: ( wr. i ah >: rr a: a r‘a ; y a f> r' ; (■ r a ’firm: .ra ■ j r ]i vata-d id e a : a*id a r * i -; t*y . i a 1 ’ a ■ ■ r ■ t I • a . ■ r> : t a r ■ 1 y r i r d' ■ ■ a e ’ a L t. ■ • ■ i . a a ■ ■ e r t a a , ; - ■; ; : ■ w1 r 1 - ■. ■ M r; > : i' a . v M i ’ . .: -; ■/!.' i A ' *. ': ‘ '' : ‘ ; M : p . i ;. I - ; ‘ *i :i.; i : ■ j , ■ o ! • [ [ . ■ i < i i ; ?;■■'= , r 11 ■ i ill. : M i;:; .Hi ; > j ;. *'3UTMI n r' * [ [jynn;, ] op ‘. i v o p i n v n | op .i; iati m o m MMPp ‘ jri.jA it'*' i ti [ no■: i nui! m -. ujiijo ” - < T ■ M.iAT. , rib j a T A V - 1'!■ n'J VlO.inOfA "i • > ■"> rMou^ 'n o I ■: ’ ng.j'i o -\ n ; i a . r i t n b i n | ; r . ’ "ino-. ; ■ m ■■ > j ■ I ' , n P -j: ; t n n t? ' 'i - > f < pio^-iPo , n t> of Vi' ” r j l o mow * t ■':ii . i ’' i 7 mm t."; g ”'i. ■ t j-t.; i MMn.ip,, I:. I -m ; ••il-' r ■ i ■ - ; t ■'1 ■ < M , I .» o r j . ; . j . j-ni; ■■<,, ^ - f i •: . ; ; ’ ::: ■ v | r -. I -■ r* ’ J M ■I’. ;; V i * ■ M. T:'“ V I . i t ■ ■ i ;: : m m ; MiR.'J -Mi' * ■, ■ i , i . .!' 1 f > r r .! >:; *1 i ' t m i . - t , . m it; Vi ’ "V; Vi-'! i ; :■ ; v m m m -■ ; j ,m : * ; ■ ; ■ i ■ :j.j o p 1 : ■ m m ; .; . p , - -p * * i I?-.' m ; ’ i'h ■ i ", i;.i r>utj m.p him i r.i;in::| n i nj MPro i '3 v I a : 11 m t ; V :: ’ i ; l :■ ! *: :o.; im. .: ’o :; \ .■; mi,t . i i • * ,i 11 ■ f « ■:. i, - uo - a n ; /-v •i a i , t; ■ *,i ’ *’v tl ;«;■!; --P , pi ' a M - M J ] M - . M M ::. . • -,i " I „ ■ H1R:. .VI AT.’.-I I i 1 V * i !-i 'id r )T; i.y■ :„ *'M i i ■ [ ■ i pi i ■ >• 1 - v ' in l H ■; Vi * ,r i p ■ M As ..I ■ 1 1 • [("j,; ’ ; • *J ' . 1 TM -*h.: • j • iVn o p . ■ ...M-. ri,i o i [Ml. /'.it. I !";■] n .' •..:: I t . - A j ,, ; ; n ^ c ■ T.-.I V Olp] !M A ■ I 1 f. JJ. iT'lA .'T! NT.- .Hi ? i ■. i m ; t; ■ ti t-1. HI t.-.i -p.i,. 1 ■ ,.1. i' ; t ,im 1: i'M UJ.J , > ; . 11' ] MV\ 1! ■TI .; I MM I t;:: i.‘ -IT:; . j - ‘ li, 11 >. i ( ;M.- [ : M ■ 'it 1 p I (', I — ' • . ,! f , r Mrvp: >! P ■ Mi pM M *M ; . M p J t -! * 'IJ ■*' i. ■ ip MM r Pmt;;a .-13 ; Mi) HIM'A.M .'i!I!T; f)V/;■J ATI M.ui;: \ \ \ t?u- ■ ; :: ,Tq j m * A’t. p Mip| jo Mpoui 'Pi; i in jupn -fin p ; 11 |' i-i-iM a.it; j nq uo oa pilPt.; jfx [tjtdo .Is ;! f.IT? m-1: U O I J1! AM f A I i O M JO M-Jplo,], * 'Pi J i . Ml O J p JO- 'PCT7M tl V I M 0 1J 11 pUTi 'i'ho majority of the writer;; who remain preaf : oiiay prof it.ed from rolitude, the company uf men, arid the company of women,. "O' '■ r iota 1 • i : v j'i; a:,'1 ■ ■ x ;. > ■ no i v> ■ that. th e re wan I 1 ■ lit.;/ of mom for a! 1 ,o-r.r'" , a] , i ir::; of I anpyjape , and ■ i ■ . a a :1 ■ and "1 a i p; ‘; t " ; ;<♦■•: wa ' i: : o o i i i': i i L y ana i . , ■ t ■ , An o * ■ 1 f-* v 1 i > ■:; i ao > ■ i u ■■1 a f i o i., : o La a ■.: or; L r,.a ■ X i t o' i .: - ■! by cho i o> • of t jj a c . P ta-; r i > • L,v m yardinp frmjloyv atm oi’a- • i or.:; waul ; innrnari 1 y di iT< • r f m ... I aw o r h i :: for'./ or a.;- f i*: . by m i;; rb o i. c> • ‘ he an f m< - rr nan i j >ii I a tea f he «• f foe t, a fhem.a 1 V"L, with m*- ">i 1 r* ■ i ’ LhaL fhe.y a i t r ’u l:i:'i I many ■ ‘ha o . . ■ ■; ! ■ ■ an i .ro ■ t.;. a ■ i . >. y t [ v I r . , h i :' to.■ r■ / ; ■> 'tin;. ;v r- aa . , . . a- ‘ai; y a m ; , a n-w mi/. 1 w . : 1 : ■ a t r> o f • ^ , !da';11rti^;;a:: ; ' r1 i v ! i i * ■ ?‘a '.' j r> ■ d>‘v» ! >pf • i from o ■ m p 1 * ■ r* port.. • ■ f t r i ; . mao1 ■ an; a i v ■ > 11 ■; c ■ n ■ ■ x ; . r L - me-*b , Lo - a; Lrao",; i t ia n y v . ■ yap. a; b i.:e i on r- a !. a. i- r t w ; ' a. i • ■ ; ' : ■ ana | ■ !. l i ■. .; a j r, . ■ i i a i a..; . nar..> '.a ‘ i 0-.,; t. u1 r a a < ' a : > ■. 1 ■' t ■ ■ i / t 1 i; ■ ;.. ^ l a ’ ,' L y 1 ■ L < a ■■. ■ pi : ■1 ■ o. naa:;-- ■ f Lho .. p, w l a.- i.nf. ,.p pp i 1 t a ophe:i . A L a:. ■: 11. : a 1 i i: f 1 a - ■ r o ■ ■ l .' a ! ; i r;,; ■. a ■ L n :' n r ; f t r W T f . and . ■ oa; ■ ■ ■ V ■ ■ nt o wh m n w ■ f ' an la. p i: " ' a r t. to ■ i:;t ■(;;*; r. L . fi :. L h ■ ■ ■ t; f • i r *y wad f r o f . a; r :d ! y a : ’ t ‘ > r f * a t y it.. 1 * ■ v > ■ 1 o p i r 1; ni :f bnr-- i'ip ’.i .p, mmply r mn ;a a::' r * , war at. a low ■ a a ( w a : 1 • - • v»• > 1 ♦,;.utrt war aanari in • a n- w ’f i *n< it. td:>; c rtiino and ' c coiiifidi' ■ I arm m /an t». . A rf an 1 liLoraLar'-1 '.O'P i t, 11 rn a o h ■ - ■ ■ >1 r i * : 1 ry ; 1 r,i w ■ ■ ! ■; ■ ■ r'. Mf ;* ■ p. r< a t. ■ ;; if o . ;p -1 ; . ,o 1 M . ■ i .■ ■ vo i ■ - V ■.iso arst r a a j l t a ash i ** vod by p?uif ’b. I o f,r , i.tu- i mpor1 taince -i t f. aoho< 1 \ u a -ia(b''ny p i a a a as oat ii.>r;a! : ■11t .'y ■■ -"ta . Tbs' b a ; b p u e lo y n f t h '1 ■ ■* *, t. ar\, Is b; 'W-if- i s U s ■ > - mi } a r j ■ 1 d i t i mo f. 1 y ; ia t, io n a 1 a; t. ; a it, t ••!.«>. Ka:u > a Loiioau*. and La Li f. ■ a v - i 1 ■ ■ 1 i!? 1 o i ;; • ■ a S' u '; L i i ■ i t «‘ 1 y • -a • * ! : a v-j a ■ L : ; • >. • wifi.- * h* » n i r■; a :.1 ■ - a t ’ : a x■ r a • .::.a; : i, a r ■. ■ a i * " ■ a i' - i ; ;.. ■ i j ■ ■ si- -1 ' . a. - a . .a ‘.: < a •. . ■: ■ a : p a , >■: ..a ■ a . a ; i ■ a -:,: * y fi i .■ ■ a; . - a : a ' -ai ‘ i f i y ■ a i a : ’ j ,• • i.. ‘ ): a , •• i * a <... fat.- -, 1 - a nv n> < -I ' ’ ■ - r y r s - o a ' a ' ■ ’ a a: is. : 1 - ■ a , i - - - * - - * 1 ■ i - i't'o::; ; • .; a ' -• : / : - ... ■.' . " a " a , : -a •• b a - a * /ia bi j .« 1 - a -a a :• : a:;.- • ■ r.- ■ i b J‘ ■' -i -aa'isi* ■. ... a p ri a - : a - j r * ; s a i to ■ us ora-ri t , a.- >; y ai. -i 1 i riiaL> out. i a-y S ab l* -, jr.c ■. a.a, v - r ‘ ■»t.i a n l^ s^ i" -L aSi i a.i ts. ■ , *1 b iv .a j. 1 : i ■ * .. i r a v . i rL . * ■ i’a i a ■ r b s r', - '.a ■ r.3 a V' ' If *.,i ] * ■: t a i v ■ j a - i 1 s ri' ■ a : a ■ . -■ i I t. i s -'I:} ' , ■. . ' aairi' ,-:ir ! ?t aa-:- . . a. a l a r’Sf 1 o. y 1<>r<, vol- r ■.[1 , t 1 ■;,ai ‘ J * !,« I I 1 ' s •flirf ; hi : r-: ii.* :■ i j ■ ■ r' ■ ; y i ■ * i 1 ‘i: : r . t u 'ii.- i 'i ■ * :‘: 11 1 : * v ■ r > a ::■.:" r' '. r i- ''i : ■ '"a ! ■■ 1 : ; -a-! ’ (. r ' ■ <, . h' ■ l ■ ■ ’ i ■ ■ f. : nr :1 I .am v. ■ . i ■' , ' 4 not win him 1 .m;; 1. i han:*;. ■■■T.n tr-]■■■! i * hrv ■ i_(yh if i nijT'TR i vc . L'> t -■ rr ■' - i'-' t. * i run" i 1 ■* n hari,-'/ ■ thi'ir I i t r t r t o r:tf ' r ■ f 4 h* ■ h-rir>':: ’T ‘h*' -lay. 1»<"■/:!»■ I''1 f.: * * - - t '■< ■ 1 ■ f :» a :.h< < in:: ! o a ] rman * ■’'11 ■ i: 1 ' r ! • : w- - /, a:.,y h. w ! : ‘ r, ‘ . f , .! . f v , 1 ; 1.1 i i >. il1 . i 1 I : 1 ; * * i; wa. : \ l : i v ; ! - a I : .tr- on r- I NOTE TO REFERENCES Throughout the dissertation in all cases have maintained, the spelling and accentuation they appeared in the original texts. KOO'!1N0T!':S PAt’TKH I ■ ’'on ■:* ‘ I T) , I Pi 1 1 iir'n '■f hi r ru • t n t A f |-in ~m 1 :■. ■, ■, v ’./M | ^ :' i P' r ■ ! i - i \ y n n • A , ; 1 ('’ 7 , ! '1 (1 ‘ TT I • P 1 1 > . ni r ! n r: , 1 'om P ' 1 ^ rn t 1 or,:' m r ! <->;• rnorurr . n > r1 v 1 *■': 11 ! ’■' 1 * ' ’ Y C f‘ 1 I f ‘ U t '! f! ■ I *’ X h 11 i I 1' * ' V f' i ’ I ' 1 n O I ] ; If-ui *■; n 1 i I • j 1 ; ■71 J 1 p r i Ar- Ip ( ! n r i ' : 'n 1 i u , A , ' A r fV-rv ‘ n t o r * > > i ri n 1 ] . in r' f ’ '"Il ! , ‘''.'iif In.", '> * 1 r- 1 ’1 n r-i t on r , tr-. ^T t . r- p ' m I . i' \ > \ 1 1 i ^1 • j n * 1 l'(H | ^ 1 ^ n 1 ’ *•) f y T ^ P r ’ P ]‘ ’ :r i n»'r i n t , 1 I t w'1 t l. J f1 ; [ * 1 f ’ • \ t ■ ■ nvn 1 ' j *" 1 nn ^run vil i' n M u r 1 " : rv ■ ■ i : '"o ’ 1 , 1 : ■ ’ ) , t . f. v, ri pv i * (. ^ f.. i - •) • . i * , -> .; f ■ (i|'i ■ i' c" ) t 'ipn t'1 n ' i ■ '*■ i ■! " 1'1: [ i - i ■’ . i.' * r» - t f 1 :m r 1 j f --v, 1 1 r • ■ ' - I ; -u , t., I L ' Pi ri ^ ^ ' ■; ' * '''■'ill1'1 , ■ i * T ' , . , t t ('ri ; 11 ‘ 1 r____ r 1' « » 1 1 f '• ^ ’11)’'' T T o l ; 4 > .rs l : P 1 V'lfr: 1 f » »'• j r • • i* '•> *'. ^ 1 ■ ' f p j i *• r’ W ’ * ; v 1 » »'• *' • , l • , p . ■ * • j ■ i * 11 1 o ^ / ) ■' I '' * f ^ V l*' p/ ^ p » W * pp ^ iwi - ) C> ' S rr A ( • /r' k ,lP * , - P ■ ] p * • i rt rr- j 1', } , ' • » 1 n.j.lJ * i • • Jl- ''Mauri Pellimon, L e flommen ■. i»■ ]•'■■■■ J'! r a 1... X " i 1 1 >* n i?;cle (Pari;.;: Colin, I 9 l"T) , L!1* 1. C j-l oL'/ Che cuprumo cxami'.lt.' ol' family die favor in uniunbti." i.l y Liar rot, whore father wan raLher w; 1 1 off f i narr i a I 1 y , and of rrnrunatl y 1 i heral thouyht, y d ir' refured air non any am in fan a; , i { r ’-w author.; w'1:’1, an 1 .'Lanina' i v an r'areal abn :L whnn r r > ■ r ■ 1 . an ao■ >■; ry i ■ a 1 ar11 o n > *■1' if. w < a ■1 r rr ■ ;,ianay > ■ a f o k * ■ < a a ! < ■-} ■ j a ; ■ ■ 1. y war;;, a n 'nit. i r1'■ wlnt-'r with mi: y uiu- lor, 'o r n i f i r •< y 1 ar ■ ■ . tlr woulu Lorn Un' 1 uf-, un t nin winuuw, run town m'V'-ral fliy h tr o f n'.airn !Vfeh it., Lorn run ju nta tr:; ):: : do too - racr. Lain, •' v*-r it.-: i > v*>r afjain. J 1 1, o yyi AtidrS Lai i * v* a: U'U !, 1 j ■ ■ m* Lai yen j h. . nt. i ; r i n y. r < ■ ■ ■ i , ■:: tn 11 t.n <: • :. u ry , ’ m ■ v * ■ r t'*'| l a r n tin y u : 1 i t.-■ any "Xf.til, harbor wan rot n.au an an * rarer until L;-uin XV i . i'o i t i tin " r , ."In ■ /' ra.: r.e ■ i i> k fra, r , j . u- . 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'.I Hi \M:.i :. ■ H ■ ! - ‘ 1. r : i • j ,il! ft t ; ... iJ1,i■ L : f H -!i.. i » ; f i.T-i i i 4}• I ’i . : I H‘ r ^rin . : . i• i■i * ^ ' ar::t i i - ; . 1 * t i- J ■ i 1 l.::- ■ ipi.t.- - :.r w; ■ ■; ■ • 1 :■ ‘ 1 ■ ■ r. - r i, 11p ■ i i . . ■ l ■ . ■ • * i l t y ; i; r l . A l .1 - 11 r. t. ■ - r v , ’ H< t.;i.. ,■ i ■- ■: *■1 ■ i ■ . .i■ ■ ■.’t - ‘ \ -r r: *■’H1 ■. .v il • ... r j > r ’ - hi. ' t . r ( \ r'.t pi .■ 1 i r< • iif- -ai:,- \ ; ■: i : ip 1 y ! ; ’ vu 1 v- i; . r l t, ; -tr-t t t h< ■ 1 i r; t. „!' cri i <.V ■' r ;■ ) a :. , tr; [ r>. :;.; i ■::• : Mi- aHbft ;■ i ,■ -,f ca ( 1 V± 'j- ! -’H 1 ; , HI “ u r -1 -it. i 1 Ar-ir.-r::r*:iv i 1 1 - ■ { ! 'H - i 'V- ; , CHu; i v < 1 i. >, fi 1 ' 1 !H ,'j i 1 1 ft ( J V >V ' , t.h* ■.:* 'rn .'! 11 Arr.f-r a'-r: (LV ) i Larn.- i r,:;( a -i- H al1 .b ■ i*H- ■:: i 1 ; 1 - ! ' J , 1 ' A t v. 1. ■ L: ■ r< ■:.. r t . S i ; r '3tJ l~ (Parir: Monton et Ci' , Vet), I1. ll7 f (hereafter referred l.u ar S ta t i j t ip ur ? ; and Aupur fin Martin Lott in, Jatalo'i'UQ chrer.ul op, iq ue d ■ ‘;: 1 i rrai rr;; >■ f 1 1. bra irer- impr i menrr de Par ir (Par l r : 178()) , eit-’ii in Pat t i np;r r , The French Pock Trade. p. V' 1 Ur L l. v;il r , Ltat.l r t iq ae , ; . : j ; Po t t, i n( ,e r *, in-. ■ F ren ch iui-; 1'rad* , I !. . ' -r” rid ; Aider’ Pa a;;;.an, jV nr. < re h i p i n Frit.oi ■ i‘ r< jfTi I (d i t o i , j r , / - 1 ir: i P1 f ■■ ■ '■ t ire m « w V~ ri : t -tarh;a , ■ I„ j v ( 1 V [ i j J «1 * , . .. | . *)'*/} j * ^ * Lftnr. in nat . • ■, iu Je rr; ur> ( Par l:. : A • P< mm* , L a ) , M . ' Frn.nye ir harm, 1 _ ; , j r ; , • ,j.j r, a-a iota ar F rance a.,. X'.TI. i* ■ j'd'i"," P i v ■ ■ ~ . , 1# ;v < . ■■jpra-nt (Pari. ; i \ ! 1 ' ■ i 1 a 1 1■: ia ‘ j ■; , A h . '! ; ! ' , o n e t r ■ . . ,.' ■ 1 . 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L.; t a ■ ■, y. ■ 1' : r1 i / • t - i: * 1 1 P . a , ; ■ i a I a a1 . i r ra'a l na at L j :» •M-n » .-. 1 ' ■ - 1 f ^ 4; ' I.f ’ •f !, *• .1L t y■ 'f . p . t p 1 i ■ o,r i ; i , j j- j _ :i' VU' I'-U _ P ______.a 1 l 11 r a 1 1 oa_ la f 'r i i.o (i'aria: L. 1 r '-u a o nrniarnl o'li.a, p.] , xv: ;, aao_;.o, ( f aI--, r : at./ u; ivJP- L.a.ra - ''Pop..- ti.at . .a / 1 - 1 a ! i o : a ir V o ■ i p p,,o i ■ ;ir -a • ' : 1 fa ■: i a I-. • P. i .a , )i1! vrii't , or‘if i i ooa: , r . P . f!vhr.ii-«J a rr: Hop. r, t * v i v ai i p . ■ a . . . 11 , a t : ) ■77 # 1 'Alphonse Dupro!!*:, "Livra "t 'jalt.ura dan:; La norict.e I'raii^aife du XVIIIo f J. a x Ujiif :;ur ana < ■ n< \ u£ ta-, " in Dupronl, I'd,, L i v ra a *. :;ut: I £ L* , a, 1-M . . A. ■ i * dar;i>:'.'i'il i . L ' G*.a- y 5 * v - ■ da 1 i _ i ' * : ■. p . 1 ■- . ■. ; ., 1 a ^ >" ■ - ' 1 d : - a : ;t‘" -,i‘ ■ " i f !'d i;/ a < /.V ! ! ! * ■ : ? i ■ ■ , " ^n, "fid. , ■ ; . i,: n ^ , ; ; . v,’, i !r." d-.:-1 ft.:.! if --rj a I, or f".a J 1 h ! ! ’ . . » :. . .< i i J f-.u:,' wr. t a ♦. ■ v ■ •'/. c ‘ ra I - a i^raL lor; ana i i t,n;.■.r. ■.. : 1. n {„ i ; : r I ! t ■ ! ! r. I'l. .■ ; ■ a J - \ ' i v !/1 ■ j ;■ ■ ■ r'i ■■■ i m i ;L : 9 ‘ * 4 I * ' 1 f , + ' * ' i r I « a ' : *• .nil- ' 9 ' hlry-rlu ! ] „■ ! i ■ fi: 1 [■I 1 M(- I, / 1 ■:1' ■ i:. ■ 1*1 or. ; :.u : : ' tor ■ r ; ■ » I - i I 1 JI 1 / I '.‘I*3 / *• r - ■- ii1 i :i -: t ! o ■ ■ ’ ’ u x : o;;, flO itis I-. :-vrm y r ? i t . - r. j 1 ■' 0 3 ; . 7- ry or-. 1'jl for i .l-.ar : .. rrl o.. , : ■< 11 >; : . r«<■ .\ ■. ■ ^ n Xj * . X f . ■ .i...... • i 1 11 i - . • _>;i! onr i1 ‘ i;' i r i i.. i r l>-- ! ■ (ir ■ r ■ ■ ■: i L :' i ■ t7 -r m " u>. : ’ i * w :i away, t.hc ar' a whore Cai'i'i-M Fraii^oir y,rew u; , d whicht i 1 1 '.‘uiihi ] t valuable r< • <: r*1 ii*ey;ard i c,;; hie 1 i f 1 "Unfit;, il ajeryut, ::.ir■ urif rie J l- l n La in*- J ei;e:; t^ure^tn u r n_ n i uiu i i rer ■:; ; e'' '1 ?^ t a i t la = ■ i. * a j , i < - i i * ■ J f ■ r o r a t. - yenyun. . ., ,/j\,/ q uu \~7\~ 7 n’ 1 'u - Ii an. r.- a la :i.t. i > l am no- t la ; i l U r n a e - i 1 1 a ! -i.i r .■ 1* ■ * ■ r: a 1 ■ f i a. >i a r > ‘ ' 1 . j :■ 1 $ t, a i ; ; '.a, i •" ' *■■ * i 'iy : ■ a: ‘ : n*> 11' a ' a; ; !■ ,-ta r 1 a.- aaroa.n a : . r j I u ■ a ^ ■ y- r wa:" t‘" a i m :or. Lhe.O' "a ' i .. f :■1 !. ■ ■ n.■ \'t a'" '.a. a l 'a" 'a a -; . l a . a: 1,0 l it;,. Jail .ja hr■; 1 a'' \a ij y i a . •t i e, ■ ! fa. , . ; I 1. . a . : a. j _ . ■ ■' W * :. ! i i ; . . . ; . ; . a . ' r r. V a, ’ 1' 1.. ' ' V ' r , raL 1:'" M :av ;■ : -a .a: 1 1 r.oJi.e. wh ] a ■ a . a a a ‘,i i , i a : ! : ; . ,a i , at ; - - a a , ay a . ; ■ i a i - laa.l it; Jay * n 1 .. or ■ t r.a : J , ' . n Jt a a an j - ■a a at.y l a . :■ j. ■ . A naif ■ a la.:. ' a - ■■ .a r ; i n.ito 'J .a * am ;. ;,a ■ '.!"iv :. i :: ;1 i ; 1 • ■ n i a, ; n.; . J t, ■ " 1 • ■ ■: r‘- ■ ■ :' at a j : a i ■■: , ■ r. i a : ■ ’1 ‘ * raa f < n i a. 1 1 . ‘a ■ a ' - ■ ■ i a 1 i ■i-. : ■:• a. . ; a ' ■ ■ : ■ eb Lb'- 1i k ■ -:: r > r be ui .1 1 ,)l: wb’.:r*j b-- epctit. bie b'.ty::, hand : ■ -,rri' e- ■ ! I * ■■ 1.1 *. -)f b*?:tul i f’u I i ^ bk '11 r. : \ > ] -.Jif •:; ■ ‘vb i bi !. : T h i r I't; ■ r : ■ m: ■■ 1 :;,i >■.' I !' : b 1 ./ ♦ ! b ■ ; 1 " ::i- ■ i1 . j r. i nf, v 1 1 > :■ ‘ /i 1 - e.r ■ ■; v , ; ■ r •• 'W< • r-; i r i ; I L f • .• ir*;/ . r. l ' t 1 i: ■ * . i - ' ■ ' ■ i , ' . ■ ! ■ '. ; \ ' . _. . . 1 i ‘ t j i ' i 1 . : ■.. i ' . ' . * . . . , < I M nr sumption that he hnh mnhe n f^w contacts while r, 11 11 with the /psiiltn , There were always clubs anb coffee houses where salon doors were not yet. open. The ohhe must, have hern mnklnp- oil pop. r 1 M e oon t.act r t hrou^b f nr 1 ! ,v , friends , •in 1 ' i e p p p 1 p t 'i n i ■ e • ■ ( In n r<' e r t o tin-’ 11 tti n. i,, n n f s U M'Ol’f ■ h e ha 1 peyerol p.or r- 1 hi 1 1 t 1 e- foi- s 1 f uut Ions In which to he ure- ri]i i oh her were i'owiI-H’I V te no hero In f,ol 1 ^ras , prep e pt. o ps fnr voi;n/ .font Icmcri, or w rite pp. /\o enrd 1nc to put M Ire, "r'ept un oorrr nn1 poppn.fe ton hr Ipfhul sablo tie tnl ops < he envoi r, owl le ru!five r'nnr c ep r. e , " 1 ^ vop* pnn t em peo m r 1 e , now n’fop, Vie-; n -mi re lerr oepeepp|r r , r 1 r! 1 nf, n f -1 r, > rin’ - ,'' t i 7 o 1 e ' 1 o t * wit’ the -.'pi; pp e , : ‘ *■ /V f T op there f ' 1' e ’/op PP n!' 1' 1 1 epee ' ’r i y r p made ■ t ■] e p 1 - "'lop wh 1 p h 1 ns; l tr01'1 h 1 r Wfl 1 ^olnr for till- pert of t, 1 r ■ lif e , lr, l '; h 1 , hnhrlel Fran ’p 1 r '"nyep hi’n o o f !ir> preceptor to ■ pt' 1 e f i ’o v - ■' ’ n • i p 1 e p _ ■ • f1 r ir y h ’ ! o ’nar ‘ 1 1 j v ■ ■ p .■ : <"■ , f 1. • fu* uro I i ] If o ! f ■ i Cl 1 ] 1 1 1 O r 1 ITI nj ' ■ ‘1 1 p e n M e t t p > r; t r:, ■ count. of — peuvf p n 1 on o 1 - pep e pp 1 ; n t h >' 'uvi I ”7, t ^; e n t ill r* f’'’n yen p” oh*. ;,he la'h Ire f r 1 >' n ■' h 1 ■' w 1 t h f h 1 r,-<’n e pour and ) 1 m pp ; fhP 1 1 v 1 n P l J 1'e' ■ ' .'n y p 1 '' 1 1 vf' ] 1 hon' 1 On i i t po v i -! '’11 ! od ,■ I n T t "■ i - ye I 'ip I pper t 1 ,.'CO']r' r on t : t r- t P , 1 Cl po pt ppt fo p n p uuthop, to yep Tip: t have trifihe on eye opt hip pi i t pPe‘ ' 1 on on the th'-p- I'fimlrc due he "oul ] l^n, a:1 hr- wn:’ rhoren ho ppi'bio1 the Fhaval 1 or he homo e v, tbr forraep tutor, I 1 'rbe dwell In(7 rlnce of t.ho dues he 'mil ] Ion fop ainnv 0 f>n f'piit 1 on P , the O p 1 o 1 p P 1 O hn 1 Op l ; .■ U > f ’ i i y p 1'1'fj I ry' 1 on r e '* ■ I pyl 1 r',1' 1 n f 'n V e l - 1 ■ ’ 1 rp e W ' i ^ k ■,' i 1 1 t top the W 1 t <1 ' ■ ‘ f h 1 ! 1 ! ■ r 1 1 “Vi'f’uy , '--in,.' of thiypppn, ''"rp pvviricl pur - »'i rh-oh-ru Hi namp 'llstrlct , It follows that his father would he Inte rested enourh In the area Itself for his son to keep an eye on the deveTorment of events even If the yonnr colonel did not a c tiv e ly p a rtic ip a te , ivit Ivned and d ' ' ■ >n d’ t *"■,1 1 -v t^e war, "Vi yep t nek a t r i t in Mw pest f'nl wih'T'' r>f iinrp/'V , In the hautes k vtpp.ppp n ear ! ni)'’rin'' , At t h 1 re. 1 n t. is another non fasten r r- waivjln r '’nyp^'r life, A c e o rd 1 n t n ]a vpuvp wuch.esne, on f >i i r "nyn;'» hiyn r ' i nr' or';-a n 1 e d " t > i n two voi tn a rr ln r e s , sons, of the I'ldm hii' 1J11 k e , " ■' '''ho ' tn |< o f ’ha1' 1 on-hod e f rn v h'ld only oy'1 "o: f ': o . t o f n n v - ' d i a r 1 e - ■ - ;: i»n r v ) and one I'liu'tit.pv (Io n ise - ■ M r 1 I ■ 1 * t . - , ■ o •: > > , ) , 'he "o ’/ e • • ' ■ ■ y * u -jop t , tlU d mu PI’ 1 j In 1 1 d t ' ( at aye seventeen, and In ! ’' d’ ’ was < ■ 1m s e ■ f' the fa ttier of a s 1 n.- 1 e col M , a one yea r old son . ’ * AH not is h saver obviously could not. have a room non led the hike's two sons, n e i' It Is unlikely t h a f he T naif a l an ■■ th e r t n k, e ' s d a 11w \! t e r , It Is reuSona t 1 e to t 'C ' i o 7 ,. h a * an -1 o i' i V' I :ir i e ■ ; ter- • ; i \ [/ r 1 ■ ■ son, c rand son and t. he youns mot. hen * n nidi as , !f 1 i 1 t n r.v c ai>! oa 1 an s had constant 1 y :'p: avat i’l H e nevjlyweds since their >n -1 t r 1 a a O , '' > i f > y '■! an! 1 u a *' e . ■ n n' v >1 ■1 an a ’ : -.n p t 11 n i t v to .cl to l/now eacU nfi'Pf a.’aln. 1 f ’ta n n f at a] unusual for a ppe- c I-. - ■ t o I* to fas a 1 fin :r at e 11 o v-, t V o , ho : >r 1 n c e , at n 1 n f* - t onn . won 1 ■' fi> 1 e (-a 1 1 v und *' r a 1 s fht tif-‘r'r hi id f d h't ' ■ ui un til around twtnt y-flyp, Hit 1) that time, the father had ah- * * ■ o i n t e nower and control over all his o h 1 1 d pen , ■ ^ .Tudwlnr i v tee s 1 n r f r e , 1 1 f r t one f r 1 en' 1 s n 1 t m aintained p v t n , ■ nr I n c e •dr uls tutor, H is also ornUul H* that hr valued his t. eaeher ' r. co'inse ’ and companionship, har^P’os Ip a IovpI y r H p , Even today It In a favorite winter vpnovt, area. No on" knows whether Coyer wrote any of his first fan 111es vo- I antes dnrlnw this trip, hut. he non 1 d hard 1 v have had a mn )’»* Idea1 p h y s ic a l r’etttn,.- ''oi-1 i i »■ ra i'v iriMdrot lori, "tie ahha's first into loot Inn war1 'tartar thin .‘-ame year. ::e was fe]’t y years old, pe had 1 1 yed lnnr enouvh anil was ,-d >r, ervan t and a i: ' n k eneir/d; *'n nave Sf-ipmed definite', ro i 1 d 'dear ntio'it whnt was sol nr on aro-ind t1 1 rr , A 1 t.onn rf t. his 0 1 rs t p. rod as t 1 on , ae mover to de la p 1 e rr e ph 1 loan pha 1 e , was a sues <>'■«:, It was an on ymn 11 <-■ , a1’ were ">nst f ea 1 1 1 es y plant e r , an■1 t or<' ' 1 ■ * not Spin-' 1: 1 rri a1 ■ v r1 a1''wn • '(S hinltli.' tils l i t e r a r y ea roe r w ' ■ 11 feu \ 1 ter y n 'ant e s was hot h rood and had at. tun same t ime; _ood for immediate sane ess; bad Penalise t he pahllr labeled h 1 mas a frivolous s a 1 o a -1. v r■ e moralist an! refuted, ''■'('n h; I a f <* l- year'’, *■ o a : - m i t his t. a i o n r if) .■■■•her a r o a s . ' • > e . ■ e r > i - e was so n i I a i *, i r o - f'' t a h 1 e , and n e r o s s a r y a s a rrf ’ a ri'' o f i 11 1 ■ 1 i r '1 o m ^ 11 n 1 e a t 1 o n , a 1 n n e t tipr'1 were s * 1 1 1 no a a 1 ' y n e..*; ri r a reps , As eyf>n t pe ■ - -1 •' e t v op ’iron ■ t V War; fur* her ■ ‘ > ■ \ ‘ > \ h ■ ■ ' 1 y r r1J< ! f1 > l I ‘ e 1 r i a i - ]'i''S nri anh 1 son y,t p e tm'd i n s o 1 en t at r a ■ ’ s 'i.s: Inr t ,r o y o rn - ■n en t and r us t om " were sa r ; ie d ' n t'i ^ M ?in , In lust * h 1 f ' wav, t Vi ro';ah man v pa mrdi ! e t r , 1 'n ye r attar-fed s us h a t")s "s asr'tri- II f y of posit, lops, the unt'air rivets of the useless, a-v nobility which trammeled the rrairle, o,r e pw he ! m t n s tayat, lop, 01 1 -' t h e r ’'I'd t''1" , A 1 t h i " :art t a lu r prori, real a n ■ <■ p , n e > r ( o j fi , ■)n t h; e | ;,a " ' ■''■*' ! 1 '' ■ ■ , i i t U O 1' We pe S * i 1 I ''a S" i u 1 very r o i;e r t , an 1 n 11 st ed ] y if ipoii s h t 1 p 1 a 1 t y an ' : |"1 ■ h a i e <• . '■■7 hr foi'p his final nara^rapvi, this rood citizen, hnppv to have served his rmuntry, "yen on on n^me a la viol re flaten.se he 1 'Invention"'11' of h 1 s no Is ode, it. was .ion a than Sw ift,),J who hah first, propose-! the fieri in fry hand, where the Man hid ► • 1 >; ■ i v 1 e f'e I ] r 1 1 o i • e>,- < 1 r M" * ■ ♦ r e :\h . 1 ! ! S : ! ' I r K ' ’ ■ : * • \ t t i e r " 1 ! ] tr, 1 ^ 1- ; O 7 J > f n r t i; H - !-1 h I i e . ■ i ;e- 1 f 1 ;,jfi n U 1 ! ] 1 t ! e s > ri I r | ] * ne F r e e r 1' t -o s ,r' ey y e . i i v( o h im d a n re , n s r o y d in r t-o f o y e r , ’ , e r n i ) ' ’ * ■ r t f ' was ' > i v e ’ ■ 1 r ' 1 1 t 1:' ’ 1 4 • : rut lie o f ■ 1 n ' e n , ■1 1 i; 1 11 ee n 1 of fee war n * * h ‘1 A11 s t r \ - v . j u e i' e r s 1 on in 1 :d , ' V v /in ' I > - j ■■ t t' H I ■ * 1 -t. 11 a n d t ' e e r i-1 o i j t ■ i ,' e ^ f >ft t r o ' Ti t i 1 >' > ■ ( i o y . . o i i ■ i . ; i ] , " ■ i ’ a n * r • :j , .■--.n't : m i !ar, 1 ’ A n n '" ’-' ■■ 1 ! ! ■ a ■ 1 ■ , a s ; M ■ ' ■ ■ ' * 1 - a ; ' ' 1 ' t h e : ■ a "'(■ ’ a a ,' 1 e - n.nn t r r"" ■ ' 1' 4 1 •> * ' a r ♦ r. m - i id t. re.- ; e prati er ' 1 n ■ I e t. t 1 ’e ': a ; \y e S , | e ; ■ 4'nS ■ ] 1 j e r' a ‘ \ \ ' \S t m 1 o pH o -IS S ,1 i T ■ .a' ye r '-y o ha F ] v ’ or- n ■- i -.a ^ ;"r f. -. ... f. >., ■> i-j r-y r ■ i ■ 1 1 i") 1 > ■ a a y If t ' j n , I r, , . >. i , 1 ■ ■ . j i ■ . ‘ I ( - * ' 1 1 , f: f’ /-I. , 1 - r, , y f I 11 • '11 ) e - i r "c < 4 4 . 1 "■ 1 ■' ■ 'at a * 1 '' .t " ( ■ . : 1 t h ra 1 ] . ■ > i n in e n * 1 ra ri ■ i' ■ r":r’ h ' ■"r r1 •1 1 f * r . it t • " * a 4 '! y > ■ 1 f ■ • i 11 * ■. - ■ w \t 1 [ i;-t r npeeo.l W f ’• V * 1 ' 1M /' * r'‘ T' ^ 1 ‘ * '? f i \ t1 T' f"' r ’ l ] 1 t f 'r | Wf • f i ^ ' 1 r.'-t 'jn']^ 1 7 (y ; ■ j * i r ■ * = i \ ■ 4 . r r1 ■ : 1 ' i v ! f # M 'K’ F i’o 1 ’■ i 1 1 v n 1 'f 1 • l vl ’ * t I i ^ f \ t1 vt l • * it , * ) < Y] 1 \ tt f * ',v ■ i 1 ’ 0.0 t * h . 1 ^ / i f> 1/ ' j VI < t"* -x ^ f V ^>1 r , y l 1 i ^ v 1 * 1 ■ ( f' O " t I ! ' t ^ t . f 4 ‘ dV'rjn t t . on ], (■* f \ ■ , 1 j f' ' y j : j 1 t ! * f 1 t f ' » 1 - i f ' + t • > ■ f! 1 f *' ■ i TT1 (' 1 J : ’ f'r' * 1 *) t > f ' 1 f’t t r>vr , [ 'will not soy **".,♦ he T -a <1 e f a s t f r 1 efi/« >• 1th Mm ye wel' knowi ■ s i*+ 1 " t , ;:e v 1 r' 1 t e i ho 1 t a 1 ye on eis'nero1]" ! 11 ■ r - - i ■ ■ ' -n j' ■ t in t tin r a y ‘ ■ ! s ]’' ~ <' •'1 ” <' • ■ a i-- 1 n ‘ w (' rr 1r' t > ■ ■ ■ ? a- r r * ■: ■ - ■ oe 1 a n f'i-' ■ ■■ * ; 11 r r' * 11 ■' r 1 . o n 1 ■ ’ h ' ’ 1 e ■ ■ r‘ t h is n a t ■ ■ a 1' I t I ■? th p .nl'bn Cnypv 1n t> p van com rh o f 1 ' / h ^ , h 1 r tn a b i 1 1 t;y to ■nofi 1 f'v onfl ripvplor- war: nnn roarop why h 1 r fame I’ra rrp ly 1 •'i r-1 oh tpy n n d hi*' awn ro n t.u rv , ■11 r t a ^ pp J p i- ] p;; h * i g ap r '! 1 f" ■ i r t ■ r fii’p ] P rnTT1 thp rubl la ! o p 1 ' ' i ' 1'" ! '! ' • > '"1 t , ! * ] '■ -1 ■ ; ■ ■■ I-* ■ 1 * . ■, t t , 1 r;:' 1m ■ . l i . ' l T ' i * ’ '.''If' ' 1 t i 1 f * 1 ' M J! ’ 1 i' ) ' 1 1 : ( > r' I (1 n f ' r f ( ■t • ) t r .—, | -y f | ( . ' ■ 1 ; 1 ^ i l l 1: ' r' t h o i ] p 'a f! r !■' 1 rl ■' t t h f‘ f ' i ■' p i’ v j ■■ 1 fir r-i’:' t h a t ■ 1^' fi "F I 1 ■ i ’■ JIFI n j F ■ i r 1 ' ’ V I , 1 1 ' / ' i M 1 * f 'Ml F ' F 1 r ' n V ' i 1 ' 1 I ' , I ' r > < ' ^ F ■ I * # ' ' P — FI 1 J < 4 P M P P t M * i '] -j " M |J' ' , f P f1 P i ' f i F] f' f T 1 f ' ^ f ] t ■ ■ , i ' i i \ \ f t 1 - 1 ' \ ' / ’ i I i ■) Tp'J > } ' | t- ' I F( r. 1 . |>|| t ill 0 - ' ' 1 V ■ 1 Ftl > I 1 t 1 ■ T I ; F ' f , ' | - F O I ' ' ’ - 1 ' i 1 , ' ' | 1 f>. (’ f ) * I f ' 1 ] \ ] f' — r >f. t 1 ( - (> "t W ’ " " ( 1 fi •- o "i f> ' * 1 : ’ ’ 4 f ’ ’ I 1 1 ! v p 1 a > > t p ■ i r - 1 , . ■ , I - - ■ ■ I ■ ' I ■ ■ 11,1 I ; , ' ; F , . 1 1 11 f . r 11 ■ r t ■ i " ’ ,■ * i 1 I , i ; ' ■ / . ' * 'V| ’ j ’ f"i ' f < t V r* -' 9 , ( i i f 1 v | t 1 ' ' ■ i r.;'i ; I ' '-rr 1 / . f • ; iT. ^ y f ^. 1 rin t] ' f>r ; .P(' f' r-'’t ■> rr t a 5 I 'I'M ; I 1 '' t 1 fl f-11 - n t ' I f-' 1 * :! Or! r1. P ff’. If1 1 ' i f. n rp rf P • 1 l 1: r»i t 1 ’ M ■ i I ■ 1 t * | t > r p • i t'fp 'an h o r- i m 1' , 1 f’ icriF-i I;n I p t ■ If. t‘ 1 r- h > i < \ n m ri'i t rpa ! 1 p ton f, | 'i ^ '-j j") 1 f'F- (■ j. 'If1:' i i'f'iffI pvr ; ' p ! ''it'll K- 1 'i c1 r>f j' i p t f. p !* 1 p 'jf1.': r Pf’0»i'j p." , ■,1 < 1 p n ra p 1 1 1 ’'1 1 !1' f ^ 1 '' r1 <' i'''r ~r'. v1 - ■,.■ < >1 ■ [ n 11 > ’ — rn jf'nt 'i|rir 1 " f> t i 1 f' , .' 1 ' l ■ f; '' ' ' " I i' m 1 " u r /i'li '7 : ■ 1 o k ■ I (‘*1 ■ r : • t r ' ■ < ''lvi * ■r ■: t 1 f' *■: In i v 11 r i n 1 ( r f'< i v f'1 11 r r ' i p r *1 >1 1 1 f1 ' ■ ■. i f * ■ ■ • .p-n p - PI ppf- 'If- 1 ’ l-.t.pt . " r ’ :: f , i fi f| i ] n c 1 ') i i pv ■ ■ M r f'1 p r'4 n * ’ I'I n 11 . ^-i . ■ , t ^i i p .>n; (n p* in > i f'l I' 1 F> 1 P n F ' 1 1 ' ,F " . f. 1' \ * <1 )> W'l't"'’ * f I ■ 1 J. ' ’I .'fit t P»| F|V1 J',. f 1 P f | f i i• p '1 ' f. tfi j . t" p r 1 I,-.' ' t fi •,] Vi - i t P f1t;'!' i *f1 1' > * • i 1 >1, t , '111 n ' 1 1 1V t P 1 ' ' 1 ) an 1 1 } P 1 P I f o p f ■ |i i '■ ! i f ■[ M ' t I' ' f' ' 11 f 5 fii: I ' * >F W > , 1 r ’ M 11 1 1 P W 1'1 t ii 1 rr t. r l <• p p t 11 i-n i jy-i f i 1 i fit. t|(‘ jF.f F’7 h 1 }p pp7111) 1 ri 1 > i -f r i 1 ' p I p n , ■: p t p rtri 1 — nntpp nr an author, not a rh.arort'pr, r't at In/ t hat "nonr riarrono toutp not yp v I p muft I p Tar hup : pt nup nour pp nnrtnn.‘'i larr- lor '-ajl 5 p ■ I p . r ft 1 tTH l 1 'tP I ' P ' 1. '1 P »>p ! I'P V I'M 1 T'l ft ■ i u p . " * I t i ) * _ • J f j r i r-v< ■ U f. ■'■ I I ) I 1 7 f t.helr bread, For that reason, Fok 1 will provide them with their own open-Rlr theater. First he wilt pTve "les ruses de Fa ]' t ou c he " , ‘ a popular style comedy where t hey nan shed no rl nnr tears, Then , f'or f he " pe t 1 t e pi frp" , he will have i o p n i r ft p y i cri ! >‘ p ! 11 -: i - ■ w r i * * '1 m '1 r i ‘ ’ tp ■ i 1 ! ! ! > f’ e • '■ of r o 1 ] e . 1 Op PH pe r , 1 n t he * o **m ri r 1 O ‘ t f - t V » 1 r k e t •* , he will draw oat '',000 of tP(r»m Pv p'n'p nhanre, and In the name order 1 !■. w t’ 1 e h t r o v 'i ,se ■ 1 pawn " e ° tv i- - ( i; p P pe pa Tin1’ I w of] t If' r ei] y a 1 ai* io,j i'■ * 11111 1 1 ’ , ‘ ' '"nn r * ' ■ Tirn> "r p m>rT n , ! he peo t I ° 7 V 1 1 t t ‘J "i n v e Po p t i ] n a t e * h On 1 ''p '.’' '"II f’l’l o "' , fop If’ FOK 1 • o n * h 'I t * V ■ * ‘ y a I' f' 7'i>;n P a pk 1'1 W 1 1 1 o fl I V p v i ' p i j • t ] a'1 f’ p ' 1' 1 a O * , | 1 1 n /' e ^ f = ' ' v ^ > ' i -■ ■/ f. , i' r ■ t i > ■ i a 1 t * i ■ ' i >; t a v t - 1 t ‘ p 'P t f' rp n n ;| I f • pr.Vifi ' e an e t ,.'oi l ■■ ’i m j ♦ of an vf * In, I f'nrvj p. a 1 t , and 0 if e p yon o ' 1: pn r . k e * ) , '"ppn they ,?e m nr] '' t ]' a t e ho W P O T ! t ') pp r t n i.i [■Aiii’i.mol flP h, * fi t i- (i P . f O . +1 ■ • 1 ■ ^ ' i P ■' * e e Pf'. 1 1 7 p ' ■ ' ter ■:1. ' o k - w 1 * * o < , A. I t r n Plane '/prTii'n t 1 ■ o i 1 e w 1 1 1 he a H'i/n 1 f lo m * f 1 ! ’ *J - 'pn’i''1 d I 1" f'l 'I V 1 i -m 1 a * i r i V " I O >! n e t ' ■ ’ e o n f e l] P " la ; ) * f 1 t ' ■ - ' 1 o n t ' 1 tip ‘1 rr a t ' o i ' i ^ * * ■ f * y »»-. i j ■ ■ * n ' t ni(|t| ..(r rap!' op 'p'[| I t,i' p- 1 r a r| e '1 W^i 1 r f ■' W 1 ' n 1 ». p <• t , an* nr 1 1 1 ’ a 1 ‘ 7 1 r a ■ * n p-^ 1 r ] H I n ^ (■'I'Opi- w t 1 C n e a r’ t ■ e o e -r f 1 r| 1 f!'i r) ' f ’ t o r O ] ■ 1 * * P n n , 1 riiro will a 1 " ii to a P a T ■ 1 ■ 1 t 1 1 ’ *' n r pnti t ] ny of : ’ p. a r 1-' - 1 Ini7 Pookn , hii t "11 find mo a t pe prompt an n no r d ’ oe 1 ] cr r 1 1 r ■ ■ e eon t ppnpvif 1 r an a rl - tot Ti"!" one e pa 1 '■ r o o ] 1 t , n 1 ‘ a r1; r n o i. f.t ip t pn \ •. r, t ] ]-p i.t(1 i n >Ti ,, p a 1J a oi*n 1 e p p e trri e p l : i i O t 1 e 1' Of] t , j n ^ i- a n d t e 11 , < r 1 a 1' a o i r t > 77 r.horRo t p r 1 .o 11 c qrl- 1on horrowlny monoy). A r, for tho itirIp vamplrpo, "on rrolra qu'un mul aum sure toutm les f oTTirppR , on quo four n'on ru ronf rumqu’uno." ' Th 1 s lr snot hor Inrtnnoo of tm rmu nhrori 1 r 1 s m , r hit mom tmvprt than ■ Vi v f’ >' 1 '' I >l*11 ’/ 1' ' i i '' p v - m s 1 t I n n s . t\ t t n « i ■ 1 r '■ n 11 'a s V' 1 c ’ n 1 r fl :''n s i vi 1 1 1 s i * t ' i ; ■ t ►: u n p m i l - '''■'i r t n m p r 1 t o n '] !■ 1 n o S h - ] <■ • r p H • ■ w h p * h o r o r ri o t. t t p v - 1 i' f ’ r i; i' 1/ n 1 O i w t ’ y t V n 1 ’' ■*r 1 y i > S 1: p 1' n 1 ' 1 ' 1 f; p r' ' f s r! t ''' f t i 1 '' !* (■ v n 1 n t 1 On , K ';p l'V 'lr!r'' 1 r *" > *' ■ j1 ; ■ 1 1 * ’ n 1' W f:r ' 1 '" T K - will h p rt i T n to ~ p p t > 1 r* R *" Wn 11. In t 1 ■ l't'* 1" ' ’ > ‘ r ’ *■’ , n .ii'l'i’V * 1 1 ' ■ * p i‘> ■ , *■ n V 1 ( R : W R VS 111 ■ ,■ i. j v r n n n ^ > ■. >, * t n (1 , w • i:' r - 1 ■ ’ s * ' >■ y h 1 : It sin ip n n ! k; r < : - [ o' ’ r 1 f'n r t i ip j-1 j-f’r] I - n i .p ■■ i [ ■ t p t : ■ i; * • ■ pp 1 ■ *■ if-1 in.'1] 1 ’ st ‘ >»■■■, j n'.'-pwhoi'p, M m * h 'nfn' not Mr* VI n ■' t k o n 1 I M m iRlVo out t rin : > ' | 1 ' ( h P i]pr 1 Ini t n f ' n v c y n ’ h i s r■] r ri f'or snirf1 ti: lru1 n f M *'■';; V -i 1 o Op ,- n n t r) s ’ n P J' . !•’n k 1 w'i”.! ■’ • >n i v ’ ' : : ' ’ 11 ■' * ■ , s n : t • . r>p p '- w r r ? p 1 w 1 * h '" p rt t pii m p t' 1 a n s n , " Kns ’ or, s 1! pun tr-m i r In 1 p r : ! p , 1 i t pr v r 1 ’ !>■ i .n1; r 1 o p n r t 1 o y i in l o i r i 1 r 1 r i : ■ ! n ‘ 7 r 1 s 1 ; u f1 , \ sn n j 1 lit- I p t ■ 1 1 ! S : . no '■ n m "■ P K! * < ’ n r ; 1 ! 1 P 1 | P t P tl S >' . ' t i p f' o ] : ■’ r * p t t i t’ t >h 1 n t : ■ i n : J; i f r * r 1 1 p s mo m 1 O s nr; 'o y p ! '''If'! IniiP 1 t >n P 11 1 R r 1 ( V ' o I s n I ^ >j 1 t > t > ; R ri 1 4' o 1 \ >' t t ; I " | ' - t 1 o p , r p P V V] R 1 t ■■ 1 R n p ' ■ 1 t ( . i V • t I ] * t n 1 • I n ■ t W P ! ! - i p o 1 ri p ■'! P n o c’ ro f'iro 1 n ir f p n v p n n d f' r r o t ■ 1 1 1 t 1 p s . f’ov o r’*' llvht. hn:i InaffP r m i : r p .■ 1 whl 1 p f'lm?' h h r i s , -Ms: m o 1 1 n r p r o u p r h n t \ y o l' hi nrvl o inrn'p " W R ; ’ s 1 Tl 1 1 R I' * ■ n *' R t h P I 1 R '' p ■ 1 n r h i s t 1 1 ! p : ■' ( r p , 1 P : R 1 R r n W * ■ 1 r O W R S ’ 1 r 1 1 t p v ' I t' V R n ' 1 i ' P l s n n u ! W R t [' h W n r 1 , ' ■ 1 P Tl - t nrr I U ’ p i'p m rum . -*_ > ) Hf> fifrpptnbl p wni'shl p, 'I'hev i*p Ip o t.pd Php wpak (robR , t ho;;p who m p i’p hmn mortRl. Thp ’Romnnn w p v p mnro Int.Pi’pstPd In th^lr pnwpr, j^ooi)nP*sni r r -1 t hr* v l r t n o n t ho v 1 n ft t 1 1 1 prl i r o r i o o r d , peai'p, hRRlt.h, 1 1 hpi't v, rruh^nnp, fnlt.h, nnh oonrRtro, 'hoy i’m i<>i‘ t pH ” 1 1 oi|' , -! -■ t:■ r f * p *■ '* 1 n »'■ ’i'1 <• *'>i 1 ' >n p ■ ■ „ w h'1 ■'! 1 1 i r 11 1 '1) * friqri , P h p o v (’i"i ' 1 (’ ^1! iv ’. (■’■ p ‘' t. r t * ’ 'p i. j.. o i i o i m : ■ i ■ h i j rr ■f i n , mp|’p InP’fiv'l P1 ° , mr,!*,- lifri!!:;! 1'", 'imrp v I rf unu!' , -m-i ’imi'p f 1 v I 1 1 ■ t p <1 , " ! n ') fij t 'i ] c’ ■■! 1; t or 11 p f' p I'Pi"'!’.]'’ I t ‘ "P op 1 1 > (,n n P l ' n l l’1’ ■h-’ pplir I p R '1 1 Miiy , Vr 1 rpR 1 „r i*P '* f‘ I’O 1 V - t t p | n ^ p f ^ fl y n o ‘' r 1 f' , or I'll Holt ppf to 1 111: t 1 C P , !i'I 1 o 1 1 p p p T t’t'i '’ « 1 r n r t i; i• p 11 1 v 1 n t 1 1 1 1rni P 1 ! 1 t o , to t 1 r- fa 1 < i *' n 1 h ] P R t; o ( 1q i’r>i'i'n|V| ! 1 * P . ' P 1' ' 1 fJ 1J V , I t 1 1« ■ | fi' ’ -] I |11 I V •' <) f.T o < ’ I i p ’ : ■ I ] p \) y f'o 1' t 1 ■ t 1 11 ‘ ■ 1 1 f 1* ; v I p ] R ’T’ 1 t * t O p p t' | I’MM t ' p r ’ ' p n v ■ ' ' , ; ' \' n fr y •. f^ f' * ' \ h ; n <•'" ( H ' f :'i:p i’ Rvp oi i 1 11 1 n v t ' i r t ' i’i> •< o'ti r n y i 1 ■' w 1 f ' 1 T f o iI'pph 1: ■ In ni-'t r t r | 1 ,1 | f i'm i’mm * r r o>t t Pi o o n r r ^ p w'1 i r>’ t hp h I'Pp w o 'ilp M k o t o r p p t n k p p l'V 'p within h 1 n IJ' rn nr p . 11 r p r-’ p r on ■1 11' i 1 *1 r m 1 '! ! ■ 11;f t '. * ■ < ■ n ■ 1v ■,r p 1' ' • > : r • >j ri r , .'< > y p r 1 ’in f*n r p v p t’R 1 ■: u p n f 1 on n w n 1 r n t r o 11 1 ■! (• < 1 f h r ’: <' 1 *n f '' , t ■' i * w n 1 r h r 1 n n rPM 1 > t' p r i' In t >,p ' ' 1 p< ■ 1 ' 1 yr 1 1 ■ r ! f * r 1 f 1 n h. 1 ! n ’’f' r *■ 1 '' r 1 v; r 1 ’ 1 n i.’-n o f ’ h 1 ow" o p p . t ’i r v . " r ir n : t '■! 1 j t r i’m 1 1 i.h nn 1 *■ ■ r ■■! o^or*r r r 1 t f-.r. t i'!1 pi'ms- i”Rnn "on I r'puv nil * ipfinnp' r r v i'o*,nrr , rr ho.n''ipR,‘ r *■ i|i; rpq 1 V] p ’ IV , ! *h fi'r'mM p t _ ] ! ] ^ r p' O' 1 T ‘ 1 ;|i’ t 1 ori 1] M M | 1 p I j V P t'< i — t _ ] 1 VlMlJ I’PIJ V <>p R I ■' 1 t ' '|ft r f> * t P t P)’1’p t " ' ' I 11 ■: t m-j ] 11 P - j r I > 1 I y ( < o ■: t ■ i - • \ — t - ] \ p ! t1 }• - H M 1 ] P m (*n f ‘ "Rip i> | i;P t o pr t h r ori t •] r v r-.o p ■ * * i i P R ’ 1 .r n 1 p i u p i H Inri" on r rIrrp I'pitiovpP f'rom !'f,1 1 if! nn 1 ■'* r ri P‘. r , ^niiol "ppt I h 1 prooh 11■: ■ t t V'irii'l f I'Ri hf■ * w <■ ■ pn 1 ' mo 1 m.' 1 o'i ’ t i r n ■ 1 t o ‘: 1 1 1 v >’ * > i ' 1 ; r * ’ ■ i ■ t W P o n ' I t ' h 1 1 O ' ’ o 1 M V ' 1 ' M ■ , ■ -(P'O' ;l|f M i ( R ■ t | I R * 1 ■ . _ mnhv hlFtorv— n r^nl'Divv whleh hlh not entirely suppress the on pe rna t u vq 1 , but ro t 1 on a 1 1 oeh 1 t . ' ,7 The heflnlntf' of no t h e r e w ere r'h 1 In rrin h p r'’ , ho : r 1 ri e r ■■ nnh urin« m l n e o r , nr W t' 1 ! n :' t n n nf: t ' .■ ■ r i " I ■ ■ "■ n r i n f ;'<■ ■ ■ n f> f i r V " ; ! n y i j >1 ! | nr ( ■ n* I ’ ’ h t \ l >; ’ 1 ’ '■> n 1 1 "i <■■ 1' , ; . 1 ■ i ‘ ■ pm t , M n 1 ”o n n ■1 '< nos O nn u 1 n 1 — '■ o 1 v e * f h f1 t■ r o ' ! orqr■ i t iv’ rf* t\'t 1 I v , t t r - f ] p ‘ +' t h r n n ^ p 111. 1 ! I - , 'i!’ ] ' i r : l r ii'i t h f1 '■ n n n n ■ ‘ v | t l : n ' ! ' i r c * n I'o! W ' j m ; : : ■ j n ^ rr n , ' r' y o > ■ * '' n ‘' W *’ r 'T ' v i ‘ W OO 7 ’ 1 1 o f -> - > y T ■ ■ p < ■ ■ , r ■ f ' h * W f o n ' '' t f ' ' ’ 1 - * ' 'hi '• W'”v on'' i ’ t ■ iri n *’ 1 *'■ ■' ■ i ^ wn n n v< ■ o > • n t 7*0 1 ; n f t ) ■ v 1' o 1 — *■ *■ n i r i O > 1 1 O ‘ 1 11 ° n *' ■ . "n . ( ■ ,"i|- ;,0 ■ ’ , n ' ’ n 7 f ■ K n i1' Ivntin n 1 - 1'., t ., , I f. ■ ' • ■ .,J * -1 ■ : ; <* 1-' - t i t i no " I'l'i 'OM'II i 1 i 'l v * f ■ I * ; f ‘ * T ’ ' I 1 ) * ^ -1 p 1 ! 1 ,J1 I i'/i j | ^ w ] ■ V i K *: 1 * ■ -1 o 7' y : n t r> y on , 111 r i n 1 ■k ' '1 ‘in w i'T 'flru ’ !■*'* 1 1 n 1 1 ■' r* - n ■ ‘ - 1 1 v v 1 o 1 hi o 1 n y nor 1 ' Ion ■">* t p n < y } o t 1 on f 7*0171 1 nn i ' r ■ r~ y t o + v ■ r^.. rfi , 1 \ ■ 1 ' 1 n.n W • t » • ' ' - ' •] rr1 r ^ i ] f •+ # V n 1 ] > ■ t h 1' I' > ‘ 1 ■ ' ' -,o' 1 ■ * ■ '' '1 ' n . \ - * a' 1 n : i ■! r , * 7' n [ , ■ ■ 1 n ! ’ , ’ 0 0 1 if'r’ 1 , * o. ’■ n r ' : >•. . f ■ ■ pi- ‘ *■ > > 1 11 * ■■ i t n ! »i ’ v ■; 1 f h whit w ■. ■1 7 ' 1 * * o • ” i ■ ■ i >. ‘ 1 >n • 4 . : ■ * ■ - * *- r ri n 1 : n t - . •. 1 ; iv; O'] - ' I nr] ' ■ y * ■ <’ ', >• ' >; i ‘ n ,/ ■ 1 ' > ■ ■’ ■ ! 1 ' ' <1 ■ < r > V I f J ’I 1 n V) 1 V , ' 1 t ' ^ T ■ jr > • ^ " * i J ' - • o 1 [-■ > ’' » * ' • * t'lf-rr *\ f ' s1' • 1 T'+J, " •• ' o xt t *' o v 1 ; ■' (i • + V l • i 11 ■ 1 ' • f' ■> ^ i ' * { '' } 1' \ n t ► t ■ * * • ^ i' - ■ ■ iW’ *■ 1 Of, t h f' !■-!”'[ > ] >■' t ’ V fn * ' r n T) 1 t < " , \ I ) N »’ 1 * > l t t 07 7 O t 1 on ; " f ni] t r, 1 r‘ on rr*"- r v 11 1 1 1 7‘1 ! v " 1 00-'1 r u v , 1 7 -, t *' f ' t ‘ (’ : TO j 1 , i ' ■ lo'i'" ■ j | f ( B ( ‘‘ , ,1, * i n r t j ' u ; f , '1 l; ' ' * *' ■ 1 ' ; V ■ 1 1 J r > 1 J- - ' 111 r ’ r I ' 1 7 ri|fi|]' I 7 • " P , • ] o '' ) f1 1 L / t ’ 1 ■ ■ ■ ■ ; ■ >■ ■ ( 1 ■ ■ 1 | fi (. c , 1 1 * r n ■' f ': 1 * 1c f' ■ i r 1 * 1 1' ’r' 1 ■ f I W 1 + h 1 n n t. ri] n f \ nn Inmlnh, f h a n n th n r r1 a v a 1 n pr thp m anning n f t"Vir> w n r h " fa t-■*'1 n " , a n r1 m i n t ' " a ’it w h a t 1 It inf luprinp waa I i n o n t k ' m n l'o r a n H t hr* ^ n r r 1 n p ^ f t hr r o n n t r l w h i n h II n a n ]'■•■ t. n n a 1 * w f * 1 1 . 11 f i r' ■ ’ ‘'') V ' *n " t<") ■ ■ 1 a " in 1 n t a n r! arj t 1 1 ■ V .■ r, m; ■ ,r * . . + ; ■ * 1 ^ ’ r ■ t * I * ‘ \ t ■ ; ■ 1 V . t I ' 1 a .' * t ' ' ■ ' | ' ' '/ ' ‘ ' 1 M [ ' r ' ' * ' ' \ ■■■*'' V' ^ ' s *1 ■ t a f I f- rr, ; ' ' * 1 , . t ] - !"■ - , ■ ■ 1 I r 1 ■ # 1 I 1 t r 1 t ’ PijT ifi >'nr-.-*'- t ■ 1i — t * ■ l" ' fl , W a 1 } — 1' t ■ i * f ■ ■ 1 1 r ■ t i ■' ■ ■J i) r' t ] i ■, r] ^ .■ 1 f i ■ 1 j y p f •)HA t >■ f* >• 1 *’ ' ’ 1■** 1 V, ♦ • t L ■ , . r, ^ ” ' ’ 1 a . M r f’M M r 1 m vw, . fa , ' T , !( ■ ! 1 t' * * , *0 --in ^ l i j ^ >’n ' t ■x" 11 * ’ rr a ' 1 ', 1 * ’ * * t ( a ■ t ] ’ ^ *v'’ ■ i > l t r> * 1 l -' * *■ * v i + t'l'r', 1 r' t n > ■ * ) I r ■ j f f i p t ' o 1 ) ■' — ■■ ’ rr 1 *■ f r| +■ ^ r >-| 1 n 1 ’ t PM ' ’ | t ; A1J '' 1 a f 1 1 H t" r ■ ^ 1 i j ’1|M ] n f’ f a 1 f 1' 1 a J p n r )" P ] rri r >*,i'--oM*rr^ < p P 1 1 ' 1 rr > r f r 1 r> ! r- 1 ; fl 1' I ' y, 1 '' I' rr] ' ( ,rp 11 ' M r r . '■ V 1 f } * I * i r t * t r r r t*1 t * i . > ' ■ , ' ' I I ■■ r 1 ' . r ■ f L rl ' I ■ i ( . fMM|l t r-| ■ | I a \ Vi t t r- o r f n r t -x f m 1 a 1 * ■ * 1 ‘ It)"' + ^ 1 r i * \ nr-' ^ ■' 'n y i n ' ■■ .t ^r ) r, , f . h r \ i a t i t ’r- \ r ri t ■ ii t i" i r* ' i + 1 n ■ a' ■ f '' f i n a • ■ i 'r i i r i ,.i t i t w ■'^ r '1 " n ; 11 — >' \ > ■ 1 ’ m n f ''." 1 !1 r ■ f"i r i i • ‘ * ' ■ i' r i v' r'! ] f i a ( ■ ■ t a n V’ a ;'. > t . ( h * * n h a ' 11 ’ it ‘' ■ ■ - 1 1 <1 o 1 * W > ■ ■ 1 I'l i , t ‘ < a r : ■ ■ ■ > ■ ‘ ■ ' " I ■ t ■ ) - ’ ! ( ti;n ' 1 M , ' t 'ar t ■ y r] r- r, t r j ■/ t . j ■■ ■ i - T' ’ 1 i ■ t r a r ■ ' r ■■, I a I * l r t ■ ’ t a, (' r r * r ( '■ > 1 ^ , r . i rr r ■ f ' f' >;n r ■ ' r a h 1 * ''t •' * ' [H ■ ( > n t- ' f ’ t 1' a r ' I ■. ' t I'll t ■ * 1 t .-r ) ' ’ r t > » ■ ] , • I ’If ' IJI t '|l| | - 1 r i r ■ ■ ‘ t t a w (' 1' h . 1 (ri ti pi ■ < * r ■ ‘ ■ 1 *,■f1 ■ * ita t' ri m \ t t' f ■ 11: ■ t a r l ■ 1 t * t ■ * ai t 1 f ’ ■1 i 1 ' 1 * •' ; ■ T a i' V . ‘11 ■' ’ ’ ■ 1 n f' ' ’ ’ sr f ■ l' f ■ ; t'ni; 1 f- f I t f a c' W f* 1' t-1 t * 1 1 p'l 1 f> i"' * n I'OiliTnni] * t Vi n r ‘ ■ n t > ] ' * ' t1' ' ; '' h a 1 * 1 * ■ rp; t; r-y-i p ^ 1 ’ 11' i ] ‘ 1 f ’ <' ' / l m i 1 '■ V T T . :iPr. r l T 1' . i:rrj n v iv 1 r* h a 1 ' f'n ''1 rr11 n 1 r' * r V it war ] rv t . '’nwahayr hp hpnrp " K t n nn " , "it qt.p" i nr "^’rnnrp " irirt pad , In ',D f !it'i* 'or, r t- h f. w r 1 t o r " f* n 1 n 'h' t > .n t I f " | p v h " i t i n n i - ■ *■ i-f mi r j t i‘ r , 1: *'*n ; 1 *’ , f ■., * , f , i rn j i v < * . >; < > a t * r 1 t ■' i * f' ■' ' r\> * I t 1 t > I I 7 } partner to Berth.1 er, only to denounce him at every turn. The weapon of irony is never concealed; every word rinps with it. It is cleverly done tut the result is that his attitude is b e llig e r e n t, oppressive, and menaeiny,. The picture of hert.hier as the pertcral an '<-■* i — j a -1 ' '■ r ia 1 i. s t army, with Coyer as his number i •;/ nun n i mkl-’i' i i- tumorous, ouf rot fomfortablv so, because it is always trie companion who dupes his superior, (v i z . , th- id ‘.rat theirs w ill h- a veritarle crusade apainst tee iivi is or1 materialism, cause "lout act noble dans ..me Croi suae . " - t')m i'he ieclarat i > r t.r.at Lnir crusade will be noble pives t' i-f' <“ ■ r iji t ■ any In in. teal the . erierui arm his spy ■ ■ i i p. n : like to JO, o i o o 1 h r f re*-, j of ! t .■ OeUrch and the n o b ility war unlim ited, <‘Vfm in mat terR wh. i oh were “.o t considered correct. There is a moriant comparison of Baris and ancient Athens as centers of 'ey '■ wis o>-i urn tel yy, .1 e - ■ i. ;h f ee nth cer tury Brutus uses a w-■ 1 1 - 1 j m : foi lc i c l-iat ; roves his urpune nts on all. counts too ultomaLlrm between the real and the ridiculous. here is the unifiei <■ y. chanpe uf non sensical ideas which has prepared for the lands liar; of vitu p eration aimed at rerthier; mu t > -r i a 11 sm > soul > harmony . viulin o academician > material i sm. bach element will re appear up to the end. fhere is a bayle-li*e intricacy arid interweaving of thoughts. Throughout the essay, Coyer continues to h it hard and more specifically the ideas nr. materialism. manes yo direct references to the materialistic writings of HelvStius and La Mettrie. The end of the second offensive is more brutal than the f^rst by dint of the open insults hurled at berthier and the sardonic questioning of the validity of his ehristianity. M1 f you were called 'pantoufle, eruche, tete & perruque1, you would bear up under the insul ts in a very chrls tian manner, but the materialism contained in these very words g '* would raise your dander t" ■ ■' hav ing solidly snared uer thi er in the rapidly thickening; web of his incursion, Joyer now passes from the realm of isolated words to express his ideas, to the visual, the concrete, he-nee the materialistic aspect of these ideas. He questions the animation and attribution of a soul to a painting or a statue. "Un coup de ciseau de plus, Filial ion animoit sa statue. Louons les Arts; mais ne blessons pas la Foi ." gd The same sort of examples continues, riot even hesitating, to let the captured nerthier attempt to defend himself, a technique which Joyer usually at least rhetorically allows his victims. A poignant allusion to the value of the ignorance of the peuple (here,tongue in cheek, later, in other works, seriously) underscores the dishonesty of the oppressors and the pitiful situation of the oppressed. An aside against 1 1 Ami des hommes and for his own Noblesse commercante is rather cleverly integrated, but add nothing to his real argument. Following t h i s , and for more than twenty pag.es, there is a vicious hut warranted j i Iwe at the author of 91 11Apologle de Louis XIV sur la revocation de 11Kdlt de Nantes. 1 1 1 1 8 portion merits solitary attention because of its length, and especially because of its total dissociation with the sub ject matter of the Lettre au H. P. berthler. The vastness of his topics in the Auolople criticism should also exclude * j* g it from the lim ited view of lierth 1 er . Once back to the subject of materialism, Coyer wastes no time in arriving at his conclusion, or rather conclusions, for there are two of them, both 1eading to the same en a: nerthier's ridiculous war against an exaggerated, materialism. In the first conclusion Coyer mockingly encourages nerthier to continue fighting materialism. Hr* second conclusion strikes a fleeting blow at another of berthler1 s t>£tes nolrs , Jansenism, which he refers to as the "monster of Ypres", Coyer suggests us ini; materialism, a more powerful monster, to quash .Jansenism. He t e lls so r tu i •. r t* > -or is:, i* 1.. hi. "...*rst rie ue .’r?v. u/" . fs s final '.ruins is much, less strong than trie first because it is superfluous, and because it starts and finisl.es in one sentence* a topic which hinted at being; new and in teresting, but which remained unde veloped. The vitriol in Le11re au H. P. nerthier sufficed, to prompt, its prohiuition on k'j January, and its condemnation Q b on o February.' This was the only one of Coyer's writings whose officially registered condemnation remains. During the middle of the same year, Coyer was. v isitin g the eomte dr Helms tut 1 at. his shnt'*uu de Couaix : r hr if. 92 While there, he was fulfilling one of his duties to the family which supported him. There are two le tte r s from Coyer to Malesherbes as well as two requests for audience with him, regard i ry\ an inf <■'rc'-r.ido 11 by Co yor with the li roc four de i i bralrio for an af fai re de1 f am 111 e . The rei :ning cue de bouillon felt that the family name was being harniehed by the hSmolres de nordeaux. Just exactly how the hSnialres were so ilin g t.he family imag*-; was complicate,. ami sh'>r.j '< J f >tent name irifl. uoneed stand, lag. In this case, the actual person being wronged was the loiy, dead uncle of do hi ■ t n 1 r • m at - grandmother. the u n c l e was Mazariri. His y e p L, y ■ ; '■ !'■'■■■ , ’ u i« -A’ 1 ' tarici nl , m a r 11 i e, i (k d e f r<. - J ■ ■: : in* ■d "! 'i i r, due de nouillon, dcuxl^me co::ite d'bvreux. it ./as 'his : imte duehosse de bouillon who was, respnn. ■ i ble tic ■■id,I ; , i ? . > 5 r f 1 s .PhSdre . The MSmoiref; do bordeau*: were not written . n e’-oeaux's '-o. a ; fury--mans i eur de ordeaux, inl-ot cd dec ijnianees and attach * to Kazarin, died in InoO. They were not even written ey him, according, to earlier and ^u£rard . in the ei mteenth century Jatien n* leurtil;' uperily spoke injuriously of Mazariri in these M&molres . It was fc'T’ this reason that Coyer1s benefactor ieJ t the call to stand up against the dSmolres de bordeaux as i nu i.yiantly as though his own feneration had a m i calum- ip-j riated .' ’ The period of the nuerclie de la noLlesse commercanto whi eh muimi i :. n't. ' t 1 ■ '' • ■ i ♦ e ;■ f Coyer' r; career. His name was amor,;; those in the center of literary attrac tion. He could correspond v/I th Malesherbes about family politics. Critics and fellow artists listened to his opinion on matters of current interest--they often rejectee them as they ui.i /o lt a ir e ’s or nerth ier’s, lot his voice was heara. In l’b'O, his physical appearance became crystallized as well, in the oil portrai t by Colson. The new confidence inspired by his success with Noblesse was a turning point in his bold ness and firmness of style. lie remained as idealistic as ever in his projects for reform. The be ttre au H. P. ber- thier shows this new courage and self-confidence. He felt no less '}iial i f i'ui when he launched a new attack in favor of his fellow freethinkers, right after Palinsot’s seathin,■ i i ■J mockery in Les Philosophes. Voltaire,' lousseau and others on d irectly attacked remained in the background' after the opening right, perhaps to show that they would not stoop to a petty quarrel with au author they co n ia ereu unworthy 1110 of their time and energy, ' Coyer, as the onlooker, fe lt compelled to execrate this u:uneriteu anti d ista stefu l v i l i f i cation. And Pal is so t ’s sharp tongue lashed back. w/hile berthier in some ways returnee to the styl* wf Le t tri & unc damo an; .1 ois c urn bo t trc & un , ;rand. the Dis- cours sur la satyre contre les philosophes. d e stin e d for the ears of his learnSd comrades, is as erudite as the Dissertation sur la diffSrence de deux anclennes relinions. Coyer demonstrates his profound fam iliarity with t.fr drunk ‘>k thpatpr In the hoh v of his psnny, I hav^ nnlr] that thp ph 1 1 oso phps thPTPSPlvps made no hlrnr, t anh nppn rpply t. o Pal In s o t , 'toy or n on s 1 h p m h h lm n o in a ph 1 1 on o phn . T his won 1 r) s p p m t o 1 mi11 v t } ia t o 1 t hoii yh ’;'il m m o n n 1 1 y r 1 h 1 nn 1 fd In t h p r ] a V , |f’o ’/P r Won M 1 V ' r ' ' ‘ ''" 1 • ( * ’.on ; I p n 1 r j f' nn f t'nr, t M 1 lor: a i ■’ o , iif'i’f h ’ 1 ■' a a 1 t n ■■■■ y l ! l pi) 1 , Kvnrp t h'1 o i 'Pn 1 n v r *’ri- t n rro t. o t hp r 1 or■ 1 n a , t hp a h hA i I ;i v'’ a t r 1 p ] p ro ] p — 1 n a a t v l n t >i a f la f' a f* 1 1 1 a r to '; a hr 1 p 1 !■’ Pan ’o 1 a ' ,’n y p r . Almost 1 V s 1 p 1 r h t -'if hn nr' , P ’ n n rp a 1 na' *► . o o *’ p" t an■ t 1 n p' : ■ hi 1 1 o a o phn t ■ v c 1 a 1 *" * n v" n n * * o o i • i t i r 1 - o l a 1 1 1 ■r ■ o t r p v ■' p , At t h n mm f1 t i tip V f> rp | j o t i v i'vpA"o'- t i'o r 1 1t v a ' ’ a t > a V. P o r V op ] t > s '■ t ■ 'p m {■< i • a a ’r O n f n o - > 1 i ; ' 1 ; p ' I f P ■ \ \ '■ ■ ; >1 n t a j i > pp o n a } '' '1 * 1 J' ** , a o O r" P ■ 1 V W 1 r ^ WO'1 noto n r r ' a , a r ' 11 ' ' a 1 t ’ a 1 ■ P ’,r O a 1 a It a'- r i 1 1 ■ _ r-onnr't i 1 1 1 -man n«rfH , ans In >'yt rP""1 !y n.onp fasto, h pw r ■ 1 a ywr 1 tf'h t s non IP staph at awilnaT a ^ t a l !^'l rsn'rvu'l son w 1 t Vi Vnl 1 n i • n on A 1' 1 " * o ' ■ h a n *1 a . Always r ■ so f " a + 1 r i a * h < ■ an t i 1 '■■ •.■on-]' ’ o V p n ra 1 s n s' ' h(1 r i ■ o a ,■ 1 o 11 p r M o n w \ \ 1 <' 11 will to h i 1' " f 1 * \ t r a 1 t hp n> p i "I ' hotin^t pt p tat t ■ i 1 a'! o a — * —(i 1 1 p p t p 1 i p s ■ ■ A p -Ians ! a p 1 nr r* ; a • Ph 1 1 o s o r > p ;' 7 '('Si ] p po 1 n r : a 1 1 1 fa a * Arinins!r, non man rprnrnr ‘r t o 1 s a l ‘■'S' Pal*', m ala m a n t - r p ’^ n 1 r a p 1 a 1 a a 1 r pii p ro 1 t :' r Pa 1 v n . " ' ( ' ! ,J 1 f h r P n P p P t n n ' t v , t h 1 r ■ a r i ryi F ■ t p aU 'fit '/M il Pm! h i s P s. s O V . ^nl 1 & pn Happpphph 'inh will -a'way" pp nonnlar t'pnaa."p his rriorl-rpvy was not rni’Vnn-i 1 , hut un 1 ,fptnni . //hPrpaa * on- r 1 pn t A th n n la n s 1 nti^hp''! at t.hp e x r o n s p op t,hpln to s P lllas- h ' l n a r' n 1 t 1 ”pn " , t hp v also 1 a a v hph af t h P tn s p !" pr , A * least there was an "esprit d'SquitS". hut if we cannot laugh at ourselves, or stand for others to laugh at us, Is it just to laugh at them? With this, Coyer makes his thesis He achieves his best criticism in the article through parabl and historical examples. He studies Coorates, Homer, ana Aristophanes closely and announces a moral: "Cette difference quo la Grice i:dt entre Home re iV Aristophane, doit apprendre aux hcrivains qu1une plume sage assure hion micux leur gloire que la d(!nl ce la saty re . "102 kalissot did not turn a deaf ear to this assauLt; he responded in kind. 1 r. o n e ripost e se veral years later no cite s part of a t’at.de by La houtaine wh i r.h shows how he1 : n n o r : "Coci s'auresso i vous, espri ts c, u dernier ordrc, (iui n'&tant bon & rien, ehorchez surtout ?i mordre ; 7ous vous t.ourmentes. vai ncnont. Croyez-vous que vos dents imprinient leurs ouvrages Cur taut do beaux ouvrages? , H r sort, pour vous d 'airain , d 'a o ie r , d-1 diamant," k- layer's reserve in his criticism < d’ Le.s Lhilosophes was both characteristic and wise; l-lorel let was imprisoned for two 10A months a fter his. own vcrlwl lunp;e at P a lisso t's play. r'or some time, Coyer has been preparing his fir s t lengthy work, a three1 volume history of Jean So Die sk i. At age fifty -fo u r along with the hanituaily b itter tongue of some critics, the praise from others and his success have matured his pen. liver: while writing on commission, the abb£ always maintained an independent spirit. Grimm, despite his harshness towards Coyer, recognized the honesty in his works. 96 "En gSn&ral, 11 faut rendre la justice & M. 11abb$ Coyer que ses ftcrits sont I'ouvrage d1un parfaite- ment honnfite homme; ils ont toujours conservS le caract^re estimable d1une bonne philosophie, d'une noble libertS,de 1 * amour enfin de la justice,do la vSritS, de la tolerance, de 1'humanitS. On ne trouvera aucun Serivain qui a it plus invariablement de meilleurs principes et un meilleur but, et e'est un assez grand mSrite dans un si^cLe ou tant de laches rnercenaires ont vendu leur plume S. la faveur ^ et arrangent leurs idSes selon le vent qui souffle." oome thought- that the Noblesse coinmercante was a work of command from someone in the government. It is certain that Chlnkl (176d) was hone* on request. There is nothing; to prevent the :>elief that the Hlstoire de Jean dobleski. rol de Pologne was written for his ward, whose mother was Jean 1 Of' uobIeski 1 s granddaughter. The history is dedicated to "son alt,esse rionseigneur le Prince de bouillon." Hesiues Coyer and the Chevalier de .Taucourt, who plagiarized an enormous amount cf information from Coyer 107 for his a r tic le on Poland in the Knc.yclop$d; e . few philosopher were interested in Poland, although it was the homeland of the queen Marie-Leezinska. Even V oltaire, to whom historians usually attribute the paternity of modern historical methodology and the desire for accuracy, borroweu facts on Poland from C oyer7UiLi Regarding modern historiography, Coyer remains with the old school, but leans strongly towards an improvement in accuracy of representation. 'That is, whereas he looked upon his tory as bei ng a moral guide as he stated in his preface to dobjeskl. and his method was to choose a hero and present him anecdotally. Here, as always, the abb§ realised the value of the multiplicity of source material 109 and first hand inlormatlon. His gravest faults were those of all the eighteenth century historians. H. K. btromberg; has succinctly stated the main problem: "Kan was viewed abstractly rather than empiri cally, analytically rather than : ■ is to r ic a lly . byes were turned on man in his earthly settin g with a new interest, but mostly on a rational man in a static society, not on historic man in a moving society. There was no notion of an or ganic growth. The idea of progress was an abrupt and really unexplained dawning of reason after centuries of meaningless darkness.*110 despite the static, anecdotal quality of the book, there is a distinct sense of motion in the portrayal of t.h hero, Jean J o tiesk l. There is a!, so a feelin g of complete ness in the presentation as far as facts ano visual images arc concerned. Coyer divides his three volumes into nine books. .'le- I'titLr’1'' fir s t boos ev e' < •: • to a factual hist of Tolar; a r c Police rub r:: *'rn:, t.1.' : id '' ■ . y ;ry to bn.' 5u > v e j ; f e r 1 . ,!) ; . ' i < ■!. t y. t i. > {! : nferial c on] le ted , the author b*’()ius with ttv 1 if ■ d’ . f ; in here', two. much booh *. ■ i 1 ■ ?1' ■ a f t, i ■ j ■ i .nli: m l division, a r::.a.l] co m p a rtm e n t easily digiosted oy the i' : ccause of his primary u-J4r-:-- , ■ .< a t of the history is built around excitin g and bio >rb -att.lf.es in whicr. oobl ock i shone. Character portrayal, especially of Hobb’uk- and tee queen, is < ■' i ■ of author's s'ronger points. As Coyer's own Ideas, He always yi ves special attention to population, education, the value of commerce, totnj liberty for noM ll by and peasantry , r'Ci.iorr 1 e” • graphic precision, 'Hie hero he chose plus his own honest.v of presenta tion put Coyer in a difficult position. At times, as when he spoke out against absolute monarchy and religion, his position was dangerous. Often he is between opposing forces. He defends equality of classes, but seeks and praises nobility, even in facial expressions; he newer misses an opportunity to rebel against conform!ty--particularly religious yet he did not abandon his own title of abb£, He influenceu many people at once with bobleski. and the work impressed the deposed Polish kin/7; Stanislas to whose academy he belonged and whose protection he received. He dedicated it to his own protector, the due de bouillon, who was a direct descendant of his hero; but he risked puttinp the duke in an uncomfortable position at court because he protected such an outspoken writer. Pressure from an offended ruler could force the duke to quit his support for Coyer. ~>obleskl could a lso have drawn the queen's a tte n tio n to him; only here he failed utterly, for the opposite resulted, L1 h i s - toire de J can dobieskl was suppressed 2‘> March l'/bl, and Coyer deemed it wise to take a quick trip until the si tua- tion became calmer. His censor was put in the bastille. borne one at court was putt inp pressure on Palesherbcs ' f uth< r , t!:« )!rii ‘i I i 1 • r La: ;•••! , whe i :• tut':, was '-e» r>- i •. h is son in to condemning; the h is to r y . L etters between fa th er and son show the discomfort of the former, and the justice 112 of the latter. However. Malesherbes finally signed an arrfet de conseil. He even penned out a detailed manuscript complete with citations showing where the book was undesirable. Grosclaude has given a rSsurnS of these reasons: Jokes on religion, exaggerated enthusiasm for republican government, disrespect for kings, especially in the House of Austria, and finally, numerous undesirably presented contemporary a llun s io , n s . 113 The government and the court were not the only ones harsh in their criticism of Gobieskt. Although Voltaire showed amazement at Co.yer's exile, he defended the author H d against persecution but not for the merit of his history. A few critics found some deserving qualities, but always followed them by pointing out distinct weaknesses in style. Others did not take the trouble to look for good points, and minced no words concerning what they considered affected, shallow and unworthy of being called history. L'Histoire de Jean boblesk1 still managed to maintain popularity be cause it had three editions the first year, a fourth in the QEuvres completes (1782), and eventually saw translation 117 into four foreign tongues. Where the abbS traveled during his self-imposed exile and how long he was absent remain unknown. It is possible that he spent some time in a neighboring ch&teau with his own 100 friends or friends of the Bouillon family. It is unlikely that he crossed the border into another country, because he save his personal impressions of all other countries he visited (Italy, Holland, and England). Coyer probably went to visit Voltaire at Ferney. Voltaire wrote to his friend Damilaville on 7 September 1761. "J'ai chez moi 11abb€ Coyer, Je suis encore concevoir les raisons pour lesquelles on I 1a fait voyager quelque temps. II faut que .I'aie 1'esprit bien bouch6.Bllb A significant incident occurred at a meeting between Coyer and Voltaire, and was recounted many times afterwards as an example of Voltaire's wit and Coyer1s lack of it. It seems that the abi^* dropped in unexpectedly cm Voltaire at Feraey and made it known that he would like to spend at least six weeks as a house guest, to which Voltaire replied with a question, "M. I'abbS, savez-vous la difference qu'il y a entre Ltom-Quichotte et vous? Cost qu'il pre- nait des auberges pour des chateaux, et vous prenez les ch&teaux pour des auberges."119 It seems most logical that the Incident took place not during the 1761 visit, as uachaumont suggests, but in the early 1770's, for the reason that it was never recorded in corres pondence or elsewhere in the sixties. nachaumont dates the anecdote in 1761, but does not report it until 1777. I>a Harpe1 s correspondence mentions It In 1777. Paul Claude Moulton related It in a letter to Jakob Heinrich Meister in 17 77, as an example of Voltaire's continued spryness . 101 Coyer probably spent some time at several different places, before arriving at Fernev. Sobleskl was suppressed in March. Voltaire discussed its condemnation in April, and questioned whether Coyer were really in exile. On o July, the old phllosophe wrote ar.ain to d'Arp;ental about Coyer in a manner that would su rest that they had not yet met in person, but that V o lta ire had heard rumors of Coyer's social ima^e. “hi 11 abb£ Coyer parle come il §crit 11 doit fetre fort aimable. Mais ma mfere qui avait vu DesprSaux disait que c'Stait un bon liv r e e t un so t homme.H121 There were others who did know Coyer personally and who openly stated that they found him dull company. On 1? November 176b, Diderot reported to Jophie Volland the activities in the salon world. One specific evening, the baronne d* Hoi bach shared her carriage with Diderot, ivi. de b ev elin ^ e, and Grimm, On the way to a co n cert, Grimm com mented on the baronne1s conquest of the abb€ Coyer. "II est vrai qu'elle avait §t§ exposS, pen dant toute la soirfie, a sa p;alanterie, qu'elle a p p e la it du m iel de Narbonne ;y?itS."122 fwo years later, the baronne still clun# to the same iraa^e, as told by Diderot. "Da baronne dit que 1'abbS Coyer est du miel de Narbonne tourn5, qu'il ne faut pas le lui e n v o y e r . buch opinions, however did not hinder the abbfi's social life, as is visible from his wardrobe p;iven in the inventalre 1 s . Coyer1 s WEinirolxi tends to s u s t that h is 102 m ilieu was more the " p e tite bourgeoisie" than the grand monde. Coyer undoubtedly felt more at ease in a social situation where he did not have to compete with the most glittering personalities of French society. Malibran men tions that, *11 fut peut-^tre If.* Diderot d1 un salon & H12^i sa mesure." Among the greatest names of the century are examples of similar character traits. Voisenon describes Housseau's most unpardonable crime as being boring, "but if all bores 1 2 ‘i were exiled, there would be a lot less rent to collect." A contemporary reporter of Parisian mores felt thj-b ntn-r ■ ;k t distinct 4'iva.'ila;v fv> ■■ men in conversation, and espe cially educated men, because the Ladies with no learning spoke with ease and unconcern for grammatical errors. "Au lieu qu1un homme qui a fait ses Studes, craint de se tromper, il y va a pas rnesu rSs , de sorte que c e tte t in id i t§ t ic n t son <;spri t cach£ . II y a des savans qui semblent hSbetec on conversation, leur esprit est pour les matieres sSrieuses, y non pour les petites choses dont on a accoutumS de s'entre- t e n i r . "12b The real fault, then, lay in the customs as well as in the i ndi vidual. At the time of the condemnation of Sobieski, the Jesuits were not in the good favor of the public eye. A live hatred for priests had been visible for more than ten years. D'Argenson tells how their appearance on the street caused hoots and boos in 1753. how attendance at church and enrollment at Jesuit schools diminished. At carnival time one of the 103 favorite costumes was a ridiculous mockery of the habits of 127 bishops, abbots, monks or nuns. Satirical contes and 12 poems appeared copiously in harsh criticism of the religious. Finally, in 1762, the Parlement of Paris, confirmed by an 129 edict from the klnp, suppressed the Society of Jesus, It was an uncomfortable time for members of the Jesuit or ders. It was also uncomfortable for Coyer, vls-&.-vis Sobleski. There exists nothin/-: to Indicate why he bepan extensive travels in the years that followed, but it is difficult not to seek an explanation in the political temperament of the times, especiallv ''oncernlnr: the first trip, which followed closely behind his self-imposeu exile. In 1763-bd, he went to Italy, in 1763 he was in London, and in 1769 he tr a v e lle d in Holland. Still in France, but not in Paris, in 1763 Coyer be came a member of the Academic de fancy. doubtlessly his acceptance wa3 influenced by the rood favor which 11 Histoire de Jean Sobieski brourht from the deposed Polish kinr Stanis las, founder of the academy. It meant a lot to Coyer to be aide to say that he was an academ ician. It was apreed in peneral that the members of an academy should be the intellec tually elite, chosen by merit, devoted to the exchange of ideas and the difusion of knowledge. With such definite criteria, membership in an academy was a guarantee of pres- 130 tipe. Unfortunately, although membership was to be based on merit according to the statutes of individual academies. 104 true equality did not exist. It was a tig;ht circle which excluded all who did not have the means to conform with the cultural norms that defined it. Its limits were always in the talented bourgeoisie. Only in very rare exception did the merchants, manufacturers, or artisans attain academic e n t r y .1 31 "Elies sont fondfies par la noblesse provinciale, la map;istrature, le cler^S, par des privilSnies. "132 Provincial academies increased their number rapidly,1^ in fact, much too rapidly according to some.. Voltaire saw th e ir v io le n t growth as " fu n este au proivr&s du bon Rofit" and envisioned ail of France becoming one hu^e academy from ?au to JJunkirk.1 34 besides the inequality of membership, most constituents agreed with Diderot as >o the main fault of provincial academies: they were not the Academic r’ran- gai s o . "be style de:; academies provinciates ne saurait fetre fcelui de 1'AcadSmie frangoise, il ne faut pour s'en convaincre que lire les ouvrages et les discours m&mes des principaux rnembres qui les composent.'*13 b The abbS Coyer1 s speech at his reception into the AcadSmie de Nancy on Junday, the eighth of May, 1/63, falls squarely into the category described above. In a ri^id construction of pyramid nature, the abb€ praises Dtanislas, lauds the ancients, pives a detailed exposition of the question, "What is a Man of Letters?", returns to the ancients, and ends with a final word about Dtanislas. 'The speech Is dull. It fawns to the academicians who inducted him. It says 105 nothin# new or strikin#, and. it is platitudinous to a decree which has to make this speech the most unoriginal piece Coyer composed. but, it is more revealing of Cover the man, the "Scrivain de troisi&me ordre", than anythin# else he wrote; and it is for that reason that I shall study it in detail later. Coyer sees the homme de lettres as a sage, an enlightened intellectual whose reward is glory. he teaches and he learns. His harshest critic is the public, which coldly despises mediocrity. How could he not have been objectively aware of his own vision in the public eye when he said, "Le Public. est sans mis£ricorde. Volez & l'entrfie de la carri&re, il vous applaudit. Tombez au milieu ou au terme, 11 vous couvre de poussi£re. Cependant quel est le gfinie toujours semblable h lui-meme?"136 Knlirhtenment watchwords like reason, nature, instrulre. justice, etc. appear frequently and place him among the philosophes. nut the overall feeling is that, while sincere-- because everythin# Coyer wrote was honest, forthright and sincere--the.y are the shadows of what all other phllosophes had said before him. As already w itn essed in L ettre & une Jeune dame. Dftcouverte de la plerre philosophale. 11AnnSe mervellleuse. and parts of the Noblesse commercante. Coyer's originality sometimes lay in the reshaping and reusing of someone else 1s basic ideas. Now that he was an academ ician, the abb€ could add a title behind his name in publications, "membre de l'acadfimie 106 de. . .N . lie was soon to be able to add another to the Acad&nie de Nancy, for during his trip through Italy, he was asked to .loin the AcadSmie des Arcades in Home. Coyer1 s tr ip to I t a ly la ste d from 24 August 1763 u n til 13 October 1764. fie did not write up his travel experiences until more than ten years later (1773)- When he finally published the Voyages d11talic et de Hoilande, he rationalized their appearance in a statement of Intent, as travel litera ture was anything but new especially travel in Italy. bince Italy had so much to offer for everyone from the artist to the p o liu iu ia a or -;ven " I'Lckim 1 rived-. *. ■. t - ■ n -■; ' 1 p i 1 togeth er the most in te r e s tin g d e t a ils of what he saw, in order to please* all these varied individuals. If his readers would aad Coyer's observations to those of all the other travel writers, they would have a complete picture of the country, the people, the customs, the government, and the culture. As an unnecessary sugar coating to this pill of mediocrity, Coyer used an epistolary stylistic device, writing to an imaginary, enlightened lady still in France. These travel letters are as revealing about Coyer's personali ty as a man not at work. as the academy speech was about his literary fears and ambitions. His best salon technique is obvious in his sucrerles to the imaginary A sp a sie . 137 There is no order in the author's exposition except his itinerary. lie tends to recount the same topics which 107 have always interested him: depopulation. Justice, safety, celibacy among the religious, the values of a burgeoning: commerce, and then local customs and mores such as festivals, freedom of women, even the piety of prostitutes. He reveals personal facts such as his enjoyment of rood wine, rood food, and tobacco. His upper-class tendencies are not hidden; he tr a v e ls with a lackey and a handsome sum of money for e x penses. He tells what kinds of accomodations he receives. He also displays his own generosity of spirit and innate kindness and honesty. A certain penchant for morbidity re veals Itself frequently in incidents which he recounts as being humorous. I'his was not a rare characteristic in the eighteenth century. bven Louis XV was so fascinated with and tormented by death that he used to send out men to 118 count the number of new tombstones in Parisian cemeteries. During th is voyare, the abb£ met a number of important individuals: the Pope (on Christmas day), the; king of Sar d in ia , the duke of Parma, the king of Naples, the grand duke of Tuscany, and the kin/: of the two Sicilies, to whom he had the self-confidence to present a copy of his dobieski. The year of Coyer1s re turn from 1 ta ly was the same year Palissot published his La Duneiade. most well-known for its attacks on Voltaire, but which lashes out at many other of his contemporaries. He mentions Coyer on three different instances, all of which are reeking with sarcasm and irony regarding the abbS's still frivolous reputation because of 108 1 BQ the Bagatelles. Whereas Coyer felt obliged to defend his fellow sophists who appeared in Palissot's Les Philosophes, he did nothing to defend himself. In fact, soon afterwards, he left on another trip. In 1785 he spent several months in England. This stay resulted in membership in a third academy, the Hoyal dociety of London, considerably more impressive than the preceding ones, and another travel account. houvelles observations sur Angleterre give a selective view of the country, minus the Personal touch, i.e ., "quelques 1 bservations plus u tile s que ourieus^s."1 * As he is wont to do, Coyer reports only those tilings which substantiate the fundamental ideas and b e lie fs which lie has set forth elsewhere on population, theater, education, .justice, religious tolerance, agricul ture and the marine, clubs, the national character, etc. These letters could be compared to Voltaire's Lettree an- glaises. without, of course, the Voltairian verve which Coyer emulated. The few known personal facts about the abb§1s visit concern his admission into the doyal bode ty of London. Coyer wrote to Voltaire on June Id requesting the letter of recommendation from a member necessary for acceptance, 141 which Voltaire probably accorded him. However, Coyer was nominated by the due de Nivernois, and supported by George Lyttieton, Charles Gorton, 'Thomas Birch, and Matthew 14? iv:nty--no mention uf Voltaire's nainf.1. 109 The Society was large, perhaps too large according to l4 l the abbS Leblanc. There were 900 national members and about 150 foreign ones . It rnet in a simple lecture hall, and the members listened willingly to anyone, member or not, who had a worthwhile communication. All in all, it was rather a mixture of the AcadSmie des inscriptions and the AcadSmie des jcienccs de Paris, combining, both hautes sciences and nelles lettres. Jith memters liKe d'Alembert, ruffon, Jus- 199 sieu , V oltaire, r-o.yle, iJewton, iJryden, Addison and Pope, to mention only a few, it is no wonder that Coyer was anxious to add his own rlaine to the r o ll. iliere was still another incident with Voltaire and coyer as the protanonists, this time due to the old patriarch. Voltaire was nearly as famous for denying his works of questionable censorship permission, as he was for writing them. In i?oo, Voltaire tried to attach the Pansophe le tte r s to Coyer1 s pen. In November and December* of l?oo, he wrote more than a dozen letters to his friends and to news-spreading acquaintances saying that the abt>£ Coyer was trying to make it known that Voltaire, and not the abbfi, had written the nettre au hocteur Pansophe. He repeatedly mentioned sty l i s t i c tra its of "rfipStitions et longueurs" which were characteristic of Coyer. nesides, Coyer was in Lngland when it was published and he had met the people mentioned in the letter. Voltaire wrote to the marquise Du Deffand, " i 1 est fort ;iial a lui qui se d it mon ami , de s'Stre servi dn mon nom, et de feindre que ,1'ficrin une Lettr^ & Jean-Jaques quand je dis 110 qu'il y a sept ans que ,1e ne lui ai Scrit. Je me ferais sans doute honneur de cette Lettre... si elle Stait de moi. II y a des choses char- mantes et de la meilleure plaisanterie; il y a pour-tant des longueurs, des repetitions , et quelques endroits un peu louches."145 When Coyer indignantly and vehemently protested the charge, Voltaire tried to change the direction of his attack to Charles nordes from Lyon. Not many people were fooled c who had written the satire against Kousseau. Crimm recog nised the true author Immediate! y , in sp ite of his protestati u.s Furthermore, he could not res is t the temptation to take a lunyre at Coyer. "11 /'Jo 11ai re / pr? *. e r J q u 'e lle » ; i : f I.. I ': ' ^ d'p.T. Je conseille \ 1 1 a: Coyer in- l.iv ■ ne V 1 dec au mot, et nous .j irons que cette le ttr e (.‘St ce quo I1., 1'abbft Coyer a 5 c rit do mieux. "140 In some respects this would have been correct. Coyer was surely profiting from this unrequested publicity, but his honesty and his desire to become friends, wit.n dousseau kept him from pla.yiny alonp. To correct the injustice Coyer' wrote to Joan-Jacques1 publisher, buy, on 2 January 17b? denying what Voltaire had attributed to him, and asking buy to intercede with Housseau on his behalf. "Vous savez 11 admiration que j'ai toujours eue pour les brands talents de M. dousseau, votre ami, et que j'ai toujours d§sapprouv€ les per secutions qu'on lui suscite dans son malheur. Je serais trSs f&ch§ qu'on me mit au nombre de ses persScuteurs, et, d'ailleurs, je n'ai jamais emprunt6 le nom de personne. Je me sers du mien, ou je ,yarde 1' anonyme ." 147 I ll Coyer's in sisten ce upon honesty is but one of the constancies in his character makeup and personality. This could be why he felt qualified to keep a moral thread stitch ed throuKhout his works. Such consistency in both person and writing is also one reason why he remained a salon bore and a second-rate author. While he varied s t y l i s t i c approach and p;enre, his ideas remained o ss ifie d , and staunchly plodded through every pamphlet, letter, treatise, or history. Coyer was aware of his weaknesses. He received the critical remarks about his writing without retort. lie was prateful for the rewards which his work brought and was proud of the 1i terarv laurels he had received. liis suc cesses were frequent enouph to eneourape him to continue writinr;. What did occasionally chanpo in his works seems to be the amount of inspiration. bufficient proof is visible in the comparison of fir.v, pithy, even passionate pu td i cat ions such as Plaisir pour le peuple, the Le11re au U. h. berthler. and be la predication. with the pal id and flowery Let tre h. une dame. or his acceptance speech for the AcadSmie de Uanoy. y e la, predication is a sermon apainst sermons. It raised a storm of opinions, both for and against, at it s appearance. Judpind by its title, one would think that the fifty-nine year old abb6 had fin a lly decided to assume the duties of the cloth. Instead, Coyer devotes the entire first half to imovinK that throughout a ll time from Adam to ancient Home and Greece, to Massillon, Bourdaloue and Bossuet, no preacher has succeeded in ameliorating the mores of his era. The deists cheered and the religious called him an atheist. Coyer is in fact no less a believer than Vie ever was. This forceful bep;in-nlnr leads to his main tenet: that it is up to the government to correct the e v ils of society where Chris tianity (especially Catholic Christianity) has failed. From the morm r_' h-> poses his principal idea, the spark disappears and the style returns to what his critics considered typical of Coyer. His plan is for the development of an id eally constructed, sim p listic government which would keep the c itize n s in lin e b.y punishment and reward. The rules are simple: res to rat ion of paternal authori t.y , mar i tal author i ty and authority of master over servant. There must be a pood education system. The nobility will be controlled and the peuple respected. In the final paragraph he returns to the role of the fist-shakinn preacher ami ends with a threat or a prediction of cominn. violence and internal uprisings. The t i f f between Coyer anti Voltaire that same year did not hurt the relationship of the two men. Coyer devotes an entire section of Be la predication to flinging laurels on Voltaire's tragedies and La Henrlade as powerful vehicles for preaching. Voltaire discusses the FrSdication in numerou le tters, not always too flatteringly. "Toute la partie du livre oTi il se rnoque des sermonneurs est fort bonne, et la partie ou il veut Stabli r des censeurs lui en attirera."1 do 113 It was a subject which always attracted Voltaire's sardonic retorts, and one which he treated frequently himself. It is possible to see his mind reworking what the abbS had written, into what Voltaire rnlpht have done. Fortunately for Coyer, he pot no further thfin eonsidorinp it. "11 mfiritait d'etre mieux fait, et pouvait £tre tr£s plaisant. II fallait eonimeneer par dire qu'Adam avait prechft Kve, et qu'au so r tir du sermon Eve le f i t cocu avec le d iable. 11 fallai t continuer sur ce ton, e t on se ra it mort de rl re . " 1/49 In Predication, Coyer is more a phllosophe than ever. He could even have /’;iven the a r tic le the su b -title "Apolo- ■le (ifiiste et philosophique ue la religion." Coyer sees the philosophe as the porte-paroles of his theories. "11 Scarto tout instrument de surprise; il s'on tient h. la simplicity de la raison; 11 ouvre & tous les yeux le livre de la nature qui narle & tous les esprits une lan/pue in- t e l 1 in ib le ; i l cherche la source do la morale1 dans la conr i ; u ’ i ■. 1. * :< ■1 - r • 1 - iog - ' ; i ) :i': cuppa:-' rii'..; 11 pi'ouve : . . . 11 trace une lipne bien inarquye '"iLn.1 le vie- la vertu. II re force point la nature; il permet d'user de touc ses (ions, sans on abuser, ce n'est pas un homme sans passions qu'il veut former, . rnais un homme honnete aver des passions." J It is no wo tun‘i1 that Coseph domain Jo'ly, in the preface to hi s His tolre de la predication, re f*;rs f o :-,ay 1 e as Coy e r 1s oracle aril rna s t e r . 151 bayle could well have been the abbfi's pruide in the violence of his verbal destruction. Such energy shows a courapoous evolution in Coyer* s w riting. both Voltaire.1 and :v\chaun:w:it prf'fiieted that the wort weub: he sei;n--, 11'+ condemned, 1 d? although i t was not. One such v it r io lic example is his criticism of Paris. Nothing new is saiu, hut he regurgitates all its vices and evils in three small, compact pages. He is equally as venomous Id his most ;:l‘Ujs,yr ■ . hurst.. ■ iq n in :;’ t!s- *ar; ;■ c’s-s . "Jo ne sunt ni les femme s sgavantcs , ei les pr& cieusos ridlcules qui nuiserit; ce sort cos femmes nardies qui par lour rang, \ leur liberty dans ie dSsordre, ease i eneut & leur sexe quo la pudeur est ignoble u hassr. Je sunt Ce£ brillantes prostitutes qui nous pardonneriuns peut-ttre ae ruiner les fortunes, si (dies ne ruinoient pas les sentiments; ce sunt ces meres Je f ami lie Stranq&res h. leur famille; ce sor.t ces mar&tres qui ford h.air h un pore ses jTOinifrs eiit’ants , qui le f late at pour1 l.e d £pou i 111 r . . . M i ; J Joyer .nan tuyed with ; .ovrn'mnciit s 1 r. reueral many t im* s in the past. jJ^couverte ae 1 1 1 sic frivule snowed corrupt Trench a ffa ir s, the epistolary travels through Italy, o d - land and bngland noted governmental facts in other- c o u n t r i e s ( al though he hud no1*- v-’t : m! his r*: 1 < ■ c t i ous in unifieu for:,!). The lijstoire up. J(_J-*d oui j- no i;. ■ tail history ■’!' is./lies V" r . Ts i • * hue nut yet joined the abundant group of ideal c iv iliz a tio n and ,-.uvernment de pic tors (ai ong with r'lon tesq ui e u , :iu us seau, Anquetil- Juperron, etc.). Although the aim of be la predication is certaln ly not to show the 1 atricaeies ui' what Coyer con- si ae red to oe the per feet rovermnent, ire lias nonetheless begun to develop certain theories regarding a non-existent entity designed to rule. The policies are t>ased on a punish ment and reward oyster;:. Tron here he exte nds the plan into 1 '1 b lunt Irp. Kvprythlntr must npr.psrnrlly turn arnunii un unrnr- riinteh morality. The unrl e hnn r h l f t e h , but hr non t.l nuns with the lhen In irrpTtPr hot all an m e n tio n oh above, u n t i l he bar nroteeteh htr th.enrle.n unb rrovpl t h e i r pn^'htl 1 1- j v r , t [ 1 n u '' <"! ' ur tie'' f ’'o n * ■ 1 r' *' ’ r . I r: 1'r ^ ! 1 Qi* 1 on , ■ 'o v e n n c V e p ,'Pt 11 further than U ■ ' * >'■ 1 e t 1 I 1 'e to 1 U U 1 1 r f“ rp O )'U - 1 1 t v , 'i 1 i b e pen h 1 n v onman’'" Innate roohner " , In V1 1 '' n '* y t I i i V- t t a a t~ 1 nr] hp t p i’t’ hi j 1 1 V 1 *' 4 ^ f Pp 1 ■* o '"1 ^ *' o e ' e t 7 '^ ri ■ "t i n r i1 i ■' 'A V> 1 1 e P o y p r a r’ r 1 t 1 n i' u n i ’ 1;1' 1 1 1 n r ! ■ e 'a : r e f 1 1 r' a - t ' n e V 1 ' 1 P r> 1 1 o ’P ' 1 e :"j ■1 e 1 o 1 1 1 n f l'1"1 ^ k ' o y i 1 5 1 Of 1 P t V o 1 ' T o n j ! o n f ' H ’ , v ' 1 t ” ( * f' 1 i . . i i < t > ; * ' ' 1 '' ‘ ' ' ’r t ■ '' V ' * i 'I t 'u 1''" 1 ’I" 1 -1 r- t ': ■i > ] t- 1 n i ’ a ’1'1 e ' ’ r : t ’1 5 >T '1 , '' a t i; a 1 ] V " ’I^ ■ a f 1 n 1 : ■ U U f’ ■ 1 '1 h 1 I.' f 1 1. . fi r\ o y n a' a n * a ■'f * '' P.n | i (’7Ptp !] t y 1 UU t ' ■ I'pq 1 1 y e y 1 n t. e»'t t J'e'■> r 1 ■ ’-.pi'-'ip o i -en } y t o ■1 1 1 ’ a vf 1 v! f ho ■■ 1 o r t o r * r . ■■ 1 ■■ i 1 m ^ ^ ( ', ■-<, -j ci >' ‘*y a r ’ a r' ■ 1 1' t» a 1 ’/ * t a b * ■ 1 : f ^1 1 ' ' e e t < ! o f p n p a rh 1 1 n o i he . In h 1 " I o + t !'e a ■ j : ,e t e' i r '-'a t^y r ur ! o" y e ar: t a r n t a yon r In 1 V * V, 'In ye r not < a i y u ! no 1 •1 r t t e p i-p1 1 K I ! ! t v o f piif' h an p X 1 P t pn 11 , hi; t a 1 B r i r n n r * -1 ri- -: : * r. 1a |i(* )■:; nfi '1 1 *. u r K to w r i t e t h e i r i ! ■■ ■ ( < ■. r v a 7 a r 1 * la \ *.■ ■ * ■ • . ■; ebr i e f l y ■ k e ■* a e;. out fro It mnren, 1 nn t 1 t-u t 1 npr , : e. 1 1 e e , lawn,vn v e rnrr.en t , way o r j U p , n n'1 t n e 1 r n u ! 1 f a 1 , ■! e nr p.p f h e r a tti e 1 ■ t '■* a r- 11 e ’•n n men! Ion eh p lp p w h f r p , but ah hr a f ”w new nrip,; at- w»‘ ! 1 , T f 1 r In t er e n t 1 n y t o n r ' p that t h 1 r u bbe , who n e v e r h m v nr th e h uth t unh never renonneeh r 1 ^a 1 t h, hlh not mu1-'*'1 a r 11 a i-' o f o r i'p ! 1 y! nn 1 n h i'’ *■ Y o f 1 <* <' r~-mm 11 n i t y , ^ ^ Since a large amount of Coder's work is written in the first person, one might wonder why he never attempted any drama, especiaJ ly when he considered the cornfidle lar- moyante an ideal vehicle for Yw*ttorment of mores . The fare i ca 1 example of a model comedy w’nieh Yie I races for the giants is of medieval simplicity and completely lacking in fin esse. da then than amusing or1 instructive theater for adults, his comedy would f>e more appropriate for a children* puppet show. As for Coyer1s p o s s ib ilitie s in verse, he admitted readily that that was not his talent, 1 td'i I’hir, aefens *'■ of the exist v nee of giants wouId have beer iueal for salon discussion;.;, fhe style suggests the ligh tness of touch needeu in current topics Wintered around at a social gathering. Also, there is the exotic flair arm the i nteres t wh i oh an a be mat i f a: i n hum. an nature d rew throughout a century vastly attract1*: n, i. .ar.t 1 cal ly pro portioned beings or t nines (vi z ., V oltaire's ificromSgas , and e a rlie r Cyrano's Voyages dans la 1une). As for Coyer*s 1 yt salon appearances, dr 1 min's letter mentioned earlier ' confirms his continued presence at the* baronne d'ilol bach's gatherings--a natural atmosphere for discussion of the Le11re au Docteur Maty. for the company would have known the doctor personally. Mentioned briefly in the Lettre au Docteur Maty was an idea which Coyer developed into an anonymous pamphlet all its own. The same idea a ls o appears in his Voyage 117 d *Italle. Always concerned about the salubrity of the city and the unmarred possibilities for the good health of the c itiz e n s, Coyer proposed a plan whereby cemeteries would be relocated at a considerable distance outside the city. Em balming and inhumation processes being a far cry from what they are today, it is not surprising that cemeteries became storehouses of filth, stench and generally unhealthful atmos phere. 'fhey were handout;; for bums and an unfortunate playground for children and dog: , who found femurs and tib ia s delightful toys. Lavisse callei. the cimetiSre des Innocents 1 V> a "oharnier nauseabond." diven Coyer1s penchant for morbid humor, his name easily fills the anonymity of Ktrennes aux .Tiorts et aux vi vans ou pro.iet u tile partout o& I.'on est m ortel ^ Having always been harsh on p jt i ts mat tree and overly made-up women, hoy or d< or not irt the chance s lip by to play upon the terrib le odore whie i their superfluous perfumes and pommades w ill not b* able to mask after the decomposition ^ f th.-ir udi' r . . is hituer i ; • i . firus a far-et. with the professional religious. As Joyer develops the outline of a better- plan for the care of the dead, he finds room to speak out against his habitual targets: injustice of magistrates, ministers, soldiers. He uses the pamphlet as a vehicle for corrtcting moeurs. defending the country, calling for tolerance. If the reader does not like hi:; first plan, the author suggests burn ins the corpse, 118 in order to finish with "Sclat". Besides, cremation would be an easy test for sainthood. His practical side cannot <;o wantinc. As an end to the first chapter, Coyer finds commercial value in cremation. He proposes to p;ather the .-■o' i- i : :s < f) vn_'ir in t!v oven, ml y. i * ve • t 1 w i. • ■ "!■«■ 1 '::a. i i. urine" ( to yi- Id a >: olm ’t. s Lm 1 1 ar to Mse 1 Hmoniac" . i’lie second find last chapter t e lls >i a. to make mourriiny less f r i yhteni ny, di sa;;reeaid e , a;to harhari c . In Stremes . Coyer openly rvm1 el a serious pr y-d humorously. 'fie sane year (176-0 1 e also used a d ifferen t teciir.- put- for his >0dac t icicm . Ch*■ ? 1ci . his tolre c ■ -hiri ch i no ise gui . "‘Ut. r c rv i r h d ' autre : , Ly. * '' is a phiio- ::o:'hical ta t:, an o ! h-,-.r\ of rrar.ee w;i<:n M- tituri-r ]■. rcome by tmxe.; ana seer the !'■■:: Lmictic r. i f • \ n at ire I'aii i 1 y Pecan: ■ ' I. ae i :.por'S i’ IJ i * y of heoo'ni ny, a ne.mb* d‘ a c a ly >■' r a 1 1 o ■ , . . o': n rk a f an ' h; r * * r,a:: < . r,-. w-u- > i* - ve i‘ any ■puesti.on ' f r> ' ! v i i permission t.u print his hand; orii r i r;m cf "mat t ri nes et jurandes" h»- -.auRe Coyer wrct o * h* ] on,.; (.-n comma..-1 and receive: a pay ment of 7,006 livn ;; fro;', th- .in, himself f i t s - ie , ,ra t i i'i cat ion pour cuvra/yt concernant 1 1 ad minis t rat ion, " 1 to I . e . , .ioidesse cormaerganu-. Crujukd. ' fhe ;,uvernjneut wai.teo the eventual suppression of the confining rules of the cor porations. Following the publication, a short term correction appeared, nut the old methods scot: took over ayain. The 119 final suppression of the mattrise was effected eight years later, in 1776. 1 Chlnki, like the Noblesse conunercante enjoyed success. There were five publications by lfi24. While the technique of exotic allegory was anything but new ir: Coyer':; oentuty , he- no- r i. 1 in a sli.-.htly d i f ferent way. Instead of the unveiling of an ideal society, lie shows the destruction ef an ideal society in the micro- of Chiuki's family and his community. .y using short chapters, the a.;!!:,r , ,i >;< •: a ■ rtni u t»*rre;i‘ us to tic- en velopment . it in .n ti.icc o il ,oc 1. 1: tic- all too similar events, and is overtly didactic. his r Coyer divides his treatise into two main sections: physical education and moral education. Then he deals with the makeup of the college I t s e lf . In the fir s t part fie 120 treats the young child, and how he should be clothed, fed, tended, the value of exercise, fresh air, rest, cleanliness, and endurance of all climates. As usual, he is against constant surveillance by doctors, whom he finds useless excey! in ('mop anicies — nature doer a better job. Hie abb£ elves detailed suggeslions on new to develop the child's muscles through exercise. lie is especially in favor of swimming. The second part of the Plan d1 Education involves what the child w ill learn --h is course of stuuy: nature, the arts, l a n g u a g e , reading, w riting, math.maticu; , history, many sciences, logic, metaphysics, philosophy, elocution, religion, music, and moral i t y . As a rood phllosophe. he finds room for1 virtue, justice, Llenfaisance . courage and happiness , de_ yardin/; the coileye plant, he discusser location, ratio of students to teachers, who sp, >u!d ' .«• a1 t. o ' each , and texts , he in sists ui; equality among :: t. seen t. s t (* a certain do ;rcc , id 31 ■ M e c e i v e r himsoLf wir-.n he d l s c.u:a;*-s which stu dents should receive what kind. and extent; of education, for he favors the rural ity. finally, ;'e ; oes y e a r1 :.y yeai* dlscussiu,; every asi/vt of e;icn class. After tel liny; what kinus of programs are needec by differently populated areas {i..e.., country, small to w n s, c itie s ) he poses a number of objections which he expects to arise in regard to his study. Into his twelve year plan, tie incorporates several trips, which '■ • finds educational . e^ns h.ir strlk in 1 y modern r a ■■ j n e> 1 witt; a patrio'ie ;wy : "veil lm’ aa salat -a la nation." 121 The changes in Coyer' s interests and his gradual evolu tio n in stylistics were not obvious to his public, because as he became more nationalistic and more didactic, there were repeated re-prints of his older1 material in his earLier tones. In 1 7f’9-i 77n, there w^re .-hit, ions, of Chink 1 end i ci; -a - t e 11 e s , Maty wa s t ran slated into >e rmari, and Soblesk i into Hussian. His own fame and importance had not diminished, for he still met some important people (th-; prince and prin cess at the Hague), and was r^ad by others (Marie AntoinetLe mentions in her correspondance that sne was enjoying a net benefiting froc the baga te 1 les . ) ^ L nor was the quality of hi: work uni V'1 "sally considered mediocre, for Chi nk 1 had l'iuv 1 benri published us part of Voltaire's L1 Homme aux quarante ^cus (a ruse of Coyer's public her-, the 'widow Duchesne, to craw more clien ts 1 d 2~) \ t and in 1777-17/3* another1 of his pieces was puM i sinni in an <‘d i ti on of bide no' 's Oeuvres , ^ ^ Als.o, iiis lang;uage cont. ri but ions wer<" give:i at great Length, shoulder to shoulder with examples from the century's best authors in the Alietz dictionary of neologisms.^ 1 The abb£ vras slowing down. before his death, nothing else which could ue considered original appeared. In 1775, he published the Voyages d 11 table e t de Hoilande. eleven years after his trip to Italy, and five years after his visit to Holland. Similarly, his Nouvelles observations sur Angleterre in 1779 came fourteen years after1 the trip. His trams lat i or of Blacks tone's Criminal 122 Code of England1^ sold so few copies that the widow Du chesne did not find it appropriate to include it in his 1 C* f posthumous (Euvres completes. A le t t e r by Henri Louis Lekain on 5 August 1??6 indicates that the sixty-nine year old ab’nS had paid another visit to rerney, but no details dcscrite his reception or* stay. Coyer made his w ill on 11 June 177H, in which he shows an increasing bitterness in his outlook on his private world. He prepares to dispose of his possessions, valuable and worthless alike. It is here only that, he mentions his renaininr family, favorite nephews and n ie c e s , a cousin, none of whom were identifiable in more detail. Typical of his concern for those less fortunate than he, the first two legatees are his cook a net ids valet, and the due de .’■on ill or. is, surprisingly , third, v in; i hf' portrait. of the klry of Prussia, C? s ■ p.- . 1 . : ■ 1 ■< la* i.v*‘s and 'h’1a“':ds i:s! .d's d.:1 lilrary, his manuscripts, a pold watch, a:i oriental topazr rinp, anti various sums of money, Hot hi rip can bo traced today. The abb? had then disposed uf his earthly poods; there remained only his body and the memory of him and his endeavors. The last few paragraphs of his will prove that even while fao« to face with his posterity, an acrimonious smile must have appeared as he indulged in his final example of graveyard humor. "do nr donne r im h. l'hqllse qui nr m'n then donnS ec, d 1 a il lo u r s, ce no son I. pa: les pranieurs Ir 1 T; 1 qul piaisent ?l bleu. An rm t'q j** qui ‘ t 1 23 suns regrets la compngnie dor; feus pour a lle r dans 1 a pa *; r 1 n d e s s age. ■. On rendra mon cor s ft la terra amrue nr; vi'ab” r . ( . I I i ■: " u ' ? 1 1 ■* - ■» L . r' < r t f 1 i f 1 r ; I ' ] ! 1 1 ■ , - i r s :x cl : , main 0 * 1 1 preria.it, envie ft la parent6 ou ft I 1 ami tlft if eonce r ^ ■ ■ ’ ■' ; ■ u 1 , a daume , 1<; 1 i< ie ina naissanco , ;■ .> i t ' • * • ir - t ■: i 'onr ac; ;i I T‘-‘;; iv;ior’f'r,or.! , vuci .jr:;. *: i t n.-hr : 'A la i£rnnir>‘ be tabriel '"Varip-i:; J o y r , prftt r> nans fore t i or: he pr* !. rl ' ; i 1 pensa rpi'i 1 Staif plus important d • fcor i re ;-our son pays . 11 out ;..eri le , . . , 1 * at i , ag* ie . /. FbLIX 4'bl PO Tb: f liKdUM CCGhOGChniK CAUSAG. Ioh 1’hree years later, about half a year before he lied, it was as though Coyer had a direct, communion with the .a?ii^ that provides the power " re rum cognosce re causa;:" , but his final verbal purge was anythin, tut happy. In 11ssai sur la prSdjcatioh. carerne ont ic r , on un s eul di scours^ '' th'T" ■ip! oar:: a niff'-r'ud. ahb£ Coyer, not in '.he subjects h*' treats, bib in approach and in an overwhelm!nr display of piety, or at inart a painful awareness of hir impendin' 1' 1 e l f r 1 e. t!. i 1 1 l, ;: with his b> iiy. Cardi1-!' in his 1. l ‘v ir- ; e:;n the pr. ■ bl - mis over an I over, firs,! , -oh innl y , Urui sur i ously , annotated a?.a re i r forced by numerous footnotes fror: contemporari'-dj ana antinui t y . tow lie is agitated uru a:, r./ , sentiments which lie had always ; re vi ously miinateu . ne S'-emr Wualcu g,. 1 V ua.ad ;■ ,1-u; r n"-; s of his fellow man's l:r ; 1 b nr .on ; l.tai a.;:;: it ion. bar the first time, Coyr tiie tie is t--ne ver professed like Voltaire, but o bvious in his works--calls not only upon Cod the Father, but also the Cor; and the holy Ghost. At times he approaches the fanaticism which Ir* had always roundly condemned. do luiu'w ] narlnfj- whether he steps on noble nr royal toes, he passion a te ! y puihqyks on r m 1 s s 1 on to sham e th e k 1 n p- and e v e r y s u h- leet. ( e x e e p t th e pen p ie whom he still prnteets). He s re ms to tp epoklnv n p'lt.hnrs 1 r t hrnnvh the ririrnt Inn of others. May- ri“ fe]t rf-nnr'-e for "fi v i r ! r»‘ : what others i'n.bv,v! . 1 iM’h'ipr nr en^nyo'i a1' well, ('tie wniil'mr where t h 1 •' h(‘ 1 1 - f'1 t‘p an'1 brimstone rpri'w war In the v n u n re p , I'h e ft ‘'“ WT'areo or '7 f 1 «. o t pi;- 1 v ^i],'j,t'r t f'oyt' r 1 r' s t vie and \ rv , pr . t 1 ;• t'srs'ten * ’ y em y. i nyp<) f1 rey rr:r t n - fV] o l- n r (ipin.rp't to b O' t 1 v o r rn tnn 1 v fire, I .a t e r , when h. 1 r 1 )•' ’ ] ■ i 1 t n t 1 O 1 1 1' r ■ I T te a r f e 1 1 1 " PM ■: 1 j t „-|0 j’M 1 5 t 7 ( In/';_ * 1 i' i> o o m ^ e i' s n n ’' 1 ' l . ' v ! ’ 1 ' + l : I'O " i , ' n / o I ■ i 1 * ;- e rj < \ e t' > > n a i - r ■' f * i > e ('ie a O 11 n t 1 r ' ■ n f1 o pmr p ' ’o V I 1 ■ j - (■ ' 1; i -r -' wit': t h' 7 , blit i 1' 1 H t PH!: 1 f 1 nl , 1 ’ 1 S wo l- | a ‘:f’i'i'nn f POTT ! l!*’ PR we f; like those of r) rr e a r h e r from the r -i i 1 : 1 t , ’hi''' e rm on m 1 r h tIn v '1 rlnye H 1 * o 1 n O ‘ ' t e I ' a ' ' ' '1 1 '* fl • 1 e ri ‘ ' f > ' ■ 1 ' 1 ( 1 t ; ,: > 1 p <' 1 ) i " h <' R t h 1 S 1 1 f o , bo ye r WR't t no r»r,p* ’ * o r a 1 * pi f"" an •tb 'n fa 1 an o Q . v“ t somehow (ip f'al lf'h. A -nii'it ' epirr' o e ynoii rernltr same a boat i hut a ’ l ‘ oo f eW , fnvln r.e re'-fat, eh the same [ ro p <, - >■ ( t intr o v e r an ■ ’ r * 1 • > (. f - -, ■ i:' e hr i • r a 1 t ' e ■: ri o ope war 1 1 : ■ t e r i - 1 n t r him, Nnw he 1 ■: a h o i* i 1 n * < ■■ r:i a k e himself n e a r h , 11' nr bar failed fo reafo j,!;' own renin nr a nv 1 t pr, he '‘an •'till r eh 1 ree 1 1 ■ 1 <■ mo 1 hnh r ,-'ere hr almost h e n pr ra t e J y pr _ turns to th e rrnpnpt- arm arid rij p v f,n,i owed t.o an old man, e x pr rlrneeh, and a man of the e h u p e h , In an h o n e st i '>,■ bin In,.' he t r j t n hi:'- re ah e p r that "lb) r r i I'fi’i'ffM-'i 1 m ■■ ■ .: a n ' ’ 1 e a ' rmnn r e r t ■ i 1 r i e r f~ < i ro i ; 1 p :" ■ >'a * ■ 1 pe s , i ft qua 1 1 nn rrn U ., sand flontp, fort- pro pres ft tnunher Ipr noeui'R . ’’ I?0 Im m ediately he damns mankind for Its sinful nans ever si nee Adam, "maud 1 to /In t ei'rey7 dans sen ent ra llie s h ru 1 on t es , on rep r e m ie r pee he r reu r a 1 * on f e r , 11 ^ ^ W a n I s . 1 r ’ w o r t n V 1 n < ' a ! 1 n 1 m : e j f ' ( ■ > ■. i ■ 1 :: * i t r ; t - ( r ■ ; t . f ■ ■ O n 11 ] ■'p T n i ! v 1 n /■' a hnn ? H To '■ 1 -,i ** e ] fan d ‘ n '■’! P ' v r’ ,'’o v e r P l a c e s n i T - ; ■ n 1f v lO y o n d t h e S 1 P f U ! th |'n p r S , " K t I P i n t a ! d o a a no rin ,i" , 1 r. 1 '' t r os da '> 1 .on on p , n o u s n ' ''H'1" ) s i r a "mi'' rci'i'm ’p ’r a no dor; van 1 t.e'- . " ' ■vi n P I p '1 n t 1 i ■ an o a i!n >.r i e s , t i * ! o ;: (: ■ r f - t e r 1 o' n ' ’ ,lax*-" — m -a y h e • i m f i * h > i. ■]' f * ;■] p 1 1 r* t ' 1 w o 11 1 ■ * '.i '! k | i. t o■ 11/ 1 ■> r p; r 1 f i a n s o 1 ;*" o t t i . p i r t : n t ( > ] 1 ' ■ . ■ .1 ; J ' j 1 ■ ” 1 ■ 1 V l / I ■ ( 1 > 1 ■■ ■ / 1 t t i - r > i d e S ' V i i r ’ ■1 o i ‘ O n 1 li'iv ■ ' * ’ . i > » i • * \ l > i < ■ .. ■ ( V ] 1 ‘ o ' p ’l, [ 1 >' in * P (* i r I . S ' *■ n C f a c 1 *”! 1 ’ v ; O * 1■ ’* ■ n ' ’ ’ ! 1' ■ ( , ' 1 r ' i ■ " T r ■ t ■ ' t r- . t i > ) . > \ < > i ; 1 \ r ,. ■ • 1 1- *■ Ilf' l " f o p 1 ’r ft t P o :' i | ii |'ii a n I n V ' - \ a j ' j >n n | o ; : <' r 1 , i o r r ’ a 1 e n f M ° n : ! ’ i s a ' ' ' * ■ n • ■ r ■ i ' : ■ 1 ■ ! f ■ ■ 1 ' 1 s i e ’ ' _ ■; t i 1 1 o n r' ■1 o < ■ | V - :; ’ 1 • - ■ : ;, ’ ') I . d ■ ’ f j o v , " 1 ; 1L ■ ■ n o w * 1 '■ * T o t n i i ■ ■ ■ j , n i■ i ■ ■ ■ r ; <■ ' ', ■ . > , , <. \ ■.., - ■ a l w a y s ■ t f t ■, < ■ ■ < • ■; 1 >• 'h ‘ • T n o w t Si r» y I . f > - ■] 1' . , V 1 . ]'!'.(■ ; ; ' ' ' , t ■ • n p ' ( ; .I' M f * d ■ ■ <• w i v t o '■ * 1 ” 1' o i' o ’. 1 [ ' ' i n ' : " A >■. ’■'1; ^1 1 1 1 ' ‘-n ;''" (in f i i •; o ri c. 11 >. < • y p n s o >• ”• 1 > t ; s * - > f ' i f t i r r a > . ‘ ■ f , i ■ 1 , '-f ri l * r 1 > 1 p ‘ : , t h o i ■ '] f ’ h ; t ^ o ■ n i ■. r i + ( t r , f . >;i n r 1 1 j | ■ o h t * h o ; f :■ i 1 ■ ; - ■i i " i Tn y : - p i ; \ } n o o T1 h o ;' , '1 e *. S < ■'' ! o 1 ■ I : 1 v h a I’1’ W 1 t t: W o 1 To r :' , "A re yen) m en"" ‘ ‘ o d ri n rin t ; ;• i " e to I nni( h o p e ' o f i n d examr-los unsafe " t re e t r; t 1 1 1 1 t 1 ma t.e idi I !l r"r: v: he H e 1 n ,rd'j » o i r; t ' ., fe •• T •; •• • j •• • r t 1 t ■ ( i ■ ■ . < K ) • 1 - n o ■ ■ < 0(1 T ' l ' M ' ■ r 1 t . O . ; 1 [ ' ( i j ; ■ h ' t r ; ■ p ■ y; P t • ■ L > - , . . ■ o r their family duties to go out gambling, deceiving, sinning. Coyer the preacher, after a tired pause, admits that he does not know how to end his sermon. He certainly does not intend to bless his. listen ers i ri the name of the Father, the 3pm, and the holy Chost . t. .n u i s n i e ri t. arid nrrcti pote ;; t. Cod has revealed to his minister what, their f’ate will he. woah' s sermons before the flood must hav** been of sim ilar nature, and receiver in the same way. in oeptemnep 'if Idol, there was. a rumor that. Coyer' had died, 1 1 hut in truth, it was a year later, while putting the finishiii;, touches on his CLuvreo; completes that Cahriel Francois Jjy‘*r ■•au(,.!!,. a summer .'old whi'*h im did not properdy *reaf and whine u 1 t i mu tel y i ?. • •. his death on 1 duly I'.’'1 d, at age s e v**: ;t,y - V i v . r'e was esteemed and regretted bv his friends.^(" h. be s lard re s "as gos.e.i ■, if i nd an'‘ r fa ! dC'Stinti re. arc in- the alii/ f = 'y « r : "Comment un £crivain, hre an AVI11^ si>cJ» par son esprit '“rt - i l to,i;b£ dans un oubli pro fond , Tie'ii'* aupr^s ih sen r om pat r i o te s ? M 1 7' It in t-me that, the her. t known coii temporary c r itic s -’one iuere. him mediocre and ilu not hesitate to state their opinions. rachaumort: "Ot ex-j^suite avait une reputation •phem^re, \ V " ’ conune sec uuvrages." ' 1 La fiarpe : " O'est une perte mediocre pour 1 es let Ires , quul qu1 il ne ftit ni sans rn£ri te ni sans 170 esprit.M cut it is also true that this same opinion war pro f('u only colored hy Cover's frivolous literary begt nni nfgs . 1 i ? I n M n r p p s "f-Jpn p r p m 1 n vr: n n v r n e r r , I n i U i i I p t B q g n t e l 1 pe movnler pt q iil [,nn1 pn pffpi- , q n r 'inn Inp-n tnl Ipt , p ta lp n l >1 'nn hommn n n 1 r ' >= f - fnt-'nlt nunnl 1 rvf'i' innn rrr pp.rltn qim I n n n t n i ’p 1 ' n v n l t f n l t I n in * '! 1 nr m I n r o n l p t n , ‘ i'll’ 1 mm : " n. ' I In r 1 M n ’ i ° 'in nop mnru rn r t miv- ♦■out ■!(> i r > f )-1 i r 0 ^ t o 111; 1 -i f o i l i*n I 1 1 ■ r i>-' ■!1 (■ ■ ■ >‘ i' ” I ( ^ ; t o ■ ; 1' • ' fi f- 1' i I " t t-t. f ' *' i ; i' ‘ \ rr* . , 1 i. \ ■ \ * ' i ' * _ " r M 1 n H 1 I 1 1 n n ') 1 / n ' n f' ■ i M '* 1 ‘ t 'I1 p * ■ i >, 1 1 11 ' - r*' n M f ■ ] 1 7i'<’" ! f'r 1 l , Inn : rr r- \ ■■■ r 1' : ■: - r n i ’o n t t i mol nr’ or-rl 1 nv'*r m r onrt.r irIm-pi’PtP; r-. -) ' - ■ p (-1, t i ■ l o . m p p t p " 1 p t o 1 trn i r i < 1 > i ‘ nut \ t - ■ j i’ t p i'c-i i-' 'j t ’ i n n i i * i i p o p r t r 1 I .in r o n v r r - ■ n — * * o r j f 1 ; t * r i; 1 n ’ ] 1 ’'' [ r ■ ’ - p ■■ I ‘ f- *; or ' ' , | ( t' t r' *' f' 1 i> I'tl i P V '1 1 1 " I'1 t p ( ‘' ' ' r n Pm I i'ii ! V ,p p , j c> p , ; i f l'p, | q r, , - ?1r p ,, p . • . , t 1 ,,, . _ " i m v r r' - L 4 > ■ 1 f r i > i ' ' ' - W1 1' ■ - ' * ■ \.m \ - ' r M *> J ' ■ or r 1 t ■' '1 J * ^ \ t ' ' I T r . ^ . f ^ M ' ] t h ■ . * t o ' ^ ' \ ■■■ r ' qn tl ( T <' * \ i ^ \ ' * * ... i .j > ■, * ' irr= ' 4 ■' f * ■■ i'*n- •.•••■■ i ' l » *-j T.r, • i j • i • • i • ' » ^ *r- ^ • •, ■ •• % - - i t | nr '-J r' i't i ; V '' *' ^ nt 'r-r; 'i *' ' I - p --I,. ” t ( * ' ] *W-> ■ • . 1 1 pp v t 1 ' ' It '.-.r ■ t ’ , t f ■ 1 ; 1 + 1 < > •■ — ■1 p*■ > 1 <■■■ 1 1 ri f ■. ■" t , n rj t ■ ■ ■ p f . I ■ ■ ' 1 p h 1 f' *■! 1 - ! ■ ■ ■ ...... * , P! • ■ J' - ■ ! • i I 1 1 t . f ^ v,,, . , l , * .■ ■, \ t tT ! ■ + r, r, f . N * . p ■ * ' h L ■ f ■ ■ ' ■ ' t ■ * * r ^ + ■11; , i , . .. , p i ] * p i i ’.-r.fii’ p - ■ j i j p t ■ p ", ■ .■, - p i 1 i '' 11 1 I ’' t t • ■ i 1 r 1 ■ ■ ' ' n r ;p ' n ;" O'" f FHi ' I'T1; o ,,rl W i r ( " : 1 1 '■ i Y ■ P 9 < ' ' L i ; p f-w- ■ f ■ , | ,. t ' ■ , | ! I ; ]' / ■ - v 1 ' - 5 " ■ P! ■ ■ * ' ’ ■- ‘ 1 ' I -'-r ■ *P i p ’i ■ '.<■ ' ■ t '■ rv . i 1 1 •/ ■ p- ! -P'Oi't 'in • ,. pi FOOTNOTED CilAiTKA i I ^.v'iiliam r:or'tu!‘ bu 1J e r t o r ( 'IV rrcs f’rangai !ia a : ■ou!1- .1 tran ch e- Jomptft (I'arif.;: A. J o lin ” Id" .) , pp. Ac-?-2 A V; te ui i ha 1 f Le jJaury1 -L'f "J i- L ! urt. ra il wa:i roue :y Jnlson, a painter fruir, .mirrunuy, who wan for f'Oni" forty years the a r t i s t i c handyman at fne chateau he bouillon: a rc h ite c t, ■■.aruner, r cul pt nr*, p.ai ntei-. J’hr pur1 tr a i t iepi c ts: Joyer a ro m a ape fj fty- th r'" 1 . hall1 roar, I 1 At bft Joyer , p. fA. * * fh'1 numerous : i D-ra^h i ;: ■ 11 i i • • t : miaj'i'1;; which ;.:e-.t ijn ■Joyer1 ravf for toe -:;ort. ] art drawn their i rf oriv.at Ion from the introduction made by t.he ecii • or i f Joyer1 s CKuvrcs cun; plfe tes , 1 a veuve ouclifmif , whore pus thu.mous r^c on r.ti rip, o f Joyrw's life ir s*etchy arm: at times erroneous. _>ir o real f'ii' rap,/ war . iuu**, the wi 1 ■ a*, bur}.'1/'re is acre; ■ a: o: - Wt.u .. :.J*w h m 1 r■ w»- L 1 , an; :: i i ...... )’.;f ! ^ o • . i f a' *■ J . . JK .> r i: ■ >r, 1*1'-. ; I wi: : / f-.mmr', 1" I J ) , Vols . (referred fa * ft reap er us u, J. ) L y f r trie most rftliah le arid complete account of Joyer'/: l i f e was the thorough detective wi 1 id' ;. I-ial i t.r-an in i/i. urpublished oorb >’ ne th esis, opj. c 11 . * J ie..er, bf • i — i i : i. Js/ilafri ■. , "l’n humorlste o u t, 11 £ , " flft/noires dtp X' Acad emir de_ : gammon ( r e r' a r , . ■ ■ : 5 j J stance du Id novr.ntr" 1 ° 3 1 , pp. J0 3 -fA'J^d uictionnalrc ue ! iup.raphi - franealsc ( Par is: Li nrai r ie Le tcuzey e t an?"7 • 1 ), ec . human. d'Ainat, p. I1AJ; Kallbrar, 1 1 Ah bft Joyer. pp . l h - n . Luchesrie, ^d . O.JA , p. i ’ i I b id ., p . i i air.'1, “u . , Les J1 iefs-u 1 op u v i1"/; incormm; . ; . vii. 129 ^Mornet, P ricin g s, pp. 55, 135; the Camion of Sainte C-enevi^ve, Le Courbayer, In 1729, Ib id . ^ °Ibid. , p. 203. 1 1 1 bid., p. 139. ______fjd. ^ -Viutl idpe, bssai sur Ie rarac tfrre e t les moeurs des francaIs compares & celles dec Anr;lais (London: 17 ?o) , P* 31 L 3 "Par1 Is nfjt re'iipli d'abbes, # ole res tunsures,* qui. ric server! ni I'Saline nl 1'Stat, qui vivrnl, dans l'oisivet? la plus suivie, s qui ne sunt que ues inutilit^s u des fadaises . . . . Dans nlusieurs rn&isoris on trouve un a! ,-b£ 5 qui 1 ' on 11 onne le noil) d'AKl, ■■ qui n'-'st qu'un hurtnete valet qui ee;>i:nande la livr^e. n ~sh le uu.nplaisant sown is de [:iauane ( a r siste i so. t o ile t t e , curveilie la :naison, utrl.e ai: dehors 'Pi; affaires m i^ur . j«*.s persunna ■ e: & raiul, se rep lent plus ru in ; u ltle r , cares sent leur pro tec tear pendant plusieurr anuses, al'ir; d'etre mis sur la f i 11 c . . . , La fe::i:ne ue chain f re leur lit t.uut. re p*i ytf- passe; Jin son I lustmils ne;; serretu uu mat ire, ne ].a matt rer.se . des v a lets. Lnsuite viennent P't ; rSeeptenrs, qui sont anus I set; anl£s. bans 1 er ualsors de quel (pi1 in- porfarce, on qe Ps; u i s t, i ripueut u^re de;; u m f p iques. Leruant Ir r.>urs m- 1 1 - ed> n ;a! i ; a . •> l'u; ■ til|; ■:i , ‘*u; :*s q U 1 I 1 ■ ■ m ! P 1 > ]i <"■ , InM:' ■ 1 (■: 1 U‘ Utie pe..ri(- ' > > ; q f ■ uj un leur fait r.o.'ir u:. hSn^rice; puis un Pu; uj'i,;? a p . Le pep qu'or: leur* aoeurde, esf cause qu'ils n£r,li- -■■eat leur? *l^ves; :nais c■ 'jTun■ . .1 s'est-u n li:iaf';in£ qu'un ner- cernaire, pour* douze cents francs par an vous f>- r - ;n ? out r-l C;;i lui a impost la tSche la plus dificile et la plus incertaine. J 1 ai 11 eurs , nemo flat q uob non haneyt." Merrier, Tableau de Lari s . pp. 2,io_2r,7. ^'A nlr* Kichej Hamsey, a acot whosjer ial ized in math unu theolu-,/ and who had previously been puvernur for’ the oriIdren of the k i rip-; o f bn,;] and anu tne duke of Jn&t.eau* l hierry , "* pu:..l i s 1 :eu ;u nimnr* ■ u c h ; in nth french anu bnplisu. M ali-ran, t'Abb? Coyer. p. 1'’, note 1, 1 ft * . J . H. uzeray, His to ire des pays. chateau e t v i lie de bouillon ( Luxembourg,: Lat>ort, 1 h 27”)V p"* ?31 . 'ai ! ' ■ran, 1 1 Abn^ d jy e r . 130 JIb id .. p. 18; Roman d'Amat, ed. , dietlormaire de bloyraphle francalsc. p. 119-2; la veuve Duchesne, ed. 0.0., p. iii; Deslandres, Humorisbe. p. 209-. 1 d Czeray, Histoire . . .de b ou illon , p. 2 2 0 . Pal i brut;, 1 1 Abb& Coyer . p. I'-. "da i’rinc i paut£ (duci:? souvereiu) de bouillon enclavSe entre les Terres du bunh£ de Luxembourg,, e e lle s o' la Principality de Cari^nan, celles de la Deiy.nueurie a Abbayr de dt.-Huber 1, X c e lle de la Principautft de DSdan." From Idie Lime of the Roman domi nation, t.he bouillon te r r i tory was passed back and forth, bet/wee.u Ire royalty and the Church, was the bounty of several skirmishes between the Difb eols and the lords of b£dau. After further v i ci as i tuu.es t the kiny fin a lly pave the princip ality to hin Orand Cham berlain (Code f roy-Xaurice '.le la Tour, fil_s de FrSdSric- [■iaurice, v rieveu de 7icomte be Turerme /preat-yrandfather of Coyer1s ward/) in 167b, Aubert de La Ohesnaye des 1 -oin et Kra'190 i. n-Alexandre uadier, Dj c 11 omiaire de la ho blesse (Pari:;: .j r ; i ] *s 1 r:. ■ e p , l'/rb-V. ), i~l" 70 7_?0u . ri pi ‘■'''Duchesne , -'d . U . C . , p . lit. ’i.ai 1 bran , 1 1 AbbS Coyer . p, 10, ') I : ' ‘ R , nii v i sse , :,i s tul re , ;£u£rale p* l_n tjdri:il'/d ( Par i r : Cache t t e ( lub 3 _ 1 '■) j 1 T"( 711, V \ be or.yep bnyders, La PS da,- . 0 ; Lje en France au XVII* e t X V111 ^ s i X c 1 c s (Paris: I’resses Dniver- situi res de France, 1 O'" fT, ", 237. "'"Paris n’avait pas encode \<* journal quot iu ieti ■ revues et yyizcf-. tep publiaient avec au tur’i sat i or. spe- c b i r et par consequent Stalest tenues 5 beaucoup de pru dence. rials la presse politique u'er. ex 1st. ait pas mo ins sous une autre forme. C'Stait la brochure d 1actual it? , la chanson, le court pamphlet imprimS sur une feuille vulante et qui raisuit fureur une semaine. Crrtaines avaient 1 ' appro 1 tat ion uu censeur, la plupurt. puraissaienl. sans nom d'auteur m d ' j mi a* i ur’ •*; *■1 .■ -ooom e d- ] *■*;: feud res • to L'l'leirieut, i“ ] u Dor’bonne o-u d ** la nolice, Foudres mouillSes: quand elies tomLatent, 1 ' ef fe t £tait depute lonytenips portS, et l'ouvra^e solennellement 1 supprimft1 ou 'brul*' continuait & circuler sous le nianteau, dfautant plus in qu'on le savalt interdit." Pierre baxotte, Le diicde de Louis XV (Paris: Librairie Arfh&me Fayard, 19 33 ) , p ■ P't'. 131 ^ ‘Mornet, Or1dines, p. 117. 2 ^Kalibran, 11abbS Goyer. pp. 17-19. 2 Coyer, "Dioouverte .I*'* la "i'l 1 .1 i ■ ' Joy err admits havinp. dor’rowed the .-.eneral idea from Sw ift, but loes not mention that at Limes, "D$couvert-" is a verbat i t Lranslnti on of Swift's Infallible iruject. by Ml Gould I::. , -jwi f t eii France (Faris: ii. Champion, lufd>, I ■ . r I I J J | -1' Mai i bran, 1 1 ALL* Coyer . ohmuol o- i m l tat le . ^ 1 Joyrr, Leu dnsq ues (s.l.n.d.), title pa- e . " ‘.'d i .1 'Add* .LaLLLi ; * L > l!t;fe P. ' datd au;i' n t. , M^lduires se^rm;:, pi /; U i 1 let l/f, <’ i te : I - ! ib id . , p. Gf , . note ? . 1 : . , p . 3 , oof- J . tr■ i ;:i; , forre spordance , 1 , .~>C 1 1 d j . L 1. . *dir >07'’ Ms. t by articles or the :.ore technical aspects oi the actual exchan; e or combi ria t L on of sexual oryans, com plete wi th diagrams. hlven m^moires like hardy's lies lots irs contain rather sensational repents of divorces prant-d be cause of hermaphroc 1 1 ism , or ups-t mothers who discover physical aberrat ions In their Sr. i Ldren. foyer's die nbSancf however, prevents hi:n from reach inc. sensational isi;., mainly because the oddity was merely v. satirical vehicle for criti cism of customs am 'ones of d re ss, affectation s in speech, which he considered unworthy and uncharacteristic of what males and females should l>e. 37 Coyer, "1'AnnSe merve1 Ile u se ," In b a g a telles. p. 33- 7 3 J Ib id . . p. *,5 . 132 "Jamais brochure n'a $tS lue avec tant d'aviditS. Les grands et les petits, les gens d1esprit et des sots, Paris et les Provinces, lui ont fait le meme accueil." FrSron, AnnSe l i ttSralre , I, 1 e 1 1 r e 7 , cited in do u 1 d i rig, Swl ft en France~j p 7 1 2 n . ■r 1 'ioi.1 J i n.■., owl f t- er France . p. ld : . ''J p y r , "La Fa; he d^moiif r^e , " in ia-',atell»L' , p. lied Ibid . , p. 33. i U i . lid 1 . . p. dd ^-'Ibid . . p. led. V ■ lM)r'i*i , urij .1 nes . p. -V.V . 1 d’ 1 » ■ ^oyer, Lei; Las-] ues , ■ . 1 . 4 11 in . . ; . 1 ' . do „ 'Not rnentioiiei; ay narti<-r or i^uerard , Lee, base ues was listed under Joyer1 rs ruvne in P. Lacu.-pe’t i i LI 1 op.raphl parts lcr_ne (Paris: P. iiouquet l.e t is v), which gives the usual worts suchas '>ap,q te 1 jp; aud . i o b 1 r s 1.1 . de iiso at tributes t., j ; 1 s. a s ;ial 1 j sa.:pi:1 e I L~ Jabr1 > d " 1 : r i s£ , uu Les Jour Laud s huin.i1 i£s (s.l.n. ;.5, which has . .'■■ith'-r style run- idea.c' to su-y^sf Coy-"r. ;l) JupT ( ? } , L1 As tiulu/.-.ce a u j our ( ?i 1 1 - u s^r vatu i i'» , ne p/i Jui*' l ;d;.), p. ?. A L L ld. , p.Vd ■^Lwift anc Pope, in Pis cel 1 antes . 11, dp; si feu i ■_ da 1 i bran, 1 1 Abb& Jo.yer , up. lid, Ilf. d ' I ■''Coyer, "Let t re S. une ;ui;e angluise," in cap.atel les . ' Charies-C ee u-Franyo i s ceuault, 1 or 3-1 ?7!d Received at the Orta Loire, then became ;* napistrafe and t.xsnnhf a charge of president, it; the iarlemer.t. he Pari 5;. de 1 ivi! with le . ;ranu .noride . and teen: i'*- super i ni e nd at. * •• • f * s'* an is 133 dr la Heine {17?,(>-17?.H) . Hinault was a member of Lhr AcadSmie des Inscriptions and the Acad^mie Franyaise. He was a phllosophe. but not a radical one. He wrote poetry, drama, and esp ecia lly history. Antoire Adam, Le Mouvcment Phil os o- phlque dans la premiere rnoi tl& du XVIITE slfccle (P a ris: Goci*tft d'Edition d 1 enseipnerrient sup£ri eur” 19^7) , -?59. ,;':;er:ri on, Un Ma/.u; trat homme d** 1 f f.r^c au aV 1 1 1 ^ s i £ c 1 e . Le Fr£s ident Uerault Otari s: I’l une i ! , lpf ■j") , p. '■■■'rt cited in Mai i bran, 1 1 AVoft Coyer. pp . 9 - 7 ' . r: f. J HApr£s le dernier et Le troisifcrne ref us que j'a i essuy# 5 l'AoadAmie des Inscriptions, je ne comptais cer- tainernent pas anpirer encore: main quelques-uns de res Messieurs qui 'ne veulent du hien, /oyant deux places acfuel- ler:i<“nt vacant en, veulent, ahrul unirc t me repousser dans l'aven- ture. Je leur ai r^pondu que I'AcadEmie m'uyant assez sij^nifiS qu'elle ne voulait. pas de mol je re croyais pas qu'il tne convint dr demander encore; et ue fait £tant ici avec M. I '1 Luc de r-ouillon pour* 1 onr; temps en core, je ne pourrais pas faire des v is ile s que j ’ai dS jfc tant fai ten . Maic j'a i ajou‘£ que si l'Acudfcmie, sans att.endre ut.c nou- velle demande, m* faisait I'honneur de jeter enfiri les yeux sur moi, j'en seraiu extr^rnement fla tt£ . L, ur: de res; Messieurs, e'est P. le President Hinault. ie vouf (Sis :;icr, secret pour en faire tel usare q u 'il vous plaira; ^t je vuur le uis par la confiance (pie von bontSfi m'ont tonjours inspirSe, La double Slftction s'approche et j'attendrui ^ Tavarre /residence of the dul.es or bouillon/ oonne le paysan du Danube la decision du r,fnat,H Letter* from Coyer to Malesherben , 71 ortobre 1 7 3 9 , hi 11 iofh^que ivi t i cn.ale , 7.3-7. A. fr. 3397, fo. 1 Al ; <• i ‘ *»d ir i.al i bran, ib id . , i •. 977. ') 7Voyare autour du rnomle fai t dans les ann&es 1790, / , 2 , 3 , u par 3corre Anson. . . commandant en che f u 1 une escadre envoy$e par 3a Ma j es tS Hrl tannioue nans la mer du bud , tire des journaux e t autres papier:; de ce seigneur et publ 1 ^ par Richard iVal te r . f’-aduit de 1 'anglais par Elie de Joncourt (Ams terdarn u, Leipzi : Arkst^e et Perk us, 179-9), cited in Pali bran, ib id . . pa^e Id 3 , note 3 . Thi s is the same Anson who is o t. Freux's travel 11 np companion in La fouvelle H&lotsc. C Q J hornet, FensSe. O'. qb . ^ Hfcioires de Tr&voux. avril 1759, p. 1702; cited in Mall bran, 1 1 Abb6 Coyer . p. 1 1 2 . ^Ceyer, " DScuu vei‘t.-e te I 1 isle frivole," 1. r : VI. .at.fi Lies . ; . 1 ' . I :. : ■ ‘ u : i ‘ ■; p j * h L ■ ;, ; 134 "aophas" and "bijoux". He was surely familiar with two other contemporary criticisms by Crfibillon fils and Diderot: Le Sopha (1742) and Les b l .1 oux Indiscrets (1748), respectively. 6lIbld.. p. 169. ’ Coyer, "Le Circle present, " in ragat e l l e s . pp. 3 5-36. It is interesting: to note the .similarity between the Chinese philosophe1s name, Koki, and the Ola bnglish and Old High German f o l c . meaning people. Although Coyer is generally not given to obscure allusions and symbolism, t.liis piece is an outstanding exception. Coyer knew Lnglish, so it is not unreasonable to seek a parallel here. 64 * Kocquain, 1 1Ksorit revolutjonnalre. p. 511. 6 3Again the proximity of Kakir to bnglish faker is too close in sound and meaning to be coincidental, esp ecially regarding a stab at the superstitious religious. t)(JCoyer, "Plaislr pour le peuple," in oagatelles . pp. 109-110. This episode is reminiscent of Gulliver's problem of how to eat a boiled egg, which ultim ately started a relig io u s war. Mali bran, 1 1 Abbe Coyer. p. 93, note 1. 7 Coyer, "Plaisir", p. IIP. hr dlie .iut.dn.hood of eighteenth century r’ranee . 69 Coyer, "blaisir", p. 111. Hi is method of literary creation by drawing small scraps of paper at random is comparable to that of twentieth century uadaism. y f) I bid .. p. 113. Joyer did not realize that his own work was ineluded in th is las t parody. 7 1 1 bid . . p. 1 1 5 . 7 2 Ib ld . . p. 118. 7 ^Ib ld . . p. 1 2 0 . 74- In a le tte r to Malesherben on 2b July 17 59 Coyer shows how he compensates for his d 1 sappointment in not U? inr accepted into the AcadSmie des Inscriptions, by turning 135 towards public service. "Je fais un grand cas de tous les moments de vcus faire ma cour; et Je croyais que j'en aurals une o c ca sio n frftquente par le moyen de l'A cadSm ie. Mon peu de m#rite ne I 1a pas voulu; 11 faut s'en consoler en travaillant pour le public." idblioth&que Nationale, N.A. fr., 3347, fo. 153; cited in Mali bran, 11 Abb£ Coyer. p. 436. 7 r ) Coyer, "Dissertation sur la ciffSrencn de deux an ci emies reli/: ions , 1 pp. 28-29 . ^ Ib id . . P- 29. 77. riauz i , L' Id§e 7 b..,coyer, "delig Ib id . . P- 4b. JlJI bid. ,p. o4 . ' I bid . P2 Coyer,/’ JJisse le vieux mot ue . Peuple. (La Haye : i ti >n Ib id ., P * d . dJ+Ibid.. P • 41 . ° 5 I b id .. P- 49. bf)TV , . I b id .. P. 5b. 87.,boyer , "La No esse cornmeryante", in u.C., nouvelle Sd . (Londonion e ett Paris: Paris Ouchesne, 1755), II, 5. ii BFollowing is a list of publications relative to the quarrel: La ttoblesse commercante. Coyer (1756); Lg Noblesse m illtaire. ou le patrlote francals. le Chevalier d'Arcq ( 1756); be C itoyen phllosophe ou exaraen c r itiq u e de la n ob lesse m ill- taire. anon. (1756);Le Commerce ennobll. SSras {1756J; Le Commerce remls 4 aa place, rfiponae d1un pfidant de college aux novateurs polltlaue. . . . J. G. Garnier- Tl756); La Noblesse 136 commercante ou u b la u ls t e . J . H. Marchand (1756); Lq . N oblesse mllltalre et commercante. ... PSzerols ( 1 7 5 6 ); La Noblease oislve. Rochon de Chabannes (1756); Lettre h 1'auteur de la Noblesse commercante. 11abb£ BerthoullCl75o); Lettre &M. F. (Frftron) s a Examen polltlaue des prStendue tnconyenlentB de la facultede commercer en gros sans dSroger & sa noblesse, Forbonnais (n.d.); L1Une et 11 autre de 2a noblesse commercante m llltalre. Hi Hard on de Sauvi gny TT 7 5 6 ) ; Lettre de M. pxxx M. bxxx au su.ie t de la noblesse commercante. I 1 abb? de la Coste (17567: Considerations sur la noblesse de liretagne. Pinzon du Eel des Monts f 17*56; ; b?veloppement et defense de la noblesse commercante. Coyer (1757): La Noblesse ramende a ses vrals prlnclpes ou examen de dSveloppement de la noblesse commercante. le Marquis de Pennes (1758): Nouvelles observa tions sur les deux syst£mes de la noblesse commercante et m llltalre. Al£s de Corbet (1758TT Lfi Noblesse telle au1elle dolt etre. ou tiioyen de 11 employer utllement pour e lle -meme et pour la patrle. de la Hausse (1758): Observations sur la noblesse et le tlers-fttat par Nadamexxx. B elot(1758); de flexions sur la noblesse commercante. Anon. (1759); Hecuell factice, forme par Fontanieu", de pieces sur la noblesse commercante publlSes de 1756 & 1759, avec des tables manu- scrltes. Mall bran, 11 Abb? Coyer. appendix. 89 For a study of the nobility of uhe eighteenth century and a portrait of their precarious state see: Henri L£vy- bruhl, HLa Noblesse de France et la commerce," In Revue d1hlstolre moderne (1918), pp. 211-212. 9 0 Coyer, Noblesse. pp. 212-21A. ^Coyer, DSyeloppement et defense de la noblesse com mercante (Amsterdam it Paris: buchesne, 1757). This addi tion to his original stand ados little new material, and is quite redundant from both the point of view of ideas and of s t y l e . 92 'Coyer, Lettre au R. P. ocrthler sur le materiallsme (oen&ve: 1799), p.”5*-. 91 The translation and the underlining are my own. Ibid. 9 U l b id . . p. 10 Q 5 7 J \ n his criticism of 11Apologjste. Coyer returns to his usual exposition of all the ills of the nation in a short amount of space. He treats population, agriculture, the marine , rel igi ous orders , rnaintai ni ng peace and jus tice , the reduction of luxe and taxes, helping the miserable, abolition of corv&es. etc. 137 ^ V o lta ire1s Correspondence. ed. Theodore besterman (Les DSlices, Gerfeve: Instltut et HusSe Voltaire, 1958), XXXV, 77, note 4. 9 7 Two letters from Coyer to Malesherbes, bibliotheque Nationale, K. A. fr. 334?, fo. 133 and 143; Malibran, L'AbbS Coyer. pp. 21-22. 98 7 This is not to say that Voltaire never spoke against Palissot. On the contrary, he aimed his pen at Palissot just as he did at bompi^nan. 99 "Les Philosophes ne se plainaront pas: raais 1 1 bon ne te t 6 publique Z i .e., Coyer7 &l£ve la voix pour eux, plus encore pour tant de personnages rSellement vicieux i ridi cules, dont la licence du Thfiatre pourroit faire des bouffons, si l'autoritfi ne I'arrete." Coyer, blscours sur la satvre contre les phllosophes {& Ath^nes: chez le Libraire Anti- phi 1 osophe, 1 7 o 0 ), p . 8 5 . Voltaire wrote to his friend Chieriot on 29 August 1750. "Mai s en ^5n6ral, on a pris Palissot trop sSrieuse- ment; si ces pauvres philosophes avaient 6t5 plus tranquilcs, si on avait laissS jouer la pi^ce de Palissot sans se plaindre, elle n'aurait pas eu trois representations." Correspondence. XVIII, 84. 1 0 1 ^ . , ooye r, ^at.yre , p. / . 102TV . , -Iblu. ■ p. /3. 103 P a lis s o t, Hfimoires pour servir & 1 'h isto lre de notre 1 1 ttfirature. depuls Francois Ier jusgu11 nos j ours TOen^ve: Montard, 1775") , P. 81. P alissot strikes several other jibes at Coyer in"La dunelade", CLuvres (Li&pe: Cl. Plomteux, 1777), III, 8 8 - 8 9 . 1 0 ^Pottinker, The French nook trade. p. 79. 1 0 9 -Grimm, Cprrespondance.n 15 avril 1 7 6 1 ; cited in Mali- bran, 1*Abb$ Coyer, pp. 56-57. 1 0 ^Coyer, O.C., p. vi. The Princess bobieska was a haughty, jealous woman who felt that she ha: married be neath her station when she wed first of all FrSdfiric- haurice de la Tour d'Auverpne, prince de 'i'urenne, brother 138 of Charles-Godefroy (Coyer's benefactor), Che became a widow six days after her wedding, and the following year (1724) married Charles-Jodefroy, Che always referred to her husband and father-in-law as "deux bourgeois du qual Malaquais". One day, evidently fed up by what she considered dupery, the duchess packed her bags and went to C ilesia , where she stayed until her death (l?40). Public rumor had it that in 1 7 3 0 , jealous because her lover preferred another, she poisoned the famous actress Adrienne becouvreur to get rid of her competi tion. (barbier, mars 1 7 3 0 ), Maii bran, 1 1Abbg Cover. pp. 442-443. 107 Jean Fabre , Ct aril slap-Auguste Poniatowskl et 1 1 Kurope des luml^rcs (Paris; Collection historique de l'Institut d'£tudes slaves, 1932), XVI, 2 3 . his Dlssentlons des Sgliscs en Pologne. Voltaire oi ted Coyer and some thirty others as sources. Ibid., p. 321. 1 OP Coyer gives as general bibliography for his hero rnSmoires, personal letters, and an eye-witness recounting of war campaigns by a French soldier in the Polish army. Coyer, H istolre ae Jean S o b iesk l. roi de Pologne (Amsterdam: aux d&pens de la compagnie, MDCCLXIL / sic 7T.~ I. viii-x. Hegarding the personal letters Coyer said, "Je n'ai trouvfi... ni beaute, ni style, ni precision; je n'y cherchois que la v6 rit§; d si avec cette volont£ ferme d de tels guides je me suis ftgarS, dSchirons les Histoires." Ibid.. pp. ix-x. 1 1 0 4. b. Ctrornberg, "history in the eighteenth Cen tury , " J our rial of the His tory of Ideas ( s . 1 . 11. p . , Id 31 ) , Xi i , 300-301. ^^H is good humor is obvious when he mocks pedants who do u seless research: "Kara-Mustapha. . . s 16 toit retirfi h bud£." iiote 9 a : "Capi tale du Koyaume de Hongrie, On dispute si c 1est 1 1ancienne Aqulneum on Stoit la seconde Leginn Ho- maine Adiutrlx. Antonin, dans l'exemplaire du Vatican, a Scrit Aqulneo. Cette Aqulneo ou Aoulneum. n 'est-ce point plutot Cepolsur le Danube? b'autres encore pr^tendent que ce n'eet ni dude, ni CSpol, mats D trlgon le. Ample ma- ti&re pour une belle dissertation qui ne prouvera rien." Dobleski. II, 343-344. 1 1 2 Lamoignon pftre wrote to his son from V ersailles, 27 f&vrier 1 761, "II l i e rojJ m'a estfi parl$ de la vie de Jobiescky. II faut commencer par en arrester la vente . . . . II est bien surprenant qu'un pareil livre ayt paru et sans 139 permission. L'approbation m&rite punition. On se plaint beaucoup de cet ouvrage.* Bibliothfeque Rationale, N. A. fr. 3396, fol. 110. In the meantime, Malesherbes questioned the publisher and Coyer, both of whom wanted a chance to refute questionable sections. Realizing the justice in such a request, Malesherbes wanted to comply. He told this to his father on 1 March, and added that *11 est toujours juste de ne point condamner les gens cans les entendre.* Ibid. . fols. 112-113. A brief but complete account of the story of the suppression of dobleskl appears in Pierre Grosclaude, Malesherbes. tfimoln et lnterprete de son temps (Paris: Librairie Fisehbacher, 1 9 6 1 ) , l",~ 87u89 . ^Ib id .. p. 39, note 13. 11 *4 Voltaire to Argental on 1 and 3 April and to bami- laville on 6 April 1761, Cprresoondance. XbV, 252, 256-257* 263. -JMercure de France. Mars 1761, p. 91; FrSron, Ann6 e llttSralre. mars l? 6 l , pp. 238-290; cited in Mali bran, 1 1abb6 Co.yer. pp. 310-311. ^^Grimm Correspondance . IV, 369; Pa Harpe, Corres- nondance l l t t e r a l r e . IV] 97", le ttr e 177; cited in ib id .. pp. 311, 313. 1 1 7 derrr)an ( 1 7 6 2 ), English (17^2), Russian (1770-1778), and Polish (iBtp). Cited in 1 bid . r p. 2 u6 , note . 1 1 8 'oesternian, ed., Volta ir e 1n Correspondence. XLVII, 8 . *La Harpe, Correspondance 1 1 ttfiraire adress? & G. A. I. Mgr, le grand Luc. auiourd'hul emoereur de Huss1e . et S M. le Comte Andre Gchowalow.. .depuis 1779 iusau'li 1789 TParis: M i ] ^ ^ t 7 ^ 1 ^ l 8 0 7 T , ~ V , 997 “ 1 2 0 La Harpe, 1 bid.: bachaumont, cited in beslandres, Hurnorls te . pp. 210-211; Moulton to Meister, reported in Voltalre1s correspondence. XCVI1, lett. 19566. 1 2 1 The allusion to Coyer1s writing was concerning the biscours sur la s a tyre contre les philosophies . 1 2 ? 'Correspondance. 1 janvier 1 7 6 6 ; cited in Mali bran, 1 1Abbg Coyer. p . 96. 140 ^-^Diderot to Sophie, September, 176?, In CBuvres completes de Diderot (Paris: Gamier, 1876); cited in ibid. . p. w . 1 2 /|Ibld. . p. 55. 1 ° C) + ‘ ' Voiser.nri, Pontes 1 er;crs . suivis des anecdotes l i t - t§ralres (Paris: I8fi.5 ) , p . ?~?~4 . 125~ Dapeyre, Des Moours de Paris (Amsterdam: Imprimerie de d. Cas t e l , 1747) , p. 13.3 • ip y J'Ar^enson, 7111, ix and passim: cited in Charles Aubertin, D1Esprit uublic au XVlIIe simple (Paris: Didier, 1873), pp. 281-282. lr>.{ bee d 1Ardens, PhSr&se philosouhe. passim; or Palissot, D§1 im:a: i’iphaifqie, 11 Empire des Dgziris ; Duchet, Da Heine de Denni. citea in hornet, Ur i/fines. p. 119. ^2^Pierre Jlarac, "L1 EncyclopSd ie et les pro blames d 1 Education," Annales de 1 1 Universlt$ de P a ris. numSro sp ecia l, Do. I, Oct. 1952 (Paris: Dorbonne, 19 52), p. 217. 130 J Alphonse Dupront, Li vre e t sociS t$. p. 189; anti Daniel Hoche, "Milieux acad^miques provinciaux et soeiSt? des 1 urn res," in ibid . . pp. 9 0 - 9 0 , 191, 104. Hoche draws his. conclusions front d’Alembert's "Li scours prSl iminaire," the Dictionnajre de PrSvoux. Furrti^re, the Dnc.yclop&die. etc. 1 1 1 Hoche, 1 bld.. p. 1 7 6 . ‘'hornet, Or1nines. pp. I4a-i47. 118 ^Frorn about twenty in 174b, to around forty in 1770. iioche, "Milieux acadSmiques provinciaux," p. 96, cites Mornet, ibid., p. 145. 134. « Voltaire, cited in Hoche, "Milieux aeademiques provinciaux," p. 1 0 5 . Proust, Diderot et 1 1EncyclopSdle (Paris: 1954), p. 521; cited in Hoche, ib id . . p ~ 1065, ld l "Discours prononcS d a n s l'Acadftmie Royale des sciences et belles-lettres de Nancy, par M. 1'abbS Coyer, A sa RScep- tion, le Dimanche 8 Mai 1?63," in Bagatelles. p. 27. 1 77 ^'Aspasie, it is interesting to note, as a real-life friend of Pericles, did not leave a sparkling reputation for t>ei ng virtuous . Deslandrns , Mumori s te . p . 2 1 1 . i in 'Mauzi, L'ldSe du bonheur. p. 2 a. ^-^"Vous accouriez sans nul facheux pr 6 sage,/De votre Heine Sloquent defenseur, /Charmant Abb£, vous qui du p e r si flage/, Dans la Morale avez montrS 1'usage /allusion to baga telles// Vous qu'on a vu de Crayons si badins/ Pe inure ce Hoy faineux par son courage,/ nui du Croissant abattit les destins,/ lit dSlivra le rempart des Cermains. /allusion to b o b ie s k i// Nul mieux que vous, d'aimables b a g a telles/ N'eut le talent d1enchanter les ruelles;/ Nul mieux que vous, d'un joli vermilion/ b'enluminu la severe raison./ Par la u&essc orn§ du don de p la ir e / bans ses Stats chacun vous co n sid ers,/ Chacun vous aitne; a j'entends crier-/ De toutes parts: place & 1 'AbbS Coyer 1" P a lisso t, La Dunciade. pp. 8 8 - 6 9 . he is mentioned in the following "chant" among the fools who are trying to destroy the real literary masterpieces in the executioner1s fire when the flames suddenly lick up their own works and: "l'abhS Coyer expire anfianti." Also in "Chant X" where the Army of Stupidi ty launches a final attack: "La peur se met au quartier des fe m e lle s./ L'abbS Coyer, leur disant des fadeurs,/ Bn ce moment redoublait lours vapeurs;/ Bt cependant l'apotre des ruelles/ Meme en fuyant s'ftgayait sur les moeurs." Ibid., cited in Mali bran, 1 'AbbS Coyer. pp. 192-193. IdO Coyer, douvelles observations sur Angleterre oar un Voyageur (Paris: veuve Duchesne"] 1779) , p3 1 Al Voltaire's response to Coyer1s request is lost. Vhe fragment of Coyer's letter is tpyically flowery in praise of the man he always admired. "J'ai vu votre portrait dans ce museum 5. cot& de bhakespeare, de Pope et de baint-Bvre- mond...", Correspondance. LVIII, letter 1 1 7 9 6 , p. 192. H id . > 16-8 . B. Leblanc, Lettres d'un francals (La Haye: chez Jean Leaulme, 17dfiT] I, 2 1 °. 1 ^Pierre-Jean Grosley, Londres (Lausanne: 1770), II, 239-243; Coyer, Nouvelleg enervations. p. 250. After posting his qualifications in the main hall, the prospective member had to be appfo*«d at ten meetings, and he had t© be accepted by two-thirds of the voters. Only two new members were received per year. 1 ^ s Voltaire1s Correspondance. 21 novembre LX1II, 11 9 . Other letters say the same thing. ^ee the following: to Jacques Lacombe, ibid.. p. 113» 131; to the count and countes d'Argental, pp. 111-112; to Damilavi 1 ]e, pp. 114, 119, 133, 192, 238; to M orellet, p. 127; to d'Alembert, p. 113. 8 in ail Vie frees Coyer and says that it must have been Charles nordes who wrote i t . bee le tte r s to: hordes, pp. 134, 179; MarmOiitel, p. 202. ^ ° Curresuondance. -ovcrrd>er, 1 7 8 6 ; cited in Cali bran, 1 1 AbbS Coyer. p. 3 8 . Id 7 ' ^kvr.es divcrses do J . J . .ioMgjieau, cj;oyoj, ue Geneve (Xeufchntel: 1706), j I 1 ; f t ted in ibid.., p. 34 and note 7 , appendix. ] dp - Vo]taire to the marquis I’] < ria.'., O '1 /'arch l ? 6 n, Correspondance, LX, 1 9 9 . ^^^Voltaire to dtionne 2 oM L am ilavilie, 2 Parch 1766, i bid . , n . 1 V;, 1 la urSdlcati on. pp. 1 SI Joly, His tolre de la prSd ica ti on. p. xxi. 192 Ujcc note 2 9? for Voltaire's prediction, and Louis Petit de tachaumont, b§molres secrets. II, 330. 1 r)~* be la predication. p. vu. 1 99 Laiibran, 1 'Abbe Cover. p. P>9. 1 On translating some Latin verse into i'rench prose, Coyer admitted, "Pour le rendre £nergiquement en Kran^ais il faudrait le traduire en vers; je n'en ai ni le terns, ni le talent." Voyages d 1 1talle (Paris: veuve Uuchesne, 1779), p. 92. 143 ^ JSee notes 123, 124 above. 1j 6 Hjstolre de France. v i i , 3 6 6 . 1 i"7 Coyer, Etrennes aux morts et aux vIvans ou pro.iet utile partout I'on est mortel (a la val l£o de Josaphat: V f m j . Mov ing cemeteries outside the city Is also mentioned in I-i&ty. PP. 96-97; Voyage d 1 I t a l i c , I, 6 3 , 301. In Moyvelles observations sur Anrrleterre. he found it more healthful to have hospitals and their germs removed to city limits, and in his Plan a 1 Education he found i t more healthful for the children to be in the fresh air, uncorrupted by city influences. These city-versus-country ideas will be discussed in more detail later. It is unusual that Kali bran's study of Coyer never mentioned the Etrennes. ^London: 1 7 6 8 . 1 to "Mentioned in the in v en ta ire. cited in Kali bran, 1 1Abb$ Cover. p. 3 2 . Ib id . . pp. 208, note 2 , pp. 2 7 9 -80, and Weiss, "Coyer," Dlctionnalre un lverselle (Paris: Michaud, 1 8 1 1 - 1828, p. 419. 1 Hornet, Orlglne s . p. 279; Mali bran, I * Abb$ Cover. p. 138, note l . ^ h^Mal i bran , 1 1 Abb& Coyer. [>p. 2 78-274. l63 '■ Hornet, Origines. p. 3 30. 1 ^^Pons-Augustin Alletz, dictionnalre des rlchesses de la laiiirue franyolse Slu n 6 ologlsme aul s'y est Introduit. . . (Paris: Caugrain, 1770 L, Passim. 1 b 5 ,. doyer ^^’Coyer, O.C., p. v l i i . 167 Voltaire's Cprrespondance. XCV, lu. 1 6 8 Fhere are three places which have copies of Coyer1,;: will today: the Archives Dcpartemontales de la C-'d i'-1, i/C' - 7 ” fo l. 3 verso; in the Weiss papers at the : d hiioth^que he ■esan^ori (cited in bes 1 and res, liumoriste. n. 21.8 ), and at 144 the Archives Nationales, cote LXIII, 600. lf/8/1782, minutier, (cited in Hallbran, 11AbbS Coyer. p. 50.) i69Coyer, Egsal lfl prgdlcatlon. careme entier. en un seul discours (am Mont Sinai et sc trouve a Paris: veuve Duchesne, 1781). 17°Ibid,, p . 3 . 171I«ld., f>. 4 . 172Ibid., p. 13. 17'iIb id .> p. 16. Lot ter from j MVotre Majestg r;ie parlarit de la perte de 1 1 abl>g Coyer, que j'i^ norais; jc n'ai pu S c la ir cir uopuis mon re tour si ce malheur est averg; j'alme A me flatter, et & d outer encore..."; cited in Mali bran, 1 ' Abbg Cover. p. 44. 17 '’Coyer, 0 . C ., p . i v . \ n ( CJeslandres, H amoristc . p. 2 0 1 . ] n n ( ‘ dac h nan o n t , Mgrnojres s oere Is , Cl C u 1 y 1 7 '■ ■ 2 , cited i n ibid.. pp. 2 1 1 - 2 1 ?. ] IV La narpe to the rTarn.i cuke Petrovich, cited in Mali- nran, 1 'Abbg Coyer. p. 46. ] y. '*''i(,ia')tice nScrolopique, jan. 1743, cited in ■ibid.. pp. 44-46. i ''1 Des land res , f-ujtioriste . p . 2 2 0 . 182lb ld . CHAP TEH H I JOVHd'b LI i'EuA.i i re ILCoCTH Y The man of letter's, sa.vr. Coyer, is a wise man who employs the tools at h i s command to per fee: t his lie I ok ("arne"). iiis appreciation of knowimnv in its oure state, which he refers to as "the true arm the txrantiful", places him beyond the mundane illu sio n s of the ordinary man. lr- norinp. social standi nr and f;tmllv fortune, he owes a ll to his own capabilities, a newer which permits hi1;’ to "deminer sun les esprits." those who fulfill these strict and idealis tic requirements become more worthy of esteem when their talents, like beauty, are tempered by modesty.’*' Hodt-s ly is an *'SSr-nt. \ a 1 e ]t-M!t.rif i >. < ■:. • i r n ■ ■ t.e r "1 1 jc suis plus sap.e one vous, leur dlt - 1 1 /Locrate aux AthCniens/, e'est en ce cue je no sais rien, .. crois ne rie^i savoir; au lieu jue vous. .Mi tic sacnant r i e n , vour croye/. tout sa v o ir. H e He can be convincirrTy modest because all writers fla tte r themselves into Ixtlievinp that, theirs will U- the prr-M ■‘ ’o ’ , ‘1 e u - ' v ■ i r . truth, or1 the rove rumen t rhakinp 1 1 h f treatise. At times It Is true that an author's work is singular in its kind, and at such a time he receives his reward, his nourishment, and his passion: fame ("p-loire" ) . Coyer considers it just for the man of letters, Ivefore all others, to stand fir s t In j.lory, Penance It, was. tie who drew man out of his bariviric state and into a thinking civili zation, He manari-d to cu ltiv a te man. uy enl i p;hteni np; him, developing his reason, amur, in,r and correcting him, the man of 1 fitters rendered him more sociable and consequently happier.^ 111 is same enlightened public which :m has formed deter mines his own f a;no -- 11 HI us sec, td; u i.utilip/ 1 emigres sorit C cures, . cun rout. >1^1 i eat., plus 5 1 est. s^v^rf'." > dhile the1 pu’nlic may cover the writer with laurels for his first works it may also cover the laurels with dust if succeedirur works are not of th“ same q u a l i t y / ’ tut if the works come from th'1 hand of a master, then the doors to lory are open f'or- ? ever. Pven ,lory is of unequal q u ality, for the fickle; public is hesitant to accumulate its praise'; over a Ion,' time. Praise can become pity if imagination is not constant there are different kinds of plory. Coyer considers moral ylory as important as all others.'* de includes here the pen which must be sen sitiv e to those against whom it may w rite. A sag;e pen assures Klory and is more deserving of it than “the tooth of satire” which is ephemeral iri its malirqi pleasure . ^ 0 doyer, like Montaigne, found wisdom in w moderation. both MoliSre and Aristophanes, two of Coyer1s preferred authors, wrote without offending, or corrected themselves when they became aware of what harm they could d o .^ but even mesure and modesty do not always assure glory. how can the author design his own entry into fame? Will he ever t>r able to draw himself out of the crowd of 1 ?. mediocrity which the public does riot tolerate? This fati guing uncertainty^ plagues him, and creates a literary courage necessary for endurance, or else beats him into the fearful ranks of the forgotten. Coyer, doubtlessly observing his own plight and depicting his own fears and anxieties , sought consolation in history and rationalizations. Why, Coyer reassured himself rhetori cally, even Milton died unknown and unappreciatedT his lack of recogni tion atten ted to the puhl i c ' s poor judgment more; than to the indolence of Kilton's muses. Cfripoa, he r e c a lls, was formed "dans l'eorr’ete m£d i ocri t £ , " ^ ’ and yet. became one of the greatest authors of all time. :ie continues to soothe his own wounds. "d'est cependant la ;n?diocrit£ pui est, le partape le plus ordinaire aes esprits." One has only to witness how many plays succeed, and then fa il in a few days, to view this widespread characteris tic, and to understand the bitterness on thr art. of the author for having tried at a ll.^ Heal i zing his struggles and hard ships, it is easier to appreciate his formation and to feel that even mediocrity is not without mcri t. 148 His mediocrity explains in part the derivation of and the need for literary courage. He must have the courage to laugh at himself when others laugh at him, and likewise when he intends to place those about whom he writes in a 1 k laughable or ridiculous situation. ~>till more courage, mixed with sacrifice, is necessary when the author' contem plates his financial situation. Coyer considers it much easier to compete with a ll others in seeking charges, riches, and honorable positions, than to ignore the vulgar desires and devote him self to producing a good book. 19 His heart must remain closed to the seductions of fortune. " . . , s 1 . . .exclure /de la fortune/ par choix, par l'envi. e unique de perfect i onner sa raison & celle des autres, c!est 1 'effort d'une ame £ le v £ e . H2 0 ■'either fortune nor indigence aids the w riter. fum ing only towards wealth and position war [is the pen, while indigence wrenches it from his hand and extinguishes the fi re of imagination when he searches tor the necessities f ills simple existence. 21 simplicity should be a keynode regarding both his desires and his style. 0 1 nglerrtindedness of aim in life; will allow him the necessary solitude of his study and unwavering devotion to his work. sim p licity in writing becomes a duty to his reading public, who must understand in order to learn. for the true aim of all authors is to 2 ? instruct the public, in s is ts Coyer.'' The abt>£ ,)oins many other duties to this one, and he personally accents the res pom; ihi 1 it ie s which fall upon 149 every man of letters. He refers to the savant buried in his 21 works, as a diamond in the rough. This man is charged with devoting his talents to beinr a good citizen. Aside from the general responsibilities such as enlightening, perfecting-, and amusing his readers, there are also specific duties which the author must assume. It; is up to him to ?4 correct vices and demonstrate good morality. ' He must accept the responsibility for clarity, and for allusions he makes to other people. That also includes the light in which the public will accept these allusions and its ulti- 2 r) mate reaction to them,"' T a lisso t's i-.es Hhl 1 osophc s ) . doyer frequently found his contemporaries so recondite in their allusions that even they were not sure what they wanLeu 2 (. to say. '■ Hie homme de 1 e 1 1 res must learn to be a good critic of his times as well as of other writers. Whil* some authors heau cruiser upon (die beaus ef a ll their fellow writers, > not or has, ethers fine sadistic pleasure in tossing another author into Ur arena for public amusement. having fe lt the sharp teeth of the c r itic s in his own flesh, Joyer asks, "A quoi sert...de rultiver son ajne, de la rem- pl i r de lumi^’es .s de sentimers, si 1 * on n'en devient pas meilleur, si ce n'sst quo pour se jotter avec plus de rn5chancetS sur ses propres f r^res ?"27 Hence, criticism tempered by ju stice and human understanding is the quality he needs. A k nowled ge o f nature, 1o fh physical and hurnan, i s fundamental. Without th is, the theater, history, "la moral"" 150 will all rln^ falsely, and his readers will scoff at him. With this knowledge, there will be order and merit, and he ?8 will be useful to mankind.'' If the man of letters is alile to fulfill all his duties, he will achieve eloquence, diversify and utility of sub ject matter, and will receive his rewards. Joyer charms a ll homines de le t tres ; "DStachez-vous de la fortune; aimez la glo ire, armez-vous de courage; comioissez la nature, les terns .< le monde . Aveo ce coeur et cet e sp rit, vous aurez dee succor ficlatans dans le genre de LittSrature quo vous aurez choisi; peut-etre dans plusicurs, peut-etre dans tons . "29 i;ut this promise of success del i vert, u in a tl^y formula is less, convincing when the abbS places the writer in his nlysieal environment and recounts the tribulations which habitually plague him, especially if he is anionr the mediocre majority. It would hr natural to suspect, id at the latest hike in the price uf paper might fend t,o slow mown ;}.<■ out put of "ce;; miserable;-; auteurs qui ont. la rape d 1 for ire uaroe qu'ils ont cello de la faim."^ fhis is not the case at. a ll, for the public is constantly inn rid a ted by poor quality works which say less a trout their 1 good quality than about good business for the col parteuru. ^ coyer has no sympathy for the writer whose stomach controls his pen while his heart and his espri t stand idly aside. He harshly chastises them for throwing away their time and their sleep on useless d ittie s to bring; id a few coi ns , when they might spend these 1 C>1 same efforts on some rrolpnt for the health and wellbelny O O of man. On the other hand, Coyer nan easily sympathise with the ph1 1 qsqphe who was scorned by the rich and famous heraii.se of the cruel separation which rold made between them. ; n w sad t n f h 1 p. k tout 1 v In ' i e a t r will these 1 n d 1 - upn t creators stand or; u a 1 1 V id t ^ * r rv' e whore fat pu ps er will rm Ion pep be nf an v use, and with 1 whose worldly In fluence has S 11 d ■* op 1 v hr r nm e o ■ ■ e 1 r 1 r / i by t h a 1 y 1 p1 n r' pe a r - an n e , 1 1 "i .pi'p 1 r n o coon f'n r ,■ n i d , display, t ' * } es rip posi tions In the life n r t'm ded'nateu nan of letters, If he takes r. 1 ■ ■ w e i ■ y r ■ e p 1 n i; 1 v , t h e rr ■ w 1 1 1 v >*"’ no r 1 mop fop him 1 r i 11 t * p 1" 1 n it p e r - ' S' * V , Co «• h e w 1 I 1 a [ J e«» p ti’l l ' 1 1 ft t ] t ■ ■ kjOh e«' t y he Co pe a r i'oh p that per ftyn 1 •’■es op 1 y f as -v-1 ei" an d t-pe * en r e s , dir Imaye may not even have chaui'ed py the middle of his r are e p hen aus e 1 t t. a k e bn t h time and talent to nrod u c e a f 1 yu r e w h 1f' h n a u s e '■ i e a d .' to t ' i ta i an* vo ■ r e '' f o '’ay, " i1 h e pe hr \f y Id it i i j p o the w rite r h, 1 ms e 1 *' to m a y e ' ■ 1 r n a m e k n o w n a n 1 *■ O o p riq pa * e n 1 m ■ ’ e i f e pom t h e f a po n r s o f 1 u n k n o w n . ' , : i e m IJ S t p O t l o o k 1 ■ e i 1 1 n a iiip'.''<’ l t t I: y c t t t i; e t); \ p V, a d t o step on to qi’id ”f' at his ’lit Ima1 >' uon 1 , "'hepe a d n rw 1 ri _ Ian r’* I’mitdp a mono writers nr t h"re I'- am ont- men in bus 1 - *f nep.a op yoae pn mf'n t , A nomblnat Ion of time and talent produce a wort. tt.V 11- tepapy contribution. 'ro become really well known, a writ, l nr first nurses arr-onic the '-'a lop,'' and In social circles. If only ' Sew hive pea'1 It an ’ c a n discuss Its m e >■' t ■ ■ t t p e 152 others soon blush at their ignorance and has ten to f i nd a copy. The press turns out more editions. It appears abroad and is translated into foreign tongues.' ’ Here Coyer has traced the steps of accumulating popularity which lead towards his much desired gloire. Once launched, there are still pitfalls to t>e aware of. by this he means the enlightened public and the gens de lettros who will eventually decide the fate of his work. Meanwhile the author awaits the out come in his cabinet. isolated as much as possible from all save his iaspirations. ne must keep himself apart from the public, accept its decision , and profit from the c r i t i cism he receives. if1 fils work has passed these te s ts, the man of letters is well on his way towards earning the reward of fame which w ill be the aliment to start him off on fur ther endeavors. The author 1 s fight for g lu ir e is the se lfis h aspect, of his goals in writing,. lie is allowed tins t it of erotism lie cause of the sacrifices he makes arm the rigorous ideals he maintains. Coyer has always seen punishment and reward for performance as an integral part of life and of justice, for individuals, laws, societi-e', i governments. >.jlory is his aim, and his re*ward . fhe author must be concerned with his owr fame, because it is largely he who controls it, by sticking to the duties he must perforin. If his nourish ment does not come immediately, lie s t i l l dreams that a future • tmrat ion will r'-copnicn his merit and further his renown 153 17 even after his death. fhere is usefulness in the praises he receives. The more the people respect and honor the 1 R writer, the more they listen to what he has to say.' Then, he is more powerful and more able to f u l f i l l the a ltr u is tic aspect of his poals in life; ‘e be useful; to instruct. A writer waster, his 1 umj £ res if lie doe:.; not use then to a lb didactic end. Everything: that Coyer wrote war useful and instructive: the a;'.ate lie s shew*'’ 1 moral weaknesses to be corrected , Elan d 1 Education set up an institution for 1 instruction, Etrennes was concerned with health, J u l nk i wit h cor1 roc t i np; 'overn- mental abuses . oinr.e all of nis work was "useful", he never understood why starvinr authors could not provide fui their support, in a sim ilar way, Jutv to one's country must be the f ir s t of a ll aims. While doyen remained celibate throughout his l i f e , and was not. even wed to r.b<’ dhurr.h as is c. tn-r.dly > rets-; t o an ubb^ (a ( : tb and I'lii.u'uu-rital r’eliriour con: which he never* abandon:!), his ideal spouse was certainly his country; he never deceives her. On the other hand, one can say that, risorous as he was in abidinr. by his standards, Joyer was frequently deceiver by those for whom tie was writim ,. ill is deception proUably explains why the abbS did not have much faitri in public opinion, although he did respect the power it wielded for success or failure. he saw the public: as an author's menace. hot at. a ll tolerant of the 1 mod 1 oni'p mnn of lpfter?, the ruhl In i/ar. 1 1 1 In It.1’ rio- r 1 I'pr , thpvpfni'p In what It o on u 1 d prod trood nr bud. (]t h e r . 1 t a t. mu oh too lon^ hptwoon h m ' 1 n n and '-iROlno whfin trv- h u r t" n n1 ok '! f n v n r l t.p Ph od i*p , ) Ho tnrtn wm aiipftInnaMp, I y p p r t t f' 1 i r i1 t h n w ] !’'ir ' P p n y-.i' i ] m : m 1 ■ 11 r t ; ] <■■ i t it ] l p r (f w n 1" f'n r o t n 1*1 in I ,n M p ' i p p l n m n 1 o r Q l u l o n 1 ri •* *'■ .om fi } 1 1 * 11 ■ r - ' ■ t; v p h 1 rnr’ o 1 O n f u n n ’ t> 1 1 n n r . p . ) '1’h r rn>- 1 1 O 1 r n u r 1* I r 'n i r ' . It. -! ; ■ 1 ; i i 1' h* 'in - h 1 ■ ■ * h n U U t h O 1* W H h 'it'iri'ln n , [ m 1 v 1 n f' " O f) ] ] i.r V- f o r i n , I " n i ]1 1 ' '' 1 •• n n |'0 ' ] n n f ' ■ I- 1 P 1 H O 0 f) n ° ■ ' +1 V ' i rl 1 ‘ t : i c ’ — fii|(t f n 1 : H n no * V | (» ] 1 f C' r 1"( t I;1 ■ 1 y. r> n p <' r 1 ni ] y n f t Up wVl 1 mt: . f i-1 n r' U "o 1 1 '"* ^ ^ ■ ' ' : ' ’ h * 1 '■ I 1 ) 1 h n r h 1 m 7 n 1 f' *" n I"1 h n r; <- r ■■ i 1 • - , y ] ,' n * i | ’ ! :,r . ^ r, H i 1 ■ ■ ■ ! i; I p ■-•■■, ■ , • ' * n jj 1 1I h ' W *1 ' ' W 1 1 ! n r n n f * :') 1 ’ ’' ' (1 ’'1 ' ■ o *■ W ’5 * ’ ’ '' 1 P" 1 *"' ■J M 1 1 f ' ■ i ! ‘' , ■ 1:' n wn f ' l v n i - ] t c t ' u 1 p w i 1' ’■ r ■ 1y i o o . r ’ n ’ pp | y f ■ h n u v 1 n 1 u - * 1 o o n r h 1 r o n'jpi * p v ( h o u I " ' f n \r< *!"' o 1 n (' p n t ' i !' y u b n v n ; I'ih'pH ] !>,■ ■- i t w ■ # /. ■ ; * 1 n 1- ■ t i i ■; t 1 1 I * ’ 1 r i J ‘- n \ e ’ \ ' ' r - 1 : i r i ■ j / . f ■ * . In t Mf. . | r, r 1 f>n t i - > -.ij t * V; ( ■ i ; ■ ; e- v-;. i • ■ i ■ ■ n >■ * ’ ! ‘ r ‘ r'i ! '1 1 *'' * n ■■■* n i r ” O r\ t f r n n ’ f-m |n ri| ri.r y ’ i ■ | t < • i" ■ f ■ I ■ i ’' f ’ : ' ’ i O ' t ' ' ’ ' ’ ' ' f • i.ii p-ip rt rtirit h p fint i;rv ' i u * ’ n r '' * i * ■ w o o t P' n ’' t r : i! n * ■ v 1 ’■>' II ^ Vi * 11 f’. r| t P r' pr ’ l | v V . ' ^ * ! |-fi P e i ' i h I||,r Vi ^ <• n P »1 t 1 I V v * f' 'P> r i t v I f' I' •• I f' «•»1 • n rl t r i '- |n * r;;) t '’n v o r wo'" v } 1 n d ‘‘d t n t h * 1 1 ‘■“ vi'ivv w*1 u k n o o ■’fi ’ f ’■ * f' ■"■■w1'! . A p In u u v o t io r* h 1 o nr) p: p 1 ! m 1 rri t (’■■! ^ h r o ; i m r t p r*’ 'it '* 1 ! x 1 " t - 1 n rj hookn , t.vip qimvt.pv thut r fjm x i l n e d w o u l d util1 r u ’o d r u r - 11 <"■) 1 n /. 'r'tiP mu ou o f w o r th ! or'* ou t >1 1 o n t 1 o n o w f ln h Inundat pp t ii“ :■)]>'1 lo ( ' V ’r v I j 1 v 1 '' o f 1 I t t 1 p ' ' n n p p ' t ' i p n r p , 1-*a on, i u (1 ' ■ i i r n wr* vh 1 1 ] ; in ■ - ■: f ro " " 1 to .| ■,r" o n 1 p K 1 V u ' * h o V n t t o u ro ! . '* < 1^ The works which remain will he stronv enouph tn defend them- rp! vert, Their authors will have written with a purpose, they will have armed their pler.es with reason, the defense nn r excellence — eyen a ra ln st p> g 1 1 nr; o phen . Henson based op a t ho rniji’-V] kn p;-i 1 ed ;-o nf physical and human nat u i’p will lead to t.he urid e i'c t are ■ 1 nr of man, hi'" nrnH p his passions, "Iron, virtues, hts freedom, and his 1 ea rrt 1 n r . ^ ’ There 1 s no force M-eater than wls-'o^ ana kn ow 1 eh a-e , 11 he ■'1renv1.1i of t h e 1 a s. t 1 n v lumh' vj 111 he hared on. 1 hr 1 v p i an 1 i v , e t oen r*n ee f nn h'prs a 1 1 1 v in 4 nn r 1 t v , T t 1 ■ ■ net 1 m po t't a n 1 1 ^ ' * 1 o .; i ] f*n e n 1 r - >1] eU r> 1 f1 d if'1 <‘v t h1’ :)t1f ! f'n* , f,n r " 1ml let*, ’ I ‘ ■ t _ > > e n ' 1 e r , " 1 * ' ': a n <" 1 e n t ■ - 1 h oir a ,■ I ■ • ,■> . ■ 11' ‘ <1;1 1 11 ° 1 r i’ a r ■ 1 e 1-' ■ at- im h-t a n t r| e.'i' ' m -r'1 nn '1 r 1 1T 1 f 1 a 1 1 1. y and 1 "i no r t an c e e n thelp own. r r ivepsa 11 t v T" a product of t l*,Jth and nnnek v, ■■'ur'atinn In ,-rnref' and 1 v 1 f> iioes not "i a r a U n 1 ’’ e r:' a ! ‘ rule, /, * a :' 1 < ■ ■ > f , 1 ; ■ ■ h t ' ■ ph and hl"t:i' r<>n • * e tv a v;or'-' "'nr'’ o»- h v a 1 1 e 1 ■ 111 ■ i * ■/ ' vi 1 on, ■ 1 ] a s *'■ is. an 1 m 11 ’ 1 e n t 1 n a a t' 1 < ■ n e n e s ■" 1 t V , M C <" O r' ’ 1 a ; " to ho y f * r , : I e r X t. o n d f’ ■ i * * v 1 1 c- .,<11*1 h v 1 o e to ■ c i' ] a n - a s a r e ■■■ ns vie 1 * as his own , A ! t hot i r h 1' n ' j 1 * 'T r' t) f \ 1' ‘ t >■ j 1 1 ,n t t ( 1 - ^ t j r.p 1 ■ 1 (1 o \r < r*\ t n '■/ ' M 'r 1 ^ >'1 ^ y \ (' f" * 'n t* 1 1 t P V H 'V m 'lf 't o | ‘n q p 1 r| ^ ^ , * '■ 0 Vf'r.f*r(t pr| t h° \ T I 1J )*f' ^ f ~W\ of l-'i’nm n r’ \ y\ t r-t r>. t |t > f.* y t e>r| trn ] ^ 11 - j tr i r’1 n p ^ \ 1 j P V*1 f \ It I Of 1 ]‘i) t | VP ( '■ 0 e , t 11 1 c 1 no < ; ea 1 n , ' 'nr r° m 1 o c ■'’e r rr e ( i on d on * 1 ond '- a•: ) , Adartlnr Italian or other names and places to French pro nunciation and s. r-e 11 1 n v was nonetheless an evil he to je - ra t ed and to wh'eh ho always f'on f o r^i ed . 1 s f There werp other literary traits which he criticized and did not tolerat». However, he s 1 1 pned Into these same weaknesses himself more often than he would have liked to admit". In the same pamphlet In which foyer admonishes an author for ha v 1 n r 'on mnn v f o i; 1 ''' ‘ ■ In cri p w r 1 t. 1 n v , ! n*' ahbe Calls rrev to his own criticism . de Informs !mrt hhrn *■ h q t his c ho 1 c a of t m: t hr to pro va a m int 1s ti 1 f p han d y Indeed, f n p tif> Vias f o f a 1 1 v 1 e e-t as 1 i »> hm a x 1 s r 1 ns Car I r which w mi i a i i s pm ’ ■ e v> \ * iiuorv,11 ‘ ' 'o ye -' ho i i 1 * have t >m'izVi t about *na* whm hr’ wr' writ Im-- J.I1 f r ed 1 r.a t Ion. ( Wi e 1: S o 1 1 1 ■■ 1 r f v r h r f f1 ' t'] e 11 ►; (' Ct;* f n i ' n 1 ! m * i' * ■ 1 1 * n * o -' ' i !/ ': o rn c — t i-, 1 ti a pew a ' -ou * ai a I r e a■1 v w o t-t- - ■■■■ a t * -^; i i’ , f 'n r a v'■ I v rank** t >: 1 ‘■ i-i t 1 *' , and w V i'1 n h>‘ ; 1 d , h1* r a t 1 i 'in a ! 1 1 *; hi'- a t - 1 r>m pt i-a t h e r ef*' 1 o a r 1 o' ] ■ ■ ! v ( e , p , ( o i ■■ travel 1 1 f m'atur*’) , : e was also occasionally redant 1c, '’o ve r ' ■ ■ ' e ■ h 1»- * '■ v w a ■' s *'tm■ '1 t : 1 v ■■ ■ - a' {. 1 n •’ 1 f a s i r a 1 ’ u - ''tare: a»v* e 1 ;' • <"■' i y e e t 'i * (' r ' a ; ar: 1 w a1' *>o ? . ■ " 11 r 1 'ca r 1 n s . •: 1 ” S e a ' 1 I n r a ’ 1 * ' f> >-■ r . n w a 1 a m n p p * e < ■ e * 1J r ' i t r -1 , w ‘: 1 I — t'*’ a d UP ' 1 o n - 1 ' i:r»' ^ n r 1 ( r n r y -y c l ‘ e *1 a n"i ^ 1 1 -1 t * W ^ t r ■ + k ■ r ■ a rp ' ] f1 r; t Via e 1 ’ e i , ' 1 V e 1' W a ’ ' p c r i e r r 11 ] r' ! I' f 1 ' ■ > - e a ’ e i•'' V Y 1 n ' 1 1 C ' i t 1 r, e \ • ■ ( ! 1 ' 1 d ' - wupViy t a t p<'n In the r j*e face a*"! * 1 n footnotes- of «' v i' r v scholarly work he wrote ( r • ' , , ' m x anc 1 enn es re 1 1 y 1 ons , !a ■; ver q u e a_f Jja dnma 1 n e ; ; 11 r i e v 1 mj x mo t d e tat r 1 e ; . , , s n r i a nature -In tmi r lp ; l_u Noblesse commer ?an t e and the be f ena o : Sob 1 esk 1 ; I 1 an d ' ed nca11 on ) . :;e was also interested in to* 1 1 - I n . 1 'I (- rr- a hou t h 1 ■1 T'd f*>- ^ id .v v In * he various r i 1 1 ' c a f 1 < ns , 1 s ? wethod o 1 opry , hp believed, rhould nlwayR be pin at the vary bep'lnnlnp', that 1r , it should tvRp.e the development of the tonic, on the word, from ltc birth up to the chape which the author will treat, ( e , r , , .So h lpskl ) . 'The facile w <1 v 1c not to ft'1 churned, for It 1c often the e a-’ 1 e c t to i l i md eye hand . in technical workc, cuch nc th nee Involving c ? a t 1 r t 1 c F, which a re e ith e r con f 1 1 c t 1 np or unobtainable, Snye-y supyectc m o 1 firrv of how to o )■ 1 t 1 r. 1 e , ';nv<'|' o ffo y y yet your nee foy wha* riot to do, 1 fl r t ead a*’ ' ’ ’ I iry y t 1 n y c ome t h 1 n r nm re |Y)S ) I i ye , h era yd In r crltlrlrm ac a yen re, Soyey'r; oii'dlria] rule t I ic k IndncsH , bo not are cat Ire; to not offend, The rur- Ooc e of c r 1 t 1 r 1 - 1 n P c fiou I d be bene f 1 c 1 n 1 , not. dent rue t. 1 ve , Sri mm, Hldeynt, and bar. huumont mu.at, have chuckled u:> they mud t h 1 r current Ion, foy enefi one had bru t n 1 1 y directed nlc '.fen on aalnrt thin anrnor le 1urt t. he manner r on d f‘im ed , 1 ^ 3 As for other t.;onron, ouch as history or the theater, Coyer v;as more precise. In comparison to the Italian theater, Coyer found the French theater ‘-rossly underch'-voT opped in the sixteenth century, with its faro* anii t ^ res wh i eh rent i nut -d un ti I the followin', century. ' dh i 1 <■ l.ruvdhi;, in Copland, ho also saw a bnoich of theater w'-moh i nir-res t.ei 1 him for incor poration in i> nn rr *< • , ;h i. r; war; a 1 i.(,ht enter tal nme ut in small theaters devoted to farces, marionettes, pantomime, and "tours de force et d1adres so" especially suitable for the 1 y "petit peupl' ", one of the abbA 1 s constant interests . dot- far removep f roin the- simplicity of ihi s people 1 s theater , is the example theater w h ic h Coyer imagined for the amuse ment of the Patasonian plants. He would have ran opera of: nature, agriculture, conjural bliss, friendship, devotion to one1:' e< mrit.ry , .-r roe, an-! -i> only * - vf tv hh i r ip else which, he habitually oril iolr.ed us Tv-odin' hrjr,ov',:!!sril in France, Once apain, he s hi owed litera tu re as innrusL tvo. fra; paly would show, for example, the puni semen i of the stronr. who wanted to tyrannize tin.- wo at . lone.dy w>m 1 i ■ a pood- r V > natui’ed, slapstick farce. " At the same time, Coyer sketched out what such a comedy mipht be lik e . .Vhile he admitted openly that he had no talent for verse, this model comedy is ample evidence as to why he never attempted any plays. It is a simplistic seen** rje tween a ,iant ( Pat a,, yn i ar i ) and a dwarf C an ordinary man). The giant woman ridicules the smaller man who plays the fool in all situations. The woman is the aggressor, the one who deals the blows, proposes humorous escapades, and who finally saves the man from danger by tucking him to neatly under her arm and fleein g. This is in no way different from his other- fantasies, about the reversal of the male and female roles in society. I'here is a second sketch which he proposes im tween an ordinary man and a baby giant. bimilar to the fir s t sketch, the dwarf f a lls into puddles, gets angry, and is slapped around by the one of superior size anti aid lit ies ,' ^ domed y should not no an injurious satire like- Jsal issot1 s Los Phllosophes r which is made of only t.no foam or- shell, of real comedyThe abb£ prefers situ ation s from which moral and other lessons can l>e gleaneri. Coy nr gc'’s the d rm.y or fh>- c omft i i (1 1 am o y a n te as the iueal hi dart in v ’-dt1]11 . he finds tig- the-atc* r wasted for a large part, because i ‘ s-nu.h, u* ■ open for twin enjoyment and hi ■. * I .i. f ' > i n.-uule c-ll as 1 h- ’-•"St ,,f pp<. pm die . Another level uf >-*nf"rtainment of the drams . with the sum- p u r p o s e , woid-i ’oe in school, performed ty masters and stu dents. What letter way to demonstrate proper mores and f d active virtue? Visual reinforcement in educational tech niques has only recently teen incorporated in the twentieth century. This is one example of hoiw Coyer was in the vanguard of his century's ideas. Whereas he never put his own ideas 160 to work for him in the realm of the theater, it was just the opposi te in his tory. Barely aid a publication of Coyer's appear that did not have an .important section devoted to the history of a country, a man, a word, a e ■■ a if , on ur idea. Coyer i. rr e: with Cully thal the contemporary historian f i l l s his payer with petty details, useless stupidities, and wasted descrip tions. the historian is quid: to tell of th ' 1 cannons, "lines, and sausayes i n a certain city, and considers this essential, but neelects to depict the development of industry or yov- erninent, or- the 'establishment of a colony, A history should enrich the fountr.y's lii-'-rury rest ur'ces while dolm-, ju stice i to its most important 'assets. Che historian j 1 ays a role even mure important than the artist, or the sculptor. The la tte r place:; p. famous man concretely, but. s ta tic a lly in the eyes 0 5 - admirers. i’li-- his'e-rian ear- show many faces, moods, a: is1 net inns whir!; will * ndure '.fp u ;h th'- oentur i e*s, while marble chips and paint cracks away. ' whorl the abt>£ wrote his history of doideski arul lolanu, he h-as te tied to imlhri ids readers of hi s turio.-.raph i eal details to prove his sound 1:10 thonol ory . Boyer ‘;fiv" the car’cfu llv chosen sources he- used, their back,'round, their accuracy, and did a ll he could to show what the role of the pood historian was. "Ainsl 1 1Mistoricn, sans etre obli^S de deviner en trompant la postSritS, apr&s s'e tr e tromp£ In i-memo, n'a qu'un coin, oelui de oho is ir de buns moi re s ."Ad 161 He must limit himself to what he knows, and ignore all the rest, no matter how entertaining it may be. Here, dealing with the works of others in order to glean information and truth, the historian must learn first of all to doubt. Once the truth is apparent, he must learn that objectivity and honesty follow immediately in importance. There must be neither partiality for a nation, nor blind admiration-’for a hero. It is his duty to report the good and the bad f 7 alike. It was easy for Coyer to formulate rules of his toriography, methodology, or to state what the ideal author or literature should be like, because he quite naturally drew up these outlines according to what his own practices w ere. Stating regulations and setting up models served several purposes for the abb5. If he made them after his own techniques, then he could always stick to the formulae with ease. In so doing, he always felt that his work was well done, and worthy of attention. Not only was he attending to his duty as one who mus t ins truet, but he was also enveloping himself in solid psychological insulation in order to protect himself from the onslaught of those cri t i c s who p e rp etu a lly wounded him. There are no e a s ie r r u les to live by than one's own. He needed reinforcement from his fellow authors. Painfully aware that his works would never be of the caliber of Voltaire's, Montesquieu's or Rousseau's, Coyer honestly gave his self'evaluation in his acceptance speech 162 to the AcadSmle de Haney. Merit in mediocrity, the frustra tion of public rejection, the tyranny of the critic, the stupidity of the public were topics that reappeared through out the speech. He was prateful for his entry into the company of famous literary names. !’e hoped that this ac ceptance would raise his esteem and that here he would find protection from his enemies. dis setf-denipration, although ty p ica lly honest, and narrative, must have reaped more pity than admiration. Coyer made it clear- that the frustration and uncertainty which were a part of the l i f e of the second- or tnird-rate author were a part of his own existence. de considered himself a phllosophe in every aspect of the term, de felt, aide- and called upon to protect anti defend his fellow philosophes. hut. with the doon-rooted sense of justice and equality which he exhibited in all ne wrote, he could not understand why everyone did not jump to his defense as he d id to the!rs . buty, justice and equality were only a few of the* tra its which had been in s tille d in the abb§. fhe Church and his up-brinpinr had stronyly shaped his philosophy of l i f e . had Coyer remained a practicing rell pious, lie would have been a zealous one, because his sin^lemindedness of purpose would have directed him solidly into the priestly path. Instead, for tangential personal reasons as well as the unity and simplicity of his aims, he devoted every aspect of his life to beinr a model writer. His call for duty, 163 sacrifice, courage, isolation, devotion, knowledge, and humanity are all ideals ear-marked by a discipline emanating from his sincere, religious formation. This same training had a parallel, accompanying spring of action, necessary to put the other characteristies to work. The abbfi Coyer was modest in his d esires, his appearance, and his personality, but bold once he took his pen in hand. An author could comfortably be modest because he always felt he was right. could t^e bold for the same reason. Coyer's pen became a sword when he fought for his government, his country, and its people. He felt capable of defending the philosophec because he was one of them. lie was told on the offensive as well. tie attacked abuses, mocurs. religion and personal enmity. It was in his writing that Coyer vicariously lived the kind of l i f e he would have liked to enjoy per sonal ly . In his pub I i ca t; i a us npp-un's a rharmi n, personal i Ly , who delights and entertains the women while vivaciously discussing and arguing wi'b the men. lie has lady-friends with whom lie oorrest • in, and who ape interested ii ' s lig h t1 s t th in{; he uoes during an average hay. His. gentle men companions are well-reae, well _ traveled scholar's whom ho* knows intim ately, and whose names alone cause ears to take notice. Although in reality he had made acquaintances such as Voltaire, dousseau, the president HSnault, and attended salens, royal houses, and academic Uanquets, the 1 ameus lt)L men were not wild with admiration, the salons tolerated rather than encouraged hi;; presence, and at a banquet of philosophies in London, he v;as too timid to raise hie plans r \ and make a to a st honoring the 1drench am bar, rad o r . '.dm w riters whom he knovj 1..!'-e pert w w 1 fh .v ' who ha' been dead since .ancient hi"1''.'', hit. coat* i who had been widely lublirhed. In the privacy of his per sonal library in hir near tnentn at the : ouil lot residence, ■lever war intimately familiar with comer, Virpil, Jioeru, ctsso and Llutaroh, an well as with Milton, Montai pne , Moli^re, Montesquieu, and especially Voltaire, whom he con- !' 0 s i dere(! the rin< le ani vernal ••viiun of hir; centary. ' It r rdi illu s tr io u s company Joy v r war. prepared to N- bold, ci Vifidr ait, and to have a rather hi^h opinion of himrelf. he fell, qualified to under fake the difficult tasks of his prefer r; i on '’>0 cause hr- war worth'.-' 'if i. ' , !!<■ war' a n<- a-i1 #*r 0 f * h, • c 1 e r " y , 1 h* '' ! ! a' i a ; a t ' - , r 1 a r r e ■ ; o v • ■ ■,} ■ < i i ■■ ■ bl 1 i t y and the peopl e . ::e had 1 a i u nrns tj’a lr at. (due fe,.|, nf (.he Lope, in no le rr i i. ■< aii f i.e.: i a posiM nr than kir. f; and emperors w'i'i ";t oerupie., the same pi ac.e hefoiv t] i p . :'e felt r ; p a . , f 1 o f t.awinp; up w here u th e in; had Iff!, .if r, o f s u c c e e d i rip wher>- tii*.y had failed,71 of ereatiup new and useful thinps, of 1 >e1 1 eriny his century . oecause he was a m inister of Clod, Joy or was qualified to point out the moral weaknesses of the people. He could see the ! 165 "vanltSs dans vos gSnSalogies, dans vos t itr e s , dans vos pretentions, dans les adulations qu'on vous prodigue, dans vos r ic h e sse s, . . . f e t e s . votre luxe . . . 72 'Piierefore he could stand aside after observing them and r■ i . d11 fully i\'d 1 I. t ■ i'■ ■ ■; 11 e v f ■ 5 ■:.*h '* ■11 v , Ion-:, ■ ■ ■1 s t ji > > • t.^ , oi ■ u i1 ■ - , ■ -i."; w ■ t. ff ■ " , e to . ' Coyer was nt t afraid to ,jeopardize a is own position, de attacked false protectors. On the day of his reception into the' Academic urn Arrases, he irately Id r» - ■. to r I to report to t ’-e : r* neb ambfu’.UMtior i n dome ; be insult he ren> • i v> . we.-.tj a pmn p( i- t showed brunce h u.r:i i L i a t,e( i at the l'eet of a victorious Cnglnmi, in a pom m-nd . ; ' n.nd wherev- a i.rav»‘l f"i, Coyer tee author war proud to present copit s 7 d of his pu 1 1 i enfi uns to the <[ i :'nL tar i es he v isite d . he war riot reluctant to critic:..thf poor taste of' the same rending public which grpt-d his worts. .r ease ■ V- wanted hir op if ' r i so t ■ be e f'f i*e t. i - , hr *’ought .nc eye- ibw a’’, eye arainsf th1' author of 1 1 Aiai d es bommes . and put aside flow°ry tuci’erles to hurl. "Irusqu-* evangel Leal ohunderbol tr >11 whim t,he :;innr-r was to know that he wa. i fi tdie wrung.'f ’ Juysr’hi vorbil bravery, however', was often only superfi e I ally per suasive. do was no re convincing when he administered self- criticism, for iiis weaknesses wore all too apparent to him, and his fundamental honesty compelled him to hide nothing. In this respect Coyer was his own historian, for he pointed out. his >vud sides as readily as the good ones. An unde reur run t. of lark of :v> 1 f-r cm ; f 1 d price shows up thrrug1:wuf lbb the abba's career. rhe most obvious swallowing of his pride, combined with disappointment and yet pernerverance is in several le tte r s he wrote to Maleshcrbes repardirsp the Acad£- rtij e ties I nr: or i pt io j is . he had petitioned and failed three timer to ..airi f'ntr;iinv, In hir own words he sta te s that it was obviously his lack of merit wh. i. eh had kept, him out. however, if, finally, the iifritrrr of this orpaniznt i on would rone to ribu with an invitation, then lie would be honored to accept such a k i n d n e s s .^ It never- happene(i . Less u I s appointing was Vi i r; successful attem pt to become a member of the Royal Academy of Lonuon, althoaph he ap;ai r belittled air. wor th i n- :r to r i t reside such savants . 1 Hr* re is a cer-tain amount of boldu'*ss and eourape in admitting one 1 s f a i l ures puollcly. doyer’r. L ra n slat ion of i lacks, tune failed to fire extent t!:rit his publisherfuse -1 p. ;-uf ;t p. u j_ ■ J^ui'r-s c(up i t * . . lie a’ *be r v ' t t. * <; t'> ■ :s ;”■ < .i 1 ur* ■ ■ssirci.rb y, ' - > r ■ o ■ i - ■, ■ it 1 ■ he 1'ranch pover nt could p ro f it from astudy and co ja r i - son of fnpland's criminal code. Oopm felt, that he never P ■' ; * ' ■ : i.; ao c > ; to h 1 s (’• so, b ■ r., ■ [' ■ i , ■ .nr'* t > ho bl esse corni:ier 9 ant*. . a no it. oil bis cri I. i c i sms on th* eorrupt mores cj f his pone ra t i m . be la. prfiui cat i or. is dedicatee almost entirely to the inefficacious attempt..:; to convince the public that it war; sinful, furthermore, all preachers from the bepinninp of time had failed just as he.- had. A1 thou h -lover felt the public had treat'-p hi;n unjust,ly 167 oy giving him hiR coveted "filoire" only to snatch it away a few years later, and that several critics were far too harsh in their criticism, he was still aware of his own weak nesses. In 1’ie rre ph i 1 oso niial e the an If - o r tor," not, try i c. hi.h the fact that t>ie ideas at ' 1 -ud. ’ l is ova.. ' de makes no claims for ori> i nal ity in hir; educational synthesis, and i-refers ho quote a not tier author directly if he feels that he cannot. Improve m. the pi’.rafi colony or 1 ideas. ^ doyep accepts; the ret; pons i la 1 i t.y for lack of clarity in his K o bl e s s e c Oi inner can te*. 1 for he fe.-in that that is surely what- caused so many retorts which r* nil n o in the wue relic go la hoLlesso c-ommergant1 . Ariii he ri; hit, fully efface.-, v-, i uir; f * 1 T before the tower in,*: a . ’ ‘ 'Cess i ve iuayc ef lontrnqui nu , one of tin c o n t e m p o r a r* y 1 i t e r ■ a ry v i e ro s . V!ort /_\< \ '. J (jnh-iii r-e sgaure?; ' roj pie ;r*-r: onel Je cr;t in h n s s -i, 1 'htud , pie] n‘ 1 a fati on p-i 'ftiit pas perdu 1 r, irs 1 V- ',u-i?-rc ilu If* are isi;ii;d ;u ^natr’e li -nr:; dr e,. prune ho.mm auroient fait, plus d 1 in pres s i on -pie ‘ enter lee t >a? 'es q u e j 1 £ o p i r: . M Ad m i s s i et .s like the prece'inp p;ire t r, .-q t 3,y ton T h:0 i:e:-'tv on the part if the p-'r.nt who is. expos in ’ds ewn faults and weaknesse. honesty was a funda.mental build inc. block in the compo sitio n of labriel krartgoii; Joyer. t.e was ab/unaritly riunest. To clear himself of a false accusation that Voltaire had made in at trihut in;-, the anti-bousseau Panroph'- le tte r s to Joyer, tr;e uht>£ 1 -sci 1 i a t* ly wroi ■■ to hean-f acu ue:; * pul -1 ishep 168 stating that whenever he wrote, he alwayr, used his own name, or remained anonymous, never easting blame on others for what was his own, '''’ Coyer felt, th at it was an especially important duty for an author not to deceive the public, ■-'von if the audio-nco mi -hi t urd si, him for bo in.- too hunts*., do sometimes fol t tempted to urn i t or rearrange what the readers did nut want to hear, Cut when the time o;une to put it down mu paper, ht- always conveniently for;,ot. ' ’■ ‘j the iiis jr'i. an must ;«■ let'-, ol.j-.ali v*di anu : unit ally iionc.t or 8 ' tie in dc-oeivin,, r; i msel f as well as those who read him. "eyi t.,; honesty , a/it! stnndinn above rill othr. i f Jt y e r 1 s qualities and characteristics, was the call he felt to serve h is country . There were very few things which doyer wrote that did not have to do primarily with devotion to his country. Even in Ids: tr iv 8 7 the first requirement of a ll authors.' Every writer should HH feel the responsibility to encourage food citizenship. This nationalism and chauvinism were mixed with an unsur prising altruism. On several occasions, especially during his travels, Coyer demonstrated mercy and kindness as he turned the other 169 cheek to people who had done him wronp;. In Italy he requested 90 mercy for a thief who had run off with his funds. Another time he hepped for a lessening of sentence for one who had 0 1 deceived him at a tourist attraction in Holland.' At a third event, loy'T, more than niddle-ayod, mot out 'if his coach: which was 'lein.r led by an old and unwell I ta lia n in a very bad rain-storm, insisting; that the old driver take his place in the onrr.ia.no while the ahb£ himself led the - - b vehicle the remainder ut the di stare** i u ‘o 1 he urxf I'am. Coyer’r v-;alkinr; the extra mile was not, uncharacteristic of his nature or of hi.e position. Priestly demonstrations were usually more verbal than active with the abb?. Them was a definite evolution from the man of the world towards tin* mlipious in Coyer1s life, but the curve, while risirt.p sharply as he aped, plummeted to the bottom of the praph his testament in what, appears to be the depths of disillusionment. be was eon:; tan t in his ttellef in original sin. This probably explains his overwhelm! nr sense of rospo.i. bn I i p p ,::e cocas Lonal 1 y found i t convenient to boast that, the '-’I 1'rr.y was 're - i. r: 1 as ini'-, nlthou-di he usually referred ts ■ h i • 1 us an " ubo£... - n H * i ^ ► ■ * sans usiviye sir; cruui was re, j urea to one m-i. si is s-a.f' r.c 11 Jfjt'.Ltmloii:; nous do d £ ;nuii L re r ?i nos sieves , que biun exists, quo le nonde est son ouvrapc, qu’ i 1 le i;ouvernc par ca puissance i sa sap esse, que,* le bien vient de lui, -1 le mal de nous. "9 ? If any further explanation vru-o necessary, Coyer' refcrs'i 1 the rpr ■ s 11 o ne r t:. o " La i e nr i uo > ■ " : "Lieu t.’a fait, nour I 'a b m r 170 O b. non pour le comprendre." Anything coining from the hand of God must be accepted on faith, unquestioningly: dogmas, miracles, doctrine. but it is necessary to d onht and ] mr/m 97 what is superstitious or superficial.' Ooy--r nf\"T o'’- f'-u’oi any rules flip I > s f. i ■ i ■ u i s h : n, 1 ■> ■ i. w'-e . ^ the ar-eet. able and the doubt, ful. Is fa c t, he f >um; i- nuprr:; t i t i run. useful for- the pcu pic. as did Voltaire. coyer1 begun to dem onstrate ,-t Mon tai s;ne_ 1 id' e norl <• rat i on in how many mi racier 9 ■ v- ; 1 t one could accept. burins, his trip to Italy, ne also found i t try in g to see so many Madonnas is. such a oo short period of time,' ms own beliefs a no ’a is attachment to the eloph never .:auus t i ■ sli htest hesitancy on his part when he fou.uu som"th ing to criticise. Once a ;air tiv* '0(d historian considered it, necesnary to report, tlie bad side of what', he snv; as well as the good. Joyc»’ 1 i r t ep '•vi1 pop'-s- wlir ;uad ■ d. ns'ir-' ’b r r t < -runa . ‘ v ■ i • * pu i " '.e ■ ■’i : hew t :. i ■ s uper al - us. ■ t:.' ■ f ■ ■s '1 ss a.:,' k j p . h i d . dr.ained not (inly Holy's fuais, I u . :lso sapp'd brie- lifebluou from inn' futur-'- by eondemni. .( her youtdi to the froc only to pee them spend us'1 less, inactive i i yes . H ey should have been mothers a an fathers, iucreusiry. the popul a t. i o w a no add I up to the n a tio n 's wealth .and h.appi riesa; , ^^ Joyer war; against the Jasuists because they brought much error and useless subtleties into religion.^*' He was against the ur.eless religious ceremonies whose only purpose was to arouse 1 01 pass iiis, nbe s ip" ■ rd'i c i al processions, so abundant i ri Italy 171 10A contributed nothing to the bettering of her mores. Coyer1s frequent doubts place him solidly in the dels tic camp, If the Emperor Augustus received the announcement of the birth of the son of Cod from the Oracl >■ of Delphi, why ‘iii cot : O';:: " act. “1 uu pr- -m 1 1 ■ r u^ iu o i" ? ^ IV. i s doubt becomes mor1- r^rdni: oht ci h y • • r 1. rea.l is tic n-i- l i onal ism opposes his reli pious fait!'.. deplacinq the statue of Joan of Arc at Orleans should, b*’ a '•unc,r!! for rail of od-ance , he stated; " on i . ■ qu 1 ° c f i c e« • tie filJ e ( so L t miracle , solt. s t ral.apeme politique) a furl cout ribu£ A sauvm le .iOyau::.e . " ^ ^ :1; q ue:: 1.1 oni ru air Pis ■ i • ■ i.:; r:; are at floes quite wurl ily. v/unr-"; >,.)>. sm's , f i.pis was r^nfsrni I .at;, ,'r. fellow ; >hilos j hes . or a simple expediency of the moment. Precise unpriertly ■ mples surprise the reader who is expect in/’ model opinions and b'tavini'. Jhr abb£ seems to t a k e pleasure' in proems t inat inn i n h \ s hoi;, a ! f i . 107 s.e believed tnnt devotion came with ape. se said he did not make the pi 1 primage t,n a certain holy site because he could pray as well from afar as from up close. tie admitted that he would only have seen a m o tto . tie continued, repardiny; a miracle which took place there, "Cette pieuse fable, dStruite depuis loriy-temps, est encore une vSritS pour le peuple; heureuse- ment e lle ne s 9 aurait lui nuire . " 1 0 8 The culmination of the abbft's displeasure with the Church, i*1 cause he felt that a 1 i feti me of genuine effo rts had i»een 172 completely ignored and unappreciated, appeared in his Tes tament . 1’or g e ttin g the "do unto others" commandment, Coyer said, "I leave nothing to the Church, which gave me nothing, n 109 a vary mundane opinion, as though he had expected material - i f t s from the hand of Cod. Materially, Joy a* had eo-i f> r’iald v situated during his entire life, As a child, he had a "nourriee" and a servant:, wno spent a lo t of tine with him ,^^ he was alwayf assured of an apartment with the i.oui Lion family. His war drobe wan ample, he had Ins own transportation, cook and 1 1 1 1 1 2 manservant. ho also traveled with a valet. In fact, one of the reasons hr* was anxious to return home quickly from his vnyayes, was that: lie war. fed to ret hack to his "ca nine t" and 'us friends.^’* His life was comfortable, but S iM p le . Joyer al ways e r!,if>,ye:: *. ’■ o - >d c< tie r of 1 ' fe y ; mod-■ rn. i lor He smoked enough l.n b* ■ annoyerj vdi-uj the cim tor is o f f i c i o 1 confiscated his tobafmo, ^ ^ He nreferreti go or w>ne to eau- de-vie . and complained to his imaginary eorresponaant of the poor quality of Italian cooking and bread.^ He was also displeased with poor traveling conditions he had to en- 117 dure. nor the most part, Coyer [ireferred to travel as economically at; possible. He saved money by eating table d 1 hote at inns like any merchant, and p ro fited by 1 earninr; more about customs and mores to which he was not accustomed. 11 H Hot too fee,-; exeessivf- tipping, the abl)£ did not mine 173 being generous to his own servants, and buying curios and 119 souvenirs to take back home. ' he also trav eled in moderate circles in France. His dress indicates the kind of society he frequented. Coyer attended and was familiar wi ' ' f'arisian salon life and a ,7'iitd 1 soi:' r 'Minuet . ‘ fie social .■-races, wore e ‘ 'satin.., !*■ hr <-i I j a y e , ! wo a i d ■ th-a'C canoe if they h i 1 it vs ■ 11 , fe we" . e -: 11 nfle-ra th e r hoeed 1 °1 at, 1 *a1 1. r . m s won! d ii:- ■ c h ■, r!'i ii'M ■ ■. ■ -as a(. t, i - 7 i t, L er, a.ml niece. Chorewas a worldly side {■-. ! ' r-n a /tr ideas and anc.ro- d o s at t i .'le:, t-ha t. 'cuds t ■ ; sor; r i e ■ ■ , ' v n sia >ok , w i. 11. i f c as r i e i 1 :at u r . to r ■. j. ■ ■ !'■ i1!;' ooeaei iiS h* d ■■ ■ sc r i. 1 > ': t > • a- s is. its I y with: a esal !t l.t id, . ‘ ‘ ' oh a; s s‘‘■ o i a ts a * * a'slal o l ■ :e1 s phyr: L oal hrauty, 'not fe lt *!:at t.’ne scul otor should havf ■ .! e . ■■ i a f. d her as r 1 1 a S'1 wo rn . ^ hr ad m i r^ti ha t : ■ ‘ I’aarl es r>rr; m^r- v. f < ■" 1 d c ' ■ c a - ■ ‘ ; ■ L f hi: i ■. - - a v. u.i y qwal. L t. is -: . ‘ ’ Ac a .h e 1 , ; ,■ '■ I ' ■ A I .. i i Thaliai- r: on] ; ■ t. u re v;.as earri'-h L lit. far, a".1 car oTt'on a ran in re 1 i j_ oi (c areas where c h ei’l wonl ; have h.-rj. ■ ;ore ;r. 1 °" ' :'ha Is1 . Li. t!c other hand , ! b 1 i , ;h t c : in 1 <>■. ■; : . at hr e pretty iris in the street,,-*'' one can almost see the : r 1 n on i.is fare when he rs-courtc a shur-h inp aneroote about oh as in-; the pros t i Lutes out. of Florence , and then cal 1 tup 1 y n them back apyiin. Following. a d escrip tio n of wheat he refers to as M 1 ' son.] e r^e 1 " , he r ‘ -1 te s ; 1 ?k I.es premiers hommes n'ont vu qup "Ip Monde physiquei 1'actlon vlvlflante du Solell, le Tour Sr les tenebres, le cercle des salsons, la feoondlte Inepul sable de la terre, les eaux qul 1 'arrosent & la penetpent, les hommes & les nutres anlinaux qul nalssent a surface pour tnourlr. comme les f eu 1 1 1 es y les fru its pour tomhpr. " ■ifp-p is rou s ‘ ■ eau 1 s1. 1 r t a t h f t 1 r fallacy, ■■ lownr rad 1 n r man to the j/lnry nf nature; t raring the history of man stressing his Imnot.enoe before om \ po f .-Jfl t rfiy-: h-.il surroundings. Th 1 s unusual hurst of t-re-homant Is ism emanating from a pea } 1 ■' t 1 s M i i ./ n r 1 en f ed , It' not s i o < i „* v , writer Is unex pee t. ed and mak e s onr:' wonl ° r whether he we no w ron v 1 ft h 1 r s e 1 f. j e - r-pee a Mop rerarhlnr [’Of-*t rv. An nt.ti’v fare' f i f 1 to ■ po 1 a t 1 on:' u ' i with 1 h e l'»'R I world was more humorous, - ■ e r e a 1 1 ;r ed the value of ) 1 rh t. - ness of spirit, and style to maintain the readey's Interest. There was slapstick humor In the anecdote In which one of the tinnitusles who met t pe lope a 1 one with foyer on ’hrist- mes dav, fe 1 1 on his face because pe was pot a r r u t. n m e . 1 to tne ceremonies, 1 J More ■ 1 u r i a' 1 e 1n*r were hit- anecdotes pe- smi’d Inr *hp dpfinwerlnr o *' a m.a 1 d i’n , 1 ‘(i and another stnrv i j ] whoop humor d e r -en ■ * ed nr *'o e a 1 ma f ? e p , 1 ■; p handle'* no f h t n r ■* Opi iv . dome a t t em Pr :1 at humnr cn11 utterly, an11 nn1 v pppifp t-n reinCproe t he baron re d ' 11 crunch's opinion that fi ver was "ml el de \'ar bonne fourne." Always on the lookout, for Interesting and unusual anecdotes to report, the ah be often ’eaves aside llrhtness and, like so many others 1 n tils century, turns towards rruvevard .burner', and morbid r-r ropy t a 1 as . 175 "If I had found the- golden o a r ,” he wrote, "I would have descended into hell to find more news for you. hut I ■'■;uf-3 R you'll have to be content with Vergil's description of Ant’ a; in ther time he said laurhinply, "I had hoped * * : :n t Vcsuv Luc wool • ■ > v • i.r: a f^w i : ‘ i u" c ! ) ■ ".:' yi.' t < ■ 1 i .■ t ’■ : I Of1 th> V \ ' i * \ ' . ” . ,' ■ > ■: 11o : < • o.ppp, C i > 1 — iec t, i ri; e ■ d tuphs . " ! ' ] (■ i 11 ■ t ■ ' i : ’ i\; i < ■, . • w ' o',: :: i •.k>;• • i i r: '•■unc , ah] to . ” And fd'.u■ t hf pue ’. /a ,y ; "La vie u'erd. pu'un i, tout. 1 ^ ['I'm v , J1 ■ ninsi pue je le c oupy o nun i r , borcqu' j 1 e n j< uinra:c . 1 ul. A pr^ru'.d , j 1 en :;id:: tmr’t.ai n . B Ail.hin two pa. pm of id-rcin, t.iun uf ..aileu, the ah:/ ii: to four violent historical deaths co .t:;,s'wo rated h.y funereal 1 a c monuments. ' A'h : i r i *; - the cru cifix -r11 the e rr!'Bnp pa 1 aoc I ■ do^’e 11 e recounts that : d r ’h e i n r ■11 e waft snLb *"0 have nail*1': a "! i. t, ■ i a c; ; ■. ui’df r t. ,have '■,■■,]uf p i'i n,. 1 ni.ij.iy . ^ ^ do : tctnur i >r i r i a; . noc..wi.t of all is one which Joyer labels as ”uu t. ra i t d 1 hn -lani t£ de save sen* damn la 11 1 1 s< 1 f 1 f i ' n . ” ’’ here d- w \ t race > n , t*;- > ■ xeeutiun of a car- r i -i; p briv'-r who had hilled hie wife. "L 'i.un’oiu, un;i£ 1'une nassuo, _ d'u.'. cout. ;iu, li frappe la tempo, 1 ' firrOm.ii',- , so jet, te cur lui, le saipuie, le coupe . ar morceau, |u'il sus pend h dec croche ts> . " 1 1 Coyer considered this an effective execution 1*?cause it ch illed trio nlood of the r; t ih (; fa t, or1 while 5 uj n’c s s 1 rp ujjOu him 1 If thr* lpqnnn not to kill, nnh yo t. t ho mil It: y man s u f f o p o h nnthlrif, T t. w n r tv nit Inf nynmplos of what ho saw In ot. hoi' ooun 1 1-1 or? anh oon a 1 h opnh ta a n h or hah, h'Mrful ni' rh! 1ni 1mm , t h a f 'r’o y * ' r h o ro '1 + o npw l "p hi" own raint.rv ?>r plant ~ p f ■ 1 ' ' 1 1 f h i ’ t f j 1 w . ! , j t . ■ r-.. , j p (i i "1 r i - f ' 1 ' 1 a ' ' ’ ? Tilt lii'-H 11 * r ■ I - ; , ■ c vii 1 I ri j ’ I J f1 ■ I ' for rpfni'T', in h ib it i vt’ o f h 5 " ". ° ' 1 ,f 1' * n 1 n a v a r* ‘ * h ° ■' o r f* r a 1 ' 11 ] ? 1 i y i o r 1 t > ■. a + : ’r 1 7 o l * i i ■' ’ 1' 1 ’ o t n ' j M t'l-t i ■■ , . ■ a i r h , n 1 ■ ' 1 <' h ? ! V t i ' ■ f 11 j ^ ' - 11 , i i ■ \ t f ' o t ] f-.n , 11 ?■ f'"’ f a o * t >; a * i j ■ ? ■! 0 a I' a r 1 ! ■'' n ■ 1 y t : ~ 1/ p ] ( 1 1- 'j 1 t ’ f\ j«tt- • a p ' ■ p i ' n »’ a 1 1 * V n o? i in ' I V O f 1 t •• o ] f ' >,; ? > > ■ ■ ■ r , ", * > . i ' a ■1 t ' 1' i * ? 11 ■, i ■■ ■ ( * n i <" i o i • ■, 1 ■ o i j: ■ ■ ■ i > a ’; , w ? i <' ■ ( . ’ i I 1 | ' • , ! I : • t ■ ; > , O t 1 , . r ’■ . I I ■ ■ I ; , . r ' , . > J f ' f . J ■ ' - j f ; f f • 1 a V'* t : ■ (1 1 - i’f i’-J >■ *'o . , I],'i> fi] 1 r- 1 ,'r' j r 1 a ' ‘ !' , I * ■ o ? ■1 r 1 n i : p w n a '! n ° a r‘ f' ‘’ a ?" p o a p '.a ? h f ’ a ' 1 a p 1'• : 1 t n a t foil n w »>, 1 p i'h ■ I pt t pp an ’ :o r ? o 11 p lv* ,a t y 11 «■' * " f o v ? n an Iri'u iri'''' r f>nt ! p ( t n , j ' r iifi l^ i n u a ? ' ) ? 7 t a '' J u p t *, ,'t '■ * ki t i .i i I ■■ p ' V, 1 a n a j m L O ? a * a P *>-■(-' I)') t 1 fV; ' " t , ’ I ■ j r ' 1 | 1 ■ 1f I i; } 1 i ■ j ■ ’> i 1 ) r\ ’ ' f \ t a ' ■ , 1 i ■ - t f I ■ tnor t original ■'iri'1 a ’o i ■ ■ 1 »ii-' t; ‘ i 1 n** , ‘"it ' h: r poa » o p \ ' ft an i* no* '"ov*--p, h t r^'nn o ;■( \ p " n o o op r ft i v?1 M a 1 rhtn 1 r'iriy a f i ' , i " o <■ i , i-' a i ' ' : ' 1 1 o k i 11 ? i j t , j i" s j ■- j j i ' t i j ?" 11 a n r i ' :i • f * *" ? '' ? 11 < ■ n O oh f o p i a n o '• i - n ? r> p 1 p r>t j ). p ) 'hi ? o a ?' t t y I t'l'Pl t n r y , lr, a not hoi- vn 1 r, f | jf ■ 1 i-j i'poi| loat Ion ,1 »•<-: opt? .or a pi .an har oh c)n I’nn 1 i-aipnl anh rr’worh, m! 1 v rk ot nh w til on < In yo p h 1 m;:o 1 f a a 1 1 oh an on t 1 1 n o W'P t h fi n om r 1 n t o t h p t n 1 1 oh ( wo 1 1 - pp;i a on oh t'l an h 1 oh n r ,n f 1 on , ■1 o pp ho h o 1 1 ho pa t.o 1 v ki’ pt ti i r; i11 an 1 ri • ■ * i* 1 p t n 111 1 1 n f' f o pm t'f * r■ a ’ i*" * . t,,, w■ t n t h t *i 1 f>a '1 f' t pi> a !■ t 11 ■, ' 177 working t>asis to so:neone more able than he. Where the abb£ felt most capable was In nis role as an erudite and :noral di rector. These two areas ro hand in hand with Lover the nistorian; and the historian is present in nearly every ] ■ i t ■ 1 I j .,!•] i I # "r ■■ Hire ft I 1 1 ;/ f1' : UHil ’ Cl <; d ■"'! I jd f I’. IOC f the c-ri "ins -if all tils, topics. '‘c -1 up-Lei in i n: i ancon where a fact was no:, as ho ‘’el!, if should be. ::e questioned r-very *.h in,,, as a -.o< ■ •' L ude • 11 o'* ' a’/I und a ,-ood ph j lo.jopht- . ■Jo;.’1 r1 can . t V e t ■ y ole.-; i • ■. ■ 1. ; ■ a i if v/1 'at ;.t pi. i 1 OS p pi id was, hir fir: t duty nas Li' fpp-r f ion e\-ay/ It i n, . and believe ■.oily t. a proof a: id after1 ' f.iroii; j * ■ > as: i na t i or:. ^ u muSl. v-e;- . x ■] til' or- j! "par lop quaiiL^i, ooiilh'fd J ^ ib*- ; - a van t can f r »r-:: !; i r> o; • i u i or.s i anpet id e n t1 y wl thou* i’ f 1 pence f ro,n exist inp. 1 ie 1 : .-fr or cus tuns . re i s above • • 1 1 useful; 1 ■ i ’ ’ "o'-'st lui t (i a prfiilui*. four lor 1kv .s ouvra,- ■ ' iu si^cle." " 7* -rt 1 Hi - 1 u i. do..> 0 - ?i 1 -t p.,ml-- p] us b* Id.r-a i-rr'i-ir i w , ' 1 h.irlrl vo : ins if v^rif* i ''in struction, an ‘h^ntrr ,r:>- .dun b'inhere*. J ' - ■ ■ ■ r lui nui , dam Lous le s pays , rr,nd 1 cr rrands ; 1 nr tr.ai tables , les pep its plus cor: f 1 ■ w is , le -jorrt i' plus humaiu, I'hurme li't,- ii:;o yd us Jit.i y^'i, b na'istrat plus ^olai r? .M1 ■; P Jino la morale in "la dillounl::- par 1 '!!•-: 1 " , ! ' in up to !;h" phi loss tone t a l l l: ;i 1 t. . to hi, tl in he j.ushnu as-ide the artifices of piv-cfip-, satire, e \ (Jq no r ic* "■ , and t he .jiarvelous, and reli'-n or. the simplicity of dear;on and ..at ro, 1_ ^ I' ^ which, sneak Lous les osprits uno lanyue intelligible," oe i nr, integrally as sec 1 af^d vj i t,r. discover! up- and Leach in,, aural tty, Mo ; >hil o:;o;,hr bar; influ’.iced r<*l i -Ion, 1 7^ Tn s p e a k in g o f hod , th e ph 11 onophe dnpfi not use him r-ts on .'irMtimi’.v lep-lslntnr. Instead of sa.vlny, "honor your f a t h e r ami m othpr he ro u se 7 or) nrrievs It," he says, "hod or der It termire without this prim ary nail of nature, whom \ ] 1 yn u 1 o, '.r r* " " I i t "Ocid f I 1 r ! ■ 1 , ■ ■ ■ y In 1 Op (■ O t " hi 1 f " ■' , I i , ) t'n |-_ I;1' 1 s It lie r 'i i). ■ n It t i) p p r ! t 1 < ■ s a n ' * '■'Hint r v l d e : ' 1 n t n t hfl a - 1 h r t f'l"’ o f I 1’otit - ! e , h o r rii r , a u ■ i h ] no r i , " 1 1; 'h e a hs en o o f (tie "r h 1 1 l v 1 o ! e a r . ; 1'1 < e ph. 1 ! q rho is a *1 ° i s t , t\ n' i t h < * i u I * 1 1 r' W o 1 ) 1 J ■ 1 ' ' f' ] } t o 1 1 '' ■ 1 ’ P ’■ n I ; i l" o p . ) f o l l o w h 1 e Y r I rp ; ■ ] f> , ! r 1 f' '*■’) 1 n s o r - h o r~ • f 'i's •' o t n f ’ i * ripple ’ ■ o ' n r , not s o'. .* r * p • ] 1 t who . r t ‘ o'. ■ p it * - * , ‘ '— ■ i > r I r ■ v-i *; j i"!1 * * i ’** 1 ) 1 ; i*vi [ - ■ r * | * r ' ^ fi '/ f1 ]' 1 ' i -> wy ' t 1 1 p . - ■ - ■!>'.* f i * ■■ j t t- ■ i , • - - , *' i ■ + . . ■ ' * ] o " ’ 4 I *■ * f”! , ^ ho | fi | ; r f,'o h ^ j ■, i * • ■, 1' ’ . 11 ■ ; i' 1 t v - - * ■ | f' ■ , i' * in* . ( i t ; ' 1 ’ t 1 " 1 n t t ] i' r i T '/ ‘ 1 ■ * f ■ op'" ) ovoij ' t o 1 1 ] a ^ | o > * o fV> ]-*m *"■ ] p t o o ■* 1 p 1 i |* (* 11 ; y i r\ *1 * o i ' e j t P h y .1 i i \ *i p , m p ^nvfi p )1 - i*1 rn] ^oc1 -t p ) 1 o t t o e t n pi ] | p fOj n | "] | o e • *'■■<"■ o 'o , ] l ’ e to or, O i n - o p - t - ■ , V , r- f- , j . I p y f r, , ■ ' ]h tt ) vm, 1 ^ y, r ■ , - O O tl ■ i t * ’ I p M 1 i * ■ ’ 1 ll \ o ■■' t f i, . , r,. f 1 O", 1 t * Y t ■■ 1 t ' ’ ; y , y » .. ■ W J t ! Jt ^ ^ I; a r o v t 1 n > *■ i: ) r: v o ■ I t * -a * : v r' ■ ■ ■ h too I u ' u i ’ : ■ i t 1 o n , i 1 ' ■ a prr <1 - j | t , - I n j n I'Mnpr ( a o ■ 1 ■ ■ -p j < ■, > a i i j p t t r* o f ■ ■. a a o ; f pio p h ' i rrL a f* * * o t >■ \ — O.o-. . ] j ' t ■ j ;■■■ p * .o . i o t r > o i i ti.i : o > r 1 11 ■ i r i :" i f i f' n < > * '' o v f' r1 '' 1 j j n n ] o 1 r * i } i > yo 1 11 * lop, ' • o ) p t'id h),1 to wh a t tie op 1 ■■ i o pe , I t I je.ri| vnrhlnn, a fi ■ i too ■, j ri i ,r o pro, ) oh' K’n 1 Ion fop v * ) ni _ o o 1 f 'pi 1 ill1 ’’ i * 1 '' ‘'nr , 1 , o . , i u 1 ■ I ! e nerv U 'f‘, the a h he 1 f' ronflhpnt. t.hat t ho phi 1 nr o phe is e a pa hie of del 1 veplnr the nation from still oylst'nv wrongs In hi r 1 s t'rud en a e , flrm n ee, p o t 11 1 e1, ( an -1 t 11 on 1 o ■ v . ■ J*'' 1 ' 1 :1 ri n won 7 e r that he fmiril t t - o ph j i n a o | h e ‘' * o o,i ■ a .'mail, e ■ • * i * - 1 p ,r po ’ i I . 179 Although extremely se le c t In its membership, this croup, by his own dfef ini 1 1 on, included Coyer. The abb? never hesitated to call himself a ohllosophe. In his self categorization, he demonstrated the same boldness of pen blp t, inility of person t.ho 1 s' heuc 1 in n y t 1)'-“' s. 1 ' - 1’1 S nib bb'-is . As 1 r L i jir'parat, i on its’ bp-pu'e > f ’’is t ; 'd ", M“ a ■ - stamen tin* there were y t r y in;" d e . re e s of on i Iosuphes , but only covertly suy;oes two that. nr war; ar.orv the lesser oiipt ^ tot. only was !m proud to be a member of the- acade mies, esp ecially in bond on and .‘i.anry, but he also needed them for personal • p.jort, 1 ■ th *c ■ crape has r.-p arm to . wf^tid !;is worst . 11 1: ew i s < ■ , in ^n ! t o u a llfb 'o • err who : .ore the .dial 1 -• ,y.i on, sa 1 w -i f : !;ilur,i:n> . " Le r 1": i i 1 os opues ;.c .s : 1 u i . : r. - - . ;.a.' : .sis 1 1 h ;: .i .* te t £ i n bJ i pw 1 r c t- l^ v In vois ;.k',ir . " ■' Inyo' always s ■. t i‘ : is ro l- f* pn'-M ' b r-;>p. ’h. sj.fc f,s- ‘f.- ; r u ’.f' . "■ . s dr. . , for 'h.un:;-' Is 1 ' s i c S:,d -11 : bits ■ irr is r ; ral ; a: ; whw. b- was s' -.sobr : , ai c 1 fats/, ac r or 1 in t s* a l"tt"r vf i.c Jl;vr r ''ites, i in r^,; '-■in defense in sa'V ban'" wb-s t ' s' 1 ^ wanted to ju stify j nis report on rat.atjosiar isti!,;; , ‘ 1;,; or cons i lere,. hi.:;- self a uhllosophe i . bobs won! so lead. Ii; ail al.sosv o / i nte at. ial f ■ r ; ■■ .m of chois- , 1 i - >. by tfric o'-iilos.orhy that, he set. up. bis ,,>re f** r*e y, t in ' i. P'rvi- 1 r-r- bore was far* noro ph i 1 osoph i oal than th eo lo g ical. ' " he '■hi >s e his f r i ’ss-. Is '.irs-n ■ thos-- who had "u i -"frit, oultiv^, 1 8 0 * * If p uiip amp bonnetc, dec moeurs simples". ' To the greatest possible extent he also chose hi is reading audience, because rn v.rote for "der re nr; S e a lir £ s". ’ 'Joy^r place'1 him self on an roual plane wib 1 -’aty whan 'r ’./role in his favor. ' v his c h o i c e of a ■' ■ ■ i ■'u: s , 1 V: o a 1 ! ^ f 11 r1 ■ " 1 r : ■ 1 y by those liner wh i ch ride all oh i lose p. s r : bo sou, .t.t ; m* » boycr was a oh 11 oS opne . sns air.; a teacher, an ii i s tor iar , r urad ' a ie ia n , a Ko\a] .abide, a pro ac.he r , an * * ■:; s ay i s : La . • a. ,, :Vi 1: j ;m.s _:_p l e t!. PC w i t.h a ppofuuru: 1 e.. i ■ m *h ■. ■:. ! ;'"rvi : ia; a in.! . His ha : ms t.y nausea a 1 ' t ... report, every tl. i:- Lncluniay h iti.sel f j art. as he saw it. ;. e ;.iade r.o pro Ionises about bis pel f- j ud • emeu I.. !b» eu.rr i 0 :1'*’ '.imself a ■uni’'1 than a 7equate wr i imr f whose talent. r placed Id'i a note' rp] \ \, fa. saw - : :u. s ad i" r" of his . "• .is seeoj. ; any ' i • in : s u :nrf"; hi;;. . 1. • • ■ r * :■ 1 ffVsei the fi’us t.. ra 1.1. ai no ..man 'u s ■■a no or th i rd -rate arilf-s: whose ambition and real have ■ i vc . rj,:i ■ oal r which they will never attain. If the.; h n v once !ast..ed glcyipe , t hr-; !!;i dissatisfaction is intensified. Joyer was rratefnl to a fault for the hotiom; he each acceptance into an academy v/as a m l f _c f fai ■ i ny; and humbling experience, fils it ode sty was at times tinged with 1 i t ter n e ss. fie saw in ju stice in the unequal a b ility of tb^ public which judged him, in p rr .!!. i 1 :pi ; i"i'.hi;:;' I’r ; ■; his fellow authors, anu La ; f - ; ;■ ( ■; a 1 s > y ub o'' who: • ■ i ’: f 1 u*1 s' ■ “ mul i ‘sa v ** >,, , , ■ , . 1 - ibi to him. Vacillation between boldness and temerity, self- asBurance and lack of confidence, success and failure in visible in hie style, which in an uneven in quality a;; were i;i t moodc, A el'v-i p ''-xamir.at i on of Coy rh; siy le and ] ' t 1 . ill ' . ; i i ’ ■■ 1 ' ■ ■ ' ”1 ' ' 1 e ■ W ■ ■ ■' I ! !. ' i r- ■ : '■ ' ' ■ j 1 in • >v;-; tine ' ■ ■ ’ " . •> f ‘ - •: l v u i n 1 ■ 1 ( ■ ini' ' o ! !'f‘ . " PT'iT I L * T'TQ I -■ . } L ■i *i>Tqr ; I LI ■ J T 1 OV i L T-: , * i . .■ T? L,. '1 I 1 T‘ ■ ■ X ' T * * 1 • 7T * ■'T' I r L * i * rv :i ‘ ■ r+ r {' ’ ■'L"' >~i l P1 ■■ "»• -'L r.y,i | ['I.; .j.j.ryOi; ,ivrj i'M''-t r<. ::,U ' if I I , ; ;• ,-fW; raj,o:;j:Ooq I'i3 ^ jAcademic1. u. 19 °o I b i d ., p. 3 1 . 31Ti ■ , Ilik . 1 *» r • MjlJ. • j i M ..., : . m . 39 i « j. .. . p;,. 1 . ■i 4 > ■ / ■ n i ■-> 1?* i 11 *'• ,' I' ^ m 1: i , . i : '-i r i A 1 :^ 1 . . , '3 . r~\ • Ti . ■ 1 ; ..■ . , -i ■ . . > ■ - ■ * i ■ . " ' 11- i : . . . 9-. O r. Astrcd-i. ,ur:. ; . 1 . 1 ■ 3 . M t '1 ^ ‘ ~ . . • ' 'I M P . , pp . ■! - . ■"I I. 'A' :m i £u j <* , pp. .'P _P 'p, n f _;l ion, p. 3 9 'AcadSinie . p. 1 J.. }‘ Plan d 1 Education, ; , x i iI . yr ' " AcadSale . pp. 33-33. '1'i , ' ~j V • 1: u-: i. , < . ‘ . Ac ail ^i.iic. , pp. 39 - 9 ■ ■. 134 41 Jl£cle present. pp. 10, 3f ; anrl P la ls lr . pp. 112-113. 4? Pouvclles observation:;. p. 7. J n r i a l s i r . up. 1 1 7 - 1 1 3 . 1 ► ' 1 v : * , ■ * I ■ 1 3 . , ; ' . 7 ' . 4: . erti -ir v ■ ; . '"7 . IL U i., ; . ■ i : ■. 3 ica‘. Lo... ; . 7. f3 . , . : a t r i - , ■ ■, - '. ■■ ( n "o . 1 ' or '. . . ■■ a ' 3 * yylj-or. t ' T. ’ i ,ri , ar: . 'Aaty re . pr. , r"/ ; 'a Aca3 *::iie . ; . 7 '. r f Onypp in fjoito' ri Pit. i 1 'MM nr the r i 31 ral our rfo ir r'pr;; the Passion, \ if.-- 7 t ■ r .M. hath'-r war ova-'aa,.,.- .ri i at; t,v'f‘ '■ x i'i r-i t i o > ■>*' Jarir! , anh a., apor: I?1 r n P ; '.a hi "l^rv Et"rnr-1, v -\ir av-a: t, r't: '/oar devries avoir1 , ,ranh 1 vrr -unne : 7 ,. t re ''’Hr- 3 £ tu; - .Jar11 t a h i.iorl , Et vous ro n flrr aaaiu,^ an ivru !:«■. lie vM 1 1 y-vour ; oar vutre i llr Veut .''‘en a 11 e r an Par ah 1 r . " V ova es p 1 I ta lia , II, '0, mo t• ■ {a ) . - Motivelloa .observations .. 4aLl. r 10p ^9 Ib ld . . pp. 107-1 OP.. 9oi b i d . . p. in a-in o . ■->at,y m , i1. 1 . Tlan d'educatd... p. d'd d ,. ’■Oblnnt.e . -p. Id -1 d A c; .11! ^. l'L1 . ..Id - j i..'. ■ i' ■ n ’•; ; , , , . ; d !« i i i . -1 >d.‘ - - , J > d i , i1 1 t i i, -. -> uv'j 1 ~! ' • a A,.;' ■ r v a t i u i:: , p. . ha;; onl^ Lo consult, Joyf-rd; preface.; am 1'onL- ■ an tea to nee how we II * fi k new I, hen e " f r i e t idn " , ?n. I t a l i e . I f pop. 1' 1 an ii 1 ftdie- at, ior.. ; . ;i 7 ? .,narrate • 1 ! dl :■ sentat 1 on mo d ,-ia * ■ i cc __ . e ■ i; L > ■ , p. ' li 1 ta lle . I , loo-poo . 'IS, j .h d , . ?;d , ??■'. n { ‘ w o rth ier. p. 17; at;;! Ur&i leaf io n . p. I d 7 7 ’Unpublished letters d Kale she rites, Ulbliothfcque hationale, KS3 dA.Kr. 3.W , To. 153, 1^ 3 . Cited in Mali brar, note ?t op. A30-A37. r7 '- houvellen nhnervnt ions . ; , ?M . 186 79 Pierre phllosophale. p. 53. 9 0 ^ Plan (11 Education , p . x \ \ . ^ 'f oblepne , p . 7 . '''Defense . . . ;’o! I > ■ , 1 , 1 'l;n p u b l Lrhe< 1 l e tte r I o 0 , 9 uy, CPu v r e s 9 i v*"rr.ps d.e dousseau . p jJ „ iV llL . i l f > * • V11 # '■ i t,ed !.>> "a l itn v in , ” > ;i - .i i . ; . f-9; bal.yr*-, ... ' '"■■aty , p. :-f), 8(: I d or;’: i , /II, 7 1 A cad ^ m l e , p . M p , 1,1 '^areiiie , iip, h . MO loyer':: tf-r tanient. , aita*.! ]■: If ■ n V l: :■1 p* ■: ■ , '■ Ma.ur I:: Le , p,,’l * ' L • ^ * L J l • , J . -T l -» ♦ T r ^ ^ 1 L 1 ' y 1 I f * ' J ' i A ->• i VJ^ y \ 'I ^ 'I ' l a h d ' A u U C a t f Q: 1, p , 1 7 0 9 ' IIIM . o ri ' Plan d 1 Education, p.. 21 I ta lie 1 2 8 121Ita llr. II, 2 3 , 20. l p p 1 '"U allo. I, 0 2 . - Italic., TT, 1 O/r ' • 1to 1 if ' oo:v I ta li-. 1, 1ni • 1 2 "t - I ■ - i 1 t> i ■ ■. : 1 ■ - i 1 . ^ -aV V 0 1 -ducal 1 nr., o. VO;. V V ,. , . T -,.r . ^ t. il i o , i , ■. -1 * . 1 :Ch r-f--. i .i t a] i a:, a 1 r, ■, - t ,, r o,i:; : '."t'/ii:! , t a, .a 1 t:r t Ha ra n < ■ra o l i.-i Lu V illa : "'/at i aoa, ' i:i i v-rac.i atia z 1 t.t11 la a r la i ’ u l ’ >■ il 1 a «:.0 fi ora ■] fi n O t'■>i'I: o 1." i a , a r i t o r aa r m i:0 a ll It ' ’ a r. a - r’l fruV Ita lic . II , 1 * T T 7 ‘ 'L'V'ui V 1 v 1 1 1 1 ” ’r i 1 1 a f: ■ ■ r 1 1 riurOl 1r ; ■ i a i i t 0 : i > ■' ] t.t’-t ; o.'i' r la V la i 1 I • ■ ■ ' i ) ■ 1 O'r ij o ivii 1 :. ■ ■ J oa > 5 11 r* ■ . ' * 1 11 fo, ) ' • m V J fl> . . . ■a a' ■ '1 i ' m ) 1. f- ' ' • t V "* f o lo r r nt’ , + , in; ■ i8 .0 r rV: '■: i." ■ ’ l r i V :. ' ■ ■) o r> q vai t nn.l ; lOi ; ; a* ) > ; r , : ■ r,f i n O'-* 1 1 It;:: i ;1 , a it '1 13 1i ] '-di ;-vi 1 o: i i i, 1\ l a . j ual i t.* Vo . ]i a-n t. i , j : » au-■ l a .»*; a ' L ■; t’■ * !.,a i 1 1 i ai: : < i, i a'- our ■; r. rif* 1 i ni V . n o r i.O' la ■ - 1 i ■ 'fl ': f ...-i".'--- 1l i . ior t * - /a:; ' i ‘ ■:.. _-*_W ■ i 1 „ 133 laT- . . U ; . , • . 1 V* , , ■.O u v • ‘ 11 f a u or1 r va Lluuo , ^ Italic. I, 2 V,- 2 -'t-'. ‘Ibia . . 271. 1 i r i i ■ >.. ( 1 ' la . 109 139 Italic- . II , Id . 1 'i-0 ria_i, l 1 Education . pp. T7?-17'J,. 1 ;;1 lid'] . i. i; i-.. 1. /; '1 l>i -1. , i f . 1 PrStJ iu atioi,, [ . 1 -■■"it.'/re . j . “ / f I'^7 11 :.i t I-a. » i f - Li' ii , 173-1 ; - ) I ’ t -1 ■ , ; . 1 < Tit ■' ; j tr. r ! ■■■ ■ i i t r i ■- 1 • u .a at- i - i f , t r- *.1.<'■* Itic r; o: f ■■ 1 < ■ * f. >■; ■ - ., i < “ ■» i.-. ‘ ) 1 1 i.: i j ■f‘ * ir-• . ■ i 1 fr l l M 7 - ■■ ir- :• r ■ , -1 ■ r> r> I (-1 f V ■ -: ^ .i !. 'in-1 '< lr 1 i.'ir.r '7 . 1 fa. , ' • •'! • ^ ' tiollauf , : - 1 7 T I ta li". II, 10 = if if 190 I^'\'ouvellcs observations, p. h t ^ J^Plan cl1 *iucat 1 on, pp. 0 0 n ( 902. ^ nestansn t, r 1 1 ' 0 i ;■ Or'ri m ,’rrr, ■ 'ur'P)9. c , ; 1. 01 CHAPTER IV AN EXAMINATION OF COYER'S STYLE During more than three decades, the abb£ Coyer turned, out twenty-five literary works. They were all in prose. The majority appeared first in short, pamphlet form, as If to test the public before their publication in a more uni fied edition. Some were daring and were suppressed, if not condemned, and often did not endure. Others lived dignified lives as works written on commission and endured both time and criticism. Still others, although nobly intended, were less interesting and faded unnoticed with each passing year. If one looks at Coyer's work as a unit, a rather obvious evolution in style becomes apparent. There are three periods in Coyer's writing which show the changes that took place in his approach, language, and ideas. The first period covers thoe e pamphle ts wh i oh eventually composed the Bagatelles morales. They were all successful from the very first. He wrote four of the seven feullles volantes the first year. Two were suppressed and were not included in the collection.^ The other two enjoyed immediate popularity but were so close to the works of several other authcrs, that their success is due only in part to 2 Coyer. As a unit appearing over a seven year period, 191 in;; these frivolous pamphlets arellwht, way, anr! without, real substance. From a sal on-like atmosphere, Coyer moved Into a more serious, more solid stawe of wrltlnw which lasted twice as loriv as his first peplnd. ft showed a peri rl eerier] t V p»- i -f' r 1 ' *n c (> • i rv ' <•’ n s o 11 r a v e. | t V ■ '; I' i ■ e; ■c' . . h < ’ 'Che was more ■' 1 - v o r s r’ . ■ 1 s op id n i 1 : ■ ! ■ t r ■' 'c o ] y iri t I oti I hit i c and " ph 1 lorn - nh 1 c a 1 ” , (I.e., 1 n f i u ^r; c o.! ’ ■ v t he r r op <'i! c #■ aru 1 writings of' t ho ph 1 1 os o r-h e s. , ) ■:o re 1 '' 'hv‘'i' * h *1 'T^ninr anil 1 *a ’ h 1 s t lan of h'1 r ovri nrr1 a n c ie n t t i tpT'. 'I'nci-i' rut Moot h'ri" '‘h'""ild h«i i/o y e the op op w h 1 eh ee pane e< \ hi1' pop 1 t l on Ip t h»‘ ran k s ri f t lip -.j fi 1 l > n o, yjf | v/i'] t im"' * -l i t * I i o f'r ' vt' 1 nl r' r ■ 1 ; c o e p p o f t mo : • • h ■ ■ ' t ' e 1 1 i '' ■ > ■ a 1 Pr:>;i' ' i'ii 1 * i o ’ i ] 1 I ' ■■' f1 'r t • arid 1 ’ w a " p. r > T | 1 ■ f ’ — t a r ’ p ■ ‘ n *■ o ' i r\ n ,' o "lie ''is* * » ■ n v'>'i >-r o *' I i i 11 i ’’ f e show ' ‘ o y e p 1 * h a t 1 c ) ed 1 >n a 1 n a + 1 on , fC '' r h'iri;s'.| 1 ri '■ r ' r 1 t and ’.a fan1 1 t v , :;e can d n no f o pr than po f ] er t u : on t -r i n m h i e last o v r ■, * p 1 ef i' ■ e r; ’ ■ i' v a «■ <" ’ ‘ o f , o r ■ a n * r 1 ■. ■ t a > ' f r a n 1 - a t o o t i.,. v an T ' p p. , a ■ Is > ■ • • r , -a j t 1 n , • --e . < < , : ■ , nls t'Pn i port tail 1 e 1 t ■ v ■ ' " ope o Pan red !(‘r"n'i : 1 ' * y . ;\n un c ha rnc t. ep 1 s M c ‘Td to a f a * 1 ri r e a peep ar iimrP i ^ 1: 1 ' f 1 - Til t -i I i -1 1 c a t 1 on , a 1 t hre; n t t - \ a t o to t tii i pes s ■: : 1 i r : 1 o a n- 1 -a pep fly Mclns n(' n 1 1 ! t 'a"i rv ppepenre. Cover t.afep ap a f 1 pe v pen In an * ‘ I ’ 1 rd1 a n v of 1 n ” ’ 1 1 va f 1 fin fed by •! 1 s i 1 1 us 1 on - men f , and d nvn s n ls per-p! 1 ri >r fi ud 1 en c e as tie d . . e -. the dirnsdi In h is Ten tamer t , While favorite expressions, constructions and Ideas e a-inrun pk ed his "n t 1 rf1 ! I 1f’tarv career, the remit.;: o f the r h an v 1 n r 1 ’o y e p a p»■ ("dC 'id In t h'1 th r e e t r 1 c i h' , 193 Dftcouverte de la plerre phllosophale symbolizes the body o f the B a g a t e lle s . The idea of d isco v ery was e x c it in g for Coyer's century. It would naturally interest his con temporaries. What Coyer attempts to discover for his readers-- because for him it is not a matter of discovery, but of revealing a known fact--is something which exists, not hidden but disguised, in and around all those who will read the Bagatelles. The philosopher's stone is a way of life built upon the search for an unobtainable happiness. Every one b e lie v e s he knows what i t i s , and s e ts about fin d in g that intangible quality composed of facades, disguises, d ish o n esty , weak moral ch aracter, s e lf is h n e s s , and w aste fulness. Coyer chose his title carefully. The Bagatelles are imaginative fantasy with the single aim of pointing out the d e fe c ts in "la morale". They charm the reader by th e ir personal flavor. They are atnusing and humorous. Their style is similar to salon games, devlnettes. and the sucrerles neces sary to attract and please the socially Slite are abundant. As a group, these pamphlets share similar characteristics, frequently too similar. Each one repeats the same lists of criticisms. While Coyer undoubtedly saw repetition under different guises as sound pedogogical technique--drilling over and over up to the point of saturation with the lesson taught--many times he did not vary the guises enough to avoid redundancy. Eettre & pp grand and Le 11 re & une jeune dame nouvellement 19 ^ marlSe are carbon copies of each other, the only difference being the addressee. They both speak directly to the reader in a tfete-&-tSte in which Coyer repeats without any organi zation what should demonstrate a good citizen, a model spouse and parent, a magnanimous noble, and proper comport ment. Each uses the same literary devices: rhetorical questions, precious language, knowledge of current salon amusements and repeated im p eratives. Most sim ila r is the reversal technique where the author ironically states one thing while obviously meaning another. Notice the simi larity in style, ideas, and language: (Grand): "Vous n'avez que quatre valets de chambre qui ne sont pas mieux mis que des Gen- tilshommes de Province un peu £ t o f f $ s . Vous devriez du moins leur apprendre qu'il n'est pas jour & huit heures."^ {Dame): "Si ie v o u lo is , Madame, Je vous perdrois de reputation sur votre vie du ma tin. On vous trouve lev^e & huit heures. . . Vos femmes sont Ston nles d'em ployer plus de temps & s'ajuster elles-m&mes, qu' 2i parer leur Ma?tresse."5 Another shared quality in the Bagatelles is the ele ment of change or disguise, something rendered more exciting by asuperlative which suggests a fleeting thrill. Their titles deceivingly advertise the marvelous ( 1 1Ann&e m erv ell- leuse). magic (La Magie dfoontrSe). raascarade (Leg Masques). enjoyment (Plaislr Pour le peuple). and an exotic playland (Dftcouverte de 1 1 isle frivole). The diBguise, however, is as transparent as "the emperor's new clothes" in which every one sees the real person, nakedly visible down to the skin, 195 because his garments are only an imaginary facade, covering up grotesque traits for himself alone. In a third episto lary pamphlet, La Magle d&montr&e. a Jewish traveler all too naively calls "magic" what are blatant foibles in society^ makeup. The element of change i s important as a recurring theme: change through disguise (Masques. Magle) and r ev e rsa l of the r o le s of men and women, which he c a lls hermaphroditism only in Astrologue. although the topic ap pears in 1 1Ann&e mervellleuse. Magle. Plalslr pour le peuple. and D&couverte de 1 1 Isle frlvole. One begins to wonder why Coyer was so redundant in theme and style, and conse quently, why the public tolerated it, since it was the Bagatelles which hoisted the abbA's name and personality to the forefront. The pamphlets were less noticeably repetitious before they were published as a unit. As the public read them one by one, by an anonymous author, the readers reflected less upon their literary worth than upon their topicality. They were light reading in a preferred genre,^ something often discussed at sociAl gatherings. To discover why Coyer chose this style and genre with all its defects, it is only necessary to look at the blazing success of the first. L1Ann&e mervellleuse had three immediate editions. When the abb& saw that this was what could reward him with his desired "gloire",he saw no reason to change. The reason all the pieces are moralizing is still more obvious: Coyer's education with 196 the Jesuit brothers had dealt Integrally with 1ft morale. For ten or fifteen years he had been passing on the duke's children what he himself had thoroughly learned. This evolution follows easily into public service, when we know that every one of Coyer* s publi cat Ions had a d id a c tic end. The abb® was fortunate that his forte happened to be where the public's interest lay. From the time the pamphlets appeared together as Bagatelles morales. although their general popularity continued, the critics began to find the author's weaknesses. The good and bad qualities of the Bagatelles are well mixed throughout each pamphlet. All the Bagatelles have interesting, attention-drawing beginnings. Five of the seven pamphlets in the 175 ^ edition begin with an interrogation. This technique is effective because questions tend to speak d ir e c t ly to the reader even when they are of a general na ture. Also, a question needs an answer, and the reader must continue until he is satisfied. (Pierre Dhllosophale): *11 y a un mois que je balance; travaillerai-je & perfect!onner les Pantins. ou & mettre la France h son aise?“7 “What is the matter with France 7“ the reader asks himself. (Magle): “Que fais-tu, Ben Josu®?"^ "Who is th is fo r e ig n e r , and who is w r itin g to him?* says the reader. (Plalslr pour le peuple): "Le peuple qui par ses travaux est le soutlen de l'Etat, n'a-t-il pas droit aux d®lassements ?"9 197 "What kind of relaxation?* asks the nobleman. (Grand) : "Oubliez-vous que vous fctes n# grand?"10 Here is food for scandal. (11 Isle frlvole): "L'Amiral Anson vient de donner au Public l fHistoire interessante de son voyage autour du Monde; mais pourquoi a- t-il voulu reus dftrober la connaissance d'une Isle que la Nature a formfte pour nous comme pour lu i ?"11 This last opening regards a topic of current interest, and suggests that the reader is being mistreated. He will read on to find out what the writer intends to do about it. An example of the inequality of Coyer's work is obvious in a comparison of these openings with their dull, forced endings. (P ierre p h ilo s o p h a le ): "Je demande & prSsent si une source d* argent toujours coulante, n'est pas la vraie Pierre philosophale7*12 f1 1Annfte m e r v e llle u s e ): *Tous le s s ific le s sen- tiront le bienfait ineffable de l'Annfte merveil- l e u s e ."13 (Plalslr pour le peuple): "Et en s'occupant pour le_Peuple, i 1[_ Fokil travaill e pour la portion du Public la plus vftridique, & qui dit le plus brusque- ment ce qu'elle pense."l4 Since the titles have little to do with the body of the pamph let, and their subjects are frequently mentioned only in the opening and closing paragraphs which sandwich Coyer*s moralizing, the final sentence becomes a desperate effort to unify the leaflet and rationalize the use of the title. Just as Coyer* s opening and closing sentences and paragraphs tend towards a set pattern, so do the formatB of the feullles vol&ntes. The entirety of the Bagatelles usee only three basic p la n s. The l e t t e r s to the Grand and the Jeune dame n o u v e lle - ment marine are naturally epistolary, counseling, probing, and chiding. He has divided the Pierre philosophale and Plal sir pour le peuple into convenient little packages, each tiny chapter concerning a single, simple idea, sometimes only as long as a paragraph. This is his most well-polished approach, with less redundancy and more tightly kndt com position. T 1Ann&e m erv ellleu se and La Magle dfaiontrfte have not even the pretext of a pattern. Consequently, they ramble repeat, drag, and are more artificial. I have purposely om itted 1 1 Isle frlvole and Le Sl&cle present. The former is an aberration to the rest of the Bagatelles by its quality, q u an tity and form, Considered by some as the b est o f the group, 1 1 Isle frlvole approaches the philosophical tale in style and length. The moralizing is more covert, and the ultimate effect unusual and imaginative. Le Sj>cle present. the only bagatelle not published as a feullle volante before the 1754 edition, is the liaison between Coyer the frivolous, sugary author and Coyer the forthright, philosophical critic. Its title disguises nothing. Although once again beginning interrogatively, the rest of its plan differs from the stan dard Coyer approach. He openly presents his observations on every facet of eighteenth century 1 ife from city planning, government, and literature, to music, religion add luxe. Clearly the first of its kind in the light of what Coyer 199 had previously published, this pamphlet in Its turn sets the pattern for what follows. However, In the body of the piece, as in preceding and following pamphlets, there are outstanding telltale characteristics of its author regarding construction, language and images. Two items stand above all others when we look at the details of Coyer's style: simplicity to the point of steri lity, and a necessity to remain in the present time. The latter is also linked to the former. Coyer* s sentences are long in narrative form and short in conversational ex position. All verbs are simple and unmodified. Most are in the present Indicative or future, which maintains the feeling of present time. His use of imperatives and infini tives is prodigious. They also link with the present. All four types of verbs add to the precision, clarity, and staccato effect, which he underlines by frequently using them in lists. Such lists have the unfortunate effect of redundancy, even if what he lists is entirely different in meaning and feeling. The reader has the Impression that the author was in a hurry to get a l 1 his ideas down at once, wlthout taking the time to couch them in richer surroundings. So many infinitives remove the personal element and add to the stark, preaching effect. More lists of imperatives and interrogatives result in a certain brusqueness and contribute to the staccato. He heaps up nouns in the same manner. (Infinitives): "Est-on encore fttonni de les voir /les femmes 7 , la sphere dans une main & le compas dans 1 *autre, mesurer ou arranger le 200 Monde, de les voir anatomlser l'ame, ou foulller dans le seln de la matiSre pour y trouver des Monades, & accrSdlter Leibnitz?"15 CInterrogatives): "Que faislez-vous dimanche dernier dans votre Parolsse, & dlx heures du matin? DijS. habill&e'. Et qui le crolra? Sans sac1. Est-ce alnsi, est-ce a dix heures, est-ce dans sa Parolsse qu'une femme de condition entend la Messe? Est-il bien vrai que vous asslstez aux v£pres?"l6 (Imperative): "Cela fttant, comptons les gran deurs, les excellences, les eminences, tous les M onselgneurs, . . .N'en portons le nombre qu'& deux cent mille. Supponsons favorablement qu'll n'y en ait qu'une moiti® chargfte de dettes....Taxons- les & dix sols par jour."17 (Simple tense verbs): "Vous avez lu qu'ils fttolent mod®r®s dans leurs maisons A prodigues pour le bien commun, qu'ils payolent les dettes des pauvres, qu'ils dotolent les filles, qu'ils falsolent des largesses au peuple pour soulager le poids du tra v a il Sr. de l'in#gallti; & qu'il leur arriTolt de finir par tester en sa faveur..."18 (Nouns): "C'est alors qu'on verra des changemens de couleurs. des balllemens. de s fttW yifles vio- lentes, des suffocations." or: "On verra jaillir de la source du feu des bonnets de Docteur...: quantit® de casques sur des glrou- e t t e s r des b&tons ce commandement qui chercheront des mains, des couronnes qui s 'entrechoqueront en p®tards..., des encenaolrs pour la Cour..."19 The rapidity achieved is undercut by overuse of the technique. As if simple, unmodified verbs, lists which resemble out lines, and nouns untroubled by adjectives and by few meta phors or literary allusions, were not enough to make his subject clear, Coyer carries his didactic method even farther by taking away any possible work from the reader: he asks and answers his own questions, and over-explains any allusion 201 which would need thought for interpretation. "Paris restera-t-il en arrifcre? On s'en apper- y o it tr o p ."20 "La femme piquSe e'adresse au premier enchanteur qui se pr4sente, & compose avec lui un signe in e f f a 9able qui se place sur la tete du Mari; & ce signe,...signifie & tout le monde qu*elle est v e n g fte . " 2 1 22 Coyer repeats, and warns, HJe le rSpSte", announces when he is coming to the heart of the matter, informs the reader when he is exa ggeratin g, and g iv es p recise d e fin itio n s to 21 avoid any equivocation. He explained in detail in a footnote one of the few literary allusions he made in the bagatelles. The single area in which the abbe allows himself a little freedom and decoration is in his Images. He is fond of concrete metaphors to make his idea more comprehensible, not unlike religion, the miracles, the saints and God, graphically depicted in cathedrals in the Middle Ages . "Nos jeunes gens ne sont que des pendules ou le s femmes marquent le s h eu res . "25 This citation also has a sexual implication, a tendency which shows up fairly regularly in Coyer, although he was probably unaware of it for the most part. "Les enfans., ,ces jolies machines avoient ap- portft du sein de leurs meres des ressorts ex- tr&memerit d ftllca ts." 2 6 La Mettrie and. Berthier must certainly have been on oppo site sides regarding the precision of this image. Coyer1s defense of materialism some years later proved his predi lection for the materialistic branch of the phllosophes. 202 The abb&'s preferred figures of speech seen to be metonymy and synechdoche. There are plenty of examples scattered through the Bagatelles: (Definition of "parlure"): "Nous entendons un mensonge confirm* par serment, soit devant un Magis tra t, , . . ou devant deux beaux yeuut ."27 "Ils sont rftduits & payer des mains pour les habiller."28 29 "La faim danse bien mal." Even with the sterility which reigns in his language, his images sometimes fall into the same precious formation that he criticized in others. For Coyer, bread was the metaphor for subsistence. Here it takes on airs; but remains in offensive . "Le pain avoit la lSgeretS de nos oublis."^ Elsewhere his circumlocution served a purpose: it gave phy sical or sexual ideas proper demeanor: "Dans notre Isle la Nature fournit aux meres deux sources de lait pour nourrlr leurs enfans." "L'autre /reference to Les B 1joux Indiscrete/ avec un B i,1 oux a rra ch o it aux femmes le se c r e t 1mpSnft t ra b le . M3 2 He devotes an entire section of Pierre phllosoohale to the deflowering of maidens. The title of the small chapter is "Taxe du Larcin de l*Honneur" and concerns how easy it is for one sex to steal "cette espece d^onneur" from the other, especially "dans une Nation o& il y a tant de voleurB &. 33 point de verroux."^ Once again one of his images has sexual implications, although this time, I believe Coyer was 203 conscious of the metaphors he chose. He exploits the fire metaphor in all possible connotations: the fire in women*s manly courage, "14 the consuming fire of religious devotion, 35 and the enduring flame of literary glory. This image will continue to burn throughout every publication up to the fires of damnation in Careme. Along with recurring images, Coyer has many reappearing nouns. The repetition of nouns, seen along with the stark simplicity of the author's syntax and choice of verbs, brings his construction even closer to a skeletal form, clothed only in stingily given images. His repeated use of parts of the body, especially head, feet and handa, lacks only the heart to represent total devotion, a magnanimous conception of man not at all unusual coming from an abb#. Realizing Coyer's penchant for public service, it is not surprising to find recurrences of the typically intangible philosophe jargon: justice, liberty, peace, nature, humanity, and honor. These words would be especially appropriate for Coyer, for nearly all his publications dealt integrally with the Improvement of Prance as a powerful nation. More surprising are favorite words like mirror or powder. Mir ror, rather than being sexual, was more a symbol for truth, or lack of truth, in society. Powder is that light, precious artifact which was widely used to disguise and hide the ugliness apparent in his contemporaries. It is important to return to the word fire which predominates in the abb#'s images. 204 Le feu seems to be Coyer1s universal metaphor. It changes faces and nuances with chameleon-like facility. Because of Its long-term usage and the broad interpreta tions h* gives this word, it is Coyer's most revealing ex p r e ssio n . For the same reason, i t is necessary to view it throughout his literary career. By his images, the author presents fire as either productive or destructive, , the giver of life or punishment and death. In both senses It demonstrates overwhelming power and passion. Coyer uses le feu i n both derogatory and flattering ways. It appears in verbal (eg., "alluraer", "s'enflaramer", "bruler", "§tein- dre" ) and nominal forms (^ ., "flamme", "flambeau", "feu", "fagot", "incendie", "cendres souffrSes"). Most often it has to do with religion. Coyer speaks of "le feu du ciel", "le feu de la Parole", "le feu Apostolique". Godly fire is purifying. In his own mfttier, "le feu de l'auteur" represented literary zeal, while "le flambeau de 1'histoire" was the 1ight (enllghtenment) of knowledge, indlsptnsible to the phllosop^es. Still artistically speaking, on two occasions Coyer mentions atatues animated by the fire of their sculptors. Fire was the animation of youth ("le feu de l»*ge"). On the other hand, physically more natural, "le feu" also represented war, discord, firearms and battle. As for man, the u ltim ate compliment was to have e y e s, tem perament, or strength of fire. Sobieski possessed all three, plus vigorous physical action. "Sa marche ressemble & un 205 feu dinrorant." ^ The Inquisition punished with fire. It symbolised heavenly and human anger. Here there is no ques tion of preciosity or circumlocution. If his w i work could have been infused with the same fire he put into his meta phors, its quality would be of another nature. In the numerous fire metaphors which Coyer used, he showed his most Imaginative bent. Religious fire was of ultimate Importance to Coyer. If exposed to atheism, le peuple. by its blind passion 'I Q "se feroit brftler ou bruleroit les autres. "Le Verbe in- 39 car n'a pas purifiS la terre par le feu de sa parole," (Speaking of the Saint Bartholomew Massacre): "Ah, un coeur Huguenot, c'est de la cendre souffr&e... Le principe qu'elle couvre, c'est le feu. Les matlSres combustibles qui dolvent l'irriter, c'est le meurtre de Vassy A cent autres."40 It is the consistency of the images, without being repetitive, that makes the phrases imaginative and original. Although he -'v a c illa te d between h is d isg u st with war and i t s u t i l i t y in the case of national defense, his metaphors indicate the former to be stronger than the latter. Still speaking of the revocation of the Edit de Nantes, the abb§ continued with the same consistency in metaphors. "Le meurtre de Vassy n'auroit Jamais allum& le des guerres clviles, s'11 n'eut couve depuls longtems dans le coeur des Huguenots. On n'est pas si prompt & «'enflamer quand on ne parte pas avec sol le principe de 11Incendle."41 In Coyer's own century, Alletz picked out copious exam ples from the abbA's writings to show neologisms and strik ingly new metaphors in his contemporaries. He included 206 many nuances of Coyer1s fire metaphors. Alletz mentions the "Stincelle de vie", the anger of kings as "un feu dfrvorant qui consume tout dans sa premiere chaleur," the "feu de genie", and, speaking of a man with a broad knowledge and much spirit, he quoted, "C'Stoit un Prom£thSe qui avoit vol& le feu de del." 2 It Is not unusual for a single idea to have so many faces. The variations on his theme redeem their reappearance and save them from redundancy, e s p e c ia lly in B erth ler and Sobleskl. In the concepts of passion, punishment, creation and discord, all of which Coyer represented by flame, one can see the priestly training, but it is tempered by philoso phical and worldly influences. Although a deist, his basic Catholic training remained. While he demonstrated the foibles of the clerics in seering irony, he did it through intellec tual finesse and social respect. As a man, he was not allowed the sensual passion which his words vicariously could describe. The passion from his pen was as untouchable as the fire that portrayed it. He saw fire in all its conno tations: heat (passion, anger, war, punishment), light (knowledge, wisdom, even humor /Etrennes7). of intangible, inexplicable, uncapturable quality (religion, life, inspira tion), and covering all of the above, he saw its necessity. This fire for Coyer was a dream, a protection, and a weapon. It was useful, one of his principal requirements for the existence of anything. What followed the Bagatelles was s t i l l more u s e f u l . 207 After seven years of friTolous pamphlets which pointed out society's moral weaknesses, Coyer was encouraged and ready to attempt more solid material. His preface to the Bagatelles and the addition of Le Sj&cle present began to rationalize the next stage in his development as a writer. Sj&cle. he says, is the only pamphlet "qui ait l'avantage de l a nouveaut# sans avoir plus de corps que ses soeurs." It acts as an intermediary between the frivolous and the serious. He Implores the indulgence of the reader for the lightness of the seven “trifles". To compensate, adds Coyer, "je m*engage ( f o i d 1auteur) A le dAdommager par des ouvrages trfes-utiles..." , after which he includes the scholarly works on Patrle and le. Peuple. and the dis sertation on Greek and Roman religions. Coyer's description of Le Slfecle present is correct. The "nouveautA" is in ideas and the direct approach. He touches on an extremely wide variety of subjects, but uses no device, either clever or erudite, to disguise his message. Sjfecle foreshadows later works on education, commerce and manufacture, and the indigent nobility. The title Indicates the body of the work. This openness in technique is the germ of every following publication. Stylewlse, however, Coyer has accumulated all the bad traits of the previous Bagatelles and exjiolted them in a single pamphlet. 'There are lists of nouns, verbs, conjunctions, prepositions and adjectives on every page. The reader is out of breath at the end because the author 208 has hurried so, in order to cram all his examples Into one sentence or paragraph. On a single page Coyer states that his ancestors had: “de plus belles perruques, des habits plus Slogans, des meubles plus recherchSs, des Equipages plus lestes, une dance plus lSgSre, un meilleur ton de complimens . . . “m-5 One long sentence later he talks about: “leur Architecture Stoit plus noble, leur Pinceau pluf fort, leur Eloquence plus male, leur po&sie plus naturelle, leur Commerce plus florissant, leurs entreprises plus vastes, leur gftnie plus #lev$, leurs h^ros plus grands..."^6 Sometimes the repeated elements are in a series of staccato simple sentences. "Leurs hommes d* Etat. . . .Leurs Eveques.... Leurs PrSdlcateurs. . . .Leurs MJdecins.... Leurs Chiruglens. . . . “^7 The latter method produces a happier result. But when twenty-three such lists compose approximately one-half a page each, in a total of thirty-six pages, fussy, cumbersome heaps overshadow the desired sim plicity. From now on, Coyer puts aside the metronomically sopo r i f i c s t y l e . His su b je cts are le s s broad and more c le a r ly defined. He takes a passionate Interest In these topics which he con sid ers of u ltim ate importance and urgency. They are well documented. Most are erudite, and not intended to amuse. His audience is more specialized. His arguments are more convincing. Coyer*s first publication after the Bagatelles morales tested out his newfound historical legs. 209 The Dlseertatlon sur la difference de deux anolennes CeliKlfiJlfi.» l£ Grecaue et la Hoaalne Is learnid, and would have interested few of those who avidly devoured the Baga telles if Coyer had not used a style designed to hold their interest. He made few changes in his overall approach, but the changes he made plus the sobriety which is his, are more suitable for serious, didactic subjects. While the repeti tions remain, they are much fewer in number, and fit in well as a variant in his sober presentation. The major parts of speech are still unmodified and the verbs are still simple. The concrete images and metynomy have disappeared. He largely uses the imperfect tense, natural for the copious descriptions in a narrative past, and the pass8 simple al ternated at times with the simple present tense. The effect of the alternation is good, as the present tense makes the history more alive for his readers. The abb8 has other de vices to make the reader an active part of his narration. One is the frequent use of the first person plural verb, not surprising coming from a teacher. Another is the strange mixture of vulgarization and erudition. Both devices were necessary as a literary cover for what is a good outline of Coyer*s deistic philosophy. Not once does he stray from history to preach. In addition, all the historical facts are clearly identified in footnotes, and often quoted in their original Latin form. Clarity and historical form are at once obvious. At times he oversimplifies as he did earlier, but d i n It le mope nard nn« bl e hern bpnmiRf nf the suhjent. matter, doyep'n awareneers nf hl^t.nr oja’arhv compelled him to ' 1 1 s - oum hlc hih1 1 o r ’a o h y . ".In r 11 pi-ih s n i] van t. , , . ^ h e n ye . 1 * in l 1 c a rn.ac a e .7 [i-| i-r ■ n ';u , , . 1 1 n r' f pnu f l’f- ) n < • n 1 j 1 nlll I >a P d n 1 a 1 Ip ' 1 nr s ■■ 1 1 ;' e * ’ i*v; e m " n 1 ■, p ! i c r l * 1 ■ i 1 j p 1 Uf M n 1 e U P e p o p ' f n f " n '"'P ri < ' T f p *1 a f r a ; ' 1 1 n P dom eIn - . " * la pih'm a vjn r t ( '.’o v m ' 1'’ p p 1 ! Vi 1 n -■ wl P i n t h " t o d y n f t h e to y t If al " n 11 n , : o i* f t a a 1 la ’■]*'■ , ■:*’ .-I’" 1!' t n n p w “ i ) -d e f 1 n nd ■ 1 1 nn r' , n'lnhPl" 'in ’”!1 ' P ’ppm , 'I'M P ' 1 "' ‘ ’ P ’ ■ t !*P VP f P n ' i 1 P n W n r' 1 r I r 1 , "I't Ni'f''!I “ :C " ': o n * 1 n n * ' " t > i ■ 1 ' ■ a ^ r > n i M 'I i ,rnn t n t I ,. 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" ' ' " p > , r- " T t <"> a v I [ ra'1 Mo ' ' 1 ft ■ pnt] : ’ i ' ! ! ' d 1 • 1 'i n a t 11 p" d n r ■ M " m y ■1 n fa i i-n a 1 r ■ 1 ' ai a 1; y h n m m n p . ’ (ii- t n i j -i- '■ f> fvlnr 1 I'f1 n 11 * ' ' P ■ M u 1 1 P n ] 'p v i t la f on c n p d " , In r a ’ x , 1 11 a a 1 11 * , In I 1 t " P ^ *' : To'; ,.'f,p t '] r' ."':a f i ■' 11 I r ’ r i • ■ la ' ' r t ' ( ) t ’ f'fi! pn.’t; 1 a Pf ' . . " :m i "1 pr; romninn 1 jnrenlfnt [\pr '! t eiu7 t ro p bon n nons r inn 1 r ton ‘o r n ~K m 'I nr r. rim on oi’ltm li'R - n 1 'hnm anltp," ’ " I o rno r iro 1 I'iP'iy ,i p ] n |-p l \ (.r i o n r o m n i n * 3 f u t f n l n f fnn nt i o u o . " M ■ i p o ' p ■ y f'oi’ < ’p v p i■ I i' ■ ■ n v n ]' }: ' '1 t jv' f mi; '■ ! o n < - 0 \ < 1 i ;; m , , . , \ ■ r t i ' ■ , " n ■ ' 1 !’ t' < • < ‘ f' V *1 t' * > ■ p i - p « * -o > ■ * M' M 1 1 I ’ • ■o'i In , '’It.inr fM ro ro ., * ho I ! 1 i ■!••{ . t b“ u ^ y n s y . t h*‘ fl-.n n i - * i n - i p • j ]■ 1 l r' | (' or, ' t n ' 1 *n t n o ] i S r in '1 > '■ t v o ’; ' t o + n ] * n ( ' ■) n pi W ] ') ■ ■ ■ i v ! * ■* _ ! i s' 1" ' t t ; ' n f 't 11 n t ’ 1 ; ■■ ■ ■11 v vj * r * f p < ■■ i ■ 1 <■1 r t . ■ < ■ n , 1 ’ o v p i * * : ■ 1 ! o t T ' i p h v o fo ; - i <■* i ■ u *• >in ,'X *»>' In n r 1 p i In n wu 7 In J‘i’1 t i r i - t ] n j,j J 1 ■ i ’ r p r ■> • T i' * t -> > » i ‘ > p * , ■ i i ■ ’ ' (■ t ■, i r.t i . i r , . i < n i p [ 1' t > 1 ' p ; ' ' t ‘ 1 , ■ ' i - L ■ ■ , • . , . . ■ ■ , . !. . ■> ■ ■ ■ , ■ . , ■ • . t 1 1 ■ * * ■■ 1 . ■ J . ■ i 1 , >• p • . » -i ’ i i 'i >• ’ + ^ t f ^ i ' t r r > 1 • J i . • f { ^ r 1 4 ' + o 1 if • fi ) i ; t * M'.'-ii" ■ ) i t " h u 1 r } i \ j T 1 | ^ > i * f y • * - yn ^ * 0 • ] l ', ' i ' ‘ + 1 • f j t n ' 1 f . 1 ’ ,r r i r : i [ ro t) • 'i W 1 l '/ 1 r' r ^ ^ ' ' i f f’ ^ J TT1 f 1 t ^ r ' , ■ j \ L- ' \ r ’ l i , v ■ L r t r , l'JIT ' t 1 ^ ' r ■. 1 i f' * i * i * ^ 1 i - 1' ' ' . ' ■ j 1 * ■ + ' y ■ l T "■! m i * O ^ 1 1 ( . P V ’ t ' • > r ■ ■i r'.t ■ ■ 1 'V! t , p 1 f • i . 1 * 'in j>ri n > 1 * r f' ■ 1 1 - * A ' 1 : "P '■ P ’ ■ ! ! ■■] : r j ip,f 1 . , 1 / , i t ■,! s t ' n 11 p 1 '1 ' o n 1 b ? i ; 1 M 1 ^ 1 , '] ■; ‘ i 1 f . * . . ; , , \ r'j } nfi s >->■ ' i1: ^ O 1 • ' O O f s r\ ’•n ' : i - y '■ -s>! ■ ’ ^ y * , 1 . . : t ! ' L 1 ” ^ V\ 1 ( : '■ -1:: ’ , - .1 ' I'M T '* ' f 1 /’i ■ r ^ r-: . • * 1 V , . * , ' ’ ; n n ■■:.■■“ r _ U y y 1 '; ■• n i Y' ; I 'M 1 r ' i r 'i O ■ n. r ■ i i ! n i r f ui 1u 1 ! p i : 1 < ■ t i n t'/i , * M * M " O ’* ‘ ’ f > 1 y 1 J 1 ■ p O 1 • .— , . . -J " 1 .-I ■, i > f , ■ n>n I- i / -j i : f i ' , 1 ' 1 ' ' ’ V fc ' " p . i r-p. ” ' p , — {- > t r -r n i * ■. ' ;I. f ' h i-1 ■ i y , ' n t 1 T - p ' * < ■ r ! I 1 1 * t n "w’ i tn t ' 1' > ] r i P ; ■ ! 1' * i p J P 'nj ; .1 ' ■ r n u V '■ 'iy t — i/O v t \ r 1 ’ n u t !'(> . Pri p n- ] ' .-n y 1 1 in ' u n 1 "r i n o * ■ p i . ■ v ' t n n r ■ u n ^ ■ ’oni' f nr p i n n o '• ) ri 1 p p t P ( n 1 ° n ■ i i - ♦ . l | m f f r n r f n t l P-- pi' i t , " ^, r.' . i . o i 'I r T'l .. i -1 P i y f ,r. t ■. . > M ■ t ■ i ' n *' t k i i r ■ n w n "'' * * i ^ ^ n t I ■ , , - t i ' - , ■ o * i O 1 • * t 1 -1v ■t \ i - o 11 j; ’ i f * - j ■ i 212 Polish nation, he cannot resist an open strike at inherited monarchy. aDis le quatorzieme sicele elle a fait des Hois: ce ne sont pas des enfans qui naissent avec la Couronne avant que dhivoif des vertue, & qui, dans la maturita de l^ge, peuvent encore som- meiller sur le Trine." 57 The abb$ also spoke out against religious orders. As if quoting another author disguised his aim, Coyer cites a fellow French religious; but paraphrasing someone elBe did not take away the stin g of h is a tta c k . "NS Fils de Roi /Tn the Polish line of Jagellon7, il ne put risister & l'envie d'fctre Religieux, espece de maladle qui attaque la Jeunesse, dit l'Abbi de Saint-Pierre, & qu'il appelloit la petite vftrole de 1 ' e s p r i t . "58 While the court was crying out for the suppression of Sobieskl for political reasons, Voltaire and others recog nized its literary merits. The long preface to Sobieskl is a nutshell history of Poland from the beginning of its existence up to the time of Coyer's hero. Well documented and succinct, it was the source book for other writers in the eighteenth century. A single paragraph can give the makeup of the Polish go vernment and the roles of its leaders for a generation No wasted words, no redundancies. Once into the history of the man, the style changes to narrative description instead of a continuation of chronological facts. L1Hjstoire de Jean Sobieskl is primarily anecdotal, that method of historiography for which Voltaire and those 213 who followed criticised him. But there was merit In his descriptions. Coyer gives realistic and exciting accounts of battles and makes moving, personal descriptions of the main characters in the history. He mentions colors and blood in battles, terrifying facial expressions of the Infi dels, and contrasts Sobieskl*s Imperial character and public figure. This description of a Polish cavalry soldier is worthy of comparison to the equestrian painting of Napoleon by David. Had the artist painted this soldier as well, Napoelon's portrait would have suffered. "Les P olon ois son t naturelleraent grands & bien faits. Qu'on imagine done un Cavalier d'une taille avantageuse, couvert d'une cuirasse embellie, un casque sur la t&te, une peau de panthere dont le mufle s'attache au devant de l'Apaule gauche, le reste passant par derriere jusqu'lt la hanche droite, une lance dorAe de 14 & 13 pieds, pertant & sa pointe une banderole pour Apouvanter les chevaux ennemis, deux pistolets 4 deux sabres, l'un & son cfttA, 1 *autre sous sa cuisse gauche, attachA le long de la selle. Get homme alnsi armA monte un beau cheval dont le harnois est enrichi de plaques d'or AmaillA, & souvent de pierreries, rq Louis XIV. en vlt un qui lui fut amenA, & l'admira." The pattern he used to describe is typical of Coyer's style; he formed a verbal pyramid. A short sentence, simple and unadorned, introduces the topic. One long sentence describes the soldier. It is detailed. It gives physical materials in such a way as to convince the reader that he can feel them (fig., the panther skin, the horse's saddle). Some words have an onomatopoetic effect: "plaque d'or", or "le reste passant par derriere .lusau 1 Alla hanche d£oite" with an abundance of liquid and sibilant consonants suggesting 21k the sliding, sleek quality of the panther while still alive as well as the same transferred quality as symbolic orna mentation to a soldier*s appearance. The precise location of each detail on the soldier's body adds to the visual quality. The length of the sentence heightens the stylistic pyramid. The description of the horse, less important, is less long. The final sentence, nearly as short as the first one, is extremely important. It mentions the greatest of the recen t Fre nch k in g s, resp ected and known to be ex tr a v a gant In his own tastes. To say that Louis XIV saw one of these soldiers and adJhired him, is more effective in its understatement, than another opinion might have been in hyperbole. In a description of the hideously frightening physical appearance of the Tartars, dreaded enemies of the Poles, Coyer increases the ugliness of their faces by suggesting that, "Peut-$tre Stoient-ils encore plus hldeux au terns d 1 Alexandre."^ Coyer frequently uses this tech nique of understatement to achieve a heightened effect. Note the horror of the accepted treatment of Polish peasants. "La Pologne frappe ses propres enfants. Chaque Seigneur est obligS de loger son Serf. C'est dans une trfcs pauvre cabane, o5 des enfans nuds, sous la rigueur d'un climat glacft, pele-mfcle avec le b$tail, semblent reprocher & la nature de ne les avoir pas habillSs de meme. L'Esclave qui leur a donn4 le Jour, verroit tranquillement bru- ler sa chaumlere, parce que rlen n'est % lui. II ne sc a u r o it d ir e , 'mon champ, mes en fan s, ma femme.' Tout appartient au Seigneur, qui peut vendre Igalement le laboureur & le boeuf. II est rare de vendre des femmes; parce que ce sont elles qui multiplient le troupeau; population miserable; le froid en tue une grande partie." 6l 215 The first picture, that of striking children, chills the reader, especially when it is Poland in a mother image who is being cruel. Their poverty Is graphically underlined by mentioning bare feet in severe climate, unprotected by the rough hut. Several parallel images of the peasants and beasts clearly show their miserable existance: "bAtail", selling "le laboureur et le boeuf, the women multiply “le troupeau". The absence of possessions seems to stress the Impossibility of changing sociological strata, and to take away any desire for work. The incomplete phrase, “miserable population", audibly confirms what is already apparent. The final suggestion that the cold kills off those which the lord does not closes the paragraph with an ugly image in the reader's mind. Cruelty to children, and kicking a helpless man are the prevailing, pitiful scenes painted. Reality in descriptions came easily to his pen. Coyer used long or short sentences to achieve a passionate or a chillingly dry effect. He used the pass 6 simple to pass rap id ly over f a c t s . B a ttle scenes jumped to l i f e in a present tense. Modifiers for verbs and nouns, more fre quent than in previous works but sti 11 used sparingly, render the word m odified more a liv e by d in t of th e ir r a r ity of appearance. Also used with moderation are C o y e r1s m etaphors. He uses fire images throughout. They primarily represent war. Only a few metaphors were prftcleux. 216 "Deux anclennes Maisons...ont posfr les pre mieres plerres dans la nult des Biecles."62 For the most part, the abb# showed originality In personi fication, metaphor, simile, synecdoche, and other poetic methods of expression. (simile): "On.. .regardolt /Taques 3obieski7 comme le bouclier de la liberti."63 (metaphor): "Les homines ressemblent aux fruits qui attendent la salson pour se de v e lo p er . " 64 "Leurs corps servlrent de pature aux Vau- to u r s ." 6 5 (personification): "Dis qu'il eut recouv r£ ses forces, la vengeance & la gloire lui parlerent egalement."66 "Chaque jour brisoit quelqu'anneau des chaines de la Nation."67 (synesthesia): "Une noire mftlancolie le consomoit."68 The circumlocution which he used in the following example was necessary for blensSance in his recounting of a tale already questionable in eighteenth century polite society by its gory, horrific nature. "On arrachoit les dents & ceux qui avoient mangS la viande dans le Car&me; qu'on suspendoit un adultere ou un fornicateur & un clou par 1'instru ment de son crime, & qu'on mettoit un rasolr au- pr^s de lui, avec la libert# de s'en servir pour se dSgager ou de mourir dans cette torture. "69 For once, Coyer did not feel compelled to oversimplify through excessive explanation. Other traces of previous stylistic devices are apparent. The two volumes of Sobieskl are divided into nine small sections which he calls books. This method always worked well for Coyer, whether in short pamphlets which he eventually 217 turned into a unit, or within a single work (eg., Plalslr d o t le peuple.) Some traits, which can be classified as didactic, were found here too. The author often warns "I tell you this because,,," or "I omit this because,,." Ijeemingly in Justification of his methodology. Over and over he tries to convince the reader of his veracity and non- oplnionated factual exposition. The former moralistic preaching is gone, or rather, condensed to aphoristic phrases or simple psychoanalysis: ",,,les Cosaques: ceux-cl plus acarnSs, parce que le ressentiment d'une grande injure est plus divorant que l'envie des conquetes,"70 "Les Rois o u b lie r o ie n t qu, i l s sont hommes, s'ils Stoient toujours heureua,"71 "Les hommes devroient apprendre & se livrer de meilleure grace & la destinSe."72 This history was psychologically difficult for Coyer to rationalize because it praised and criticized three important areas at the same time. He lauded the nobility, specifically the Leczinskis, the Turennes, and in general noble expression and comportment, yet he never missed a chance to show injustice in the nobles. By raising the q u a lity of the l i f e of the peasants and g iv in g them ru lin g power through suffrage, he would take away from the nobility, At every step he rebelled against the Church, but in his own life he never abandoned the habit, doubtlessly because it was u sefu l to him. In view of the number o f to es he stepped on in his history of Sobieskl, one can say that he was much safer in his nationalistic pieces, even though they were historical, ? 1 H Wr 1t 1 ? n b e1 w n en He 1 1 y 1 on r H r e c g a e e 1: Home 1 n e a n <1 oohj nsk 1 njpra th^ two nma'H I )t n n p r t a 1 1 one anr 1 e v 1 x m ot a e Pntrlr; et H V ’ r a rt.at ^ on a i r J_n_ nntnrp ■! n eon p 1 p . T h e y ., ,-n i, ) <■ t o t 1 r m ] 1 n 1 ►1 'if >»a a h t ra r-1*>■ t ' ip ■'1 o r 1 v 'i t 1 nn of t ha t . > | ■ T’ ■ ■ 1)1 . 1 > 1 / I ' ’ t ' ■ 1 t ' t ' 1 . : 1 1 ’T- '")>'■ I 1 1 ' ;■ 1 r ' * ■■ > . . '< J 1 J ■ ■ , > 1 ’ ri V P' I' ■ ■ t )' ! n i 1 v 1 'D ] M ; n l ■■ i ’ i f 7 t * << / • n y nvi . ■■ ’ ' ■ ' Ol m * V 7 . i ' r‘ V ■ii'P r j -■ | 1 i n n ': ! 1 ' ’ 1 ) (' t v t I ■1 t 1 w >' v ■ ’ i ■ f' i v' i 1 '] rs f; ' ’ . ; h P V ■ ■ h O Vf 1 h p , ■ g. , f , ■ (-■ ■ i r, ■ Vi v 1 v ' ' ■ ' : " ’\‘ ' m ' i V *' l'-' M Ir' ; i .■' ' I - * , ■. i j , 11 ■■ ■ i m v i r -, i]: ■ 1 ■- - r.;, ( I-, i ■ y o h i n :' v ' , "1 ■ <1 1 '' :'a i < ■ <' t t “ ]■ - i ; ■■ ■ o i- f ' - W h '! ‘ V.’ ' 1 1 1 ‘ V P 1' * '' *' h " ' 1 I ' ' '"'I r V ■ i f' ' r p. t 1 rif; j n 1 ■ ■ , ■ . -i . ),, i 1' ” , 1 T , t f, t •• ; ' • ' t 1 p>,>' — 1 • • ’ • ^ 1 f f * f ' i ' ' ’ r I > i ' . • ^ t i s' r •, r | • - * - , y) t w : • s ♦ ' r ^ o p ’ * » . * -b > *' ■ f-. > ' ' ’ ■■ l n ri) 1 <; i* ■ . v • i * 1 1 ] r 1 | 1 • j t 1 ^ • . ] r > . ’• l j f • f ' '■’mo p' ^ ^ i'j r1 t p-g *' i W ■ i ' f. p; ri1 ^ -j' f' V i ^ ■ ’ f’vrg ) y " 1 ; * f ■< 1' 4 L W ■ ) ■ : | 1 1 / t < i > i j | 1 + ^ y * ) p i O -- i ^ | i t V' f ■ * i' i ' rr’ir ' 11 ^ ^ • *< •' \ ' ' ► i r i p' * • ^ ' • ■ ■ ♦ t 1 1 .• > < - >-•. > ' i j i • r ■ o . , , ( ' ’ * * -,> ■ ’ r o ; f - ' 1 * ' ■ i - ■ ■ ■ t ■ y ’ : i + ■ f ■ 1 ; ■ ■ ■ r ' t r ' + p ^ r i ■ y o ■' ,i tjr | 1 ] ! t f ■ 1'' i " y ■ t 1 1 1;: ’ A ^ + )r' * ' 1 tt f *: ^ «, »i- ^ ■ y , ' - • ’ j y ^» t k »» y ’.ip i*p ur ^'1 l i ■ v r I ‘i ] f]' J , --i tr'-* ^ t • ^ 'i * • t :‘of> | V ' i n * * ^ | ! : t Tr — [ i ] p t ( 1 I f * f ] 1; ^ \ : ' f’p' ‘ V : i f f rg i ] ri f I ' ’• * • ■ • • * t ■ ► - »,,->*• t ^ I i j I'O [ <■• W i M ] 1 - ■, i , I f 1 t ^ , ■ i ri (j p t " ■ ; i « 1>1 i : 'I - I V 1 f ■ , [ r v i r ; 1 j' . ' r,' ‘ I'll" ‘If ii'o j v ! i ' " 'iip' r ') tip f (i i’n- 1 ■: r i t * i pi . • t •■' If '' r- v | r ' t I;" ■ n r; i! y / ‘ r - I j f' r i on " 1 p npi] [>1 (i " | i/T h i r- i i 11ft'’ '’ f’: ’ '’ <1 v t 1 .f 1 ■1 'itt' ! ’ i 1! 1 * i: > I ' ’ t*(*'i ''■11 m — In*' ''p-ihiyp In 1 h'1 '‘nH 1 n r ! pIi snp-vi'rt i1 a vn 1 t. n 1 r 1 a n t.w 1 r1 1 that 1 e usp! 1 a t h ° 1 aiv of * h^nvk , m 1 f-1’1'! t h a 'r ° '! l r e n * v f 1H t t r . "'ivvrv f'lil prir:-': a v ■) » <'ji|'|iit ■ ’ i V \ ‘ ■ , 219 "Le peuple est done compost d'hommes. Mals 11 •st i propos qu'il I1ignore toujours, A Je ne le dls qu'aux riches, aux grands A aux minis tree, qul pourront oomme auparavant abuser de 1*ignorance du p e u p le ."7*+ These small pamphlets, while picking up some of the worst traits Coyer demonstrated in the bagatelles still belong in the transitional period In all aspects. They led to full-bodied, well written history in Sobleskl. They are examples of the burning drive to help his nation which spans Coyer1s whole career. Chronologically following Patrle and Peuple are the Noblesse commercante and its Defense, easily Coyer's key to what small amount of glolre endured past his own century. Between the Moblesse and Be la pr>dlcation. Chlnkl. Etrennes . Plan d‘Education, and the translation of Blackstone's criminal code of England (which together represent the body of the abb#'s patriotic works), appear more "philosophical" publ1cations. At the end of his career, he returns to moralising. It is fitting that his career and publications follow closely the pyramid pattern which he so often used in his literary style, the "philosophical" period being at the apex of all his desires and achievements. All six nationalistic publications follow the same basic approach. They tell, mostly In detail, what is wrong with the existing systems, and propose a plan for their amelioration. Aside from that point, eaoh one is entirely different in its pattern and style. Noblesse and its Defense 220 are straightforward in subject matter, always serious, rather apologetic at times, and bitlngly caustic at others. Predication pretends to be a sermon and it preaches, ending surprisingly with a very incomplete and unrealisable plan whereby the government should be able to control and correct the mores of a nation. Chinkl is a philosophical tale which parabollcally shows what is wrong with the professional control-groups. Solution to the problems Is only hinted, but criticism abounds. On the other hand, Plan d1 Education is only a sketch, but expressed in a way which suggests what prompted the outline. Et re lines is humorous, sarcastic and while offering ridiculous plans for the bettering of what i t c r i t ic i z e d , makes serio u s su g g estio n s as w e ll. Blackstone is merely a translation, accompanied by the hope that the reader will use this model to make his own table of reform. The subjects each treats are as different as their approach: commerce, morality, trade unions, education, public salubrity, and penal code. As a group, the nationalistic works are more admirable literarily than tne "philosophical" ones. Speaking only of the evolution in style, the dii'pr*perteion between the dissertations on "patrie" and "peuple" and the Noblesse n omnia r cant e la Incomparable. It is amazing that such discrepancy in literary ability can appear in contiguous works, separated by only a year's time. The Noblesse commercante represents Coyer's best writ ten, most convincing and most confident piece. He avoids 221 all humor and sarcasm. The most important stylistic ques tion here is the methods he uses to pose his arguments and successfully convince the reader that the answers which he has provided for them are the correct ones. To achieve this, the abb# has skimmed the best of his devices from previous works that also shared numerous stylistic faults. The repe titions and lists are held to an absolute minimum and used to reinforce, add speed, or nail home a difficult proposition. Questions, rhetorical and answered, are as abundant as ever, but are not out of place in this exposition, because their result is a convincing dialogue between the author and ima ginary adversaries (who soon became real). The dialogues and questions and answers can be convincing because it is Coyer himself who chose them, and therefore had all the time.he needed to prepare the responses or attacks, which always end in his favor. A new technique is that he often allows the reader to answer the questions himself. He uses ancient and Biblical allurions sparingly and chooses care fully the ones he uses. Coyer has by now realized that his best technique is the division of his material into small manageable compartments, which he uses in the Moblesse and especially in the Defense. Although total departure from la morale is out of the question, it appears only in rela tion to the main question: commerce. Joined to this need to purge is his use of adages—here again used minimally. All are devices to convince the reader. 222 “Le premier qui alt dlt, qu'il vaudroit mieux falre des rlena que de ne rlen falre, connols- solt bien les dangers de 11 olslvet$. 75 "C *4tolt une maxime des anciens ch ln o ls que, s ' 11 y avoit un homme qui ne labourat point, quelqu'un souffroit la falm dans 1•em pire?6 "Qui est le Mattre de la mer, est le Maltre de t o u t ."77 Also previously used, and here for the same reason, are the present and future tenses which maintain a sense of imme diacy and t o p i c a li t y . They a ls o tend to e s ta b lis h a c lo s e r rapport between author and reader, when combined with a conversational style. The friendly atmosphere very obviously projected, is one of the techniques Coyer uses to convince. He talks directly to the reader. He includes himself in the first person plural verbs throughout. Just as frequent are first person singular verbs. He renders his exposition more per sonal with parenthetical expressions and conversational 78 exclamations such as: "La Guerre, il est vrai,..." or 79 HO ",,,un coeur Citoyen, (qualitS bien rare),..," or "Eh bien!" Coyer also adds to the conversational atmosphere by presenting fictitious dialogues between a father and son, for example, and by directly answering the quotations he has cited, as though the other author were making his statement in person. These authors were familiar to Coyer, because he had widely researched the question before beginning to write. If he could back up his own statement by a similar idea from someone famous, then h is own was more c r e d ib le . 223 Coyer chose his examples as carefully as his citations, with the intent to win his argument: neighboring countries, especially England, Holland and Italy, whose commerce enriched their nation, stand as an example for France, whom he considers infinitely richer in natural resources. The abbi's devices for drawing the reader to his side are clever. He states what he could do, if he wanted, to convince the observer. He could use the observer's arguments against him. Coyer insists he will not resort to this, but In reality that is precisely what he does. Another device is psycho logically to couch the desired effect in pleasing vocabu la ry . "/la Nobless£7 trouvera /dans le commerce/ la conservation & 1'amelioration de ses terres, 1'agrandissement de ses possessions, l'affer- missement de ses droits, la suret® de ses pri vileges, la consideration de ses vassaux, l*l»ducation et 11 fttablissement de ses enfans. Que faut-il pour tout cela? Des richesses. Le Commerce le s donne." 82 The simple, short conclusion is the final and necessary point that the reader needs to admit to himself thatthat is what he had been wanting all along. rtRichesse" is a con stant ploy, tantalizing the poor nobleman. Another con vincing method is to assume an undesirable situation, like war, and prove how the nobility could profit more from Q ^ commerce, J Coyer proved his arguments by statistics from 84 Vauban and figures that he calculated himself. "Supposons done que trente mille Gentilshommes seulem ent, e n r ic h is par le Commerce, dfpensent trois livres de plus chaque Jour, voili une con- eommation pour cent neuf millions cinq cens mille livres par an; & de cette consommation quel ac- croiseement de subsistence pour un peuple de cultivateurs & d*artisans?"85 22k Coyer, not content with his own arguments and fictitious ones, pits Montesquieu and Vauban against each other, and draws 86 conclusions favorable to his own discussion. A forced device, which nonetheless was successful, was in stating what someone did not say, as proof to his argument. "Ni le Marquis de Lassay, ni le President de Montesquieu, n'ont avancA que le Commerce dAshonoreroit la Noblesse."87 The most surprising and efficacious method of all was in proving to the reader, he who opposedCoyer's plan, that he was already engaged in commerce. "Mais oubl iA-je que vous commercez dAj& sans vous en appercevoir?"88 Most of these methods are new to Coyer's style. Their bases, in each case, are reason and logic. When opposition began to appear, Coyer was prepared for it, and was more confident than ever in his teacher-like retorts. Coyer has divided the DAfense into smal1 sections ac cording to the primary disagreements to his plan. He answers them, not succinctly, in a more impersonal way, more "on" and less "nous" and "je". The sentences are longer, devoid of colorful images, and tend to ramble, rarely adding anything new to the Noblesse. Looking at the Noblesse and the DA fense as a unit, aside from the advances Coyer made in variety of approach, psychological slants in presentation, and the general tidying up of careless redundancies, three stylistic devices stand out as improvements in hl& literary e v o lu tio n . 225 l The author seemed brusquely to recognize the value of descriptive adjectives to render his images more striking. He opposed a “Noblesse brillante" to a "Noblesse obscure" ■ 89 to explain visually how the nobility was falling into ruins, in other words, "cette Noblesse enchain$e par 11 indigence..." 9 0 The idea of being in chains made the notion of mobility im possible, and Coyer cemented his notion by a passive con- struction. He showed them in a "indigne servitude". 91 both noun and adjective were counter to everything the nobleman was supposed to symbolise. Coyer capitalizes on the fact that riches were often the pjfece de rlsistence for a class slowly losing a ll grasp on its remaining wealth. To prevent the idea "commerce yields wealth" from descending to the crass financial debasement of filth y lucre, Coyer made sure his readers understood that commerce "amfcne des richesses innocentes que personne ne censure," 9 2 He made the noble*s sapped power visible in " 98 milk from the breast of a nourrice. It Is ourious that he did not suggest a mother's milk Instead, since) he con sidered It harmful to both mother and child when a wet- nurse was called in to suckle a baby. The metaphor of 99 "une mine qui donne toujours a ceux qui fouillent, fits in with the attachment to riches, but is weaker and less picturesque than the preceding ones. He is more graphic in showing a miserable, helpless nobility. With piquant, unexaggerated scenes, Coyer is the most convincing. " ...cette Noblesse enchain#e par I 1Indigence, sur qui le soleil ne se l#ve que pour #clalrer sa misere, & qui rfe point d'ailes pour voler aux recompenses . . . N100 "...ces armoiries rong#es par le temps..." At times he merely describes. “Eflt-il mieux valu que ce Gentilhomme fut res t* dans la fange d'un petit Fief, avec une #p#e inutile 4 dans un Cell bat fore# qui n'auroit pas meme le mfirite de psalmodier pour les Fid&les."102 In one sentence the abb# has attributed to them the disadvan tages of the m ilita r y and the Church, and at the same time couched what remained, their land, in a strong, unpleasant light, finalized by the imperfect subjunctive. Most of the time he speaks directly to the nobles who are at the distinct disadvantage of not being able to answer him on the spot. “Vos femmes vous demandent une su b sista n ce d$cente, vos enfans de l'#ducation & des #ta- blissemens: est-ce en remuant les cendres de vos ancetres que vous trouverez des tr#sors pour remplir ces devoirs sacr#s?"103 22? Home, food, and education of his family were the noble's principle concerns* Coyer showed him helpless before the ghosts of his ancestors as well as before his own family. His main com p etition in a d v e r tis in g commerce was the m i l i tary. Rather unfairly,he presents a speech by the sons who are left at home when the father can only afford a m ili tary post for his eldest. "Vous nous avez prechft die le berceau que nous ne devions espirer ni bien ni consideration que par la guerre & les pArils: nous avons appris de bonne heure & jurer, & quereller, 5. insulter tout ce qui n'est pas noble, & manier les armes, % tirer sur les gardes de la chasse voisine, h dftvaeter des bleds, & estropier des paysans, & confondre le drolt avec la force; nous nous sommes f a i t des ames de t ig r e s , nous voil& tout formAs pour la guerre...Que faire de nos ftpftes, tandis que nous n'avons d'autre ennemi que la faim?"104 Here is a good example of effective use of what had pre viously resulted in singsong dullness, Repetltinn of the preposition & followed by an infinitive fixes the ideas, intensifies their effect, and maintains an unchangeable attitude through their impersonalness. The choice of pe jorative verbs (swear, quarrel, insult, devastate), followed the ruin of what should have remained desirable and beneficial ("bleds", "paysans", "droit"), was more convincing, negatively, than preaching or moralizing would have been. The style of Dg ia predication is radically different from the Hoblcsse p.oim?rypni;.** f especially since preaching and moralizing play the major roles. His contemporaries entirely misunderstood the purpose of the pamphlet. They 228 felt It was an open attack against any effort towards preaching since Coyer pointed out how no preacher from the beginning of t*me had ever been able to make any progress towards correcting mankind. Coyer himself preaches, and admits it. He alternates between being dry, seemingly frightening in the cold reporting of the horrors of evil that had taken place through the cen turies, and being passionate and threatening. For his his torical documentation, the author chose the most evil epochs in Biblical history. The overall atmosphere is pessimistic. He does not hesitate to debunk any category of individuals from poets to prophets. In continuing to outline by examples the evil of the centuries, he channels his line of thinking into French history (a£., Clovis, Charlemagne) and parallels these lives with those of famous leaders from others countries, as if to prove that it was not his country alone which could not succeed. The development of preaching (or lack of it) throughout all ages up to his own is a section by Itself. The following compartment treats the effect of preaching in other religions. A very strongly worded personal state- ment makes i t easy to understand why h is readers c a lle d him an atheist after this. "Je voudrois bien savoir par quelle fatalit® il est arrivli, que la predication ou plus d'energie pour le mal que pour le bien dans toutes les Religions. "105 He does not leave this as an empty clucking of the tongue; rather, he finds proof in his own religion: the crusades, the A1blgens Ians, League massacres--all inspired by preaching. 229 The third section which demonstrates the inefficacy of the preacher oovers literature. Poets were divinely inspired, but they failed, as did tragedians. Here, though, he has less patience, for writers of tragedy have two elements at their command which Coyer considered essential, terror and p ity , e s p e c ia lly abundant in the com&dle larm oyante. Coyer tries both elements in his essay in order to convince. For terror, he threatens the readers with damnation. His pity is mostly for the peuple. who receive no benefits at all from society. Still going from the general to the spe cific, Coyer concerns his next section with the phllosophes. While the PhlloBQPhes have failed as well as all pre viously mentioned groups to in still goodness, they remain pristine in comparison, for these men will be the abb$*s tool in his ultimate plan. He dully lists their capabili ties, all phrases simple, beginning with and followed by a present tense verb. The result is as unadorned as an outline, and hardly more interesting. Although Coyer wrote De predication nearly ten years after the Noblesse. he has lapsed back in to former bad h a b its , and has not profited from the new devices he had used since the Noblesse. One trait, well developed in his intervening "philosophical" pieces, is apparentj-causticityj-but is is without sting. Now that he has presented the phllosophes as that body he considers capable of successfully preaching, he is ready to discuss the main question, around which he should have built 230 his entire essay, but which, instead, was totally obfus cated ty a misunderstood, exaggerated introduction. 106 "Quel sera done le vrai Prftdicateur? Le GOUVERNEMENT. Even at the apex of his buildup, Coyer resorted to the over simplification of a question, followed by his own answer, the same overextended effect remaining from the Bagatelles. He should now be actively explaining his plan, but instead he has found another outlet for a criticism of mores, more bitter, less amusing than before. When he resorted to his usual technique of proof by citing the ancients, he weakly inserts an imaginary compiaint, and his answer to it, neither of which is as clever as he would have wanted, "Quoil toujours des Romains & des Grecs" ne cessera-t-on pas de nous ennuyer de leur sagesse? Pardon, Je croyais, & vos moeurs, que jamais on ne vous en avoit parlft." Contrary to the triteness of the above citation is his recounting of an imaginary dream. It appears to be a combination of the technique of le R$ve de d1Alembert and the visual formation of Voltaire's Le Sjfecle de Louis XIV. "Gccup# profondiraent, i l y a quelques Jours, &, fatigu4 de l'objet que je traite, je m'endormis; & Je vis en r&ve une pyramide vivante. La base en fttolt immense, C'itoit un grand peuple. Les autres Ordres, la diminuant de superficie, 4 en augmentant de splendeur, se surmontoient en dis tances marquies par le mirite. Le Gouvernement domlnolt au sommet. Tout 8>tolt dans un mouve- ment rigulier, tout s'agitoit pour s'Clever & un dfgre supirieur ou pour ne pas tomber...Ce qui me charmoit le plus dans ce grand spectaole, e'est que la source des biens couloit sans cesse, tandis que celle des maux fttoit presqu'arrfct4e. Je m'^veillai & tout disparut."108 231 This dream stands as one of two highlights In the second half of the essay, d m e f trtiftoh the endin g. And y et this too fails to save the work from deserved harsh criti cism. It lacks Diderot*s vivacious complexity, and the broad-sweeping panorama of Voltaire's studied historical masterpiece. It is not the simplicity of Coyer's ideaB which are reprehensible, but rather their unimaginative presentation. Throughout the paragraph, however, there Is an incessant undulation which does not exist elsewhere, (eg.. "pyramide vivante", "un mouvement regulier", "tout s'agitoit11, "s 'Id ever", "tomber", "prenoit des forces", "rfpandu".) Coyer should have learned to replace his stable infinitives by conjugated verbs, and his intangible concepts by more metaphors like the few which leaped to the reader's eye by their singularity in his historical works, especially Sobleskl. His final paragraph is his best because it achieves these two things: the mood he set out to portray bounds forward successfully, and his style is its most accomplished in two hundred pages, His words embody a p assio n and portray and preview a revolution both by their action and ideas. “...Jusqu'A ce que le peuple ne voyant plus rien A respecter dans les riches A dans les grands, les insulte, les trouble dans leurs possessions, A les dtpouille; jusqu'S. ce que tous les Ordres de l'Etat se heurtent les uns contre les autres avec le poi&s de tous les vices, brisent tous les liens des loix A de la concorde, Jusqu'au moment enfin oft il ne reBtera ni Justice, ni honnfetetA, ni con- sell, ni force, ni courage, C'est alors peut-fctre qu'une Nation barbare ou policfte depuis peu, mais 232 moins corrompue, viendra le far & la sain, tous donner ses lolz et ses noeurs. Tel fut le sort de 1'Eaplre Hoaaln & de tous les Et&ts, lorsque tout fut corrompu.“109 The central thene Is that corruption leads to ruin because preventive measures become impossible. There is a cres cendo of violence, led by three "jusqu!&" conjunctions. He goes from the general ("le peuple") to the specific ("l'Stat"), to the abstract ("Justice", "honnetet#", "cour age", etc.). The violence begins slowly with the present participle "ne voyant plus rien", and hurls itself into three present tense verbB, all preceded by the direct object pronoun "les", which suggest increased revolutionary action: "insulte" "trouble" "dSpouille". The middle phrase begun by "Jusqu*&" shows trouble in total command because the central agents of the entire State are in conflict with each other, not merely the insubordination of a lower class to an upper. His metaphor attributing weight to vices, carries through the idea of violence by breaking the bonds which unite law, Justice, and order, and metamorphosing them into discord. The third section slows down the action by a break with "enfin", and brings the revolution to a gradual stop by the repeated n eg a tiv es "ni" ( fiv e tim e s). At a dead halt, Coyer projects a thoughtful and thought-provoking half-threat, half-prediction, that a barbarous and policed nation, both frightening concepts for his France, might force subjugation, their power being their purity, i.e ., lack of corruption. The real threat is in a moralistic rumination 233 of what really happened to others In the same situation in the past, factually stated in a passS simple. It was undoubt edly Montesquieu's De lja grandeur et decadence des Homalns th at in sp ired the fin a l example, and i t was w ell chosen, for many of his readers would be familiar enough with the con temporary work so that further description and explanation were unnecessary. An overall look at De la predication shows two dis tinctly different and unequal portions. The first was moralis- tically passionate and damning. The second was placid in contrast, and not convincing in its uninspiring and unreali zable plan. His next attempt at reform was again in a wholly different approach. ChlnkI. 11hlstolre cochinchlnoise is a philosophical tale designed to ameliorate by exposing in a parable. He does not propose a corrective outline, but sows the seeds for reform negatively. The negative picture appears in the adventures of a wise, considerate father who, seeking positions for his son and daughter, accompanies them from job to Job and points out In each the problems involved in breaking Into a a£ tier. In Chirfr11 Coyer has realized and put to work his best sty listic qualities. He divides the story into small chapters of a couple of pages each, with one problem per chapter. The story advances rapidly. There is much physical action and much dialogue, both of which add life to the exposition. Al ternation between conversational present tense and narrative 234 pass& simple gives the strange effect of constantly reminding the reader that this is a tale, while a t the same time forcing his participation in the dialogues. The j>assft simple ossi fies the wrongs that Coyer is depicting, while the present tense con versation causes them to be more c r e d ib le , more real and urgent. The abb$ has not put aside his repetitions. By repeating the same phrase, he stresses the impossibillty of the situation, beginning each speech with the Marchande de modes, "Maudite maitrlse". Near the end of his pamphlet, he psychologically urges the reader to agree with him by continually stating his displeasure. Another repetition, but one which does not succeed, becomes tiresome by the end of the pamphlet. As Chinki and his children visit one profession after another, the problems and conversations all become similar. Rather than force like situations upon his reader, although professions had changed, Coyer should have maintained the terseness with which he started out, and worked in the remaining professions in a single chapter using a different approach. Regarding syntax, Chlnkl is similar to D&couverte de 11 isle frlvole. Unadorned nouns and verbs hasten the ex p o s itio n . "II fut cherchS, aisftment dScouvert, car i1 ne se c a ch o it pas, & emprisonnS."110 In one single sentence Coyer has painted very simply,by verbs alone--no images, no digressions, no descriptions, no details--an action that took place over a considerable 235 amount of time. The lack of metaphorical color is constant. In one of few images he gives, Coyer once again betrays overtones of sexual preoccupation. "C*est donner aux femmes le marteau 4 1 ' a i g u i l l e aux homines ." 111 The opposite of Chlnkl. concerning modifiers, style in general, and mood Is Etrennes aux morts et aux vIvans ou Pro .let utile partout oyi 11 on est mortal. This pamphlet is composed of two small chapters of unequal size and Importance. It Is humorous and straight forward. The first sentence sets up the scaffolding for what wi11 follow: "Tout le raonde connolt les Inconvenients qui rfcsultent de 11itablissement des cimetifcres au milieu de Paris; et le voeu gftnftral des Vi vans est qu*on choisisse loin de cette Ville une re sid en ce pour le s M orts."112 From then on, the author sets about discussing the present situation in a humorous manner and tells how it could be modified or changed. Humor in this situation was necessary because of the unpleasant topic of death. The vehicle for Coyer1s humor is circumlocution or riduculous situations and proposals. With his habitual molieresque opinions on doctors, Coyer describes their main duty: "Comae il seroit dangfcreux. . ,de distrfclre les anciens Mtdecins de leurs travawx, qui tendent sans cesse & expldier des Voyageurs par le Coche f u n ir a ir e ..." 1 1 3 Another example of humorous metaphor Is his definition of p r ie s ts as "dee E tres accoutumfts au repos 4 % 1 ' in a c tio n 236 Perhaps the most biting jibe at the religious is at the Pope. To avoid the delay of time and the expense of ener gies, Coyer proposes that an easier way to tell if a person were worthy of sainthood, would be if their bodies remained untouched after an hour in the cremation oven. "Car le tfaoignage de quatre Philosophes modemes, qui attesteroient le fait, vou- droit bien l'assertion d'un seul homme qui eut fetre faillible en jugeant les choses S cinq cent lieues de lui."115 Both adjectives and adverbs add to the color of his exposi tion. While he achieves the development here as quickly as he did in Chlnkl. the difference in the reader's overall picture is because of the modifiers. "Les S q u e le tte s ne doivent fttre admis que dans les Cloltres de Chartreux, de Capuclns, & dans d'autres maisons contemplatj.ves, o& l'on fait profession de mourir de son vivant, pour 1'Edifi cation d'un Public ingrat qui tralte cette re solution d*extravagance, & ne voit dans ces s o lit u d e s , que le s tombeaux du bon sen s, ou le s antres de 11 ignorance."116 It is not only the anti theti cal ideas such as skeletons and monks, "mourir de son vivant", tombs for good sense, that make the passage remarkable, but also the consistency of images tinged with his graveyard humor, and the ridiculous suggestion he is making. He obviously includes himself in the ungrateful public who does not appreciate the wasted, sequestered existences of these celibates who could be serving their fellowman. Poking fun at the religious is not new for Coyer, but questioning the existence of the soul, more covertly 237 but more profoundly than he did In the Lettre au H. £. Berthier. la surprising at this stage In his life, when he begins to look back on his past and seek out more routinely acceptable religious beliefs and practices. Coyer refers to the soul as "cette substance volatile, dont tout le monde 117 parle, & que personne n'a jamais vue,tt The contrast appears again in this metaphor when he refers to the soul as a substance, but one which is evaporating. 'That he calls it matter indicates his century's usual scientific view of things. When he questions its real existence--no one has ever seen it--Coyer is examining in habitual eighteenth century philosophical pyrrhonism. The manner in which he doubts is partial proof that his implication is correct (no one has seen it, therefore...). He builds the entire image around the adjective "volatile". On other occasions, he accumulates modifiers to compose a mood. In the following sentence Coyer repeats three superla tives constructed similarly in words and ideas (le. plus + odor), and destroys the ridiculous picture by the same words (plus + odor) turned negative. "La Coquette £a plus musqule. le Petit-Maitre l £ &U& par f u l l , le Courtisan l£ Plus charg* d 'amare & d 'eaux de senteur. ne eonservent plus rien de leurs bonnes o d e u rs , aprfcs la d is s o lu t io n de leurs parties,"110 Coyer had little tolerance for injustice, particularly regarding that select group of which he considered himself a member. In one sen ten ce, the author used more a d je c tiv e s 238 than in entire pages of preceding works. His choice of words (nouns, adjectives and verbs) shows his passion and the vio lence of his conviotifcna* "L'orgueil du Phllosophe indigent humili® par cette cruelle in$galit$, qui met entre les homnes un intervalle qu'on ne peut combier qu'&vec de l'or, se plairoit dans la contemplation de la barque fatale,"119 He opposes pride and humiliation and introduces a cause with several effects, all of which compose a kind of onoma- topoetic, visceral reaction. Coyer demonstrated a keen ear for phonetic effect. All the primary words begin with vowels and could orally be rendered staccato by a glottal stop; ( * orgue 11", " indigent", "humilii", " inftgali t$" , "intervalle", "or"). The first and last are tempered by the eliding definite article, and begin with the liquid construction "or-", to complete the verbal pyramid. The cause ("indigent") and the effects ("inSgalit®", "inter v a lle " ) are in a l l i t e r a t i o n a ls o , and again form a p a r a lle l c o n str u c tio n of two lik e n asals ('in - " ) which fencompass an oral vowel of the same orthography, another example of con trast ("i-nS-"). The adjective "cruelle", as it precedes "inSgalitft", adds strength to its meaning by its position and by the harsh composition of the stop combination "cr-" plus the shrill, high vowel [y]. The adjective "fatale" describing the funeral boat prepares for the personificatimn and a change of metaphors, death as an unreal, stage-like q u a l it y . 239 "II n'y dAcouvriroit qu'un sombre thIAtre, ovi la Nature anene des acteurs pour les dApouiller de leurs r&les que le hazard donne & d'autres, auxquels elle prepare le mime denouement120 The images are consistent (theater, actors, roles, denouement). But the words "sombre11 and "dApouiller" are incongruous with the theater, while in keeping with death. Coya" should have ended his paragraph here, with the reader divining the final justice for the mistreated and misunderstood. Instead, he oontlnues with his customary oversimplification that ends In an unnecessary pitying, instead of the recuperation of lost dignity. "II n'y verroit qu'une douce voiture pour passer dans un pays inconnu, & souriroit a la pensAe qu'il l'habitera quelque jour avec les grands & les riches qui l'ont peu consider#, & qu'il y aura surement la prA- inence sur eux."121 This final thought is bitter and childlike, a little too much the image o f "L1Embarquement pour Cyth&re" to an underworld with a glorified Charon and a symbolical Styx which resembles more closely the blue Danube. As if on a see-saw of ori ginality and redundancy, Coyer completely changes in Plan d'Aducatlon publlaue. The Plan is dull, unoriginal, and moralizing, but useful and necessary. In his general views on public education. Coyer begins a series of contradictions with himself. He divides his plan into two main sections regarding body {physical education) and soul (moral instruction). The 240 large role of the soul, which he had previously questioned if not denied, is the first contradiction. The second in volves nature. "...ses facultfts, corporelles & spirituelles, demandent & sortir de 1 lengourdissement oil la Nature, qui ne fait rien tout-&-coup, les produit." Formerly, Nature was for Coyer the untouchable purity which fought against the corruption of the world and yielded wisdom and common sense. As a return to his early traits as a writer, the Plan is excessively moralizing and prolix. The long work could be cut to one-third and still be a useful synthesis. Whole paragraphs are preaching and verbose, and should have been eliminated. "Meres, qui n'&tes point Meres, puisque vous refusez & vos enfans le lait que la Nature vous donna pour les nourrir; puisque du moins vous ne les faites pas allaiter sous vos yeux, lors- que la fortune vous le permAt; Nourrlces iraba- cilles, qui par les entraves oii voub les mettrez, empfcchez le Jeu de la machine humaine, & le dftveloppement des forces; Peres nonchalans ou faibles, qui n'avez ni le zlle, ni le courage de prescrire Sl des Apouses ou des nourrlces ce qu* elles doivent faire, vous vous avertissez de h&ter 1finstitution publique pour arrSter le m al."123 This harangue, one single sentence, has little to do with the development of Coyer's plan. It demonstrates the aging abbft's Impatience with anything he considers wrong, and his reluctance to couch these same complaints, now some twenty- five years old for him, in his former flowery, transparent disguises. The preceding two sentences are equally as ramb ling, and return to the redundancy of the lists which plagued 241 the Bagatelles. Within the short span of one page, Coyer lists prepositional phrases: "sans maillot, sans bandages, sans ligature, sans gene, sans compression*; infinitives pre ceded by de: "de se tourner,.., d'Stendre..., de ramper, de n'fitre..."; subjects: "tout cela...tout cela"; and negatives: "...ni bossus, ni boiteux, ni cagneux, ni nouSs, 124 ni rachltiques." Along with his old characteristics he shows some new o n e s, In true outline form Coyer divides the Plan into three parts, each with chapters, and articles. Sometimes the divisions are even smaller and are denoted by numbers. The last section, on the constitution of the courses of study by class, the form is almost strictly elaborated outline. Here, finally, digressions, harangues, and personal comments are kept to a minimum. Throughout the plan , Coyer In se r ts quotations f r o m other authors on public education when he feels he cannot improve on the citation by paraphrasing. The fa c t that the abbA w illin g ly uses large numbers of quotations is signifleant. In his first pamphlets he often borrowed from other authors, and just as often did not mention that the ideas were not his own. In the preface to the Plan, he states openly that he will quote others when he feels that they have stated something better than he could. In the body of the quotation,he tells who the author is, and from which work it came. It is almost with resignation mingled with humility that he openly renounces 242 originality* This method prepares the way for his final work on public service, the translation of Blackstone, where the entire work is that of another author. Because the Blackstone translation is not Coyer*s work per se. I shall not treat it from the point of view of style, but shall mention it in the overall development and changes in his approach. Appearing nearly at the end of his literary career, it shows a discouraged but still de termined writer, concerned with the wrongs of France's penal system, but not energetic enough to incorporate his thoughts into a more original form. This publication plus Coyer*s account of his travels to Italy and Holland, and his observations on England all reflect passively on things past, observed and remembered, and finally reported in concrete form. The epistolary travel accounts show a younger man, even though they were published many years after the trips. He probably wrote them in rough form at the time of occurrence,and merely ed ited and published them as an old man, at a time when more original pieces did not appear. As a result, they show a strange agglomeration of every previous stage in Coyer's stylistic development, and offer nothing striking either in ideas or images. He is sometimes serious, sometimes puckish; now moralizing, now risqu#1. There are fire metaphors and examples of preciosity, colorful modifiers followed by staid paragraphs of pure narration. Chronologically, these 243 publications give a false picture of the man who wrote them, an uncharacteristic penultimate appearance. His last piece, Carfeme entler. shows the final changes, the end of his career. With this exception, a sweeping glance at Coyer1s works shows a beginning and an end that were frivolous and lightly moralizing. His historical works were scattered in the entire middle period. Beside the beginning and ehd, encompassing the histories, were his works showing dedication to service for his country. They were of more solid composition and showed improvements in writing. At the apex of his career are the "philosophical" pamphlets. It is here that a wholly different Coyer emerges, and demonstrates an ability to compete successfully with those who bore his coveted title. In each of his philosophical works Coyer stands face to face with celebrated phllosophes. The Le t tre au R. P. Berthler sarcastically pretends that the two are friends, while Coyer chips away at his fellow religious* debunking of materialism. It is an attack. Dlscours sur la satyre contre leg phllosophes does not even feign friendship with P&lissot. Instead, Coyer wages serious and reasonable ar guments against the evil effects of Pallssot's Leg Phllo sophes . This pamphlet is likewise an attack. Lettre au Docteur Maty is a defense rather than an attack. Like Ber thler . it pretends to be interested in one phase, i.e., defense of the Doctor's veracity in his report on the giants, 2^4 while in reality Coyer*s main concern is to fabricate an ideal society which portrays a philosophical haven. Maty is comparable to Isle frivole in construction but contrary in ideas. All three show a boldness on the part of the author. Berthler and Maty were published abroad, but Satyre appeared in the (Euyres as early as 1758. 'The censors considered Berthler so dangerous that it was condemned and burned by the public executioner. This severe reprimand cooled off Coyer's pen considerably. It is a pity, for Berthler is the most Voltairian and the most cleverly written of all three. Pushing aside occasional overexplanation and overex tension of a good point, it is possible to see an astutely handled, almost dadaistic manipulation of disconnected words and ideas to yield a single train of thought. What is literarily artistic is the total mastery of a fast-moving discussion, or rather monologue, for Coyer never gives Ber- thier a chance to reply or defend himself. The author dupes and ridicules Berthler through a series of logically false, although convincing reasonings. As usual, Coyer calls on the ancients as he begins his history of materialism. This time, however, he uses all quotations out of context, as did Berthler, In order to prove that materialism has existed since the beginning of time and is located everywhere. Greek philosophers found the soul in atoms, the heart, the blood, the brain, In fire, air and numbers. AristoxSne, a "philosophe musician", located it in the human organs, 245 "dans l'hannonie." "Musicien" and "harmonic" lead to a digression regarding music, that materialism under Louis XIV was a violin because one academician supposedly said 12 5 to another, "Colletetl je vous trouve un plaisant violonl" Extending the vlolin*=man to a different meaning and century, the author c it e s an example of metonymy in which he r e fe r s to the musician as his instrument. "Cupis est un excellent 126 violon." Speaking of the player, Coyer talks about the soul of the violin. Here he has completed the unity of his thought by returning to the idea of soul, now attached to the secondary idea, violin. His conclusion is that even in his own century the "harmonie d1Aristox&ne" exists. Changing to another approach, Coyer again finds safety from censorship in citing examples from the ancients to criticize his contemporaries, bound together with another kind of false logic. He continues a Paris/Athens analogy which he began earlier to unify the development. The abb# cites fictl'tious statements which prove the bond between the soul and materialism, and subtly suggests that certain spe cific Greek authors might have said them. He continues falsely to prove that currently one cannot distinguish between man and a trumpet, woman and a machine or a statue. From this trend of thought, he opens the question of animation, of attributing a soul to a painting or a statue. Semantics becomes an Integral part in his battle. He asks whether it is not materialistic to refer to an author as "un diamant 246 brut enchasaft dans du plomb", or for a mother to call her child "un bijou"* He lists numerous expressions which depict man as an animal, ftg., "un poltron" as "un liivre", or 127 "un ignorant" as "un asne". Still pounding in his topic by accepted contemporary examples, Coyer recalls a play in which a fairy and a girl see statues, clocks, and animals all in action. He puts words in Mirabeau's mouth regarding his 11 Ami des hommes. when he says that Mirabeau called the whole French nation "Automates". "Si I 1Auteur n'articule pas X 2 £3 le mot d1 Automate. il indique la chose." Coyer has g o tten more and more e x c ite d in h is p ro o fs. Finally he forgets his logical (or illogical) development and harangues first his fellow citizens, then the author he was criticizing, and finally anyone who will listen to him. In his passion his tongue becomes quite sharp. Coyer, who has always defended the Jews, makes an anti-Jewish jibe at the author because of the abundance of Old Testament examples the man has used. "II a un go&t dicidi pour 11Anclen Testament dans toute sa vigueur, prifirablement au Nouveau. II Judaize complitement. Qui est- ce qui le circoncira?"129 The remark Is beyond Coyer's habitual moderation and kind ness, and Is therefore uncharacteristic of hiB style. After several more examples, not different from his preceding ones, Coyer concludes by charging Berthler to stamp out materialism wherever he can find it, "mime o& 11 n'est pas."^^ 2^7 Coyer1s personal complaints about certain criticisms against his own works led him away from his main topic, which he handled admirably, and into two or three petty tangents, markedly inferior to the rest of the article. These asides involve a criticism of Mirabeau's L*Ami des homines and the abb® de Caverac's piece which praised the revocation of the Edit de Nantes. Coyer devoted as much space to these personal defenses as he did to Berthler and materialism. The result is very unequal, and the quality of what should have been a mordant satire was considerably weakened. There is no striking change in his syntax or language, i.e., few praiseworthy images and few blatant literary faults, Dlscours sur la satyre contre les phllosophes differs from Berthler In tone and animation. It is not different in language. This esBay maintains an even, learned, semi- moralizmg tone throughout and never gives in to passions, perhaps because it has nothing to do with Coyer personally. Coyer is not giving a criticism on the literary worth of Palissot's play. Bather, he is defending what he calls "public honesty". After subtly indicating that Palissot was not e s p e c ia lly ta le n te d as a p layw right, Coyer jumps immediately into a history of the public reaction to sa tirists in drama, or dramatic prose. By examples alone, from his friends the ancient Greek dramatists and the seven teenth century authors he admired, the abb® set out to show how experience taught authors not to humiliate either o /ir 1 nh 1 v 1 dim 1 n m* thp n u ^ H r qn q who Ip by rl bleu "Ip and vpiip- monr qqtlrp on thp nt.qfp, "nlni/ no1lpatJ, F’o I I ^ tp and p :;- ppt' 1a1 1 y Ar 1 n t ophnn on , ^oypr rhowr how nav 1 o qtn ros , buffoon- pry qn11 oqtli'p wptp pffpntiyplv uup ■ r ri 1 t '■ >f 1 t how ! wo mm ■1 * n ■’■ ' > r ] • 1 »•,- t f o qp (~ i > ?■ yp i' r f ’: 1 , h'.qr t ■ o f ' t V; p r' P q U f ’no I T t Pri r I o ■ j t o ■ 1 1 ; •; t n rt p o 1' a n n t h ° 1' 1 1 r,: 1 ’ hU t I'p q 1 1 ■’oh t. hf* h otno* h. p boh '1 on p and i mrnp h ] rr> r- o 1 P q p 'f h i " W f ' 1' , ' ’ O ’/ P 1 ' 1 P ' 1 1 ’ ' ' r' t ! V P H 1 ] '' O U 1 O 1 ' ' ' O t T o r a ' - ' i f’ 1 t f i v i m t h p!" p I’Xapi ; (T to r p o t 1 f v t h p p v 1 ! h h m h 'Inr.p t o tt-'it w nrt hv ,'i'nai o *' t'■V"! 1 lor o ph pf , :inw he* ' y h t f‘VP'1 * v -' r ■ i ' ■ n o t u : >'■ t t ■ *' ■ i ] l ■ > -j - 1 '1 > o m ■ i 1 n '' 1 t y o f ’ ' ’ n 7 '' T 1 1' b O * ' P 1 '' i 11 ’ t h t - t ■ j' f' p o t o j ’ f 'U r ' f " o ^ T m f 1 n f on '' o x' n ' ' b p i ' ‘ ° f' n U r 1 t i U 7' r i ' \ ! t ■ P n i m , ■ ' ■ f' o p t u no ■" t p p o o li , ■ b > t-n t'T’o f p 1 v f-p f f i i n • r I’o t u 1' ! ri,■ u 1 o n »-r'i q n p n ;d r t a r f f a ' l P o '” t o I p f u y • P r a t " t h p i » o ” i | - > 1 t > ■ n i j p h thin -i i r-, | i 1 - o * i r ^ >■/■■■.* - i y i i ; 1 n i ; ' j ’■ To k i '' W t' ^ t y ■> r ' L ( ’ ' ) f ’ * ■ • '■ t 1 r 1 • - P \ t + *■ y -■ f ' n p * v r - . o '> ] o ' T ■ t ■ r' f r-, r i t 1 , s, y * r O ■■ ■ - , . ! o y TTU 1 n t o f a n r b ’nt t a o I 1 ''' r o ■ ' ‘ 1 0 0 ■*' < I f' t •;! > rn n I’ o 1 1 y 1 n . ■ 1 1 t n o ho .0 r w>f: 1 1 n o t > t 1 " ] n ] ir n I o t f ; 0 0 r i r ■' I : 1 1 1 - f 1 i ' ■ ri 1 i'' t o n r' 1 ’■/ O ' ' \ ]' ■ p F‘ft']r:i| P r f [ u " o ' t o n ■" p t y 1 T o. i o f . o | ■'■’i o ^ ■ i y ■n o t V l 'a t n 1 1 ri w '■ ! * h o p on b pyin p h ". p .v t h \ p v . i q t v------r o ;• hovy r to v#' v t o hf o'" wp ! ! |’"ad ’no o ! i, r ;■ T f, n t p -a to h i ’ ,5 o i-1 l o r b i ' ’' ’ p f t q t Inn '' u r ' t p 1 j v an - r i Brinp;' up M t-r 1 on . ’ h ” 1 ■ i * t ri >' > *'i'': 1 , an wp Vp n , n o i n . t o n ,■ < nr* on lv to p n l1 irVitpri th yon trh t h p •1 h;f o !* v of t f - p q p yp t | jb nn 1' , ibd ]f> tho f n ymp r 1 f’ In bfanf-ii o p t' tip T'h 1 1 n q o rh p r; 1 i'pr' t'p n t not r '1' 1 1 p , ’ 1 ■' ■ l *■ t 1 t i ] i o ) •' qpt :■)'] i'c;t 1 ^ hi j t -1 ! rn o'' t f ' I - * > i' ] * t v in t h o ■>; q y i r w h ' r' 1 ■ k 11 ■ ’n't'* i- io >«■ c t i' < i <• ■ i; 1 ' h- 2*f9 honesty. It is written as if by one apart, one who can see all from a perfectly objective vantage point and thereby render a wise, unchallengeable Judgment. The phllosophes made known th e ir g r a titu d e and resp ect for the author o f Satyre. not for Its literary qualities, but for the suc cessful Job of their defense. Another defense which Coyer assumed, perhaps by request, was that of Dr. Maty, his fellow academician in the Royal Society. Maty, as Indicated earlier, had published a report on Patagonian giants which the public in general and the other phllosophes in particular were not prepared to accept. Just as Berthler, among other reasons, was a pretext for Coyer to refute criticisms against his own work, and De la predication a pretext for his exposition of the ideal cor rective device for corrupted moeurs. Lettre au Docteur Maty gave Coyer the opportunity to invent a background and develop an imaginary society whose government, leaders, and members formed a perfect organization, the model for all nations. In this publication as in Noblesse. Berthier. and others, the authorfs forte is in winning the reader over to his side. Very s t e a l t h i l y the abbS makes general statem ents which indicate that he agrees with the public opinion. Then little by little, he begins to break away in order to prove an opposing idea. He maintains a light approach throughout, with a facade of seriousness. "Ce point de l'Histoire Naturelle /dee grants patagon&7 parott mSriter quelqu*attentlon, autant au moins que les coquilles & les pa- ^ pillons qui remplissent nos cabinets & la mode." ^ 250 Since at this moment, natural history was enjoying the apex of its popularity up till that time, Coyer attracted his readers by current interest as he did in the Bagatelles. But he subtly undercut the importance of the subject by his comparison to shell and butterfly collections. He relies on his usual method, history, to lay the foundation for his argument. With the realistic figures and dimen sions of giants discovered by numerous explorers since the early sixteenth century, Coyer leaves no room for lay men to dispute scientific facts. He also gains confidence by placing himself on the very respected level not only of his readers, but also of Dr. Maty, who in a personal letter asked that Coyer justify his report. Coyer defends him by using the same technique as he did in the Satyre. examples and logic. He cites numerous examples of oddities and aberrations already accepted by everyone: differences in sizes of dbgs, cattle, and other animals; inherited qualities which the average man does not possess (^£., six fingers on one hand); men with different colorB of skin, with or without beards, with huge legs as large as an average man's body. The natural and logical conclusion is then, why cannot there exist men nine feet 1 "32 tall? Once he convinces his readers of the importance of a subject which they now accept as credible, he begins to justify his real purpose in writing, the exposition of the Patagonian society. 251 These Justifications involve citations from Maupertuis as to the value of such a study (leurs ld£es, leurs connois- sances, leurs histoires" ), and Coyer's own weak supplica tion that "11 doit £tre permis & tout le raonde de rSver, A 1 3^ pourvu qu'on reve en homme de bien." The dream that he sketches is one in which justice, equality, honesty, virtue, good health, and family happiness triumph. It is the reverse version of life on the Frivolous Island. Coyer Introduces nothing new in his ideas. The style of the first half, winning over the reader, shows a per fection in reasoning and self-oonfidence which convinces in i t s own r ig h t. The l a s t h a lf, l i f e among the P atagonians, Is a very weak second to the Isle frivole. The ending totally reverts to the forced style of the letters to "un grand" and "une jeune dame". "Au lieu d'une Lettre, J'ai presque fait un Livre; je ne vous souhai te ni leur taille, ni leur force. Tout est bien comme vous le savez, dans le mellleur des mondes possibles: mais je fa is pour vous la p riere de S o cra te, mentem s a - fiftS in corpore sano. Jouissez long-tems, dans un corps bien sain, de votre raison, la raison des Phllosophes; vos amis les Sciences y gagneront. FAREWELL."135 Firstly, he had already used the letter-turned-book excuse several times previously. The size and strength of the giants have nothing to do with what precedes or what follows. The candidAan belief in the best of all possible worlds could vaguely apply to portions of Coyer*s philosophy, but again is irrevelant to his present termination, and is blatantly 252 unoriginal. Since he has already assumed that his audience Is composed o f p h llo so p h e s. he would surely hare no reason to translate the citation from Socrates: unnecessary over- explanation. Joining the "raison des Phllosophes" with the thought th at Maty*s friends and science in general (even knowledge, as an extension) would profit, was a pat on his own back, for he obviously Included himself In each group. Finally, the English "farewell", plus a translated Latin saying In the same sentence result in a overly vigorous attempt to Impress his readers with his own knowledge. Coyer himself admitted that while he could read English, speaking and understanding it were very difficult for him at best. The overall result of the pamphlet is uneyiaxi1 . The cleverness of Coyer's use of logic and isolated facts is startlingly different from what should have been his strongest point, the exposition of his ideal plan, which remains as simple and unmoving as the dullest of the baga telles . Simple, unmodifled sentences 1ined up one behind the other, hurry the reader through a series of scarcely related, ordinary requirements for a imaginary civilization, whose ideas had appeared m a n y tim es b efore, under the names of many authors. Every point covered can be traced to another (or several other) of Coyerfs publications. It was psycho logically important for Coyer to write this piece as Maty*s personal friend. It concretely established the abbS as a man who knew important people, who thought "philosophical" thoughts, whose ideas could better his own society if 253 people would listen to him. He had only to look around him to see, in fact, that people were not listening to him. Only a shadow of what he had suggested during a lifetime began to take form before he died. One year before his death, the fie r y Jesuit emerges from the heretofore quiet, self-effacing PhllosoPhe. From the beginning to the end in Ess sur la pre dication. carfeme entire. en un seul dlscours Coyer is a UrlLigerant preacher. This is truly a sermon to his sinful flock, shouted from a seat near heaven which permitted Coyer to Judge all without being included in the throng. He s t a t e s that Carfeme was published at Mount Sinai, as though it were another Sermon on the Mount. In several places he assumes a holier-than-thou attitude as if age necessarily brought with it a purity or purgation of all sins. As a minister of God, he is accusing those who profess to be Christians and citizens, of lies, deception, and blindness to their own situation. "Viendra un jour, le dernier jour lorwque le Soleil s'Steindra, lorsque les Mers se sou- leveront contre les terres, lorsque des milliers de volcans s'embraseront de toutes parts, lors que le soufre, le bltume, les mfetaux enflammfts s'4lanceront par torrent du seln des Montagnes, lorsque le Grand Juge ass is sur les nufees re- paraltra pour vous Juger, alors vous le recon- naltrez malgrfe vous; mats quelles vertus Chrfttlennes porterez-vous & son Tribunal? AucuneI Ne dites done pas que vous fetes Chritiens, s ' 11 vous reste une ombre de r a is o n ."136 Coyer wrote with incandescent passion. One long sentence charged with flaming Images ("Soleil s'feteindra", "volcans 254 s'embriseront", “soufre", "bltume", "m#taux enflasuais") and Tiolence ("se souleveront", "s'tlanceront par torrent"), Intensified by a repeated,aaimost hissed "lorsque", all spew forth to inundate the sinner with the most powerful natural sources in the world: the sun, volcanoes, mountains. More powerful even than nature are its creator, "le grand Juge", and h is tr ib u n a l. He im presses upon them the in e v i t a b i l i t y of Judgement day ( "malgrft vous"). His long sentence ends in a question. Whereas Coyer's answers to his own questions are usually superfluous, in this case his one word response is impressive. The finality and desolation embodied in "Aucune", which he must cerblnly have shouted in a stage w hisper, l e f t no room for comment or r e fu ta tio n from h is listeners. He follows his condemnation by an insult such as one would expect from a teacher to a student, or a parent to a child,"s'il vous reste une ombre de raison," that quality most esteemed by the phllosophes. This final publication is the only one in which Coyer openly finds fault with the phllosophes as a group. Here, as elsewhere he chastises government leaders, writers, war riors, even the aosiarch, for their laxity in helping create good citizens from average men. To his death, h’.s main concern remains with the people. But the people's defender has taken on a new face. The kind, amusing, agreable abb§ has become hardened to empty supplications as he walls himself off from his fellow man. All compassion seems to have disappeared in 255 Carfeme. especially In his last sentence. The God who created nan to be Just, virtuous, and holy has also showed Coyer, his m in iste r , "la mort feternelle qui vous est destinfte, mais 11 ne me defend pas de pleurer sur vous, St de prler pour votre conversion."13? What a radical change in Coyer, Never before would he have refused a benediction. From his isolated, elevated posi tio n , the tears he sheds for them are empty and b it t e r , with no balm to p rotect them from consuming damnation. This tone is constant throughout. Equally as constant and striking stylistically is the direct contact the author achieves through the continual use of "vous", alternating with Imperatives in the same person. The present tense is all that is necessary. The problem as Coyer sees it is real and menacing; it must be taken care of immediately, in the present--the future will be too late. The entire effect of Carfeme is different from anything Coyer had written previously. But thep phe Coyer who wrote Curfeme is not the Coyer who charmed in the Bagatelles r objectively reported in S o - blegkl, or took up the civic sword in Noblesse. It is easy to see in Carfeme an old man, sick in spirit and in body, deeply touched by the disappointments in his career, and, since he was always Imbued with the energy and desire to serve, the ultimate failure in that part of his life which made itself visible in every word the author wrote. It is for that reason that Carfeme must be considered as a work ? f h apart., As 1 o from t. his nit tmnte napp-nt 1 on , exam ination of oil his nt.hPr on hi 1 rat 1nns shows t. ho literary development, of the qbhe foyer. 'T’he ah he's p t v 1 1 r't 1 e rot trim!' follow pxnrt )y his r^r- <■■ on. a i 1 f v r ■ 11 t o rri " , ■ 'o yo r 1 ■'' foot ■ - an r a e t e p t p t 1 e ’ ro * t ) s pnnr't. ano V. hrnuwhowt hi;' life mo rep-M 1 n*’h bar Ion 11 y t H M and o e 1 f - r* f f a c, 1 nr . Towards Mi'1 of ox of his on peep, the snore/io of 1 n 1 1 1 1 no ’’ woi'li: of ■1 h I r " von t no 1 a o o o : fan r e 1 n t o an Intel I or t.,; ■> i r i ! Ion 1 p wr 1 ■' i, ! s ■ : i p < -s *. o ; o r ! i o 1 - [ a te ( ; • t pen r t f one.1 his 1 1 t"papy eon pave, An o f ’■■'In up ln- e I i ] o n o o of nip r 11 i - - ■11 r ■,; i 1 1 1 ■.,> on'! w r I 1 1 r! ■1 VJ o | ■ t ■ 'he ;h y p 1 o a 1 ' n " I m 1 (’ 1 "To-. ! '■ h 1 " ‘ : P U ''P Ml 1 r > ■1 e . ‘ > : ' ri‘it i'p |'l 'M f in '■ ■■ 1 ' ■ ] ' f' o , A ! “ t 1 'o 1 1 (■ 1 1 no o t fir 1 ; f “ o n 1 n 1 s w n i1 k ; ‘ will 1 1 ' 1 n t e o e " t if],- i'f." 1 i 1 1 , ' ’n y e <- 1 p nn *' 1 I’o o In II*'.-, w - - * r, 1 ,. ;, 1 , ] to pi* ' n 1 1 ]n " ' [ h i 1 , O' n r - * ■ p * : ' ’> o I : i ■■ ' ’ W o V ’ n r ■ r >p t o : ■ t ; - ! !■,]•']'!].■ i r ' ■ - .■•fi ' f'v-- i"1 of.' t > ■ iv m i - 1 ■ » i ■ i - ' o t i 1 ; n ' of l 1 I ''i’ s n f o I ■! i ! o r ■ t M r1 h <’ 1 : 1 ' ‘ . p ■ V I r 1 o • , ft 1 or i 1 1 fr and ■n'l ! 1 | on i M f 1 i : en r O , p e ]"r • > ■ i t e ■ j v; 1 t ; ■ i ■ i p p e p i n n P pp 1 1 k ! o ir o f f "i n ' - ■ , 1 i :; t 1 e ! P'i 'n i' ] ,', I 1 f' f > • ■ ' * i \ ; po ■ 1 n ■ | lie : ■; f ■ i t e 1 ! e ■ ’ 'Tin pa Sep, ! n e e 1 r <* p Mr a p 1 r l y <’ nn * n no ’ M pis rra k. eu r pet f 1 pm - 1 V In t t' e p e fpitipi: 1 ft " r -.n ’ p the 1 ' * 1 1 P * 1 o ■b-vlri’!; and t n ’ ) o .': w h 1 e h tVi 1 ] ni.JPM < ’n Ve P t h on i if..-hm ; t > ’ 1 o ■ i PP e p , ;; \ p d ep 1pe to e op pert h 1 r n e n e pa t 1 on 'p r.'ippnpt mn pep d e te rm in e d t he ru b — ’■art ma 11 e v 1 n ’11 r o a 1 1 1 n ,? to t pqrh nn1 i the foot that > I e n M 1 always t a M e M tO M 1 1 ‘ per; 1 n f 1 1] e p f' e ■ j t he P ’ 7 1 *' ■ t ' > W ' ■ P' ! 1 ' 25? simplicity in all elements: absence of modifiers, simple tense verbs (usually present tense), repetition of ideas or parts of speech for stress and rapidity, support from an cient and modern history, and a thread of utility as a pri mary requirem ent. The "miel de Narbonne" had already "tournft" verbally in Coyer's frivolous first stage. According to witnesses, this trait remained in his personality in other phases although he elim in ated i t from h is w r itin g in large measure. Success and criticism yielded positive stylistic re s u lts in the next ste p of Coyer's development . He became aware of his penchant for history and his call for public s e r v ic e . At the same tim e, h is tongue became bolder and h is style richer through allusions and metaphors. Colorful images with a straightforward approach produced a writer closer to what the phllosophes represented as a group, which was precisely the abb&'s aim. Criticism continued. Because it was in his own literary philosophy, and because he felt that his present methods were not reaching his readers suf ficiently, Coyer changed genres often in his most fruitful period: pure history, pure economics, epistolary endeavors, speeches, more pamphlets, philosophical tales, treatises, return to light fantasy, sermons—he tried nearly every approach except poetry and drama. He varied his tone just as he did his methodology: serious, gay, angry, chastising, sarcastic, Ironic, kind, piteous. Maturity of mind and body and pen gave Coyer the fleeting "gloire" that he 258 considered the writer's true reward. The enthusiasm so obvious at the peak of this literary pyramid began to wane as the author got o ld e r. The end of his career showed a return to the same s t y l i s t i c fa u lts which had plagued Coyer as a young man. His imagination became tired, his efforts were fewer, and his output dwindled. Only sporadic bursts of a Jaundiced passion remained in the old writer. His social contacts were few and his pieces showed a solitary, disappointed preacher who realized that his career had not produced all he had anticipated and longed for. Coyer was an "ficrivain de troisi&me ordre" because of the very constancy that dominated his personality. He obstinately employed the same stylistic inadequacies through out his career. Even in his brilliant and clever spurts, rare though they were, there were always scattered remnants of the frequently criticized faults; the repetition, the prftcleux mannerisms, uninspiring lists, blatant moralizing. Coyer neither rose gradually nor in one seering burst to the topmost rank of the literary hierarchy. Instead, the persistent unevensw always weighted down those portions which should have led him to fame. Just as constant as his various stylistic characteris tics were the continual themes of good citizenship and protection of le, peuple. They are ubiquitous. No other topics received more attention during his thirty-five years of writing. in both realms, the author was ahead of his 259 time. Undoubtedly, this constant deviation from the center line of acceptance which he carefully toed in most matters, brought on contemporary criticism that was to be silenced thirty or fifty years after his death. Citizenship and the people deserve special attention as highlights of the abb# Coyer's inspirations. FOOTNOTES CHAPTER IV ^Leg Masques. and 11 Astrologue du .lour, if In fact Coyer is the author of the latter. p L1Ann&e mervellleuse is quite similar to a short piece by Swift, and La MaAle dlmontrie resembles Montesquieu, Le Sage, d*Argens, or others who showed their own country through the eyes of exotic foreigners. ^Careme ^Orand, p. 126. 5Dame. pp, 219, 220. ^During the entire eighteenth century belles lettres represented the greatest public interest, compared to all other genres, and did so on a rising scale. More authors requested and were granted perm ission here, and more space was devoted to discussion and criticism in publications. Ehrard and Roger, "Deux p^riodiques", pp. 46, 54; Furet, ?La librairie du royaume de France", pp. 21, 23. P. 37. P. 77. p. 105. 10 p. 121. 11 P. 139. 12 P. 54. 13P. 76. 14 p. 120. 260 261 15L'Ann|e mervellleuBe. p. 63. l6D«ne. pp. 2 3 0 - 2 3 1 . 1^Pierre. p. 48. ItjGrand. pp. 136-137. ^ Plalslr. pp. 113, 112. 20Ibld.. p. 1 0 3 . 21Magle. pp. 90-91. 22L1Annie mervellleuse. p. 70. 23Plerre. pp. 36, 39. 2^Grand, p. 124. 2 L 1Ann&e m ervellleuse. p. 64. 2 6 1 1 le. P* 174. 2^Plerre. p. 39. 2 8 L1Annfte m ervellleuse. p. 67. 2^Isle. pp. 146-147. 3IMagle. p. 93. 32Ibld.. p. 101. 33PP. 43-44. 1Annte mervellleuse. p. 70. 33Magje. p. 89. 26 2 36Plaislr. p. 113. 37Sobleskl. Ill, 79. 3^Berthlcr. p. 12. 39Pr>dlcation. p. 11. jxn Berthler. p, 44. ^ Predication. p. 104. ^Alletz, pp. 163, 177, 178, 492, and passim. ^3Siicle, p. ill. 44 Ibid.. , p. 1 v . 45I b l d . , ^6Ib id . **7Ibid. . p. 28. 48 Grecgue et Romalne. pp. 7-8. 49Ibld., p. 12. 3°Ibld. . pp. 17-18. 51Ibld.. p. 23. 52Ibld.. p. 26. 33Ibid., p. 40. 54Ibld.. p. 64. 33Sobleskl. I, 21. 56Ibld.. I, 22. 57i b i d . , p. 71. 263 58Ibid., I, 143. 59Ibid.. I. 3*. 6°Ibid., I, 38. 6lIbld.. I. 53. 62Ibld.. I, 81. 63Ibid.. I. 85. 64Ibid.. I. 88. 63Ibld., I, 95. 66Ibid.. I. 96. 67Ibid., I, 101. 68Ibi<*.( I, 130. 69 Ib id ., I, 55. 70Ib id .t I. 104. 71Itid ., I, » 3 -. 72Ibld.. i. 118. 73Patrie. p . 43. 74 Peuple. p . 70. 7 S ^Noblesie. p. 50 76Ibid., p. 55. 77Ibid., p. 109. 70Ibld., p. 23. 79Ib ld .. p. 37. 264 Oa Ibid., p. 132. 81Ibid. . p. 3 2 . 82Ibld. . pp. 40-41. 83Ibld.. p. 48. 84Ibid.. p. 58. 83Ibid.. p. 9 1 . B6Ibid.. pp . 11 8?Ibld.. p. 118 80Ibld.. p. 138 89Ibid.. p. 9 . 90Ibid.. p. 10. 91Ibid.. p. 11. 92lbld.. p. 20. 93Ibid. f p. 29. 94Ibid.f p. 83. 95Ibld. . p. 10. 96Ibld.. p. 62. 97Ibld., p. 43. 98Ibld.. p. 50. " ib ift. 100Ib ld .f p. 10. 1DIl b U . t p. 39. 265 102IS 1 4 .. p. 29. 10^ I b id .. pp. 213-214. 104Ibid.. pp. 18-19. ^ '’Predication. p. 106I b ld .. p. 66. 107 lb id .. pp. 86-8?. 108I b id .. pp. 172-173. 109 l b l d .. p. 176. i l 0 Chinki , p. 90. 111I b i d .. P. 7b. 112 Etrennes. pp. 1-2. 113I b i d . . p. 27. l l 4 I b l d . . p. 28. 115I b id .. PP. 52-53. l l 6 I b ld .. P. 19. 117I b l d , . p. 27. l l 8 Iiild ., p. 7. 119I b id .. P. 38. 120I b id .. PP. 38-39. 121I b l d .. P. 39. 122Plan d1Education, d x iii . 266 123Xbld.. p. 2. 124 I b id ., pp. 1-2. 125Berthi©r, p. $. 1 26T, , Ibid.. p. 5. 1 27 Ibid., p. 1 3 . 1 2 8 Ibld.. p. 1 9 . 1 2 9Ibid.. p. 41. I 30Ibld.. p. 3 0 . 131Maty. p. 4. I 32Ibld.. p. 40. 1 3 3 jb;d., p. 71. 134lbid., p. 72. 1 3 5 Ibld.. p. 137. 1 36 £arferoe. pp. 23-24. 1 3 7 r ^ 1 bid., pp. 7 7- 7 8. CHAPTER V THE ABBfi'S HEAVENLY CITY In keeping with his literary style, the abb£ Coyer did not confine his exposition of the perfect society to two or three fictitious accounts. Instead, scattered throughout his works during the entirety of his career, the ideas which combine to depict an ideal government, phy sical structure and citizens, reappear, strengthen or con tradict the notions which the abbS formed from his readings, his acquaintances, and his personal experiences. Good govern ment and citizenship are the uniting factors in Coyer's di verse publications. It is ture that he was a moralist. He was also an historian, an essayist, and had several other distinguishing literary classifications. But each category in some way enhanced his real inspiration, setting up the structure for an ideal society. The three publ1 cations which treat this subject spe- cifically are disguised almost as though Coyer were reticent to entitle his pamphlet by its true design. The Lettre au Docteur Maty has the most obvious exposition. When Coyer represents life among the Patagonian giants, he announces at the very beginning that he intends to write their history "avant la lettre". De la predication is incomplete regarding 267 ? hdl a total picture of’ how a perfect r-overnmen t should ha formed, He nnnoentrat.es on the maintenance of law and nr* -h r with the ultimate moal o f m e a t 1 nr moral citizen s. he- n on ve rt e ,ie 1 ' 1 s 1 e f r 1 vo 1 n Is the e y an t o pnos 1 t e o f )mv- * e ; n h i,l a 1 ; i it;f ] r taken ■ t " i ;r' '• , ntr1 nan ’’11 f' , ! Mrr'irt f t- i nerat 1 re a r ■ proari; wha* rood ,■ o ve rnmeri t s and pennies should avoid. hover'1- 'wo dissertations nn “rat rh'" and *1 i1 e 11 I si " end the t r f ■* a + 1 1' e fin • ■ -d 1!<■ a * 1 o n make t hf‘ 1r r'npt rl - hut inn." In a narrow ana ■''reelnM m r1 wav, as t tie t r 1 1 t 1 fu; ki'i 1 rat (>, 'he I'fini'] t r. 1 ti11 ’ ’O r * 1 u n s w n 1 n h e ° m p ! e t. e the i e s _ ' ■ r 1 t! t '■ n n of' air' 1 ' e a ! ■ oi * <11 v ■ >. i ■ < > ' > • • ■> - u' v to ; o 1 n * -'in* i r ] ,■ ■ i ■■ * , I ■ ' • Ij I ' l l ‘ > ■■ 1 ■ - " ; ■ i I ■ , 1 1 . > Y’ | | t w r i 1 1 u . ' i'|i t '1 * im'tiTimiPr | t f i i' i , ^ ■ ■ i , O >• ; i ’ f 11 ■ | i ' t y * ' * 1 '1 ' i u o w d 'd Is + n 11 i M - i e r-: l - n - i r t'l ' ' f S ’ 1 1 i •' O r -, a — . ■ , > , . t i * . j I 1 • > * i ■ r. . > . . 1 - i ■ ■ ■ ; t \ . 1 r I *' 1 : J e n < ’ f “' , a 1 - ■ . f■ y 1" 1,; ' ! ’ j "" 1; i ■ 1 ■• ■ r ’ 1 >' * i : e '■ f; 1 i 1 I a S pe r * s af]'^ TT1 ’ 3 S t » S 't 11 ‘ ’ 1 o S e * e t" t h‘: f a ' t i ' 1 .’ on ■ J a ' 1 t t a ■ nr 1 ma r ’/ e i i > rr e n t in a 1 1 1 * '1 f11; n < ~ t 1 r > _ e t ■ ' o v e >' i i, i 1 : / ■ y ! , ■ V ■ I ;l : ♦ he an" e Y i s * ' n *r elf 7 1 1' * 1 ] 1 1 1 ; e>> e»a .• n t r > .. a <:. • i a a m o d e 1 , In o r d e r to ha'-' o a : ’ '■ • t h 1 > ■ O ! ‘ ■ a »M 1 'T a t 1 ; >»; , t h e a t v ,et l a i d ': re s h i s e ■ 11 1 r i n if. t > ■ (. f'nrr of a ! '/ r a n; 1 11 , with ’ Vie u s e rn In,- > lO.J y '‘it t f e v e r y i n i 'I'- t 11 e ! o w e r f d ] 1 he a rti from a lighthouse w t* 1 e h rrn tfn t r an'1 1 i r p"tr , 'the on o r*ini is < • (> of the r vr a m 1 ■ t Is t V \ e V m d V of n Vi e ponplo . '"f - e s u n r e ed ' rl 1 ■ ) ve i'- ‘ are m a 1 1 e r , •" ,1 . - - f ■ 1 i >: > t jrf’,'11"1 In..1 to me r I 1 a u ■ ‘ ■ fe 269 higher, each layer of society more separated from the founda- I4, tion of the peuple. This formation is not vastly different from what Coyer knew at first hand In his own Prance. The existing structured society with its various estates dif fered from the abbft Coyer*3 ideal plan only in that his own country egregiously lacked the virtue necessary to operate successfully. He probably chose a hierarchy similar to one which he knew the best because he wanted his own nation to realize what would happen if vice totally overcame virtue. At such a time, Coyer could see the different levels of his pyramid crumble and fall as the foundation rose up in protest. Each level would be at the throat of its neighbors and discoid would overcome harmony. That would be the cue for a stronger, purer nation to step in and take control over the resultant chaos,^ If Coyer saw this eventual down fall for France, he preached against it for reasons dif ferent from the true causes of the Revolution. The abb6's keynote was virtue. The Revolution was concerned with more urgent questions, such as hunger and political dissatis faction. That Coyer did not preach direatly against the elements which contributed to the Revolution is not to say that he did not recognize them. His concerns were close to the fundamental disagreements which led to civil strife in Prance at the end of the century, but Coyer law them from different angles. He predicted trouble more from the peasants than from the bourgeoisie. As for political discontent, 270 rather than black prognostications, the author ohose to suggest what he considered more efficacious systems than his contemporary one. What he suggests is not always entirely compatible with his previously suggested plans. In the same article with his social pyramid, Coyer also recommends a bee-hive nation, with disavowal of property and socialistic content ment revolving like so many satellites around the king, who is the father, mother, and savior Image.^ This confusion is understandable, for a generalized description of an ideal government as he presents it in Predication is con siderably easier to form than that for the leading magistrate and the r u lin g powers. About one thing. Coyer is adamant: hfc is against am absolute monarchy. In an absolute monarchy, the people 7 Q act in blind obedience without freedom of speech. "Le plaisir peu sent! d'un Roi qui regne par le sang, n'est pas comparable & celui d'un Roi par I'Election d'un Peuple libre qui couronne ce qu'il estime A ce qu'il aime."9 Rather than the monotonous, passive obedience to an absolute ruler, the abb# Coyer prefers one elected by the people be cause of his virtuous actions. Since he is of the people and for the people, the elected ruler will work effectively with them. "Le Roi. la Lol & la Nation, trols forces qui pesent l'une sur l'autre, Squllibre difficile."10 The fact that Coyer had always had a great deal of esteem for the manner in which English kings and Parliaments worked together,11 undoubtedly Influenced his opinions here. Whether his posi tion was Inherited as in England or elected as in Poland, the king should primarily be a figurehead for the nation, one 12 who represents what the entire nation stands for. In this role, the king appears as the father of the country. He shows compassion and understanding for his subjects, and rules as a "roi philosophe." ■ 1"3 Coyer saw all of the above qualities in an imaginary elected king for Poland. He describes this leader as one who leaves his neighbors in peace, so he can concentrate on developing his own nation's land and rivers with flourishing manufacturing, commerce, and finance. He will help form the great men who share his powers. All governing will be con trolled through free suffrage by all citizens. He will impress upon the aristocrats that the serfs are as much descendants from a noble and worthy tribe as they. There will be no more servitude; therefore industry, arts, sciences 14 honor, and prosperity will reign. Just as the citizens elect their leader, they will also elect a National Assembly charged with making the nation's law s.^ Coyer*s main concern regarding law-making is justice. He reports almost total lack of justice in his own epoch,^ and is acutely aware of how he feels it should be in his ideal setup. He believes that the injustice of venality in law Jeopardizes the lives, fortune and honor of the citizens. The obvious method to insure justice is through appointment 272 by merit and training. On the same scale, the laws and law officials should operate for the benefit of the entire popu- 18 lace, not just the rich and influential. Hence every 19 man has the right to his own lawyer, and to an open trial. Universal justice strengthened by popular laws will insure the public of certain basic rights. There will be religious tolerance (freedom from perse- 20 21 cution ), freedom of speech and of the press. Laws will be enforced by a system of punishment and reward. Rewards are for deserving citizens, based on talent and service: 22 for sculptors, artists, writers, or musicians. Punishments are for all stations of men, noble or peasant, rich or poor, 21 if they do not abide by the laws. Coyer hastens to point 24 out that punishment is for crimes, and not vices --an early plea for separation of church and state. There will be little need for strict policing, because authority in the home will be powerful and efficacious, be it paternal, 2 5 marital, or master over servant. Such authority will breed respect, and obviate the need for overbearing extra home guardians. Still concerned with family happiness and 2 6 concord, the abb6 permits divorce in his society where it is apparent that nothing save discord can result from con tinued union. This will benefit the nation because the individuals will be free to remarry under happier circum stances, and will be more likely to have more children, producing more citizens, therefore a stronger nation. 273 Freedom to remarry will also discourage extra-marital vice. Again the country benefits, for a virtuous nation is stronger than a corrupted one. Since Coyer was against all cruelty, 27 from sports (boxing ) to law punishment, he outlaws torture from the system of justice and dueling from settlement of 2 0 questions of honor. The abb£ carries his dislike for violence into the government's policy on wars. He is against wars, but finds them necessary when the nation's safety 29 is menaced. "Puisque I'Etat peut &tre attaquS, c'est sans doute une grande vertu de la dftfendre; qu'elle^0 revive, & la bonne heure, les premiers prix." What his ideal country must practice regarding economics plays a large role in his thinking. The topic of commerce alone appears incongruously in quite unlikely pamphlets; it also occupies the place of honor in several treatises he w rote. Being able to earn enough money to feed and clo th e his family is the primary concern for every man. 31 A happy and healthy family is an important part in his society's economy, because it is more likely to reproduce and thereby increase the population. Coyer noted with alarm in all coun tries he visited including his own, that formerly thriving cities were falling into economic ruin-because of a depopu lation crisis. He was not alone in believing that Fcanoe's population was not where it should be in comparison with the seventeenth century, but his figures were incorrect, for in ;>yU fact, there was a mator l'lnn 1n plrhtrent.h century po nn 1 a - t i on . ^ 'these beliefs explain why the nhhe in nnxloun for his Ideal society to Increase Its slye arri contrlhut.e t. o a healths/ economy. ho far, e ve r v t vi S nc In ■’oyer's hrs 1 rm Is ■ i n k e 1 lr] * h o f f -■ t'm. a t 1 f 1M * * h e ,n'1'1 ■ ■ ’ * ■1' < >»: n m v . It s i j : ■ t e - nance i ;■ man's f'rs* c o n c e r n , tree now ne am\r 1 .! e ■ ■ f->r it i t ne ma lor element , ■ y ,, t- 1 -■ on ■ i e * y w ' 1 1 ’ f ■ 1 ’ i1 (' a r a ; ! !r. v c l vp,1! v; 1 f a a r r 1 — r 11 '■ t u re r r4 ^ oin^ 1 ■ i' f■ *■ * . “' < ■ "■ a * 1 e r 1 a t t h e i n 1 1 v i ■ h ia 1 1 '' r a n h n r " n r i po. ^ a v 4 >e h e ! u r a f e a--' r ] c-r' e f r ° r 'a i i f •, n ) f-> e mi r ] o y - 1 i vr 1 n a e r *' * o r \ ^ nn ’1 + ■ * ' ( ‘ * ' . j r, a a \ i i : • ,-a v ■" * ■ ■ ■ '■ * e , ‘ ; ’ ■ > '• 1 a ■ a 1 .,, r a 1I ni]n r, p *. 1 • ( ■ r 1 m i" Y . (- f - ; ■t'ce , i cl; S'o v *■> r t t P 1 1 V f y t' a t 1 *■' Y] * J Va : , ' e irvrl f t So n a 1 ten . ■'! ^ m>'■ ]'f' *•^1 [UVh pr- ha a '1 t t ’/ * < 1 ► . * i > t * ‘Y ' ■ w > 1 “ _P. r .,1 *, * * \ ’ \ r ^vv; ( k ’ 3 ‘ ! U / e H ' ’t ^ - '■, . 1 1 r i 'r'' ■ ! * ' • • 1 .. . c i t e 'TO '■ ' ■ *" "o 1 ,~n 1 P '■ i < \ T}' * • ' i ' J r—v : T : . " 1 1 w> f ■ a- ■ , 1 ()'’ ' rs »t- {'■ 1 1 J.. a, *■^’1 » 1 • i 1 ] V * *n- t nr/ ■ ; p O r ' - * ' 1 f , opt]" ) J p- 1 4 ■ 1 ► * - r '' C e 11 n t e • 1 * ■1 ■' - i ■1 t - 1 1 1 1 \ ' -hh] > t IT, i . 1 t 1 o < ’ Imp i '' (- v-| n r- qtti *-ir: \ r nl an t \ 1 r' bni] community, 'T,-, !jri ) f y rtf th e clan lies In hr" 1 lee, o-inu- ' rot r- rove- r t vr : iv-. ■ ran- , T1" In npr.psn'ii'v tn nnntrnl 1". ho .'3 t.n t p *r: l u x e . :fr w an n l- rp''. r1 y w ltn p p n ln f t>ip of for tanof an an rn n tro l led luxe In h 1 n own t Irr.n. nnvev, hnwpvpr, dops not want, tn 'jnrM rny a ] ] I i j y p 1 inri-ii]no n f 1 t ." valnp In rnmmrare, rndurt rv , h*’ nnyr; , hfi 1 ; ■ y cinir'i o y y y : i y I'M 1 r' 1 o ■ t > j r r . i 1 i - u i u ] i y n n f ■ f ; i 1 • 11 " ■ i ] 1 ; f - r 1 f 1 ” 11 r 71r' . A r a t ' * 1‘1 ri n f \ '' W r' r t r m n !'(> t h M '■ M ■ 1 1 1 I 'T’f' ■ 1 , i i n ! if 'Tiif'h, i n u 11 ^ + w 1 n r 11 r f “ ’ ,T'f’rf- ^ \ ( 'ifvt Pi'fpr f i rru- ' -1 * 1 n n n r 'n n p n y 1 t > ■ 1 n + O n I' ] n y A n "A ’ v rl 1 "i n n M m i ('t '■ ■' n n ri u vr f1 l f * n m ■ tn 11*' \'' — + 111■ *T a nr m v r n '• i 1 dt s’n 1' r*’ 1 n r n niF'o ]'pf't 'in y yy M y n ] q t y> y y n 1 1 n f r> ^ o n : 1 (' , i f t i’n p o y t ) o n — y y y Tn 1 i j v f1 ■' In p ly r-'jl'i* 1 n>; 1 ri <- y -; p X y y p 'a MX M.n-n 1 n - M 1 a n >• 1 n t . " ; ' | * i > • 1 .f, > ' i - . «• 1 n ■ t " f 1 1 a ■■..-■ + / , , r '.j v ■ ,■> y f - } |,i. y ] n «> . ■ ■ y p r 1 I ) r p ■ n t • ’ * ’ ' t ■ I ■ [ ■ n i ’ ' ' I f • r' ■ ) i I ■ ' ( ■ i * ' * > f > i i ■ • 1 * . • v ; ■ : ' ' f ' 1 . T r ■ 1 j I ■ I *■ 1 ' 1 y 1 ! ‘ ' • 1 1 * h , f 1 " 1 I'M'"'1: ' 1 f ' 1 I' • ■ n f * un rf fh.-i'1 ’ < > V i ■ }' W !l.‘i ’•! t t. n f’ f r ' i n >' 1 n y y n p y 1 rl . ■ ’ ■ ; ] n ► i n 1' '■ f d ' 1 ! )' 1 1 ] r ■ ' r> >' V , M FI' \ " , f 1 I’ll ' '■ I n ' ! fAl '/ '■ 'P '! 1 W ‘ ’ M )r T 1 i ' r' ' ' , f ' ' ' 11 ' ■ ' i > ; t y n 1 ] • ‘ 1 M >* i" * ‘ ' < ■ ' i 1 ’ ■'1 i 1 : ' n \ ” i — t 1 1 n '' r o n 1 l’p 1 j n< j O f i i i y o v P ' f'n n • > ■ i y i t •< > y t ■, ' f . 1 • . ( • • 1 ; 1 i' h 1 ( ■ n H i 1 i’f p t ] v t"f' t i'o r■ 1 r t h n1 **n. * 1 ' 1 > ’ 0 i ' ' i i n ■' r \ r t ,. r t h * 1 1 r i ; " p l n r ' ‘ n '''' f ‘ | 11 V n ’ 1 1 r ': r M 1' 1' , U '■ * ] ’ \ n 1 '1' <1 f ]1 ‘ 1 O 1 I > ‘ ,1' ’} : ■ n f ( f’ n n y f r> 1 y 1 n n 11 , ^ { t n t M n r 1 * ' w > y ‘ '.MM-1 M * ■ '' f 1 f! * " 1! M 1 ( 1 : V 1J '' ■' ■ ' ;‘>1 jj' 1 '1 n r 1 y TT| fi y y n M n t f 1 n n t ' \ I 1 t . *' rV 'f ' t ’ r ( ‘1 n * X M fTl T ■ ! f ‘ 11 * ' '! I ‘ ’ f ' > 1 n i' y 11 * ■ rj t 1 n p •' *' n ' 1 1 j r' 1 f\ r ' n ‘ 1 f • '' [ > n <' ) ' 1 1 1 V f ’ r >' t n n i | n M 1 1 1 V, W 1 n f’ f' t n n V WPI 1 1 1 i t -r 1 M f’ ] ’ f *' 1 r’ 1 Vj tn n ri ' I t 1 n f] ' ' I WP I ! 1'P i»U' ’.-J 1 1h - nut dprnrnt. 1 on o f t d p ir r on 1 t 1 nn . 11 In 1 n t o nor 1 1 n y in nnt n t'hnt 1n rnvpv'n "cViloVon In pvptv not " n am na 1 wn , ho r t 1 ! ] O'M 1 O t M 1 T 1 n M r I M M " : ■ f l’ljn t U y o u " - (y i n t y , I 1 in 1 h “ '1 '( ‘ separate-but-equal problem that demonstrated, the fear of the upper classes as well as the abbA’s own concern with Maintaining a status quo regarding his personal existence. Intrinsic contradictions cloud the feasibility of Coyer Ideal government. Every man Is equal before the eyes of justice, but not in the judicial hierarchy. All classes have the right to engage in commerce, manufacturing and agriculture side by side, but he assures the noble that his social position will not be changed. Ideally there will be no more d is t in c t io n between "le tien" and "le mien", and yet there will be masters and servants, rich and less rich— there will be no poor; in that respect he never yields. Ir the physical surroundings for nis ideal society there are opposing ideas, too. The abbA*s thundering condemnation of large cities is striking. And yet, he bases the architectural and cultural suggestions included in his plan on city life. Every blueprint resembles his beloved Paris, a Paris which he never spares in rampant criticism of Its evils. What im presses Coyer the most about Paris is the constant companion ship of luxury and misery. He shows magnificent "h&tels", but filthy, poorly lighted streets, impure drinking water, kn infectious hospitals and butohershops. "A quoi bon cette rivalItA d'Atejgdue & de popula tion? Plus les deux Capitales /Paris and Londo|^ entasseront d'Hommes, plus il y aura d*infection dans 11 atmosphfcre, plus de maladies "•ApidAmiques, plus de luxe, plus de cupldltA, plus de chertA dans lee vivres, plus de crimes, plus, en un mot, elles corromperont A dAvoreront les deux Empires," 2 77 The greatest evil of large cities is their corrupting in fluence on mores. This point is the raison d*fetre for the Lettre au Docteur Maty. Before unveiling his plan for governmental correcting of vice, Coyer lists the reasons why Paris needs help. He states that marriage becomes an open door to licentiousness; that fear on the one hand and excessive luxe on the other prevent both rich and poor men from becoming fathers; old men continue a life of libertinage while the young become old before maturity; there is al ways enough money for pleasure and gourmandise but never enough for paying debts or aiding the unfortunate; every thing glitters with gold and gems while beggers line the streets; the strong live off the weak; money can buy ajpiy- i± 2 thing including the right to judge and be judged. It is for these reasons that Coyer places his school systems in the country, away from the corrupting influence of cities, 4 '3 where the children can be bathed in the purity of nature. He also places the imaginary Patagonian civilization in a rural area. Coyer1s mental battle between the asphalt and the loam ends in a compromise. His rustic people are c u ltu r e d , and t h e ir communal e x is te n c e tak es p lace in an idealized Paris. His ideal city is located on a river. There are numerous bridges to link both sides of the city. The bridges are unencumbered by houses and shops which prevent easy circulation of men and commerce. He locates all hospitals and cemeteries outside the city limits so as to prevent the 2?8 infection of the healthy by the sick or the dead. These hospitals have only one person to a bed. Vaccinations insure the healthy against epidemics and crippling or fatal diseases. Streets are paved and well lighted for the safety of the pedestrians. There are many trees and parks accessible through out the city to give all inhabitants--adults and children-- sufficient space for exercise and fresh air. To beautify the physical structures there are statues and paintings which adorn artistically constructed municipal buildings. Theaters, and opera houses for the peuole as well as the elite are constructed to supply adequate space for comfort and enjoy ment. Multiple fountains are useful and decorous. Archi tecture rids itself of heavy gothic embellishments and takes on the grace and symmetry of Greek and Bonan edifices. This city is salubrious, tastefully artistic, and yet maintains the simplicity of its rural surroundings. it is the opposite of the Ville de l*Esprit in Isle frivole. In the ideal city, the inhabitants live happy, healthy and uncorrupted lives. They have the strong desire to serve the nation which they helped to build and where every functioning element, whether governing body or architecture, works in their behalf. The citizens base their every action on the same honor and virtue which govern them. There is no question of the partial honor or half-way virtue that the Frivolites exhi- bited. There is no problem with infidelity, for families live in harmony, and divorce is permitted where marriage 279 cannot continue peaceably. There is no debauchery In youth, 47 unfit and unprepared to fill the Jobe awaiting them, because their fathers have correctly reared them. Such a yuung man begins his job training as a boy. Indolence never enters the picture. Every man's job is posted on his door. The jobless are too ashamed to remain in their 48 shiftlessness. The motivating factor in the citizen's 49 li fe is service to his country, whether he be layman or priest. He bases his morality on fear combined with hope for and faith in his government and its leaders.'*0 The foundation for this sound morality is in education and up bringing. The child learns by doing, and through the respect he has for his teachers,^ The ground-rules for morality and virtue are the same for all citizens, although Coyer maintains a class structure. It is in tne formation of these strata that the author tries to rationalize seemingly incompatible or contradictory elements of his ideal society. There is a nobility in his plan, but he does not base it on heredity. He chooses the nobles on their personal 52 merit, by dint of their virtues and talents. They learn their trades from the bottom up, like English sailors, rather than step unprepared Into an inherited position at an age when they are hardly capable or mature enough to 54 perform their duties efficaciously. There is no wasted etiquette in court,^ and no favoritism shown in their be h a lf, C9g., no more sermons preached to p ra ise the rich and 280 ignore the poor.-^) There is no opportunity for the nobles 57 to take over everything, including what belongs to the poor for the nobles themselves t.re under th? control of the government. The nobility is subject to “la Censure" like all other citizens. The result will be more loyalty, more r U virtue, and more respect for the people. Coyer's plan for ideal citizens is strictly patriarchal. The father plays the leading role in the family. He must have perfect control over his wife, his children, and his 59 servants. This means that, in such a responsible position, it is first of all the chefs de famllle who must maintain an acceptable morality. Coyer proposes a system of censors who will check up periodically on all houses. There is one censor to every ten houses. Twelve censors form a tri bunal. Every one hundred censors have guardians who form a supreme tribunal, "Tribunaux de Justice", to administer the punishment and reward system that governs the country. The women in these families think first of all of fulfilling their duties as good mothers and wives, in that order. They have happy, healthy pregnancies.^ There are no more seden- tary lives and constant complaints for the nine month term. They breastfeed their own children and never bind them up (fcnaillotement). 'They see to it that the babies have plenty of exercise, fresh foods and fruits, fresh air, and constant physical exposure to the elements (no hat, no shoes, cold baths every day, a single weight in clothes for both summer 281 and winter.Living "naturally" becomes all-important for men, women and children alike. Uncomfortably constraining clothes, decorated with laces and ribbons, give way to looser fitting styles which are comfortable and permit movement. Stiff, powdered c o if f u r e s , heavy makeup and perfumes disappear a lto g e th e r . Men and women look their age and are not ashamed of it. Imaginary illnesses such as vapors stop at the same time. They need few doctors, because nature provides the necessary cures. Surgeons are an exception, but are rarely needed. The family is always unified and helpful in time of illness or need.*3* In the ideal family, the parents love their children and shower them with affection. Instead of the eldest daughter being the only female child to marry, and the eldest male the sole inheritor and the only offspring with an honorable position in life, the parents divide their atten- 6 *5 tio n , h elp and p o sse ssio n s eq u a lly among a l l th e ir progeny. Family life is the center of all action. Simplicity of living does not take away from adequate amusements. There Is plenty of good literature, theater, opera, and ballet, totally different from what Coyer1s own era knew. The ideal amusements consist of operas of nature, agriculture, conjugal happiness, friendship, one's country, or national heroes. An example of tragedy is the punishment of a great man who wanted to tyrannize a weaker one. Comedy 282 is good-natured farce.^ Each play teaches the citizens to be useful and virtuous and thus preserve the strength 67 of the nation. ' Another help in national prosperity is a sound educa tional system, Hather than the individualized education of Emile, or the pre/ailing education in the colleges. Coyer wants a combination of the ideas of Montaigne, Locke, Plu tarch, Xenophon, and Plato. in this way, the child will learn about things before languages. With the appropriate physical exercises, the child's body will develop along with his mind. Coyer envisions subjects on the arts, commerce, 68 war, Jurisprudence, business, and religions. He has even 69 devised a typewriter system to teach beginners how to read. ' This education is through separate social classes according 70 to the needs of the btate. Here Coyer leaves his theory open to attack. He chooses the ideal nobility for its worth, virtue and talents. That should mean that every man has an equal opportunity to become noble. Yet, in educating the youth of* the nation, the abb# sees fit to prepare only the rich and the noble for high, intellectual positions. He considers that basic reading, writing, and simple calcula- 71 tion are all that the peuple needed. The religion that Coyer includes in his plan is the only time he mentions re ligion per se in the various theories which constitute his ideal society. ? R 1 We snw the relifrlour; of hln own time as basically use less and unproductive In the lit.a t e . t ? S ince the abbe Is against celibacy,^1 his society probably allows the clergy to mnrr.v and become fathers. These priests must, learn tn sepyo t UP i r count rv icTM ’'' tpcy sei've t.r.e .'i|t.nr, There 1s n e ith e r mi re rs M t t nn ' ' rm r ! nrnit 1 r j :;q , e , j ■, m e t’l’ucT ice of all r e l i g i o n s is- tolerated, Following the sairp rhart;- ] I I'j.lpi] education that he surs'osts f‘nr the peasants, f’oy*'r 1 1 b ew 1 s e r- ees no ro.n s op t o ep 1 1 r h f op the p en p \ e on T d a 1 Is no religion. Mvt a n't fallacious may remain as lone ar' "hoy are ha r^T'ay, • ’n V‘> r !<>'•! ,-fi S O "ors f U'*e f of S ’" flut ; t n ! :en e - r11 t t ||p ;.p n i d c : 1 a w , p f i i r i ' c T ' ' , or ?; >■ r t a i n m en 1 , h e : ■ s I t ' 1 t Sc do 'noc r a c y which s’nyeT seeps to 1 rr ■ t 1 1 ! , his separation o f t Vie f’h. l"pn." Into classes prevents maximum h e i r f'o p t h>‘ peasants whoso 'M o ra ! le cons It \, ,rl ■ Maun* 1. i m , Me fee!-- a f' O r t. a 1 h ;■ VUinat hv ‘ o r f ■ - O; ■ > - 'iri f ' " ' t 'il'.-d >' te c ; j e , t ■■ O r' ; a ' s : ■ o _ cause he cur'e from '1 ''"''I 1 1 town >;Viero up h,a S e jnse t’or,I with t tirrr , ' ! e 1' t a 1 n ! V 1' 1 f 1 r’ ■ ’ t P 1 + U I' < ■ ■ IT- ■ 1 ’ e e e r o ;; i t V of' ... I ,a - t o w ', r 1 " [,1 : fe ! nine nr* '' a a ''; i 1 I T ■’ < '■ * a c t ,, > -: ■ ] p r j < ■ r n n c e in , W a a t ° ’1 e r'' n y e p 1 S r s ! I 1 i on may he, 11 e n -* y f > p s * ops wn rs 1 p j.r Cro- fix' r fa' t ■ 1 e ' c cause, and n op s 1 >! e tv' that they ape 'pa’t ,,v o c a hf’tt cl' 1 o * t mac • he t r ' pf■:: ep t urif , Pop the abbe, tPe pei i p 1 e arethe f nun d a t 1 op o r the c nun t r v , ? 1 '''hey are the toM useful, the most v 1 pt u n u‘ ■ and t i'*1 most pe s i e <■-1 u I ' o :: * ■. ■ m > • p t < i e t s 11 p a t 1 op , 284 "II labours nos terres, 11 cultive nos jardins, 11 foullle nos mines & nos carrlferes, 11 dessfeche nos oarals, 11 nettoye nos rue?, 11 batit nos raal- son s, St fabrique nos meubles "79 Their u tility Is a. major reason why Coyer has such respect for them and continually contrasts their life to the wasted, lazy existence of the nobility. However, a telltale re peated personal pronoun Indicates why Coyer maintains class divisions in his ideal society, and why his democracy is not a total democracy. He includes himself in the group of those serwed by the peufele. While he desperately wants to ameliorate their conditions, he is not anxious to lose his own position in the social world by giving every citizen total equality. This viewpoint does not prevent the abb6 from having a profound understanding of the people. Their worth and c a p a b ilitie s place them as a sound foundation for the country. To maintain a firm structure, the base must be solid and unmoving. This could be one reason why he prefers to furnish the peasants with a minimum of education 8 0 and little religious explanation. Both a strong religion and a basic stupidity are uniting factors. A unified people with a minimum of physical discomfort is all that is necessary for national stability vls-&-vls civil strife. He tries to warn his fellow aristocrats that without this, every link in the natioifc chain will break and a chaotic situation 81 will lead to eventual subjugation by a stronger country. ft P If the nobility respects the people, then a reciprocal respect results, for such a respect on the part of the upper 285 classes makes them sensitive to the feelings and conditions of the people. If their problems are apparent and the nobles are sensitive to them, then they will set about rectifying the situation. Certain of Coyer*s ideas, such as to tax the rich and 8 ^ give the proceeds to the poor, were harder for the nobles of his day to swallow, since their own financial situation was not very rosy on the whole. But Coy He sees through the weaknesses of all the classes. He understands their motivations and can predict their reactions. His understanding of the reactions of the people is particularly acute. In comparison to the apathy of the educated upper class regarding religion versus atheism, Coyer shows a penetrating view of the people‘s reaction. The bourgeois and noble religion is so temperate that, if its t h o adherents embraced atheism, they would scarcely lift a flncer to uphold It, whllet "le penrle, s'll y donnolt s e ferolt brill er on hrillerolt les ant. res."' Few n r h 1 n o on t r-m po pa p 1 n r I'prorrd 7oJ 1 ho now^r of n nnlt. ed onpnlnoo. Ao.T‘i’^1 Ion n *' tpp'r i-irr.i'n t. m onitions, nn heed ed as ho yep rih^vr0'1 them + o t lie -ivl'M n rn tr , was one fact-or In the 'iphf'r'o l r aftep l ‘f's , "11 r o' i f r p e In f'i 1 r , ! o f'di'i'1 , ! e f vn 1 ,l , la ^nnto'ir Ip:' r n r iH , l 1 i n-’o l m m •' m id rhpr , P hr1 rand a po ! op t pa 1t an a t 1p Miln re d ep PTT'r”1 r( 1 p pa va po m ^ n'1 d o <■ - t t <•> o f a 11 veri ( nil ’ 1 1 p1 o " e ir'ip t.p p rl e "o r in n \ " : ’ on S [ VI p p e f - r ■/> r t i f in l- | i 1 'i i " 1 pr ■: o'■ t'-u b ' s an a , " 1 " v ■ (■ ? »i '■'.'/<■■■ i - 1 ' 1■> r -11' \ . h.a 1 ri o p I • n t ;: , : 1 e a ' i f — * f * ' • * ' • 1 ' ■ "1 ■1 (' r i n ' 1 P ' l i ' P , T h e P p ‘ I P h 1 0 1 TP : '■ ■ '' e \ f J ] r t n • [ ! lab" Ip tour T 1 rvp] r jp rhowl nr imw °'ini 1 v t.hr rich beat down the tjoop, and how t. he poor Should he rra tefu l t hat tfinj p I I vi'" w (' p <' " * apod , ' a ' but i " ; i ■ 1 n S f a n e ' ■ W h r pf ■ .V ' e >' t p 1 e r t to >n n p real a •' 1 t u a t Ion vh i < ’ h * he n o f 1 •11' t1 r° f *1 p p* 'd * t ’ ip — nope t r- t. p 1 c»d a pa 1 n , w h fin m pa hi e d 1 •* not " are or, ( t to >j paw a parallel r ] pr ' ] m e t ■ ipi o e w 1 t h the 1 o 1 i n h : 'O a -' u p. t '' , w b, o e lit'' v;ap "till po pe "i b~ epa [11 o t >:avi t ,v f the t r1 ■'1 <' h r 1 ■ a s 'in t :1 . '"he r e a a a n t op hi" own t i t 1 o n had no pon s e p r 1 on s , ;r e had not hi nr to ,d yp eyoppt- pi" pooh w o pit ; hut even that d i'1 not brine home s u f f 1 e i m t broad for himself arid h Is famllv. " 1 With a feudal cyst em ppaetlrnlty dead, the lord still con trolled evepy Caret of the pennant 'a life. He did not. tdve the peasant monetary aid, db! not heir him in t. lrr.es of' 7 In luRt, Icp d VInothin^ tn heir marrv b.1s children, and re acted towardshim by personal whltn,1^ The law worker! against the pennant, too, Without mon e v he had n o heir? 1 n the courts.0"' ■' rn yens i -is ee -'•■jf' r 1sent q i; r1 ' ones ov pr 1 t •• ^ tinr 1 nr ■ , sue In fortune s | »■ nf">rr ruiVnt hlanr' re qui es t nolr; ! a tint 1 t’o es t f 1 s t. e s nna 1 s e 1 ] e cons Idem aver les rasulstes qui ne se trompent; jamais, qqe j es (sens hlen ries ne peuvent. se [inr- fer an rrlme, sans qnr lqnr. ren vers ament dans ] es 1 d e e y , q u e 1 q u e ’ F 1 1 re , S U e 1 q U e a ] 1 pri a t 1 on d * e s n r 1 t, ; en 11n mot, la lol les vn1t ton lours dans !e car d es on fans, nn1 n ’ont ms nr. sen de raison pour so f a 1 re prendre; HI lieu nue 1 ■-> pmirlp en a Toufours We reste."0"’’ r,/i yon we rf’ a i i c>m ’■ 1 f> p bu r-r 1 “n t b:in he r o> i 1 s m ■ in a.r e , 1 * s nm o - I j no'- -1 rr- o i; n t *■ n t f. [vn>-t i; i i‘ ' op f ■ . 11 r - ! 1 ft h ‘ ■ O *' h 1 ' ?' o y e n u o ;,I 1 t p. r n u . b \ 1 t’i ,'p! '■ 1 l',( 1 II,' ' I n r ' * h e r ( VI 1' - t mi t ’ , (If'f I'", n 1 > [ f1 t V pe i' enqt of ! h ’ I'P'iP'pi t ■' did no! hav*’ on on rh land t rom whir hi in fens t.helr families. Tver in a rood harvn't ri ausnn, t Vi’n '.;n ■ ha re 1 v pnmpd’ * o eat , A f i f” 1 n Into riynr M t uM an mope fro™ no ve r t v than from v V' e , ‘ ‘ T t. V’nr. won dev t ha r the a t 'be '"n yep s oi j u h t f i r po t e r t and heir these suffering people, rltIrens of his own nation, !fv the qualities which they possessed In their wretched ‘'tato, he found t hev- * o h.> wort tiV-M- ofhb' efforts than the Indolent , r o pr u n+ oo rich. 'Tie pen j ■ 1 e , coyer be : ‘ ....< t w , • ro 288 honest, religious, Tirtuous, and most of all, useful. The 96 Quakers could be a good model for the people to copy. In hie ideal society, there is no one without means by which to live. Everyone has work, without the rigid barriers of 97 trade unions. For the poor there are no taxes. All the people have entertainment proper for their interests and 98 mentalities (marionettes, theaters, op&ra-comlaue). In th is s o c ie t y , everyone knows that "le peuple e s t done composft 99 d 1 homines . " All the men in the abbft Coyer1s society are happy. He sees to it that the government, including the king, and all the people function as a well oiled machine. One helps and constrains the other bo as to prevent crime and vice and to provide comfort and security. To form this nation, Coyer combines the elected government of Poland, the virtue of Geneva, the commerce of England and Holland, and the mores and c it iz e n s h ip of the Quakers. Many basic ideas resemble thoBe of Montesquieu and Voltaire, but his citizens are more urbane and in d u strio u s than the T roglodytes and more worldly and educated than Candide or I'Ingfinu. This utopia is not far from the idyllic state described by Housseau, located between the chaos of uncivilized man in the beginning of time and the corrupted product of his own epoch. Perhaps Coyer's system was the next oscillation towards a pure state that Rousseau foresaw in the alternation of good and evil in the unfurling of time. 289 For all the likenesses that this Ideal society may have with those of other writers, Its patmrnlfearIs Coyer*s. He devoted his life to It. Every publication was propaganda for it. Although he never lived to know It, many of his predictions came true, a large representation of his impor tant propositions were adopted In a later generation,and q u ite a co n sid erab le number of them are s t i l l in p r a c tic e today. FOOTNOTES CHAPTER V 1I t a l i e , 11, 289. 2Pr*dicatlon. p. 8 5 * 3Ifeid ., P. 76. 9 I b i d . , P. 1 72 . 5I b i d . , P. 176. 6l b i d . , pp. 107-108 • ^Sobieskl. ill. bk. I , 907. 8 I b id ., III, bk. 8, 135. ^ I b id . . 11, bk. IV, 29-30. 10T .. r Ibid.. I, v-vi. ^ Nouvelles observations. lett. XV. 12Matv. pp. 118-119. 13Chlnkl. pp. 19, 16; Sobieskl. Ill, 8 5 . l4Sobleskl, III, bk. 9 , 318-319. 13Maty. p. 119. ^ Slfecle. p. 3 0 . 1^Magle. p. 83. 291 18 Plalslr. passim. 19Maty, p. 126. 20 Nouvelles observations. lett. XVII. 21Sobleskl. II, 135. 22?rl>dlcatlon. p. 6 9 . 23Ibld. . p. 119. 2^Ifrld.. p. 79. 25Ibld. . pp. 131, 132, 136-137. 2 ^Maty, p . 113. 27 fNouvelles observations. p. 88. 2^Matv. pp. 130-131; Magle. p. 97. 29Pr&dlcatlon. p. 122; Maty, p. 116; Ann&c. p. 72; Magle. pp. §2,93. 3°Pr$d.lcatlan. pp. 122-123. 31Chinkl. p. 12. 32 Writers such as Montesquieu, Grimm, Mirabeau, and Voltaire helped spread the notion that population figures were falling due to: polygamy; diffusion of Christianity, therefore insisting on celibacy and forbidding divorce; slavery; wars; increase in infant mortality and death at young age; vice-filled lapge cities; famine; epidemics. Joseph J. Spergler, Economic et population (Paris: P.U.F., 1954), I, 83, 105, 203, 212. 33Patrle. pp. 2 6 - 2 7 . ^ Slfccle. p. 23. 33Grand. p. 135. 292 ^^AgnSfc, pp. 66-67, Q Q ^ Chlnkl. p. 21. ^ Nouvelles observations. lett. XXI-XXIII. kn Chjnkl. p. 26. 41 Nouvelles observations. lett. Ill, pp. 13-14. ^ Predication, pp. 1 2 7 - 1 3 0 . ^ Plan dl>ducatlon. p. 2 5 6 . iih. Maty. PP. 90-93, 96-97; Italle. I, 6 5 , 301; Slfeole. pp. 10-11; iBle frlvole. p. 181. ^ Isle frlvole. p. 197. 46 Plalslr. pp. 118-119. ^?Magle. p. 8 3 . ^^Predication, p. 141. ^ Patrle. p. 10. ^°Predlcatlon. p. 123. -^Maty. pp. 80-86. 52Ibid., pp. 117-118. y3Magle. p. 81. 54Italle. II, 9 8 . ^ Sobleskl. II, 3 8 6 . ^6Grand. p. 123. 293 -7Magle. p. 85. ^8Pr>dlcafclon. p. 149. ^9Ibld. . pp. 131» 132, 136-13?. 6°Ibld. . pp. 141-144. 6lMaty. p. 73. 62Pame. p. 235. 63Matv. pp. 76-77. 64 Bagatelles. pas aim. 63Magle. p. 91. ^ Mat.y. pp. 106-107. ^ Fatrle. pp. 31, 40. ^ Predication. p. 146. ^9Plan d * Education, p. 123. ^ Predication. p. 146. 71 Plan d* education. p. 106. ^2M agle. p. 88; Isle frlvole. p. 180. ^3Slfecle. p. 34. ^ Patrle. p. 32. ^ Maty. p. 88, ^ Plan d1 education. p. 339. ^^Prtdlca11on. p. 172. 294 78Peuplc, p. 44. 79Ibld.. p. 47. 80 Plan d‘education. pp. 106, 157, 339. 81Prftdlcation, p. 176. 82Ibld. . p. 149. 8^P lalsir. pp. 108-109. 89 Ber_thier, p . 12. 8^Peuple. p. 51. H 6 Plalslr. pp. 106-107. 87Sobleskl, 1, 53, 6 5 , 67. 88M ayle . p. 85. 89Isle frlvole. p. 183. 9°Magle. p. 90; Grand, p . 131; Plalslr. pp. 114-115. 91Grand, p. 137. 92Peuple. pp. 6 8 - 6 9 . 9^Plerre. p. 52. 94 Spongier, Economle et population, pp. 54-55. 9 5 Duclos, Mfaolres. l&re partie, p. 6 9 . 96 Predication, pp. 93 - 94 , 97Plerre. p. 52. 98 Plalslr. p. 10 5; Nouvelles observations. p. 84, 99 Peuple. p. 70. CONCLUSION In any society men who acquire and exercise power, wealth or talent leave an Indelible mark upon their world. Their posterity Is shaped by their special achievements, and Inescapably it reacts sometimes gratefully, sometimes irascibly to them. One's perception of one's cultural heritage is necessarily selective and discriminatory. It would be disingenuous not to acknowledge the ovwwhelming cultural debt that we have to Luther or Calvin or popes or generals. because they exercised power or had talent they have been the prime conditioning agents in our own thinking. Their role was important. Today we are pain fully aware of our failure to resolve a whole complex of polltical, economic, social and cultural problems. To the extent, in our confusion and desolation, that we are loathe to blame merely ourselves, we tend to reinterrogate and re examine our past. We are no longer satisfied with partial and partisan explanations, nor can we accept a skewed or cavalier conception of the world we have lost. As we have enlarged the scope of our Inquiry, the old elites are no longer self sufficient guides. We have a sharper sensiti vity to hidden, inconspicuous or ignored elements which, of their own w ill, have begun to impose themselves upon us: 29 5 2 9 6 underdeveloped countries, a massive culture of poverty, the dispossessed within our midst. We are experiencing aniinver sion, not only socially and politically but intellectually. Scholars have reflected and in part inspired this malaise which has resulted in a re-evaluation of our view of things. We are becoming more responsive intellectually to the un obtrusive or obscured or timid or unvocal elements around us. In literature, the traditional biographical emphasis on great men has focused on the darker recesses of their lives, such as Starobinski on Rousseau or Erik Erikson on Martin Luther. Others sought to broaden or democratise their view by eschewing personal confrontation with great thinkers in favor of the analysis of themes whose greatness did not make them the exclusive property of their exponents; themes like anguish, folly, happiness, ur nature which manifested themselves on every level of conscious and subconscious life* which did not require membership in an academy or accident of birth or material success to experience (eg.; Robert Mauzi's L1ld&e du bonheur. Jean Ehrard's L1idfte de La nature, Michel Foucault's Histoire de la folle.) Historians have felt themselves impoverished by the deference they have been paying to privileged groups, to special events, to heros, and to turning points. Just as the literary critic has turned to the subconscious and the sociologist to the disinherited,so historians have turned to the faceless. Georges Lefebvre, Leroy Ladurie, and Pierre 297 Goubert have sought to understand the peasant whose massive demographic and social weight have never been properly measured. Soboul, Cobb and Bud& have turned to the urban masses who like del ex machlna engineered revolutions in discreetly and ineluctably. In the same way, literary his torians have begun to realize that the all-encompassing talent and vivacity of Voltaire, the striking scientific Sclat of d*Alembert and Buffon, and the exciting verve and electricity of Diderot were not the norm or even the sum of the enligh ten m en t. Their very genius p laces them on the periphery as well as at the zenith of their century. Somewhere below, marginal in a very different way, barely able to see their own reflection in the shadow cast by this Olympus, subsisted the scores of writers, thinkers, artists and fellow travelers who, too, believed themselves enlightened. In our context, they are the masses, the face less , the nameless and, It must not be forgotten, the majority. It would be absurd to pretend that by their number or their aggregate contribution, they represent a more genuine and significant enlightenment. But unquestionably they repre sent a different kind of enlightenment. The abb® Coyer was one of them. The study of such a man will not yield as much about writers, society or the enlightenment as, for example Goubert1s study of the Beauvaisis revealed about the Old Rigime. But the examination of one man as a segment of an untapped source of information, combined with others 298 of similar nature, will eventually produce a broader, richer and more faithful perspective from which to view the period. Gabriol Francois Coyer was modest, tim id,solitary, and unimpressive in stature and personality. He belonged to three academies and sat side by side with Frftron and Palis- sot, but he never presented any communications beyond his acceptance speech. He participated in the activities of well-known salons, but the baronne d'Hoibach avoided receiving him as often as possible. He probably applauded a r ib o ld poem, read by some new lib e r t in e w ritep , but su rely blushed i n s id e . He knew and v is it e d the celeb ra ted inkeeper of Fernay, but was hu m iliated in to packing and lea v in g the following day by the sharp tongue of the patriarch himself. His main concern in life was his career and the rewards he hoped to receive from it. He wrote about the same topics as hundreds of others who repeated or remoulded what the 11terary centers of gravi ty publi shed. This mild-mannered, non-violent religlemt set forth a revolutionary plan for a new government, and yet he remained stolid and unchanging all his days. He devoted at least a portion of every one of his works to defending the impoverished, but while returning to ttJre home late at night to the luxurious home of the family who provided for him, whose name had been celebrated for generations, he probably chose tita center of the street to avoid sullying his velvet robes by falling detritus or carelessly tossed slops from the shambles of the disinherited 299 he passed. At every turn he reported dissatisfaction with the useless fads and vices of the same society he worked hard to rise high enough to join. What kind of world would this "prStre sans prltrise" have preferred? The courage and siraplic\ty whlch Coyer wanted to restore in the French people had given way to a frivo lous and lax life. Egotistical social aspirants pantomimed every facet of life set forth by the court ftlite. Activi ties, dress and language betrayed a cankered society. The government and the country*s institutions demonstrated the influence of the moral degradation of the foremost inhabitants. Coyer would have remoulded the government into a macrocosm of his ideal structure, the family. A royal father-figure, to be elected by the "educated" segment of the populace, would instill a new and clean energy into the social order. Freedom, ju s tic e and v irtu e would triumph in both p u b lic and private domains. Coyer*s literary audacity was considerable. He did not defend the Calas family, but he stood up strongly for the suffering peasantry. He did not edit a mammoth encyclopedia, but his Bagatelles reflected the temperament of his time. His treatise on education and his defense of the working nobleman are valuable contributions to the fields of educational theory and political economy. While no one now speaks of Coyer*s history of S o b le sk i, they do read what the Chevalier de Jaucourt and Voltaire borrowed from it in their own publications on the history of Poland. 300 Unable to construct a rigorously developed plan, the abbli diffused his empirical suggestions for a better world throughout his works. The resulting effect was one of dis organization, fragmentation, and tautology—despite all the fervid intentions, Repetition of images as well as ideas and a stark simplicity in language tended to ossify not only what he wanted to say, but also his effect on his readers and their opinion of him as an author. While Coyer was knowledgeable in many areas (ancient and modern history, economics, literature, morality, educa tion, law, science, religion), and wrote about all of them, he always chose prose as his genre. He admitted himself that he was no poet, and his single attempted dramatic outline is farcical at best, A Journalist before the era of regular press, he had the vitality but lacked the mastery to realize a truly impressive and distinct style. Staunch and reliable, his prose was regularly praised and occasionally celebrated. The abb* was undoubtedly quite proud to have one of his own works included mistakenly in a volume of Diderot's, and to have Voltaire himself attribute the Pan- sophe letters to him. What an honor for him to learn that the young queen was reading and enjoying his moral tales! Ultimately, the abb* was true to himself and candid in his self-evaluation. He realized that his works were good and solid, but simply not among the best or greatest. He never sought pity, despite his frustrations. He asked to 301 be Judged forthrightly, with justice, he said. His aim was always "gloire"—recognition of what the Greeks called arete. He labored for it all his life, only to be disap pointed and disillusioned at the end. For he died uncer tain of the destiny of his legacy and despairing that glory rarely reaches out to the margin. n T-n 10 0 H A P ’! z 1 I, "’he Works pf A ntrl0! ?■ vani;n 1 " Anyer ' o y ‘1 v ' : - ] V ■. i* 1 i i ] v- ] ■ ■ \ y i g i ■ 1 1 ■ , "I 1 > i * i r -1 ■ t i ■ r y o \ ; it i j ■ , > ( 1 ’ ■ -. , ■ t _ t f > [ l i * > ■ r/i n ; 1 (■' -: , ! nr \ ■ ■ ' ■v’ 'irv' l ■ m* 1 '' : ■’ i ' ’11 ‘ ‘!'r' f ’ , 1 ’' ’ • , I ' V:t vnl nr1:*1 bn 'niir, A 1 ''-t.rpi'vitol l*'1, r e ,t i j 1 n i 7’V"1 , , r I ■■ n i 1 ] p Vl p p f 1 M ( 1 7 '-P t , ! p 1;. i1' iM n 1 p V I' r 1 1 ~ c , nji I.1'a'cu rt mid s h 11 m 1 ! . ' ‘ 1 b 1 1 Pi t v' pq ' ] *' ,! 7 1" \ Pn. 7 "! f‘ + f'V *■ P nV ■ ‘ I ■' ’ , ) p a Pi n 1. ( io, ■ ’ i i \ P > i ( A ' ’ t i >'1 ■ p ■'1 p h. 1 r; p *■: i ’"i p 1 '' '■ ; ’: ^ ’ n 1,11' p > ■ v 1 r n ~ 1 r-. , j * |.p i- t .r l t I nr, P f ; l ' ’' ■ ■ , * * 1 ’*1 ‘n ,f ' ; A ''f ■ r’ ‘ - f' ‘ ' " _1? ''' ' * p'~ ■ ■ '' ■ • * ■'1'f “ • p i ] r h i~i I m i / > > *-' 1 O 1 1,1 p ■ 11 1 y~i k i phi ! f ■': v ; t T 1 -i • 1 ^ p ■ ’ '*n '’or p h f ' b ' . n 1’, I yon t ■ j j-, ,. 1 - r- V T - P/j 1 t • 1 , ■, < ■ 1 JT , m nr ' . ( j : , 1 f. 1 ' ' , 1 ■ ' P ) ■ - t > > f i 1 < ' p P ' ' ’ ' ( 1' ' ' f 1 1 V ' ‘ ' 1 * 1 ; > ’ | niq * hp ; 1 ’ 'f > t " ' ’o ] I'VP'] ‘i-jl i 'in t " -; ; ; P ! o ] ■ 1 ' ] ‘ ] P P (■ ip Pijp.pT p | n>: Am i r (" 'Ip 1 H t p iv) t 1; r 11 f vn n y a I :■*< t p o n ^ r m n t p i 1 ! i p , 'vv'! f,fi ; ’'o f’pf'.r' p ■■ 11' ( ■ j , f pi' \ <’ : r he ;7 L e p r a s et. Cordler, chev Funhr>, et che/ Vve . Devaux, ari X-l-01, . Developpement et d e f e n c e de la Noblesse oommer- yante . Amsterdam find Paris i iAichesne , 17^7. 'Omission of publisher, place of publication or date will occur only where texts find supplementary research have failed to provide the information. In some cases I have provided library and identification code when no other in formation was available. 1 0 ? 303 . D1 scourb Bur la satyre contre lea phllosophes. reprfsentte^>ar une troupe ou*un poite phllosophe fait ylvre. 4 approurfte par un academician qul a Aea phllosophes pour coll&guea. A Athines: chez le Libralre Anti-Phllosophe , 17&0. . Etrennes aux morts et aux vlvans. ou pro.let utile partout o& 1 1 on est mortel. En deux chapltres. A la Val'lJe de Josaphat, 1?68. . Lcttre au Docteur Maty, Secretaire de la Soclttt Royale de Londres. aur les G&ants Patagons. Bruxelles: 1767. . Lettre au H. P. Berthler sur le materiallame. Gci^S v e : 1 ?5 9 . . La magle dfaontrfte. A Parle, le 23 de la Lune de Gasleu, 1 * an 8 8 . de notre Trans figuration, . Les Masques. B.N. cote: RSe. Li 3-7. Written in by hand on the title page of this copy is: "Cette brochure fut supprimie." . La Noblesse commercante. London and Paris; Duchesne, 1756. . Nouvelles observations sur 1 1 Angleterre. par un voyageur. Paris: Vve Duchesne, 1779. . CEuvres completes. 7 Vols. Paris: Vve Duchesne, 1732-1783. II. Contemporary Publications "L*Abb# Coyer," Blblloth&que U n lv e r slta lr e de Genfeve. Vol. 3. Geneve: chez Joel Cherbuliez; Paris: mSme maison, 184-6, Pp. 186-207. Aguesseau (d1). Dlscours et qeuvres. Nouv. Sd., augmentAe de plusieure discours et de ses instructions & son fils. Paris: Les Libraires AssociSs, 3 771, 2 Vols. Ales de Corbet,(ou Ales, Pierre-Alexandre d1,. Vicomte de Corbet, pofete et •conmmiste.) Nouvellea obaervatlona sur les deux ajret&aes de la noblesse commercante ou a lllta ire. B.N. co te: Rfts. 8° LI3. 29(15) 304 Alletz, Pons-Augustin. Dlctionnalre dee rlcheeses de le lamrue franoolse et dm niologlsne aul s/y est lntro- Oult. . . Paris: Saugrain, 1770. Anquetil-Luperron, Abraham-Hyacinthe. Legislation orlentale. Ouvrage dans lequel, en montrant quels sont en Tur- quie, en Perse et dans l'Indoustan, les prlnclpes fondamentaux du gouvernement , on prouve: 1° Que la raaniAre dont ju s q u ^ c i on a rep resen ts le despotism e, qul passe pour Stre absolu dans ces trois Stats, ne peut qu'en donner une idSe absolument fausse; 2 ftu'en Turquie, en Perse et dans l'Indostan, 11 y a un code de loix Sorites, qul obllgent le Prince ainsi que les sujets; 3 Que dans ces trois Stats les particuliers ont des propriStSs en biens, meubles et immeubles, dont ils Jouissent librement. B.N. cote: F.16020. Arc, (ou Arcq) Philippe-Auguste de Sainte-Foix, Chevalier d’. La Noblesse mllltalre. ou le Patrlote francois. Paris 175^i Archier, A. La Coapagnle des Jesultes depuls sa fondatlon. Rouen: 1855;Paris: Lelhomme et Briguet, 1892. Argens, d '. Lettres cabal istiaues ou correspondance phllo- Bophlaue. hlstorlaue et crltlaue. A La Haye: chez Pierre Pauple, 1741, Vols. Lettres chlnolses ou Correspondance phlloso- phlaue. hlstorlaue et critique. A La Haye: chez Pierre Paupie, 1755, 6 Vols. Lettres .1ul ves . ou Correspondance phllosophlaue . hlstorlaue et critique. A La ftaye: chez Pierre Paupie, 175^7 S Vols. ______. ThSrfese p h llo so p h e . ou M faolres pour s e r v lr A 1 "hjstolre du F. Dlrrag et de Mademoiselle Eradlce. A La Haye: 2 parties en 1 vol. Argenson, d'. Mfcnolres et journal InSdlt. Paris: P. Jannet, 1857-185^, 5 Vols. Auffray, Jean. IdSes patrlotlques sur la nScessltS de rendre la llbertS au eomiiftrr.ft. Lyon: L. Cutty, 1?62, 3 8 pp. ______. Le Luxe consldSrS relatlvem en t A lfi p opulation et A l ’Sconoale. Lyon: L. Cutty, 17^2, 41 pp. Avenel, Vte. Georges d*. Histolre Sconomlaue de la proprlStS. des salalres. des denrSes et de tous les prlx en gSnSral depuis l lan 1200 .lusqa 1 en lTan l800. £aris : Imprimerie nationale, 1894-1898, 4 Vols. i nf. ,j!i(,iiqi)mont'l I.oair Petit. A p . ^pmol res f: en rntr pon r r e rv 1 r a 1 ' h \ r tn 1ye rip* 2_|i re pa h 1 1qnp A e r 1 pttrer; en France . , , ! oral nn : Jnhn A/1 nmnon , 1 1? >, ai Vnlr, a t 1 nyr, p i’p .Taron ee . ! JI n n e r f n t l n n e a r 1 ' e A u c a 1.1 on rh v a l o u r A e r e y F a e t F r i n p i j l r 1 e a r n e 1 n r an c e Junqu'^ 1 'are '1 e p n - p w t p t V -erte... '! n ' I ’P 1 1 e p f 1 , 1* c n r r . e a r ! n V 1 r1 , r , e n A y n ’ •' 1 J O ' ' { 1 1 n t - i ■ _ ’ < ' ■ ) * ,f ■. i i p i ■ ■’- n v t; ^ _ a ii r*t Pa v l " : , . . t t r i . m " ; t A ]■ -,,! p , ( r ,1 'i r I n i: i 1 ] > ■ ' > i ■ i J' 1 f't * K''l 1 i ) . a >■ 1 a n i< r> r i m 1 1 T r e 1 n n vi rT' rg 'l n. t t " ’ : ‘ r* r* 1 - ■ :■'!!' M '•] — j | p r - r : p (' H PITier^Mr'P e ■ * . r n " I r* , t 1 # ' t * ‘ 1 > T •* ■ ■ " 1 , ! 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( ■* T ' ^ , r •• + 1 , * ' r T ^ f ' J ; ' | f 1 1 * # • ' O ' J a r . * ; , T m y i ’' ] t-r- o i* ' * ' f r-'iv i e . i r- - , ■ | \ i v 'I r-* r r | ^ ’ J r •* ' J 1 1 "1 a p — ,,v, , ■ ' » ♦ ' i . * - 1 ' > f i 1 J j ^ r i • ■ ^ 1 1 v h v ^ ( - ; r ■ 1 f rw i i ? r' • j * ^ ^ ki ’ j [ > ' r T ■, + • ’ / I . 4 t ) ■ y W-r, ■ ■ 1 , . > . ^ \ u h, * . # ■. • * • i * 1 r 1 : I r-r : * i • ...... 1 1 * T _ * i ■ r ■ * ' * ' \ i f 1 1 ■ . 1 t (■ r ' A ^ f r L 1 ■■ V ' ] f 1 r * . ' * * 4 t '» ' ’ . ' : ■ _ t '••'1*1 i i • • ': r . f i M ’I > • f I'.nr ■ ! ' ' T’r'_ • • 1 i' . P # * • 1 1 t 1 » * i „ t t' r'-1 r' "'■ r •* > ' f . * | t ‘ . * TT’ f | *' | i * 1 ; I ' 1 P pr 1 , • • 1 * + • J <■ \ 1 t • t . . i - » ■ ' r 1 1 1 r 1 r 1 t ' ■ / *, 1 ■ ■ * T » | f1* t 1 T ] * f ■ ^ f '!']'( t- l’e r PI] ! ea ]’!" , A 1 J v ; ■■ j■,t r* 1 t; 1 ■ ,1 O 1 ' 1 ^T1 T' V ^ rT1 *'"* ] * \ * ‘ f f,r ' . P I a *■ F a i r f 'r > " , a A a A ^ : ' 1 ; - F i P n vi p ‘ i ' > r i "Z • • * • ' H r> 1 ] . | n v ] t T i n h i I n • ] ) f ’ f \ v * ■ a * ■1 * ■ , i 1. i i n t * i A p a e a 1 a ri "< >r,T"' ■ , rn { \ t t 1 -i r’ : ■; ;■ ■ i a ■ * ■ ’o rn e 1 1 1 f* ] v y 7 . ''nf’vi'lr'r, ".A, Le Pn ] [^ort e a r . a 11 n 1 r e Tinril e fi t c. r It. 1 ■ i a e . A 1 nnAyer • rpe'^ Aeeri "nui1': e t 1 *""Ay A1' "t a ’' r y 1 t A t • •) i r-i # . I e ” r-M r" ’: 1 ' ■r' •1 i -Men : . 1 nr 1 r-M J » ■ ' ' , i ' - ! ‘ : t . ton I-T. toyer. phi! oaophp, 011_ px.ampn r yd t lgnp d p 1 a noh 1 er r p mil itali'P, dqddp a v . i ' nbbp Coyer. M pp. B.N. enf.ei I 1 X W T nl l^nnnt dp ^iPi’vach^ . S 1 itinn , and Con m ay, V in rent dp. don - ''IdPvntPjn:: a nr Ip o omirp i t , p , pt. pn part. 1 culler an r I p h cnm payn 1 p.° , nor 1 at. nr' M m a ' t r l n e a . Air a t e i ' d a i r i T^rr '■ ■ 7~ 1 ^ P ~ r'r'7 ~ 1 1 r- ■ j i ;n t if* ; ■ ] t* p ua n d :: *' 1 j 1 m n r , , I*■ ir■ r'f 1 r~ 1 * 1 11* ;rp n p r a i :■:f"; rranu - f a r' * 1' i'p ■1 at. -In nm iir'T f’'1 , i:,a a a i l_nu M em o 1 r 117 ■:' i r : p a d ' a r e M o p e r Pn France la [’oriltt. Ion des labou r- pn rr- , d ps j o n r n n l 1 p r-» , den homrnpp d p pp 1 n p v 1 van t d a n a 1 p r p.ani [y i yn e a , p 1 r e 1 1 p d_p Ian m fpininpo r t d p 1 pu pp -'n f'lnr , rva r un Ijavnyapd, Ou ’/rape nor t hump . ' thambe ".v : 1 ’7 it ’n 1 ! f* ( ■ 'ha r 1 fl . d o n rn al h 1 n t a r 1 g1 y ] pp r l nr memo rat I pp du r nrn >■* ! p 1 nu 1 rX'■/. d p pi > 1 *: 1 ’/a •' n j n <’p ’ * p*i | ’? p |n n i ’ i;; 1 f ■ ”n nri t , } <* p 1 r • : T "•rr 5 mf* M e ’'' T-, nf i n r'dTT/-. - j ~ -i u p ’■ _ l Pp. -1 t ’u l • . ] ]an i” i \ •• nnqp ; 1 ’ ’ '! i r *1 f 1 'u ■ i n ’ j 1 pm- i a ’• r <■ '^n i p < - .•■I r ' t * i • ] p f jv t i f ■1 p 11 (■ t u U : ‘ , ..*■ v 1 ■" U 1 r ' ■ ! ' a 1' 1 '' : : d ': ’f ■ f , 1 r,( ra ■. ’vp \r i p r ( d , 1 ■ , 1 , 1 ,'p 1 1 *' p ]'■ a t i on un ’ ■ 1 1 a n p , AoU' ’ ° P11 '* a : d ■' " T'T . i ■ ■ m t d t : 1 : ■ * n ' pt ■ .; i ■ 1 ■ t 1 (■■■ f ■ 1 n p i u ' 1 (a ' 1 ’ ■ t 1:: f ■ * d p :' „■ p r i a ■ (* ’ < * t w* n l ■, 1 ■ a t 1 1 1 ' ■ i • * a ■ ' ’K'frilV1:' . 1 mp ! ■: : ' d ■1 a t , 1 ‘ „ ; "al". f- ' f'p Pa pt ■- , d>'in-dli’ir d": . 1 Pa i t p a '* ‘ 1 P d l J n a t I n n < ■< i P] o p p ! ! dan enfant/: avi fan-npp, any d p f 1 p y. 1 on a p-pa t \ i; i, pn r. tj p 1 pp no yen f' dp ppor < i pp p nn p mat 1 1 an pp p on n t 1 t u 11 on aux ’' 1 t n van r . . . 1 a r 1 r t :;p i-1 r a ant", 1 "’ O t v y y v 1 -*4. - > pT . 1 jp r: font nl n f*!: , a t' up , A f'n ! n ,r i v’ d n c a pa p t ^ pp I n : An *■’ 1 a i:' * ■ t dpp Fp.arnga 1 r on o t-n ppva f t on-" pup 1 p 1 t v pp t n t. t t u 1 A T p 11 ppp p n p Ip*; A^i p 1 a 1 r, f t t f\r: Fran g a 1 a p t a n p 1 p.*~ voyaypr . Part at fpfp/nn , 1 ? u , ?1 1 nn. ' d ■ * f* pr> t t on i ■ ( - ■’* , ! m t parp* p Fn <" vp I o pp-M p o n ; .a p t 1 nn n a t m 11 ?'l 1 ' On n ^ J ° • ’ '' f1 ^ > T] r' #• t.1' i # ^ i' t f’ m 1 ; o ; ’ *n i-* f\ * y!' 307 ______Lettres | Sophie Volland. Andrft Babelon, ed. Paris: Gallimard, 1930, 3 Vols. ______. Lettre sur la liberty de la presse. Proust, M. J., ed. Paris: Editions sociales, 1963. ______. CEuvres completes. AssAzat, ed. Paris: Garnier FrAres, 1875, 20 Vols. ______. (Euvres phllosophiaues. llttftralres et cirama- tioues de Diderot. 1773. London: 1773, 5 Vols. Duclos. Considerations sur les moeurs de ce slScle. 1751, 370 pp. ______. M&molres pour servir A 11 histolre des moeurs du XVIIIeme slAcle. 1751, 2 tomes en 1 Vol. ______. Voyage en Italle ou Considerations sur 111talle dar.s CEuvres completes. Paris: Belin, 1&21, 3 Vols, pp. 610-737. Pontanleu. ed. Hecuel 1 factlce f ormft par b'ontanleu de plAces sur la noblesse commercante. publlees de 1756 a 1759 avec tableB manuscrites. 3 Vols. B.N. cote: R ft?ri< aj7.29T ^ ------Fougeret de Monbron. La C ap!tale deB Gaules ou la n ou velle Babllonne. La Haye: 1759-1960, 2 tomes en 1 Vol. ______. Prftservatif contre 1*anglomanle. Minorque, 1757, 5 5 “p p . Fr$ron, Elie-Cath. L'AimJe litt&ralre . ou suite des lettres sur oueloues Scrlts de ce terns. Amsterdam et Paris; M, Lambert Panckoucke, Lacombe, Delalain, Lejay, 1754-1775. ______. Lettres sur auelaues Merits de ce terns. GenSve et Paris: Duchesne, 1749-1754, 13 Vols. Galiani, Abb$ Ferdlnando, pseud. Zanobi. Correspondance InfcLlte sle l*akl24 Ferdinand Gal 1 and — dandant les amiftefi 1765 a 1783 avec Mme d. i Epjnay. le baron d1 Hol- bach. le baron de Grimm, Diderot et autres. Paris: J.-G. Dentre, 1 8 1 8 , 2 V ols. Gardeton, Cisar. Le trlomphe des femmes, ouvrage dans lequel on prouve que le sexe ffcilnln es t plus noEle et plus parfalfc q u ele sexe masculln. . ./ffMdltlon de YTouvrage de C. M. D. NoAl, paru en 1700/ Paris: Delaunay, 1822, 90 pp. 308 Genard. L'Soole de l/hogae. London: 1752, 3 Vols. Genlia, Mme de. Les dinars du baron d^olbach. C, J, TrouvA, 1822, x x -H & Q pp. Gohln, F. Les transformations de la langua franpalae pendant la deuxieme aoltlm du XVIlIeine sl&cle (1740-1789). Paris: Belin frftres, 1903, 399pp. Grimm, Diderot, Haynal, MeIster, et. al. Correspondance lltttralre. phllosophlaue et cpltlaue. H. Tourneux, ed. Par1s : Garnier frSres, 1877-1882, 16 Vols. Grimm, Friedrlch-Melchior, baron. C or re s pondanc e llttfrralre. phllosophlaue et critique adressfte & un souveraln d*Allemagne depula 1753 .lusau’en 1769 /par Grlnua et Diderot/. Paris: Longchamps, 1813, 6 Vols. Grosley, Pierre-Jaan. Londrea. A Lausanne, 1770, 3 Vols. ______. Nouveaux afcmolres ou observations sur 111talle et sur les Itallens. par deux gentllshommes su&dols. A Londres: chez Jean Nourse, 1764, 3 Vols, Guyton de Morveau, L.-B. MAmoIres sur 11 Education publlaue. 1764, 324 pp. Hardy. Mes lolslrs. Unpublished manuscript, circa 1770-1775. B.N. cote: MSS fr. 6680. H atin, L, Les Gaze tte s de Hollande e t la presse cla n d es tine aux XVIlSme et XVIIIeme slid es , Paris : 1863. L'Honore, Samuel-Francis, La Hollande au XVIIIfeme sl&cle. ou Nouvelles lettres. contenant des remarques et des observations sur les prlncloales vllles. la reli gion. le gouvernement. le commerce. la navigation. les coutumes et les moeurs des habitants de cette province. Ea Haye: chez Detune, 1779, xil-342 pp. Jacquin, AbbA Armand-PIerre. De la SantA, ouvrage utile & tout le monde... Paris: Durand, 17&2, 920 pp. Joly, Joseph Homain. Hlstolre de la predication, ou la aa&lAre dont la parole de Dleu a AtA prlchAe dans tous les slecles: ouvrage utile aux prAdlcatours et curleux pour lea gens de lettres. Amsterdam et se trourea Paris; chez Laoombe, 1767, 111-541 pp. Jouraal de 11 agriculture. du commerce. des arts et des fi nances . Paris: Imprlmerie de Knapen, 17*53-1753’. U V j .In'iTml ip C o t t i t p t p o . AAhP Ron An ml, Pri . >\n , 1 7 ', pp. 3 t7 • ~Th » In f'nn'I,i"i1np, I.ptt ynr c , r I A \ q i )p ^ '~n r 1 ' pflncfitlon. Porlr: ! n u 1 f . 1 ,,i;l , ^ c r-p . '’p'p r. Jp'in -I p pp on on I r’ * p . I pt !*p ! 1 p w . A . ( -1 p ! J> !'nr n : , '»>) ■' i) ' p f 'Ip 1 o "'; n n 1 p ; ■r- p r o^'Pp t q rtn t ° o n 1 * o , I r> r r , 0^1 f T f . 1 - j f ■ ) f' ) 1 I * P ’ <’■ t’P P P ; 1 1 ■ v n 1 ■ I 1 P t t 11 I t I ■ -p ■ i o>- l t on ’ ■ n ; i - 1 1 n I t o r i * "• ! 1 p . - ■ i p -1 ' I < ■ ’ - j "’m p. r r ■■ ] i ; <1 rj p. n ■ no] on I p : ’ rt '■ >p p I ' 1 rn p ri 4 p -1 p In I n1 ] 1 n I n p p , p t 1 'n o y pn p 'Ip vppi'Ipp !° r om r-o nr p (1 ’ i rny nn tip i'Iup f l o r i n - r nn t qi i» ry> r 1 p p-r i rr p p t r~n pp rl p n ~ ^ r p 1 o I A 1 An r 1 r- - fpi-i'p; mvpp. on ]o'iPn n Vi;' p p vn t 1 on r pp 1 n t 1 vpo ony -nr- mol------]'o:’ — *' 1 'p*’ hi’nf -* ------f1'’1—*------'ir/ p , t - i r \ *' J ■1 .o 7 ------— 1 r r iM----- # ^ 11r * r----- t }* i ■ n r ’ ” . ''o rrp'~ non'* nnn r‘ 1 1 • * p ro 1 rp ri■ l i, p : :~ *'■ n ., . A , 1 . r.on. 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I :tp " ■' p ' ’p" ' ■ i v r 1 , M erl ec In ' ■ ■ 1 * T i p ' 1 A 1 ' ■ ■ ■, :o't inc : 1 ii■!o v 1 (’ p n 1 ‘ ■ '■'r-1 n t t '' 1 3 ' p r , ■ !nn .■11' r ’ ' n rr ■; 1 ’ 5 •. t <> * = j i j * * f I 1 I ■ ! p f'or^rri- j r 1 7 ‘' n " ■ 1 ' imu'p! ] ni’ j ' ■ V i ' ' I ! j Y '!' P t' ‘ ‘ I ‘ ■ I n r 1 " : ! n r o p * p , I p 1 'Ion , A 3 t1 p I 1 t po ~ • n 1 f ' - i ? ; $ 10. r , A. \ ■ > :'i!,p| ! p voi'!' ri'Mvri’.o1, n [ p * n n i j-o v n r p h n n ' 1 p '■r p r nunmp y p n h I p o n o i i V 11 g ii \ n t p , ArTtf-r'Inn, , 111 nr. ’’■ivl "'i’iv , I ' 1 1 ** ■3 p r p - p i n p o'- , I n r ' :' t ■ n t I < ■ '•, 'A : : . ■ ■ • ■ p • • • ( , A . ■1 ' ; 1 o i ’' 111 ■1 1 ’ ■ p * i ' ■ i o ' 1 *''■ f i-r i ■111 i * p ‘ n ' p. ■ ( ; n A- p t 310 Mercier, L. S. Lettre au rol. contenant un projet pour llaulder en peu dlannees toutes lea dettes de l'Etat. en soulageant dAa A prftsent le peuple du fardeau des Im p o sitio n s. 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Lettre sur les Anglais et les Francais et sur les voyages. 1725, 5^3 pp. Palissot. La Dunelade. dans CEuvres. LiAge: Cl. Plomteux, 1777, III", "58-£9 . ______. Mfaoires pour servlr A 1'histoire de notre 11ttSrafcure, depuls Prancols Ier jusqu*~A nos Jours. Cren%Y<': Mor.tard, 1775, 29 6 pp. ______. Les Phllosophes. dans CEuvres. LiAge: Cl. Plomteux, 1777, II. Peignot, Gabriel. Dlctlonnalre critique. llttAralre et blb llographlou e des prlnclpaux llv r e s condemnAs au feu, supprlmes ou censures. . .Paris: A Henouard, 1 8 0 6 , 2 tomes en 1 Vol. 311 Pezerols, de. Le Conclllateur. ou la Noblesse mllltalre et commercante. enr^ponse aux objectinns faltes par I * auteur de"la Noblesse m llltalre . ^ Amsterdam*, et Paris: Duchesne^- lI?Ppp"I Pinczon du Sel des Monts. Considerations sur le commerce de Bretagne. Rennes: Imprimerie de J. Vatar, 1756/137 pp. Rftflexlons sur la noblesse commercante. L'Ampsaque: 17 59, 23 PP. Rochon de Chabannes, M.-A.-J. 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