Wings Essays on Invertebrate Conservation

WINGS ESSAYS ON INVERTEBRATE CONSERVATION

THE XERCES SOCIETY SPRING 2020 CONTENTS

The importance of tackling climate as part of an invertebrate-conservation agenda is underscored by modeling studies that show the impact of climate change on the small creatures that sustain us. Depending on the amount of warming, as much as 49 percent of invertebrates may disappear from half of their current ranges. Navigating a Changing World Scott Black Page 3. Nature-Based Solutions: A Win for Both Biodiversity and the Climate Scott Black Natural areas support wildlife during a time of shifting weather patterns, and they also help with carbon sequestration. Protecting and creating habitat should be an integral part of our response to climate change. Page 5. Australia’s Green Carpenter Bee on the Brink Matt Kelly In late 2019, wildfires burned across Australia on an unimaginable scale, devastat- ing towns and forests and pushing a rare bee closer to extinction. Page 11. Mitigating the Effects of Climate Change on Grassland Butterflies Angela Laws Grasslands have been lost at an alarming rate. Climate change adds an extra level of threat to the butterflies that rely on these beautiful environments.Page 16. Conservation Spotlight Phyllis Stiles, the Founder of Bee City USA, is a pollinator champion. Page 23. Invertebrate Notes A roundup of new resources, research, and a book review. Page 24. Staff Profile Meet Emily May, pollinator conservation specialist based in Connecticut. Page 26. Xerces News Updates on Xerces Society projects and achievements. Page 27.

2 WINGS Navigating a Changing World

Scott Black

When I became executive director of the est pollinator conservation program on Xerces Society almost twenty years ago, the planet, pushing for pesticide reduc- I knew there would be many challenges. tions with our advocacy staff, or engag- A lack of understanding and empathy ing communities with skilled commu- for insects by land managers, gardeners, nicators, our goal remains the same— and the general public, and a lack of sci- protecting the life that sustains us. entific data on most species—even such What I did not anticipate all those economically important ones as native years ago was the challenge of manag- bees—were early impediments. ing a nonprofit during a pandemic. The Since then, from small beginnings coronavirus has changed the lives of with just a few staff, we have overcome many millions of people, and my heart many hurdles and now have a world- goes out to everyone who has been af- class conservation team. Whether we are fected by bereavement, illness, isola- working on endangered mussels with tion, or loss of income. our dedicated conservation biologists, We have been very lucky at Xerces, helping farmers protect and restore hab- with no severe illness among staff, but itat across North America with the larg- we’ve had our work cut out for us: figur-

Insects and other invertebrates remain the focus of our work, but due to the coronavirus we have had to make changes to the way we operate. Male leafcutter bee (Megachile parallela), photo- graphed by Bryan E. Reynolds.

SPRING 2020 3 ing out how to continue our important to fireflies, bumble bees, tickle bees, and mission as our entire society is upended ways to observe nature. by the coronavirus. We took swift action Throughout the summer we will in March and shifted everyone to home present webinars focused on gardens, offices, ensuring they had everything including helping beneficial insects, needed to be able to shelter at home to selecting plants for butterflies, provid- decrease the risk to themselves, their ing for pollinators, and more. We are loved ones, and their community. We also developing online trainings for then had to work out how we could con- farmers and community scientists. Our tinue to deliver our conservation work initial webinars have been a huge suc- and reach people with information that cess, with each attended by hundreds of would help them protect invertebrates. people, and recordings are added to our For decades, a central component YouTube channel so they can continue of the work of Xerces staff has been to to be viewed. We’ve expanded this ef- go out to meet people where they live fort by adding new resources to our and work, building trust and collabo- website, and we’re also rethinking ways ration. This approach has consistently for our e-newsletters and social media produced great success—over the years to provide complementary channels for we’ve reached more than a hundred sharing information and engaging our thousand people through trainings and supporters. worked with farmers and land manag- Our core programs remain strong, ers to protect and restore more than and we know that our work is as rel- two and a half million acres of habitat evant today as it has ever been. We will for invertebrates. Now, though, it was return to face-to-face meetings and clear that none of this was possible, and public events when conditions permit, we had to cancel dozens of workshops, but throughout this difficult period and farm walks, and field visits in March, beyond we will continue to use applied April, and May alone. Unable to meet in research, technical expertise, outreach person, we had to retool our approach. and education, and advocacy to pursue Our task was to find new ways to our central mission as strenuously as connect from afar, in order both to col- we always have, protecting the natural laborate among staff and to reach out world through the conservation of in- to provide people with the information vertebrates and their habitats. Across the and technical assistance they need. I am United States and Canada, we are work- very proud of how quickly Xerces staff ing with farmers to protect and restore took on this enormous task and created habitat, with communities to reduce great content for our now-distant audi- pesticide use, with cities and college ences. Within a few weeks, we launched campuses to protect pollinators through a webinar series. Our first webinars Bee City USA, and with land managers in April addressed how pesticides can to protect some of the most imperiled harm pollinators and what can be done animals on the planet. to eliminate or at least minimize pesti- We are grateful for your ongoing in- cide use. May’s series, “Discovering the volvement with our work—and for your Insects Around You,” introduced people steadfast support.

4 WINGS Nature-Based Solutions: A Win for Both Biodiversity and the Climate

Scott Black

In 1995, I had the considerable good ­caterpillars’ sole host plant—the aptly fortune to par­ticipate in developing a named snow willow—is kept palatable search strategy for the Uncompahgre by the moisture from snow patches that fritillary (Boloria acrocnema), a butterfly melt throughout the summer. In addi- that lives only in the San Juan Moun- tion to being a great job, this was my tains of southern Colorado. That sum- first real look at a species that was being mer I hiked hundreds of miles in some impacted by what we then called global of the world’s most beautiful alpine hab- warming. itats to reach the places where the frit- As far as I know, the Uncompahgre illary lived, north-facing slopes above fritillary was the first species to be pro- twelve thousand feet (3,650 meters). tected under the U.S. Endangered Spe- At those high altitudes the fritillary cies Act for which climate change was

The San Juan Mountains in Colorado include dozens of peaks higher than twelve thou- sand feet (3,650 meters), which support high-altitude habitats and species that are now threatened by climate change. Photograph by the Bureau of Land Management.

SPRING 2020 5 The Uncompahgre fritillary (Boloria acrocnema) lives in areas where there is year-round snow to sustain the host plant that its caterpillars eat. Photograph by the Xerces Society / Scott Black. mentioned as being a factor in its en­ nating (or at least minimizing) pesticide dangerment (although it was referred use, better managing wild­life diseases, to in the listing documents as “adverse and reducing the light pollution that is climatic conditions”). disruptive for nocturnal species. Even It makes sense, of course, that a spe- if, however, we were able to succeed at cies that lives only where snow persists all of that and yet were to ignore climate year-round would be impacted by cli- change, we would be solving only part mate change. What I did not realize at of the problem. the time was that over the next quarter A modeling study that looked at of a century the climate crisis would be- distributions of different invertebrates come one of the primary driving forces under various climate-change scenarios behind species decline everywhere. helps illustrate the importance of tack- Now it is not just high-mountain en- ling climate as part of an invertebrate- demics that are impacted, but ultimately conservation agenda. With warming all living organisms: species in prairies of 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels, 6 and meadows, species in our rivers and percent of invertebrates are estimated streams, species that live with us in cit- to lose at least 50 percent of their ranges; ies and towns. The loss of biodiversity is this increases to 18 percent of inver- being accelerated by changes in climate, tebrates with 2°C of warming and 49 and we must act now if we hope to save percent of invertebrates with 3.2°C. The many important species—including hu- threat is unmistakable: if we do not address mans—from calamity. climate change, nearly half of all inverte­ Of course, climate change is not the brates could lose half of their ranges. This only threat, and we still need to focus on would not be bad just for the inverte- protecting and restoring habitat, elimi- brates, it would be catastrophic for the

6 WINGS plants that depend on them for pollina- has a lower carbon footprint because no tion, as well as for those birds, fish, and synthetic fertilizers and pesticides were other animals that rely on insects and used), choosing local sources to reduce other invertebrates as food. long-distance shipping, and avoiding So how do we address this issue? food waste are all important steps. Indi- First, it is imperative that we act now. viduals, of course, cannot do it all. We Scientists have stressed that we have a need to compel real government action limited window of opportunity—likely by advocating for strong policies and no more than a few decades—to deal electing people who will push for sus- with the climate crisis. Fortunately, tained climate efforts at all levels. there is much we can do, even individu- Beyond lowering your carbon foot- ally, to limit carbon outputs, a vital part print, there is a lot that you can do at of any solution. Cut back on fossil fuel your home, around your farm, or in use by driving and flying less, and try your local park or natural area. Nature- to include as much renewable energy based climate solutions involve actions in heating and lighting buildings as that protect and enhance nature to help possible. (Many utilities have programs ecosystems and a broad diversity of through which you can purchase re- creatures adapt to a changing climate. newable energy.) Food choices are also These solutions also help to mitigate important. Minimizing animal prod- climate change by increasing the cap- ucts, buying organic food (which often ture and long-term storage of carbon in

Many farmers are either caring for or creating habitat features such as hedgerows to sup- port wildlife on their land. Such plantings can also play a role in mitigating the impacts of climate change. Photograph by the Xerces Society / Jessa Kay Cruz.

SPRING 2020 7 plants and in the soil. They can range of larger landscapes is going to have a from simply protecting as much of the big impact, but even making your yard natural landscape as possible to restor- a haven for wildlife will contribute. ing and enhancing ecosystems such as By using climate-smart native plants, forests, but also on farms, along road- eliminating pesticides, and providing sides, and in towns and cities. Trees are nest sites for bees and host plants for an essential part of this solution, but so butterflies you can have a very positive are native prairie and meadow areas, effect. And if you work with neighbors which are also important for carbon or your local park you can create even capture and which support biodiversity larger benefits. that is found nowhere else. The benefits Wildlife corridors are an important of implementing nature-based climate feature of a nature-based solution. In solutions are significant. In addition to the face of a changing climate, insects supporting wildlife, recent research sug- need to move across the landscape to gests that natural climate solutions can find new nesting and food resources, account for 30 percent of the carbon se- and there is already evidence that but- questration needed to limit warming to terflies are shifting ranges in response 2°C by the end of the century. to climate change. Linear habitats, such The great thing about these nature- as field borders, hedgerows, tree-lined based solutions is that they can be roadways, and green lanes, can act as undertaken anywhere by anyone. Of corridors for pollinators, and thus may course, the protection and restoration be particularly valuable in aiding disper-

Wildlife can live side by side with dense urban development, meaning that even small city plots can provide valuable habitat for invertebrates and other creatures. Photograph by Matthew­ Shepherd.

8 WINGS Dragonflies are among the many types of wildlife that benefit from habitat restoration along creeks and rivers. Widow skim- mer (Libellula luctuosa), photographed by Bryan E. Reynolds. sal. A recent study by the University of Xerces recently produced a series Salzburg’s Jan Christian Habel and col- of guides to climate-smart habitat res- leagues found that when corridors con- toration and management in cities and tain high-quality habitat they can be towns, roadsides, natural areas, and beneficial for specialist butterflies, and farms. Although these fact sheets were the study also suggested that butterflies written for California and some content preferred such corridors to surround- is specific for that state, the strategies ing lands of lower quality. And it is not they describe can be implemented any- just terrestrial insects that benefit from where. We also have plant guides and such habitat; scientists at the University planting resources for the United States of California at Santa Cruz found that and Canada that can help you make restoring riparian corridors improves your garden, park, farm, or roadside a conditions for a variety of aquatic inver- haven for insects, and thus part of the tebrates, including stoneflies, mayflies, climate solution we need. and caddisflies, three significant insect The added benefit of these nature- groups that live in streams. based strategies is that you will im- This too is something in which ev- mediately make a difference for local eryone can do their part. Linking habi- biodiversity, benefiting fireflies, bees, tat areas by working with neighbors butterflies, birds, and so much more. and your local or state transportation There is a body of evidence that the departments to add habitat along road- more biodiverse a system is, the better it ways brings the benefits of larger scale, will handle changes in climate, so this and helps make it possible for species to approach offers a win-win. Even aquatic move from one place to another as the species will benefit, thanks both to there climate changes. being fewer impervious surfaces and

SPRING 2020 9 Formal landscaping around businesses and other developments can be part of the solution, as long as proper consideration is given to selecting appropriate plants. Photograph by Matthew Shepherd. to a reduction in pesticides and other part by lowering our own organization- toxic pollutants entering local creeks al carbon footprint. By endeavoring to and ponds. The science is clear: climate understand our carbon output, getting change and the loss of biodiversity are rid of non-essential plane and car travel, interlinked, and coupling efforts at cli- and serving only plant-based foods at mate mitigation with ecosystem-based events going forward, Xerces hopes to approaches is essential. It is impossible set an example for other organizations to address the loss of biodiversity with- and businesses. If we all work together, out addressing climate change, but I believe we can make a difference by equally impossible to tackle the impacts striving to maintain biodiversity as we of climate change without working to address the threat of a changing climate. protect and enhance biodiversity. Xerces is committed to protecting invertebrate diversity from all threats, Scott Black is executive director of the including climate change. We are work- ­Xerces Society. He serves on the science ing to ensure that our species-protection advisory committee of the Urban Draw­ efforts and our restoration and manage- down Initiative, which works to accelerate ment guidance take into account future the implementation of carbon-removal climate scenarios, so that we can imple- strategies that simultaneously improve the ment long-term solutions that enhance social, economic, and environmental resil­ biodiversity. Xerces is also doing our ience of local communities.

10 WINGS Australia’s Green Carpenter Bee on the Brink

Matt Kelly

The impact of the recent Australian though we do not know the full impact wildfires has been devastating and that these infernos had on insects and terrifying. The scale is almost in­com­ other invertebrates, such wildfires pose prehensible: the megafire that burned a very real danger to the country’s im- across the country’s most populous mensely diverse insect populations. states of New South Wales and Victoria One species of native bee might now be engulfed approximately twenty-three teetering on the brink of extinction as hundred square miles. And that was just a result. one of the 135 bushfires in southeastern The metallic green carpenter bee Australia that claimed more than two (Xylocopa aerata) is the largest native bee dozen human lives, ruined nearly three in southern Australia, measuring almost thousand homes, and is thought to have an inch long. It’s generally considered a killed roughly one billion animals. Al- solitary bee—although a mother may

In late 2019, areas of Kangaroo Island vital for the survival of the metallic green car- penter bee were consumed by massive wildfires. Photograph by robdownunder / Flickr.

SPRING 2020 11 share a nest with her daughters—with species in areas throughout the coun- very specialized nesting needs: trunks try. The metallic green carpenter bee of dead banksia (Banksia) and stalks was once widely distributed from New of dead grass trees (Xanthorrhoea), in South Wales to Kangaroo Island. It is which the female chews out her nesting now found only on the eastern flanks of tunnel, using the resulting “sawdust” the Great Dividing Range near Sydney to create partitions that separate the in New South Wales, and on the western brood cells. The green carpenter bee is part of Kangaroo Island. one of a relatively small number of bees Australian researchers and vol­ that can buzz pollinate— other Austra- unteers have been working for years to lian species that can do this include the reverse this trend and rehabilitate the teddy bear and blue-banded bees (Ame­ species. Banksia, the green carpenter gilla)—making it an essential link in the bee’s preferred nesting material, does reproduction of native plants, including not survive fire and requires more than guinea flower, velvet bush, and fringe, thirty years to grow to the right condi- chocolate, and flax lilies, that depend tions for the bees to use as home. These entirely on buzz pollination for repro- researchers, led by Dr. Remko Leijs, of duction. And because it is a relatively the South Australian Museum, and Dr. large bee, it visits many different plants Katja Hogendoorn, of the University of in the course of daily foraging. Adelaide, have been installing artifi-­ Land clearing and previous large cial nesting stalks for the bee on Kanga- bushfires over the past century have roo Island. already caused local extinction of this At the time that the recent wildfires

The common fringe lily (Thysanotus tuberosus) requires buzz pollination. The green carpenter bee is one of a lim- ited number of species that can do this. Photograph by David Lochlin / Flickr.

12 WINGS This male green carpenter bee (Xylocopa aerata) was photographed on Kangaroo Island before the 2019 wild- fires consumed its habitat.Photograph ­ by Remko Leijs. started in December 2019, the team had our best educated at­tempts to put some established 440 nesting stalks at twelve certainty around an otherwise uncer- different locations on the island; 160 of tain situation. But this quantification of those stalks were occupied with nests extinction is far more than just an aca- containing pupae. Unfortunately, near- demic pursuit. It can and should serve ly all of those areas burned. In the other as the standard by which we judge our place where this bee is known to live, success or failure at protecting the bio- on the east coast of New South Wales, diversity of our world. nearly 80 percent of the habitat has been Moreover, if we zoom in a bit in destroyed by fire. So, while the wildfires terms of both species and geography, aren’t solely to blame for the plight of there are some things we can say with the green carpenter bee, they might ulti- great confidence. In North America, for mately be the event that pushes this bee example, where more than a quarter of over the edge to extinction. bumble bee species are at risk, five of Is this what it’s like to lose a species them—rusty patched, yellow-banded, in real time in the Anthropocene Era? Crotch’s, Suckley cuckoo, and western Estimates of global extinction rates —are poised to slip quietly into the evo- are discussed with much gravity these lutionary night unless we act. Franklin’s days. The Millennium Ecosystem As- bumble bee may already have disap- sessment indicates that we are losing peared, and it would have done so un- twenty-four species a day. A hundred noticed except for the tireless work of and sixty species a week. Eighty-seven the late Dr. Robbin Thorp. hundred species a year. We have to be But in these cases we have been for- a bit careful when using such numbers tunate in one particular way: the decline because they are, after all, estimates— has been relatively gradual on a human

SPRING 2020 13 The carpenter bees select dead trunks of banksia (Banksia), shown here, and grass trees (Xanthorrhoea), in both of which they chew out nest tunnels. Last winter’s fires burned the trees and the nests they contained. Photo- graph by Dushan Hanuska / Flickr. time scale. There is time to notice, time But Australia’s metallic green car- to act. The rusty patched bumble bee is penter bee shows us another possibility protected under the federal Endangered for how extinction can happen: sud- Species Act because of Xerces’ efforts. denly, jarringly, and catastrophically. Xerces also worked with conservation The bee’s gradual population decline partners to petition for four other bum- and range contraction put it in a precari- ble bee species— Crotch’s, Franklin’s, ous position. Now a single cataclysmic western, and Suckley cuckoo — to be event, one from the deepest nightmares added to California’s endangered list, of anthropogenic climate change— with follow-up legal action to ensure a wall of uncontrollable fire walking that it happens. Programs like Bee Better across the landscape —might finish it Certified have been created to drive real off completely. And there’s nothing we change among farmers and land man- can do about it. agers. Countless community science If this makes you sad, that’s a good programs engage the public and inspire thing. It means you have a heart and action at the local level. that you care. But you can also find

14 WINGS strength here. The plight of the green hands that can absolutely preserve the carpenter bee has given us a warning. wonderful diversity of species in our It has shown us why our own actions world and prevent such terrible losses to protect species—to increase habitat from happening. and range, to decrease the number of persistent threats, to value life in all its forms—are so important. Sudden and Matt Kelly is an independent journal­ catastrophic events will become more ist. He is the creator, host, and editor of likely in our near future. We cannot The Bee Report podcast, newsletter, and allow bees or butterflies or fireflies or website, a news site dedicated to helping freshwater mussels or any of the vast bee experts, community scientists, and number of invertebrate species to be the bee-curious stay connected to the wide boxed into a similar geographic and world of bees. Matt is also working on a reproductive corner. documentary film about the bees of Grand Now that the fires have passed, Staircase–Escalante National Monument. Drs. Leijs and Hogendoorn and their team of researchers are literally sifting through the ashes to determine what has happened to the green carpenter bee. Recently, in five days of searching, they found twelve nests—a good sign, although previously this number of nests would be found in an hour. The carpenter bees are hanging on, but in very small numbers. The team will re- turn in July to do further surveys and to place fresh artificial nesting stalks in both burned and unburned areas. One hopeful fact is that grass trees flower profusely after fire, as long as the fire has not burned too hot. The grass-tree stalks become available as nesting sites after a couple of years and remain usable for up to six years before collapsing. But, while the landscape recovers, it’s the artificial stalks that will guarantee con- sistent places for the green carpenter bee to nest. These conservation efforts will continue as long as the bee still survives. Artificial nesting stalks had been placed The plight of the green carpenter on Kangaroo Island and were occupied by carpenter bees before the fires. New stalks bee and the potential for its extinction will be erected in burned areas, giving are certainly the results of human ac- hope that the surviving carpenter bees tion. But it is also human action that will find them and be able to reproduce will change this. It is the work of human successfully. Photograph by Remko Leijs.

SPRING 2020 15 Mitigating the Effects of Climate Change On Grassland Butterflies

Angela Laws

Declining biodiversity has been mak- in Great Britain. Where I live, in Cali- ing its way into the news more and fornia’s Central Valley, thirty-five years more as researchers continue to record of survey data also show a drop in the losses in plant and animal populations. richness and abundance of butterfly Insects are no exception, and several species. A recent paper by Matt Forister, recent studies that use long-term data- of the University of Nevada, Reno, and sets show a marked reduction in insect Xerces Society staff showed that there is abundance. For example, observations substantial evidence of diminishing di- in Germany over a twenty-seven-year versity, abundance, and biomass across period found a 75 percent decrease in multiple continents. A variety of factors the biomass of flying insects; similar contributes to these insect declines, in- changes have been recorded for moths cluding the loss of habitat, pesticides,

The painted lady (Vanessa cardui) is found almost everywhere. Although its caterpillars prefer thistles, they will eat a huge range of plants from lupines to mallow— and, away from grasslands, even potatoes. Photograph by Bryan E. Reynolds.

16 WINGS The variegated fritillary (Euptoieta claudia) may be found throughout the United States (except for the Pacific Northwest) and in a variety of open sunny habitats, including meadows, prairies, and roadsides. It can have as many as four generations in a year. Photograph by Bryan E. Reynolds. invasive species, and, increasingly, cli- species have already been observed, mate change. often with a shrinking of the southern The United States is home to ap- portion of their ranges. Phe­nology, or proximately eight hundred species of the timing of biological events, can also butterflies. These lovely insects can be vary as the climate changes. One con- found in a variety of habitats, from des- cern is that the life cycles of butterflies erts to grasslands to forests, from ocean and their host plants can become mis- beaches to mountain tops. The cater- aligned, with plants growing earlier in pillars usually feed on leaves and other the season, leaving caterpillars with plant parts—the exception being the little to eat. Other changes to plant com- harvester (Feniseca tarquinius), whose munities may also have an effect on but- caterpillars are carnivorous and eat terfly populations; increases in drought aphids —while adults feed primarily on frequency and severity, for instance, nectar, but may also find nourishment will reduce the amount of nectar avail- on rotting fruit, sap, honeydew, or dung. able to adult butterflies. Climate change affects butterflies In order to know how to buffer the in a variety of ways. While it is possible negative effects of climate change on that some species may benefit, many butterflies and other insects, we need to more will be negatively impacted. The be able to predict which species might distribution of species is likely to change be most impacted. Specialists are among as butterflies move to follow optimal the ones most likely to be vulnerable. A conditions. Shifts of several butterfly specialist butterfly is defined by what

SPRING 2020 17 Species-diverse, flower-rich grasslands are a precious but disappearing asset. More than 99 percent of grasslands have been lost in some areas. Maintaining the remaining grass- lands and creating new connections between isolated sites will help grassland butterflies adapt to changing environmental conditions. Photograph by Aaron Carlson / Flickr. its caterpillars eat. While an adult will stressors in a way that magnifies their drink nectar from a variety of plants, impact. For example, exposure to a par- the caterpillars may feed on only a ticular pesticide may not be fatal for small number of species. Some caterpil- a butterfly, but, combined with stress lars feed on just a single species of host from a heat wave or drought, the ex- plant; others are slightly less selective, posure may become lethal. This is po- choosing plants from a single genus or tentially a problem for a wide range of family. Either way, such specialization insects, but, for species that are already may make these species particularly declining, climate change is highly like- likely to suffer as a result of climate- ly to put them at greater risk. change-caused reductions in the abun- An important way to protect but­ dance of their host plants. terflies—whether specialist or gener- Also highly vulnerable are spe- alist, declining or abundant— from cies that are already under stress from the negative consequences of climate habitat loss, say, or pesticide use, since change is to increase habitat availabil- climate change can interact with such ity and connectivity. Larger patches of

18 WINGS habitat can support larger populations, pers (Hes­­periinae) and the skipperlings which are generally less prone to extinc- (Heteropterinae) — although there are tion than smaller ones. Creating greater several more subfamilies with a few spe- connectivity between areas of habitat cies in each. Skippers and skipperlings provides a number of benefits: it allows are often orange, brown, or grey in color, for larger populations and it enables spe- and tend to have prominent eyes, stout cies to shift their distributions to places and relatively hairy bodies, and short with more favorable conditions. It also antennae. Butterflies in the brush-foot increases gene flow, potentially boost- subfamily Satyrinae, which includes the ing the degree of genetic variation in a satyrs and wood nymphs, also tend to population and increasing the likeli- use grasses and grass-like plants as cat- hood that a species will be able to adapt erpillar hosts, and, although larger than to a warmer climate. skippers, these butterflies are also usu- While butterflies are often as­ ally brown. Because most of these grass- sociated with flowers or shrubs, there are specialist butterflies are small, nonde- many butterfly species whose caterpil- script, and easily overlooked, there is lars feed on grasses, sedges, and rushes. much less known about their natural Many of these species are skippers (fam- history than about that of their flashier ily Hesperiidae), and these come primar- relatives. For some of these species, not ily from two subfamilies—the grass skip- even the native host plants are known.

The life of the red satyr (Megisto rubricata) is closely tied to grasses. Its caterpillars eat the native St. Augustine grass (Steno- taphrum secundatum). Photograph by Bryan E. Reynolds.

SPRING 2020 19 An illustration of how little is life history, it was found that its females known about a seemingly well-known oviposit on multiple plants, including butterfly comes from Xerces’ work on fescue, sedges, and oatgrass. In addition, the mardon skipper (Polites mardon). In field studies by our team suggested that 2000, when the mardon skipper was those living in the Cascade Range over- listed as a candidate species under the winter as caterpillars. This experience U.S. Endangered Species Act, common was a clear reminder that in order to wisdom was that its caterpillars fed on successfully conserve a species we must fescue and that the butterflies overwin- understand what it eats and how it lives. tered as chrysalises. In an effort to con- Many grass-specialist butterflies serve this butterfly, Xerces and partners are known to be declining, primarily conducted surveys across the species’ due to habitat loss. Currently, there are range, studied the impacts of manage- thirty-two butterflies protected under ment activities such as fire, and imple- the federal Endangered Species Act, and mented res­toration and habitat manage- one more that is a candidate for protec- ment at dozens of locations. tion. Four of the protected butterflies Interestingly, when researchers are grass skippers—Dakota skipper (Hes­ from Xerces and the University of Wash- peria dacotae), Pawnee montane skipper ington began investigating the skipper’s (Hesperia leonardus montana), Poweshiek

Unlike many species, the mardon skipper (Polites mardon) has been the focus of much study, which helps inform habi- tat management plans. Photograph by Tom Kogut / USFS.

20 WINGS The Pawnee montane skipper (Hesperia leonardus montana) is listed as threatened under the Endangered Species Act. It occurs only in the drainage system of the South Platte Canyon River in Colorado. Photograph by Craig Hansen / USFWS. skipperling (Oarisma poweshiek), and Idaho are both reduced to less than 1 Carson wandering skipper (Pseudo­ percent of their historic area. In the face copaeodes eunus obscurus) — but there of such losses, every scrap of grassland are many more imperiled grass-feeding habitat becomes significant. butterflies that are not protected under There are seventeen million acres the Endangered Species Act. Habitat loss of roadsides in the United States, often is a primary threat to these species, and dominated by grasses, and these and grassland habitat continues to disap- other rights-of-way present a valuable pear. Other threats, including pesticides opportunity to increase habitat and and invasive species, also play a role, habitat connectivity for butterflies and and the effects of climate change are be- other insects. Xerces has a long history coming increasingly apparent. of working with the Federal Highway Grasslands have frequently been Administration and departments of plowed under or built upon, their tree- transportation across the country. We less landscapes easy to convert to other have produced many documents for uses. More than 98 percent of the tall- roadside planners and maintenance grass prairie that covered the Midwest crews, including scientific reviews and and once stretched from Manitoba to guidelines, which can be found on the Texas has been destroyed. Other grass- Xerces website. We are currently work- lands have fared even worse: those of ing on a guide to creating climate-smart California’s Central Valley and the roadside habitat for pollinators. It will Palouse prairie of Washington and include profiles of imperiled pollina-

SPRING 2020 21 Grasslands require ongoing management and care to maintain the open, species-rich conditions that many butterflies need. Carefully prescribed actions such as such as mow- ing or burning are often necessary to prevent gradual decline and eventual loss. Photo- graph by the Xerces Society / Anne Stine. tors, with an overview of the effects, on already declining habitats. Protect- both positive and negative, that road- ing and restoring grasslands has a role side management can have on these to play in mitigating the magnitude of species, along with rec­ommendations the change in climate and—particularly for practices that can contribute to their if we improve connectivity among habi- conservation. We are also working to tat remnants —is key to sustaining but- provide guidance for assisting the four terflies and other invertebrates that live ESA-­listed skippers and ten additional in these remarkably diverse and beauti- species of grass-feeding butterflies— ful places. along with a suite of other imperiled pollinators— so that state transporta- tion departments can better manage Angela Laws is an endangered species con­ roadside habitat to protect these under- servation biologist at the Xerces Society, appreciated creatures. based in California. Her work focuses on Climate change poses a consider- incorporating climate resilience into habi­ able threat to the biodiversity of our tat restoration for pollinators and monarch planet, particularly for species that rely butterflies.

22 WINGS CONSERVATION SPOTLIGHT

Phyllis Stiles: Pollinator Champion and Founder of Bee City USA Phyllis Stiles built a career by weaving With her love for bees rapidly ex- together her concern for the environ- panding into an understanding of the ment and, just as significantly, her desire diversity and importance of native spe- to serve communities. She led a cam- cies, pollinator conservation became paign that worked with local commu- Phyllis’s life. Her tireless efforts saw nities to protect fifty thousand acres of Bee City USA blossom into a network the southern Appalachian Mountains, of communities spanning the United coordinated a North Carolina fund to States; become the gold standard for conserve farmland and the families it protecting native pollinators in cities, sustains, and directed fundraising at towns, and colleges; and spawn a paral- the University of North Carolina, Ashe- lel initiative in Canada. ville, that, among other things, sup- Phyllis retired from Bee City USA ported college-preparation programs for last year, but remains actively engaged ­minority high-school students. Those in promoting pollinators in Asheville. achievements create a considerable Every individual and community that legacy— but they are not the work for Phyllis helped through Bee City USA which Phyllis is most widely recognized. and during her career will have fond About fifteen years ago, at her hus- memories of her, and knowing Phyllis, band’s urging, Phyllis joined him in enjoy a lasting friendship as well. learning about backyard beekeeping. Colony collapse disorder was in the news and, as reports grew worse, she knew that she needed to do more than care for a hive or two. Inspired by Mar- garet Mead’s aphorism that a small group of thoughtful, committed people can change the world, Phyllis brain- stormed with friends. The result was Bee City USA. Phyllis started with her home town of Asheville, asking the city council to adopt a resolution declaring the city’s commitment to creating habitat, avoid- ing pesticides, and hosting outreach activities promoting pollinators. When the council adopted the resolution in June 2012, Bee City USA gained its first affiliate.

SPRING 2020 23 INVERTEBRATE NOTES

New Brochure and Webinars Bring Attention to Fireflies Fireflies—also known as lightningbugs or glow-worms —are some of our most adored insects. Not only are they im- portant components of natural ecosys- tems, but they have immense cultural, biological, and economic value. Even so, fireflies appear to be declining. Last year Xerces initiated the Con- serving the Jewels of the Night cam- paign to advance our understanding of fireflies, identify and address threats to their populations, recover populations that have declined, and engage the pub- lic in firefly conservation. An important part of this effort is to inspire people to take action for these incredible crea- tures. A new brochure with fabulous il- lustrations by our partners at Ink Dwell, Firefly Conservation: A Guide to Protecting two webinars, one geared toward farm- the Jewels of the Night, does just that. It ers and farm agency staff and one for a offers guidance about what fireflies need general audience; and in June we are of- and what we all can do to help, with the fering a third, for public land managers, goal of getting people to take action. hosted by the Natural Areas Association. We’re also reaching out to a variety For more information, see the firefly re- of audiences to provide conservation sources on our website. tools and information. We’ve presented —Scott Black

Research: Pesticides in Milkweeds Concern over monarch butterflies has weed species—which are the sole food led to an upsurge in habitat creation on source for monarch caterpillars and farms and roadsides, in parks and yards. thus vitally important for their survival. For greatest benefit, such habitats need During June 2019, samples of milk- to be free of pesticides as well as to offer weed leaves were collected from farms, the right types of plants. Xer­ces part- home gardens, retail outlets, and even nered with the University of Nevada, wildlife refuge lands in California’s Cen- Reno, to conduct a study in California tral Valley. These were tested for pesti- into the presence of insecticides in milk- cides and the levels of residue were mea-

24 WINGS sured. Our findings, recently published port in response to these findings has in the journal Frontiers in Ecology and been phenomenal. Farmers, gardeners, the Environment, were disheartening. government agency staff, and many Not a single site was free of pesticides. others in the region all want to play a Sixty-four different pesticide products role in helping monarchs. Already Xer­ were detected, with an average of nine ces is working with a milkweed seed pro- per plant. While there is limited data as ducer to ensure that the plants he grows to the risk pesticides pose to monarchs, are free of harmful pesticides. We are available research shows that 47 percent also helping home gardeners to source of the samples contained pesticides at pollinator-attractive plants grown with levels that could be lethal to butterflies. ecologically sound methods. Fortunately, the outpouring of sup- —Aimée Code

Book Review: The Garden Jungle Dr. Dave Goulson is a scientist who com- We must work together to make our bines sound research with the ability to yards, parks, and communities less de- write engagingly for a general audience. pendent on chemical inputs. That work His newest book, The Garden Jungle, or starts at home—and The Garden Jungle Gardening to Save the Planet (Jonathan outlines the principles that will allow us Cape, 2019), is a terrific read, and it is to take meaningful steps forward. globally relevant, despite at times being —Rich Hatfield focused on the United Kingdom. Dr. Goulson takes us through why and how to create a garden that works for a host of small creatures, while also maintaining the beauty and function we expect to enjoy there. He begins by discussing the complexity of gardens and plant selection, and then, chapter by chapter, introduces us to animals you will meet in your backyard—along with practical ideas to help create space for them and the systems they support. You’ll learn a new appreciation for earwigs (voracious predators of gar- den pests, not human brains), worms (world’s best composters?), moths (per- haps we should call them night-time butterflies?), and ants (herders, farmers)! Mixed in with all of this is perhaps one of the most sobering chapters you’ll ever read, about how pesticides have altered the health of ourselves and our planet.

SPRING 2020 25 STAFF PROFILE

Emily May, Pollinator Conservation Specialist What got you interested in insects? While I’ve always been keen on natural history, when colony collapse disorder hit the news I became interested specifically in bees through the lens of food systems and pollination. I was in college and involved with the student farm, which kept honey bees for pollination and honey production, but I soon became interested in the diversity of native bees visiting the flowers we planted. How did you hear of the Xerces Society? I first learned about Xerces when I did an independent study project on pollinator biology during my sophomore year. The Xerces resources I found then proved extremely helpful in designing all of whom have an amazing depth and a pollinator garden on campus! breadth of skills and knowledge. What made you want to work here? I’ve Who is (or was) your environmental hero? known for more than a decade that my My current hero is Greta Thunberg, who dream job would involve helping to speaks to power with such clarity and translate pollinator science for the pub- gives a resonant voice to the collective lic and supporting on-the-ground polli- anger over inaction on climate. nator habitat conservation—two things that Xerces sets the bar for. That dream What’s your favorite place to visit? While led me to pursue a masters in entomol- I’ve lived in many states over the last ogy studying wild bees in Michigan ten years, my heart lives in the valley blueberries, and eventually to a position between the Adirondacks and the Green here at Xerces! I feel quite lucky. Mountains. Vermont will always be my favorite place to spend time. What’s the best thing about your job? I am constantly learning new things. What book are you currently reading? I just Developing guidance on pollinator finished Robert Macfarlane’sUnderland , conservation involves deep dives into which explores the human relationship current research— something I find to subterranean spaces through history thrilling—but I’m also always learning and into the future. He characterizes new things from the people I work with, humans and rocks with equal skill.

26 WINGS XERCES NEWS

Island Marble Butterfly Finally Receives Federal Protection The Xerces Society and other conserva- Lopez and San Juan islands. During the tion groups first petitioned the U.S. Fish years spent waiting for protection, the and Wildlife Service to protect the is- island marble disappeared from most land marble butterfly Euchloe( ausonides locations and now occurs in only one insulanus) in 2002. The USFWS denied population within American Camp Na- protection four years later, citing volun- tional Park on San Juan Island, which tary conservation efforts. After moni- makes recovery much more difficult. toring by the Washington Department We hope that now that the island mar- of Fish and Wildlife and others indi- ble has been listed, funding can be made cated that the butterfly’s populations available to help the butterfly recover. were continuing to decline, in 2012 In 2019, the USFWS approved a Pro- the Xer­ces Society again petitioned the grammatic Candidate Conservation USFWS —this time successfully. At the Agreement with Assurances, a volun- beginning of May, the USFWS listed the tary agreement with landowners to pro- island marble as an endangered species mote conservation that reduces threats under the Endangered Species Act. and provides for actions to help recov- Two decades ago, this butterfly was ery. Many landowners have signed up at risk but could be found at multiple for the Agreement, which could give the sites, including populations on both island marble a chance at survival.

The island marble finally has protection, but work is still needed to help it recover from near extinction. Photograph by Karen Reagan / USFWS.

SPRING 2020 27 Protecting Monarch Butterflies For decades, Xerces has worked to pro- seasons. Xer­ces is already working to tect and restore habitat for monarchs ­address these important issues. across the United States. East of the Intact overwintering sites that have Rockies, we collaborate with farmers, a hospitable microclimate—protected roadside managers, Bee City and Bee from winter storms and cool enough so Campus communities, and many others monarchs do not burn too many calo- to create landscapes that support mon- ries, but warm enough so they do not arch breeding and migration. freeze—are vital for sustaining the mi- In the West, this work has taken gration. Xerces staff are working direct- on added urgency as the number of ly with site managers to assess habitat, monarchs migrating to California to to identify threats as well as restoration overwinter has declined by more than needs and opportunities, and to develop 99 percent. A research partnership be- site-­specific management guidance, and tween Xerces, Washington State Uni- then to implement these plans. versity, Tufts University, and the Univer- We also are reaching out broadly sity of Nevada, Reno, has found that if with a call to action for farmers, home- we want to maintain this migration we owners, and the staff of parks, natural must immediately focus on protecting areas, and roadsides to help us ensure and restoring overwintering sites across that monarchs have adequate milkweed California, as well as the milkweeds that and nectar plants. We are excited to an- grow early in the season and the nectar nounce that we have hired additional sources that bloom in the early and late staff to provide conservation planning,

To rebuild the numbers of western monarchs and sustain their migra- tion, Xerces is working to ensure that there are milkweeds for breeding, flowers for nectar to fuel their long-distance flight, and overwintering sites in which they can shelter. Photograph by USFWS Midwest.

28 WINGS Splendid tiger beetle (Cicindela splendida), photo- graphed by Bryan E. Reynolds. Your Legacy for Invertebrates A charitable bequest is one of the simplest ways to provide continuing sup- port to the Xerces Society beyond your lifetime. Your gift will have a last- ing impact on the conservation of essential invertebrates and help preserve these creatures for future generations. We highly recommend that you discuss your planned giving options with your professional advisor in order to choose a gift that works best for you and your family. If you have questions or would like to inform us of your plans, please complete our online planned giving form at xerces.org/donate/ planned-giving, send an email to [email protected], or call us at (855) 232-6639, option 2. We’d love to hear from you.

technical support, and training to farm- We also continue to work with our ers and ranchers, as well as to staff from community scientists to monitor over- the Natural Resources Conservation Ser- wintering sites and identify milkweed vice and resource conservation districts. habitat across the West. This allows us To ensure that plants are available, we to prioritize restoration of the most im- are working with native plant nurser- portant habitats and to understand how ies to increase the supply of both nectar our efforts are helping monarchs. West- plants and milkweed and we are pro- ern monarchs are highly imperiled, but viding ready-made plant kits for farms, Xerces will continue to use our resources schools, and other groups to support wisely so that future generations will be monarch habitat. able to witness this majestic butterfly.

SPRING 2020 29 Ready-Made Plant Kits Jump-Start Habitat Projects in California Many of California’s pollinator insects needed to create a high-quality patch are declining. The best-known is prob- of habitat. These include native milk- ably the western monarch population, weeds, the host plants for the monarch, but numerous other butterflies and and a variety of flowers that provide bees also face threats. To increase the nectar for bees and butterflies. amount of habitat available for these The kits, each of which contains insects, for the second year in a row the more than a thousand plants, are in- Xerces Society is offering “habitat kits” tended for use on large-scale landscapes. that contain climate-smart native plants There are four basic kinds: two herba- that support monarchs and other local ceous kits for riparian areas and mead- pollinators in the state— everything ows, a riparian shrub kit, and a hedge- row kit. To cater to California’s broad diversity, we’ve made each of these four types available in variations that are tai- lored for three geographic regions: the Central Coast and coastal foothills, the Central Valley, and the Sierra Nevada foothills. Last year’s kits were a big success. We provided thirty-two of them— a total of 51,200 plants —which added vital habitat on farms and natural areas, in parks, and at schools. This year, we received fifty-eight applications, which we are currently reviewing. Although to Milkweeds are essential for monarch cater- date we have offered kits only in Cali- pillars. Photograph by the Xerces Society / fornia, we will begin providing them in Emma Pelton. other parts of the country in 2021.

Nebraska Bumble Bee Atlas Aims to Protect Important Pollinators A large state with diverse landscapes With such a large area and so many from the High Plains and Pine Ridge in species, it can be a challenge to gather the west, through the Sandhills and on the information on where different to the riparian forests of the Missouri species live and what habitats they River in the east, Nebraska is home to use, data that is needed to help guide about twenty species of bumble bees. conservation work. That is where the Near the middle of the United States, Nebraska Bumble Bee Atlas comes in. Nebraska hosts an intriguing overlap of This statewide community science species typically found in both the east- project— a collaboration between the ern and western regions. It’s a bit like the Xerces Society and the University of center of a Venn diagram. Nebraska, Lincoln, with support from

30 WINGS the Nebraska Environmental Trust— welcomes all who wish to participate. The goal is to have volunteers across the state look for bumble bees, and then to report back their findings. Xerces offers online workshops that provide the necessary skills, knowledge, and confidence to participate in this ef- fort. Surveys are catch-and-release, so no bees are harmed, and data collection can be done using a smartphone. Ulti- mately, the information gathered this way will help our conservation biolo- gists prioritize work with farmers, land managers, and gardeners to protect and restore habitat for bumble bees. Not in Nebraska? We have atlas projects in Oregon, Washington, and Idaho, and will be launching them in other states in 2021—but you can help Volunteers with the Nebraska Bumble us to understand and conserve bumble Bee Atlas are gathering information to bees anywhere in the United States and help protect the state’s pollinators. Photo- Canada by joining Bumble Bee Watch. graph by the Xerces Society / Katie Lamke.

WINGS, Spring 2020 Volume 43, Number 1 Wings is published twice a year by the Xerces Society, an international, non- profit or­ganization dedicated to protecting the natural world by ­conserving invertebrates and their habitat. A Xerces Society membership costs $35 per year (tax-deductible) and in­cludes a subscription to Wings; the magazine can also be downloaded from our website as a PDF. Copyright © 2020 by the Xerces Society. All rights reserved. Xerces Society Executive­ Director: Scott Hoffman Black. Editors: Scott Hoffman Black, John Laursen,­ and Matthew Shepherd. Design and Production­ : John Laursen. Printed on recycled paper. For information about membership and to learn about our conser­va­tion programs for native pollinators, endangered species, and aquatic inverte- brates, as well as our efforts to reduce the impacts of pesticides,­ contact us: THE XERCES SOCIETY FOR INVERTEBRATE CONSERVATION 628 Northeast Broadway, Suite 200, Portland, OR 97232 toll-free 855-232-6639 fax 503-233-6794 www.xerces.org

SPRING 2020 31 Male solitary bees do not have a nest to return to, so they rest on plants overnight. Some species, such as these white-banded digger bees (Amegilla quadrifasciata), sleep in ­clusters. Photographed in Morocco by David Marquina Reyes / Flickr.

THE XERCES SOCIETY FOR INVERTEBRATE CONSERVATION 628 Northeast Broadway, Suite 200, Portland, OR 97232 Board of Directors Scientific Advisors Linda Craig May R. Berenbaum Piotr Naskrecki President Paul R. Ehrlich Karen Oberhauser Beth Robertson-Martin Matt Forister Paul A. Opler Vice President Wendell Gilgert Dennis Paulson Logan Lauvray Boris Kondratieff Robert Michael Pyle Treasurer Claire Kremen Michael Samways Sacha Spector Secretary John Losey Cheryl Schultz Lisa Bertelson Thomas Lovejoy Paul Williams Casey Sclar Scott E. Miller E. O. Wilson Marla Spivak Gary Paul Nabhan Rachael Winfree

A $35 per year Xerces Society membership includes a subscription to Wings.

On the cover: Male and females of the Diana fritillary (Speyeria diana) are dramatically different. Females are black with blue patches; the males are largely orange with black on the upper sides of their wings. Photograph by Bryan E. Reynolds.