Notes

Prologue: The 1918 Influenza Pandemic and Modern Memory

1. Paul Fussell, Preface to The Great War and Modern Memory (New York and London: Oxford University Press, 1975). 2. See Jay Winter, Remembering War: The Great War between Memory and History in the Twentieth Century (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2006), for a discussion of the culture of war and memory in the twentieth century. 3. In A War Imagined: The First World War and English Cultures (New York and Oxford: Maxwell Macmillan, 1991), Samuel Hynes focused attention on World War I as a "great imaginative event" (xi; author's emphasis), while Eric]. Leeds in No Man's Land: Combat and Identity in World War I (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1979), centers his study on "cultural repetoires of meaning" war participants used to represent their experience (ix). Sandra Gilbert and Susan Gubar's No Man's Land Volumes I-III (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1987, 1989, and 1996, respectively) cataloged the war between the sexes spanning the two world wars. Suzanne Raitt and Trudi Tate edited the collection Women's Fiction and The Great War (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1997) and Pearl James edited Picture This: World War I Posters and Visual Culture (Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press, 2010), respectively. Janis P. Stout's recent book Coming Out of War: Poetry, Grieving and the Cultures of the World Wars (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2005) emphasizes World War I poetry, especially women writers, high and low culture, and the connections between the two major world wars. Many other excellent works on World War I literature also exist, with the list here as only a representative sampling. 4. Fussell, Great War, Preface. 5. Winter, Remembering War, 18-20. 6. Stout, Coming Out, 6. 7. Fussell, Great War, 218. 8. Peter Gay, Freud: A Lift for Our Time (New York and London: W. W. Norton & Co., 2006), 391-2. 204 • Notes

9. For contemporary estimates of international 1918 influenza mortality, see Howard Phillips and David Killingray, The Spanish Influenza Pandemic of 1918-19: New Perspectives (London: Routledge, 2003). For estimates of World War I casualties, see Hew Strachan, The First World War (New York: Viking, 2004). 10. Maurice Blanchot, Writing of the Disaster, trans. Ann Smock (Lincoln and London: University of Nebraska Press, 1995), 3. 11. Susan Sontag, Illness as Metaphor (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1978), 71. 12. See Gina Kolata's book Flu: The Story ofthe Great Influenza Pandemic of1918 and the Search for the Virus That Caused It (New York: Farrar, Strauss, and Giroux, 1999); the documentary Influenza 1918 (Public Broadcasting Service, 2005); and Malcolm Gladwell, "The Dead Zone," New Yorker, September 29, 1997, 51-65. 13. A selection of contemporary fictional works drawing on the 1918 influenza pandemic include Christine Schwarz, Drowning Ruth (New York: Ballantine, 2003); Myla Goldberg, Wickett's Remedy: A Novel (New York: Anchor, 2006); James Rada, Jr., October Mourning: A Novel ofthe 1918 Spanish Flu Pandemic (Gettysburg, PA: Legacy Publishing, 2005); Thomas Mullen, The Last Town on Earth (New York: Random House, 2007); and the children's book by David Getz, Purple Death: The Mysterious Flu of1918 (New York: Holt, 2000). 14. Alfred W. Crosby, America's Forgotten Pandemic: The Influenza of 1918 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), 264 ff; John M. Barry, The Great Influenza: The Epic Story of the Deadliest Plague in History (New York: Viking, 2004), 406 ff. 15. Crosby, America's Forgotten Pandemic, 290. 16. Kolata, Flu, 121 ff, 219 ff. 17. Ibid., 25. For a longer descriptive discussion of Wolfe's novel and other American influenza novels, see Ruth Winchester Ware, "Thomas Wolfe's 1918 Flu Story: The Death of Ben in the Context of Other Literary Narratives of the Pandemic," The Thomas Wolfe Review 33.1-2 (2009): 67-82. 18. Barry, Great Influenza, 393. 19. John Dos Passos, US.A.: The 42nd Parallel/1919/The Big Money (New York: Library of America, 1996), 867. 20. Kolata, Flu, 286. 21. Ibid., 193. 22. Barry, Great Influenza, 393. For examples of oral histories of the 1918 influenza pandemic, see the University of Kentucky, Library Oral History Project. 23. Kolata, Flu, 286. 24. Earlier works of popular history focusing on the 1918 pandemic include A. A. Hoehling, The Great Epidemic (Boston: Little Brown and Company, 1961); and Richard Collier The Plague of the Spanish Lady (New York: Atheneum, 1974). Contemporary works include Dorothy A. Pettit and Janice Baile, A Cruel Wind: Pandemic Flu in America 1918-1920 (Murfreesboro, TN: Timberlane, 2008); and Mark Honigsbaum, Living with Enza: The Forgotten Notes • 205

Story ofBritain and the Great Flu Pandemic of 1918 (New York and London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009). 25. Crosby, America's Forgotten Pandemic, 311. 26. Kalata, Flu, 192-3. 27. Ibid., 244. 28. Ibid., 252-3. 29. NY Times, October 6, 8, and 17, 2006. 30. Erich Maria Remarque, All Quiet on the Western Front (New York: Little Brown, 1929), 229, 238. 31. Fussell, Great War, 169-70; author's emphasis. 32. Barry, Great Influenza, 393. 33. Charles E. Rosenberg, Explaining Epidemics (Cambridge and London, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2001), 111. 34. Kalata, Flu, 54. 35. Jared Diamond, Guns, Germs, and Steel: The Fates of Human Societies (New York: W. W. Norton & Co., 2005), 194. 36. Susan Sontag, AIDS and Its Metaphors (New York and Toronto: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, 1988), 39-40. 37. Allyson Booth, Postcards from the Trenches: Negotiating the Space between Modernism and the First World War (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996), 49; author's emphasis. 38. Ibid., 49. 39. Andreas Huyssen, Present Pasts: Urban Palimpsests and the Politics ofMemory (Stanford, Ca.: Stanford University Press, 2003), 122 ff. 40. Ibid., 132. 41. Ibid., 133. 42. Ibid., 127. 43. Booth, Postcards, 29. 44. Fussell, Great War, 310ff. 45. Selected works of scholarship important in refocusing critical attention on World War I's impact on literature include Jon Stallworthy's Wilfred Owen: Complete Poems and Fragments, Volumes I and II (New York: W.W. Norton & Co., 1983); Modris Eksteins's Rites ofSpring: The Great War and the Birth ofthe Modern Age (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1989); Margaret Higonnet's Behind the Lines: Gender and the Two World Wars (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1987); Karen L. Levenback's Virginia Woolf and the Great War (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1999); and Jean Moorcroft Wilson's two-volume biography of Siegfried Sasso on: Siegfried Sassoon: The Making of a War Poet (1886-1918) and Siegfried Sassoon: The journey from the Trenches (1919-1967) (New York: Routledge, 1999 and 2003, respectively). 46. Crosby, America's Forgotten Pandemic, 9. 47. Ibid., 37. 48. Ibid., 21. Phillips and Killingray discuss the 1918 influenza gender mortality disparity at greater length: "A surprising feature of the 1918-19 pandemic, compared to all other recorded influenza pandemics, was the high incidence 206 • Notes

of death universally among those aged 20-40 years, particularly men, the very group that might be thought to be stronger and thus less likely to succumb to influenza. This was the case whether a country was at war or at peace. The age-gender death pattern still remains something of a mystery. The cause may have genetic or physiological. Another reason may be due to the tendency of many men, out of necessity or masculinity impulse, to continue working rather than resting when they were sick" (8-9). 49. Honigsbaum, Living with Enza, 72-80. 50. Collier, Plague, 197. 51. David B. Morris, Illness and Culture in the Postmodern Age (Berkeley, Los Angeles, and London: University of California Press, 1998), 81. 52. See Richard Crawford, "The Spanish Flu," in Stranger than Fiction: Vignettes ofSan Diego History (San Diego Historical Society, 1995); and Honigsbaum, Living with Enza. 53. Jamie Shreeve, "Why Revive a Deadly Flu Virus?," The New York Times, January 29, 2006. 54. Gina Kolata, "The 1918 Flu Killed Millions. Does It Hold Clues for Today?," The New York Times, March 28, 2006. 55. Barry, Great Influenza, 177-8. 56. The scientific articles establishing the avian origins of the 1918 influenza virus published since Barry's comprehensive historical study are (in chrono• logical order): S. ]. Gamblin, L. F. Haire, R. ]. Russell, D. ]. Stevens, B. Xiao, Y. Ha, N. Vasisht, D. A. Steinhauer, R. S. Daniels, A. Elliot, D. C. Wiley, and ]. ]. Skehell, "The Structure and Receptor Binding Properties of the 1918 Influenza Hemagglutinin," Science 303.5665 (March 19, 2004): 1838-1842; Darwyn Kobasa, Ayato Takada, Kyoko Shinya, Masato Hatta, Peter Halfmann, Steven Theriault, Hiroshi Suzuki, Hidekazu Nishimura, Keiko Mitamura, Norio Sugaya,Taichi Usui, Takeomi Murata, Yasuko Maeda, Shinji Watanabe, M. Suresh, Takashi Suzuki, Yasuo Suzuki, Heinz Feldmann, and Yoshihiro Kawaoka, "Enhanced Virulence of Influenza A Viruses With the Haemagglutinin of the 1918 Pandemic Virus," Nature 431 (2004): 703-707; Terrence M. Tumpey, Christopher F. Basler, Patricia V. Aguilar, Hui Zeng, Alicia Solorzano, David E. Swayne, Nancy J. Cox, Jacqueline M. Katz, Jeffery K. Taubenberger, Peter Palese, and Adolfo Garcia• Sastre, "Characterization of the Reconstructed 1918 Spanish Influenza Pandemic Virus," Science 310.5745 (2005): 77-80; Jeffery K. Taubenberger, Ann H. Reid, Raina M. Lourens, Ruixue Wang, Guozhong Jin, and Thomas G. Fanning, "Characterization of the 1918 Influenza Virus Polymerase Genes," Nature 437 (2005): 889-93. 57. Gina Kolata, "Experts Unlock Clues to Spread of 1918 Flu Virus," The New York Times, October 6, 2005. 58. Kolata, Flu, 297-8. 59. Honigsbaum, Living with Enza, 173. 60. Ibid., 175. 61. Barry, Great Influenza, 114. Notes • 207

62. For a more detailed analysis of the avian components of the 1918 influenza virus, see Honigsbaum, Living with Enza, 153-78. 63. J. S. Oxford quoted in Barry, Great Influenza, 453; conversation Canisius College, Buffalo, NY, 2007, Robert Brown; Honigsbaum, Living with Enza, 171-6. 64. Crosby, America's Forgotten Pandemic, 9. 65. Collier, Plague, 83. 66. Barry, Great Influenza, 343. 67. Ibid., 98-9, 453-56. The PBS documentary Influenza 1918 also makes Kansas the origin of the pandemic. The America-centric focus of both Barry's work and the PBS documentary seriously limit these works, given the global aspect of their subject matter; the PBS documentary is also limited by its focus on one single year, 1918. Kolata reports the scientific skepticism regarding an American origin of the 1918 influenza virus but concludes her work before the scientific studies pointing to an origin for the pandemic had been completed (Flu, 281 ff). For a popular British history of the 1918 influenza pandemic published in the same year as the PBS documentary and Kolata's book, see Pete Davies, Catching Cold (United Kingdom: Michael Joseph, 1999). The American edition of Davies's book is entitled The Devil's Flu: The World's Deadliest Influenza Epidemic and the Scientific Hunt for the Virus That Caused It (New York: Holt, 2000). 68. Barry, Great Influenza, 98. 69. Sontag, AIDS, 47-8. 70. J. S. Oxford makes a similar argument for the influenza's origin occurring at the British Army encampment in Northern France during the Battle of Etaples in 1918. Honigsbaum, Living with Enza, 155-6. 71. Collier, Plague, 41. 72. Kolata, Flu, 10. 73. Barry, Great Influenza, 337. 74. Ibid., 339. 75. J. K. Taubenberger and D. M. Morens, "1918 Influenza: The Mother of All Pandemics," Emerg Infect Dis [serial on the Internet]. January 2006: http:// www.cdc.gov/ncidod/EID/vol12no01/05-0979.htm. 76. Honigsbaum, Living with Enza, 147; Phillips and Killingray, Introduction, Spanish Influenza Pandemic. 77. Phillips and Killingsray, Introduction, Spanish Influenza Pandemic. 78. Barry, Great Influenza, 5. 79. See Collier and Robert Brown, Wellcome Trust Centre, History of Medicine, University College, London: http://www.wellcome.ac.uk/News/2005/Features /WTD023711.htm. Many British World War I military files relating to the 1918 influenza can be found in The Liddle Collection, University of Leeds, UK: http://www.leeds.ac.uk/library/spcoll/liddle/index.htm. 80. Crosby, America's Forgotten Pandemic, 17 ff; Jeffery R. Tautenberg et a!., "Characterization of the 1918 Influenza Virus Polymerase Genes," Nature 437 (2005): 889-93. 81. Crosby, America's Forgotten Pandemic, 56 ff; Barry, Great Influenza, 407-408. 82. Crosby, America's Forgotten Pandemic, 181 ff. 208 • Notes

83. Ibid., 121 ff; Barry, The Great Influenza, 179, 181. 84. Phillips and Killingray, Introduction, Spanish Influenza Pandemic. 85. See Crosby, America's Forgotten Pandemic; Kalata, Flu; and Barry, Great Influenza. 86. Crosby, America's Forgotten Pandemic, 313-14; Kalata, Flu, 55-62; and Barry, Great Influenza. 87. Kalata, Flu, 215 ff. 88. Kalata, Flu, 305. 89. Barry, Great Influenza, 171. 90. Ibid. 91. Ibid., 304. 92. Conversation, Canisius College, 2007, Robert Brown; Honigsbaum, Living with Enza, 133-9. 93. Barry, Great Influenza, 382. 94. Crosby, America's Forgotten Pandemic, 189 ff; Barry, Great Influenza, 387. 95. Barry, Great Influenza, 385-6. 96. Ibid., 388. 97. Ibid., 393. 98. Kalata, Flu, 54. 99. Kalata, "Scientists Uncover Clues." 100. Crosby, America's Forgotten Pandemic, 3. 101. Ibid., 11. 102. Barry, Great Influenza, 403. 103. Ibid. 104. Kalata, Flu, 38-40. 105. See Barry, Great Influenza, 394. 106. Cathy Caruth, Unclaimed Experience: Trauma, Narrative, and History (Baltimore and London: The Johns Hopkins Press, 1996), 2. 107. Ibid., 3. 108. Gay, Freud, 366. 109. Ibid., 547. Freud developed his theories of how repression worked in the unconscious in many of his works, beginning with The Interpretation ofDreams (1900). Caruth discusses Freud's theory of repression in Moses and Monotheism in her first chapter, while Peter Gay's intellectual biography of Freud offers an overview of his work. Freud's essay "The Uncanny'' relates the return of the repressed most specifically to literature. 110. Judith Herman, Trauma and Recovery: The Aftermath ofViolence-From Domestic Abuse to Political Terror (New York: Basic Books, 1997), 37-42. 111. Ibid., 236. 112. Huyssen, Present Pasts, 8. 113. Ibid., 9. 114. Herman, Trauma and Recovery, 2. 115. Kalata, Flu, 48-51. 116. Herman, Trauma and Recovery, 140. 117. Ibid., 155 ff. Notes • 209

118. Herman argues the science of psychological trauma has itself followed a histori• cal pattern ofbeing discovered, documented, and then discredited and forgotten only to be rediscovered by subsequent generations of doctors. Drawing on the example of Freud's early discovery of the links between hysteria and childhood sexual abuse, Herman explains how the implications of Freud's discovery were too distasteful to his contemporaries for his theory to gain public acceptance; as an ambitious middle-class Viennese man, Freud was part of the same social class his discovery harshly implicated in the widespread sexual abuse of children (Trauma and Recovery, 14). Yet his discredited theory has been validated by psychologists working 100 years later who based their conclusions on a differ• ent understanding of family power relationships granting full credence to the testimony of women and children. 119. Ibid., 9. 120. Honigsbaum, Living with Enza, 190. 121. Kolata, Flu, 305-306. 122. Phillips and Killingray, Introduction. 123. Barry, Great Influenza, 449. 124. Ibid., 452. 125. Ibid., 398. For a discussion of similar public health structures in Great Britain, see Honigsbaum, Living with Enza, 181-98. 126. Barry, Great Influenza, 452. 127. Kolata, Flu, 186 ff; Barry, Great Influenza, 455; Tautenbergetal., "Characterization"; Terrence M. Tumpey et al., "Characterization of the Reconstructed 1918 Spanish Influenza Pandemic Virus," Science 310 (5745): 77-80. 128. A sampling of contemporary pandemic thrillers include The First Horseman by John Case, Pandemic by Joan Johnson and William Rose, and Pandemic by Daniel Kalla. 129. Lawrence K. Altman, "The Doctor's World; So Many Advances in Medicine, So Many Yet to Come," The New York Times, December 26, 2006. For a com• prehensive collection of literary works associated with AIDS/HIV, see The New York Public Library, Gay and Lesbian Collections and AIDS/HIV Collections at http:/ /www.nypl.org/ research/ chss/ spe/ rbkl faids/igic.html. 130. Andrew Sullivan, "When Plagues Die," in Love Undetectable: Notes on Friendship, Sex, and Survival (New York: Vintage, 1999); Jonathan Engel, The Epidemic: A Global History ofAIDS (Washington, DC: Smithsonian, 2006), 240 ff. 131. Huyssen, Present Pasts, 5.

1 The Flaneuse: Seeing and Remembering the Shock of Modernity

1. Walter Benjamin, The Writer of Modern Life: Essays on Charles Baudelaire, ed. Michael W. Jennings (Cambridge, MA, and London: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2006), 76-7, 14, 24. 2. Charles Baudelaire, "The Painter of Modern Life" in Baudelaire: Selected Writings on Art and Literature, translated by P. E. Charvet (New York: Penguin Classics, 1993), 397. 210 • Notes

3. I agree here with Deborah Parsons in "Flaneur or Fldneuse?: Mythologies of Modernity?" New Formations: A journal of Culture/Theory/Politics 38 (1999): 91-100, where she expands the term flaneur to consider class and gender ambiguity, arguing this key figure stands at the intersection of the masses, the city, and the experience of modernity (91). She argues against critics such as Janet Woolf, who would deny the possible existence of a female flaneuse figure (91-2), and she takes a more inclusive position than critics such as Rachel Bowlby, who identify women in public spaces mainly with commodity cul• ture (93-4). For another discussion of tensions between suffragettes and other women of the streets emphasizing the role of the crowd, see Barbara Green, "From Visible Flaneuse to Spectacular Suffragette? The Prison, the Street, and the Sites of Suffrage," Discourse: Berkeley journal for Theoretical Studies in Media and Culture 17.2 (1994): 67-97. 4. Helene Cooper and Susan Merrill Squier, Arms and the Woman: War, Gender, and Literary Representation (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1989). 5. Stallworthy notes how in this poem Owen was influenced by Henri Barbusse's 1917 novel Under Fire, often cited for its surrealistic visual representation of the war. See Jon Stallworthy, ed., Wilfred Owen: The Complete Poems and Fragments (New York and London: W.W. Norton and Co., 1983). Jennifer Wingate chronicles the large number of World War I memorials taking the form of statues of armed soldiers engaged in combat, presumably in danger. See "Over the Top: The Doughboy in World War I Memorials and Visual Culture," American Art 19.2 (2005): 26-47. Steven Trout chronicles the com• plex, contradictory nature of World War I memorials in On the Battlefield of Memory: The First World War and American Remembrance, 1919-1941 (Tuscaloosa: The University of Alabama Press, 2010). 6. For estimates of influenza deaths, see Howard Phillips and David Killingray, "Introduction," in The Spanish Influenza of 1918-19: New Perspectives (London: Routledge, 2003). 7. Carol Byerly, Fever of War: The Influenza Pandemic in the U.S. Military during World War I (New York and London: New York University Press, 2010), 131-2. 8. This rock memorial was constructed at Engineers Canyon, Camp Funston, Fort Riley, Kansas, memorializing the lOth Sanitary Train soldiers who died during the 1918 influenza pandemic. The soldier standing guard is identi• fied as Brubaker. Harry A. Hardy designed the monument. In its construc• tion and design, it resembles other World War I soldier-built memorials pictured in Lisa Budreau's Bodies of War: World War I and the Politics of Commemoration in America, 1919-1933 (New York and London: New York University Press, 2010), 135-40. For other photographs of the memorial, see Kansas Memory, the Kansas Historical Society website, items 218276 and 218279: www.kansasmemory.org. 9. John M. Barry, The Great Influenza: The Epic Story ofthe Deadliest Plague in History (New York: Viking, 2004), 98-9. 10. Byerly, Fever, 134. Notes • 211

11. See Allyson Booth, Postcards from the Trenches (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press 1996), for a discussion of the hollow centers of many World War I monuments. 12. Trout, Battlefield. 13. For a more detailed discussion of Kansas war memorials, see Steven Trout, "Forgotten Reminders: Kansas World War I Reminders" Kansas History: A Journal ofthe Central Plains 29 (Autumn 2006): 200-15. 14. For more information concerning this John Singer Sargent drawing, see Imperial War Museum, London, IWM ART, last modified on November 21, 2011: http://www.iwm.org.uk/. 15. For one discussion of the "Gaze" in both Sartre and Lacan where the subject, although decentered, retains some integrity, see Norman Bryson, "The Gaze in the Expanded Field," in Vision and Visuality, ed. Hal Foster (New York: The New Press, 1988). 16. For a discussion of vision and visuality, see Hal Foster, "Preface," in Vision and Visuality. 17. Parsons, Flaneur, 93. 18. Ibid. 19. Willa Cather, "The Novel Demeuble," in Not Under Forty (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1953), 50. 20. Katherine Anne Porter, "Reflections on Willa Cather," in The Collected Essays and Occasional Writings ofKatherine Anne Porter (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1970), 33-4. 21. For a discussion of Porter's relationship with Cather, see Janis P. Stout "Katherine Anne Porter's 'Reflections on Willa Cather': A Duplicitous Homage," American Literature 66.6 (1994): 727. 22. Virginia Woolf, "Mr. Bennett and Mrs. Brown," in The Captain's Death Bed and Other Essays (New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich, 1950), 96. 23. Woolf, "Mr. Bennett," 96. 24. May Wedderburn Cannan, The Splendid Days (New York and Oxford: Longmans and Oxford, 1919), 79. 25. Cannan, The Splendid Days, 80; author's capitalization. 26. For discussions of shell-shock, see Elaine Showalter, The Female Malady: Women, Madness, and British Culture, 1830-1980 (New York: Virago Press, 1987); Kimberly Jensen Mobilizing Minerva: American Women in the First World War (Carbondale, IL: University of Illinois Press, 2008); and Ben Sheppard, A War ofNerves: Soldiers and Psychiatrists in the Twentieth Century (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2003). 27. For a discussion of how "Pale Horse, Pale Rider" intersects with Woolf's "On Being Ill" and The Voyage Out, see Catherine Belling, "Overwhelming the Medium: Fiction and the Trauma of Pandemic Influenza in 1918," Literature and Medicine 28.1 (Spring 2009): 65-8. 28. See Sandra Gilbert and Susan Gubar, "No Man's Land," in The Place of the Woman Writer in the Twentieth Century, Vol. l· The War of the Words (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1987); Ariel Freedman, Death, 212 • Notes

Men, and Modernism: Trauma and Narrative in British Fiction from Hardy to Woolj(New York and London: Routledge, 2003); and Jensen, Mobilizing Minerva. 29. See Gilbert and Gubar, "No Man's Land"; Pearl James, "'The Enid Problem': Dangerous Modernity in One ofOurs," Cather Studies 6 (2006): 92-128; and Sharon O'Brien, "Combat Envy and Survivor Guilt: Willa Cather's 'Manly War Yarn,"' in Arms and the Woman: War, Gender, and Literary Representation, ed. Helene Cooper and Susan Merrill Squier (Chapel Hill and London: The University of Chapel Hill Press, 1989). 30. Examples of this later twentieth-century popular use of the 1918 influenza pandemic include Wickett's Remedy by Myla Goldberg, Divining Women by Kaye Gibbons, Drowning Ruth by Christina Schwarz, The Given Day by Dennis Lehane, The Last Town on Earth: A Novel by Thomas Mullen, and the 2011 film Contagion.

2 Gender and Modernity: The Things Not Named in One of Ours

1. For excellent discussions of the divisive reception of Cather's novel, see Janis Stout, The Writer and Her World (Charlottesville and London: University Press of Virginia, 2000); Hermione Lee, Double Lives (Pantheon: New York, 1989); Michael North, Reading 1922: A Return to the Scene of the Modern (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1999); and Steven Trout, Memorial Fictions: Willa Cather and the First World War (Lincoln and London: University of Nebraska Press, 2002). 2. Janis P. Stout, "Between Two Wars in a Breaking World: Willa Cather and the Persistence of War Consciousness," in Cather Studies Vol. 6: History, Memory, War, ed. Steven Trout (Lincoln and London: University of Nebraska Press, 2006), 70-1. 3. Katherine Anne Porter, "Reflections on Willa Cather," in The Collected Essays and Occasional Writings ofKatherine Anne Porter (Boston: Houghton Mifflin/ Seymour Lawrence, 1970), 33-4. 4. See Lee, Double Lives; Steven Trout, ed., Cather Studies Vol. 6: History, Memory, War (Lincoln and London: University of Nebraska Press, 2006), 70-91; Trout, Memorial Fictions; Sharon O'Brien, "Combat Envy and Survivor Guilt: Willa Cather's 'Manly War Yarn,"' in Arms and the Women: War, Gender, and Literary Representation (Chapel Hill and London: The University of North Carolina Press, 1989), 184-204; and John P. Anders, Willa Cather's Sexual Aesthetics and the Male Homosexual Tradition (Lincoln and London: University of Nebraska Press, 1999), 74-5. 5. Stout calls attention to how quickly Cather published One of Ours, how its publication coincided with the end of the war: "Indeed, One of Ours might have been a considerably different book and might have had a considerably different reception if Cather had let her wartime concerns, exacerbated as they Notes • 213

were by her awareness of her cousin Grosvenor's experiences ... ripen for a few years" ("Between," 76). 6. As Steven Trout notes in his introduction to Cather Studies: History, Memory, War, Cather's texts engage a range of issues "central to the so-called American century and to our own historical moment-themes such as empire, migration, multiculturalism, changing gender roles, sexual orientation, ecological awareness, and war ... war forms an important component in virtually every• thing [Cather] wrote" (xii). 7. Judith Butler, "'Dangerous Crossing': Willa Cather's Masculine Names," in Bodies That Matter: On the Discursive Limits of"Sex" (New York and London: Routledge, 1993), 163. 8. Willa Cather, Not Under Forty (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1936), 50. 9. See O'Brien, "Combat Envy"; Butler, "Dangerous Crossing,"; and Lee, Double Lives. 10. Janis Stout, Strategies of Reticence: Silence and Meaning in the Works ofjane Austen, Willa Cather, Katherine Anne Porter and joan Didion (Charlottesville and London: University Press of Virginia, 1990), 68. 11. Willa Cather, One ofOurs (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1922), 103. 12. Ibid., 5. For a discussion of Mr. Wheeler's importance in One of Ours, see Dix McComas, "Willa Cather's One of Ours: In Distant Effigy," Legacy 14:2 (1997): 93-109. 13. Cather, One, 17. 14. Ibid., 208. 15. Butler, "Dangerous Crossing," 144. 16. Cather, One, 351. 17. Pearl James, "'The Enid Problem': Dangerous Modernity in One of Ours," Cather Studies 6 (2006): 114. 18. Ibid., 93. 19. Jean Schwind, "The 'Beautiful' War in One of Ours," Modern Fiction Studies 30.1 (1984): 55. 20. See Lee, Double Lives; Stout, Writer, 178; Klaus P. Stich, "Historical andArchetypal Intimations of the Grail Myth in Cather's One ofOurs and The Professor's House," Texas Studies in Language and Literature 45.2 (2003): 201-230. 21. See also Susan Rosowski's extended discussion of the parallels between One of Ours and Tennyson's Idylls of the King, especially the poet's treatment of Geraint and Enid in The Voyage Perilous: Willa Cather's Romanticism (Lincoln and London: University of Nebraska Press, 1986), 99-100. Also Stich, "Grail Myth," 201. Cather's well-known affinity for French literature suggests the de Troyes version of the "Erec et Enide" tale might have been more familiar to her than Tennyson's version. 22. Cather's contrast between the medieval tale of Erec et Enide and a rural Nebraska version of courtly romance initially seems humorous. Instead of participating in a tournament on horseback to prove his strength, Claude becomes injured by barbed wire while trying to subdue runaway mules (One, 138-9). Instead of winning a sparrow hawk, a noble bird used in the 214 • Notes

aristocratic sport of falconry, Claude and Enid raise chickens, with Enid's dislike of masculinity extending even to her barnyard where she limits the number of roosters to one (203). But as the narrative continues, the humor fades, becoming satiric. 23. Ibid., 125. 24. James, "Enid," 114. 25. Cather, One, 134, 135. 26. James, "Enid," 115. 27. Cather, One, 139. 28. Ibid., 141. 29. Ibid., 145. 30. James, "Enid," 112. 31. Cather, One, 154. 32. Ibid., 176-7. 33. Ibid., 207. 34. Ibid., 207-208. 35. John P. Anders in Willa Cather's Sexual Aesthetics and the Male Homosexual Tradition (Lincoln and London: University of Nebraska Press, 1999), 78-81, reads this scene as autoerotic. 36. For another reading of Enid's chastity in marriage linking her to other new women characters in popular fiction, see North, Reading 1922, 182-3. 37. Cather, One, 210. 38. Ibid., 195 ff. 39. Ibid., 198. 40. David Porter, On the Divide: The Many Lives of Willa Cather (Lincoln and London: University of Nebraska Press, 2008), 179-80. 41. Helen M. Cooper, Adrienne Auslander Munch, and Susan Merrill Squier, eds., introduction to Arms and the Woman: War, Gender, and Literary Representation (Chapel Hill and London: The University of North Carolina Press, 1989). 42. See McComas "Distant Effigy," 93-109; and Celia M. Kingsbury, '"Squeezed into an Unnatural Shape': Bayliss Wheeler and the Element of Control in One ofOurs," Cather Studies 6 (2006): 129-44. 43. See James, "Enid"; Rosowski, Voyage. 44. Cather, One, 167-73. 45. Ibid., 168. 46. James, "Enid," 113. 47. Maureen Ryan, "No Woman's Land: Gender in Willa Cather's One ofOurs," Studies in American Fiction 18.1 (1990): 68-9. 48. Cather, One, 118. 49. Maureen Moran, "The Art of Looking Dangerously: Victorian Images of Martyrdom," Victorian Literature and Culture 32.2 (2004): 478. 50. Cather, One, 53. 51. Rosowski, Voyage, 110. 52. See Lee, Double Lives, 180-1; Trout, Memorial. Notes • 215

53. Cather, One, 62. 54. Ibid., 61. Schwind points out Claude's interpretation of Joan of Arc has been influenced by Jules Michelet, one of the saint's most romantic defenders. 55. Ibid., 62. 56. Ibid., 34. 57. Frederick T. Griffiths, "The Woman Warrior: Willa Cather and One ofOurs," Womens Studies 11 (1984): 275. 58. In joan ofArc: The Image of Female Heroism (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1981), 17-32, Marina Warner argues that Joan of Arc's virginity helped prove her virtue and was thus a major source of her power. 59. Cather, One, 214, 236. Cavell was a well-known figure whose death early in World War I prompted contemporary comparisons to Joan of Arc. As the head of a Red Cross hospital in Brussels, she was executed by a German firing squad in October, 1915, because of the protection and medical care she offered to British soldiers in Belgium. For a discussion of the World War I propa• ganda surrounding Edith Cavell's death, see Shane M. Barney, "The Mythic Matters of Edith Cavell: Propaganda, Legend, Myth, and Memory," Historical Rejlection!Rejlexions Historiques 31.2 (2005): 217-33. His article focuses on Cavell's appeal to female audiences, her parallels to legendary heroes (such as Joan of Arc), and historical arguments regarding how her death might have contributed to the success of the suffrage movement in 1918. In his article "Over There from Over Here: Willa Cather, the Authorial Reader, and One of Ours" Richard Harris also discusses the contemporary media response to Cavell's death, with more attention to the American audience. See Harris, "Over There," in Violence, the Arts, and Willa Cather, ed. Joseph R. Urgo and Merrill Maguire Skaggs (Madison, NJ: Fairleigh Dickson University Press, 2007), 41-44. 60. James, "Enid," 113. 61. Cather, One, 255. 62. Mary R. Ryder, "'As Green as Their Money': The Doughboy Naifs in One of Ours," Cather Studies 6 (2006): 145-59. 63. Linda A. Morris, Gender Play in Mark Twain: Cross-Dressing and Transgression (Columbia and London: University of Missouri Press, 2007), 89. 64. Ibid., 90. 65. In his essay "Cather and the Father of History," in Willa Cather and the American Southwest, ed. John N. Swift and Joseph R. Urgo (Lincoln and London: University of Nebraska Press, 2002), 80-8, Merrill Maguire Skaggs argues that Cather and Twain enjoyed a cordial personal relationship late in Twain's life, which led to Cather drawing on his later works productively in her own writing. 66. Morris, Gender, 99-100. 67. Francoise Meltzer, For Fear ofthe Fire: joan ofArc and the Limits ofSubjectivity (Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 2001), 23. 68. Karyn Z. Sproles, "Cross-Dressing for (Imaginary) Battle: Vita Sackville West's Biography of Joan of Arc," Biography 19.2 (Spring 1996): 158-77. 69. Ibid., 163. 216 • Notes

70. Trout, Memorial, 105. 71. Jennifer Kilgore, "Joan of Arc as Propaganda Motif from the Dreyfus Affair to the Second World War," Literature, History ofIdeas, Images and Societies of the English-Speaking World 1 (2008): 279-96. 72. Jensen, Mobilizing, 67. 73. Lisa Tickner, The Spectacle ofWomen: The Imagery ofthe Sufferage Campaign, 1907-14 (London: Chatto and Windus, 1989), 208. 74. Ibid., 209. 75. Ibid., 210. 76. Ibid., 210. 77. See James, "Enid"; Tickner, Spectacle. 78. Hew Strachan, The First World War (New York: Viking Adult, 2004), 44. 79. Ibid. 80. H. Marix Evans, American Voices of World War I: Primary Source Documents 1917-1920 (New York: Routledge, 2001), 31. 81. Stout argues for the importance of World War I songs in interpreting the culture of the period, Coming Out, 21. See also Jensen, Mobilizing, 67. 82. For a different reading of Joan of Arc's role in One of Ours, see Trout, Memorial, 50 ff. 83. Cather, One, 341. See Debra Rae Cohen's discussion of this passage in relation to tourism in "Culture and the 'Cathedral': Tourism as Podach in One of Ours," Cather Studies 6 (2006): 184-204. 84. Cather, One, 342. 85. Ibid. 86. Ibid., 343. Ellipses in the original. 87. Many of the aspects of Claude's epiphany here directly recall Joan of Arc; e.g., as Warner notes, legend has it that Joan of Arc's heart remained intact after she was burnt and Claude focuses on the heart of the window Uoan ofArc, 29). Claude also hears bells, and Joan's voices were connected with hearing bells (43). Similarly, Joan's voices were also associated with light (122). The location ofJoan's recantation was very close to the church where Claude had his vision• ary experience; she recanted in the cemetery of St. Ouen (140), paralleling many of Claude's early doubts. 88. Cather, One, 343. See Griffiths, "Woman," 275-6. 89. Cather, One, 344. 90. Stitch connects the rose window with the Virgin Mary and interprets this pas• sage as part of Cather's undercutting of the Grail creed supporting World War I in One ofOurs "Grail Myth," 203. 91. See Strachan, First World War. 92. See Warner, Joan ofArc; and Meltzer, Fear. 93. See Rosowski, Voyage. 94. See James, "Enid"; Maureen Ryan, "No Woman's Land: Gender in Willa Cather's One ofOurs" Studies in American Fiction 18.1 (1990): 65-75. 95. Cather, One, 291. 96. Rosowski, Voyage, 111. Notes • 217

97. Cather, One, 286. 98. See Lee, Double Lives, 166; Richard C. Harris, "Getting Claude 'Over There': Sources for Book Four of Cather's One of Ours," ]NT: journal of Narrative Theory 35.2 (2005): 248-56. 99. Harris, "Getting Claude." 100. James, "Enid," 114. 101. Rosowski, Voyage, 111. 102. Stout, Writer, 175. 103. Cather, One, 285. 104. Ibid., 292. 105. Ibid., 295. 106. Ibid., 296. 107. Ibid .. 108. Ibid., 297. 109. Ibid., 296-8. 110. Ibid., 297. 111. The stoicism of Corporal Tannhauser's death is a stark contrast to deaths in other 1918 influenza narratives; e.g., see Thomas Wolfe's account of his broth• er's death in Look Homeward, Angel or the account of the mother's death in William Maxwell's They Came Like Swallows. 112. Cather, One, 299. 113. Ibid., 300. 114. Ibid. 115. Ibid. 116. Ibid., 301. 117. Ibid. Noting this passage, Ryder argues for the distinction between boys and men used by World War I military recruiting propaganda; on board the Anchises, she notes how the eagerness of the "boys" becomes strained by the influenza pandemic and the deaths it entails: "As Green," 146-7. 118. Cather, One, 310. 119. Ibid. 120. Ibid., 345. 121. Ibid., 318. 122. Ibid., 319. 123. Ibid., 303-304. 124. Ibid., 311. 125. Ibid., 310. 126. Ibid., 312. 127. Cather's education in the classical languages is well-known as is her love of classical literature: Stout, Writer, 34, 44-6, 108-10. She also draws on Virgil's Aeneid, Book VI in her story "The Namesake" and The Professor's House, Jeremiah P. Mead, "Marcellus in the Mirror: Reflections of Aeneid VI in The Professor's House" Willa Cather Pioneer Memorial Newsletter and Review 40.2 (Summer-Fall1996): 51-3. 128. Cather, One, 300. 218 • Notes

129. For a fuller discussion of Anchises' role in Book VI of the Aeneid, see Aeneid, Virgil, trans. Robert Fagles (New York: Penguin Classics, 201 O) 27-33. 130. Cather, One, 391. 131. See Stout, Coming Out; Hynes, war Imagined. 132. Stanley Cooperman, World war I and the American Novel (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1967). 133. Cather, One, 375. 134. Stout, "Between." 135. Cather, One, 409-10. 136. Schwind, "Beautiful," 70. 137. Cather, One, 411. 138. For discussions of conventional feminine gender roles during World War I, see Gilbert and Gubar No Man's Land, Volumes I-III; Margaret Higonnet et al., Behind the Lines: Gender and the Two World war (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1989); Cooper, Munch, and Squier, Arms and the Woman; Jensen, Mobilizing Minerva. 139. Cather, One, 288. 140. Ibid., 412. 141. Ibid., 416. 142. Ibid. 143. Cohen, "Cathedral," 185. 144. Griffiths, "Woman," 273-4. 145. Cather, One, 392. 146. Lee, Double Lives, 181. 147. Cather, One, 334. 148. Ibid., 337-8. 149. Ibid., 338. 150. See O'Brien's reading of this same passage, which she interprets as part of a power exchange between mothers and sons throughout the novel, "Combat Envy," 189 ff. 151. Anders, Sexual Aesthetics, 78-9. 152. Ibid., 88 ff. 153. Cather, One, 407. 154. Ibid., 430. 155. Ibid., 431. 156. Ibid. 157. Ibid. 158. Ibid., 432. 159. Ibid. 160. For a fuller discussion of different critical responses to this scene, see Anders, Sexual Aesthetics, 72-3. 161. Butler, "Dangerous Crossing," 159. 162. Cather, Forty, 161. 163. Cather, One, 450. 164. Ibid., 453. Notes • 219

165. Ibid., 455. 166. Ibid., 458. 167. Frank Sturgis wrote the 1915 version of this popular song. See Kilgore, "Joan of Arc as Propaganda Motif," 7. 168. Cather, One, 458. 169. Stout, Writer, 180. 170. Cather, One, 459. 171. Schwind, "Beautiful," 70. 172. Trout, Memorial, 55. O'Brien interprets the entire novel in this subversive vein, as a war between the genders, with a subtext "associating war not with male heroism but with mutilation, infantilization, and emasculation in which women gain the power men relinquish" ("Combat Envy," 188). When his death returns him to Lovely Creek, O'Brien contends that Claude is "preserved by• contained and absorbed by-his two mothers, Mrs. Wheeler and the servant Mahailey." Yet the cost is high: "Silenced in death, Claude has lost the power of language to the women who survive him" (196). In the novel's last para• graph, according to this reading, Claude himself literally becomes the thing not named, a beloved domestic taboo whose name is too painful to speak, referred to instead by his mother's name "Mudder" (459). 173. Trout, Memorial, 55. 174. Cather, One, 419. 175. Ibid., 458. 176. Ibid., 458-9. 177. Ibid., 458. 178. Ben Shephard, A Wtzr ofNerves: Soldiers and Psychiatrists in the Twentieth Century (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2001), 153. 179. Mrs. Wheeler's claim of post-World War I suicides by soldiers is hard to evaluate. Trout explains Mrs. Wheeler's references to the suicides committed by returning soldiers by referencing the death of Major Charles W. Whittlesey, the commander of the Lost Brigade (Memorial, 64); but he primarily interprets Mrs. Wheeler's comments as subjective, part of her need to make her son's death meaningful. 180. See Jensen, Mobilizing. In The Female Malady, Elaine Showalter estimates that at least 40 percent of World War I British troops experienced shell shock, con• stituting a widespread form of male hysteria (169 ff). 181. Shephard, Nerves, 158-9. 182. Cather, One, 458. 183. Ibid., 459. 184. Trout, Memorial, 60-66; Stout, Writer, 292 ff. Other critics have argued for the modernist aspects of Cather's later works, such as Lee, Double Lives, 189-91; Loretta Wasserman, "The Music of Time: Henri Bergson and Willa Cather" American Literature 57.2 (May 1985): 226-39; and Walter Benn Michaels, Our America: Nativism, Modernism, and Pluralism (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1997). 185. Michael North, Reading 1922: A Return to the Scene of the Modern (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999). Stout in "Reflections" argues that Porter's 220 • Notes

relationship with Cather was competitive, with these attitudes impacting Porter's writing about Cather. 186. See Kathleen Wall in "Significant Form in jacob's Room: Ekphrasis and the Elegy" Texas Studies in Literature and Language 44.3 (Fall 2002): 302-23; and Rachel Hollander in ''Alteriry and Form in jacob's Room," Twentieth• Century Literature 53.1 (Spring 2007): 40-66, on elegy and loss in jacob's Room. Both articles focus on the different ways the war challenged writers to find new literary forms commensurate with the experience of death and absence. 187. Vincent Sherry, The Great mtr and the Language of Modernism (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 2003), 270-83. 188. Trout, Memorial, 58. 189. Diana L. Swanson, "With Clear-Eyed Scrutiny: Gender, Authority, and the Narrator as Sister in Jacob's Room," in Virginia Woolf Out of Bounds: Selected Papers ftom the Tenth Annual Conference on Virginia Woolf, ed. Jessica Berman and Jane Goldman (New York: Pace University Press, 2001), 46-52. 190. Karen DeMeester, "Trauma and Recovery in Virginia Woolf's Mrs. Dalloway" Modern Fiction Studies 44.3 (Fall1998): 649-73. 191. Interview with Cather quoted in Rosowski, Voyage, 113. 192. North, Reading, 182. 193. Rosowski, Voyage, 112-3. 194. Lee, Double Lives, 180. 195. Fussell, Great mtr, 270 ff. 196. Cather, One, 457. 197. Lisa M. Budreau, "The Politics of Remembrance: The Gold Star Mothers' Pilgrimage and America's Fading Memory of the Great War," The journal of Military History 72 (2008): 371--411.

3 "Novels Devoted to Influenza": Regarding War and Illness in Mrs. Dalloway

1. Sims calls attention to Woolf's denigration of language's power to express pain while calling attention to illness's ability to change perception. Lorraine Sims, ''Ailing Dualisms: Woolf's Revolt Against Rationalism in the 'Real World' of Influenza," in Virginia World in the Real World: Proceedings of the Thirteenth Annual Virginia Woolf Conference, Clemson University Digital Press, November 15, 2005, 88-9. 2. "On Being Ill" was first published in a slightly different form in the New Criterion edited by T. S. Eliot in January, 1926. Woolf's essay appeared again the same year under the title "Illness-An Unexploited Mine" in the American journal Forum. See Kimberley Enghahl Coates, "Exposing the Nerves of Language': Virginia Woolf, Charles Mauron, and the Affinity Between Aesthetics and Illness," Literature and Medicine 21.1 (2002): 242. It was also collected by Hogarth Press in The Moment and Other Essays in 1930. Notes • 221

Throughout this chapter, I draw on the 2002 version of the essay published by Paris Press, introduction by Hermione Lee. 3. Virginia Woolf, "On Being Ill" (Ashfield, MA: Paris Press, 2002), 9. 4. Ibid., 9. 5. Ibid., 10-11. 6. Ibid., 12. 7. Ibid., 9-10. 8. Hermione Lee, Virginia Woolf(New York: Vintage, 1999), 441; Hermione Lee, introduction to "On Being Ill," by Virginia Woolf (Ashfield, MA: Paris Press, 2002), xii. 9. Thomas Caramagno, The Flight ofthe Mind: Virginia Woolf's Art and Manic• Depressive Illness (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1996). 10. Louise De Salvo, Virginia Woolf The Impact ofChildhood Sexual Abuse on Her Lift and Work (Boston: Beacon, 1989); Patricia Moran, Virginia Woolf, jean Rhys, and the Aesthetics of Trauma (City: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007). 11. Lee, Virgina Woolf For a full review of the different critical works analyzing the causes of Woolf's various symptoms, see Coates, "Exposing the 'Nerves,"' 244, notes 11 and 12. 12. Molly Hite, "Virginia Woolf's Two Bodies," Genders 31 (2000): 1. 13. Ibid., 1-2. Conversely, Simms interprets the mind-body relationship in "On Being Ill" in relation to Platonic rationalism. 14. Ibid., 6. 15. Throughout this chapter, my argument takes into account the substantial critical work on Virginia Woolf and trauma. For a consideration of the nega• tive aspects of illness in Woolf's writing, see Toni A. H. McNaron's essay "The Uneasy Solace of Art: The Effect of Sexual Abuse on Virginia Woolf's Aesthetic," in Virginia Woolf and Trauma: Embodied Texts, ed. by Suzette Henke and David Eberly (New York: Pace University Press, 2007), 72-3. 16. Lee, Virgina Woolf, 185. 17. Ibid., 181-2. 18. Ibid., 181. 19. Ibid., 181, 448-9. 20. Virginia Woolf, The Letters of Virginia Woolf, Volume Two: 1912-22, ed. Nigel Nicholson and Joanne Trautmann (New York and London: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich, 1976), 1210, 499. 21. Mark Hussey, introduction to Virginia Woolf and War: Fiction, Reality, and Myth, ed. Mark Hussey (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1991), 3. 22. Woolf, "Ill," 10. 23. Ibid., 14. 24. While beginning her essay by focusing on the metaphysical elements of "On Being Ill," Evelyne Ender also recognizes that "Woolf's thinking on illness is inconceivable without the experience of war ... " See Evelyne Ender, "'Speculating Carnally': or, Some Reflections on the Modernist Body," The Yale journal ofCriticism 12.1 (1999): 10. 25. Woolf, "Ill," 12; Woolf's italics. 222 • Notes

26. Ibid., 13. 27. Julia Stephen made nursing her private and public role in life, writing a pamphlet on the subject, and dying probably as a result of catching typhus while caring for the poor in the London slums. See Diane Gillespie, julia Duckworth Stephen: Stories for Children, Essays for Adults (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1987). 28. Lee, Virgina Woolf, 179-81. 29. Woolf, Diary, 2, 243-4. 30. For critical discussions of these topics, see Caramagno, Flight ofthe Mind, on sanity and insanity; Christina Froula, Virginia Woolfand the Bloomsbury Avant Garde: War, Civilization, and Modernity (New York: Columbia University Press, 2007), on sexuality; Allyson Booth, Postcards from the Trenches: Negotiating the Space between Modernism and the First World War (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996), on World War I; and Natania Rosenfeld, "Links into Fences: The Subtext of Class Division in Mrs. Dalloway" Literature Interpretation Theory 9.2 (1998): 139-60, on social class. 31. Lee, Virgina Woolf, 612. 32. Leslie Hankins, "'To kindle and illuminate': Woolf's Hot Flashes Against Ageism-Challenges for Cinema," Virginia Woolfand Her Influences: Selected Papers from the Seventh Annual Conference on Virginia Woolf, ed. Laura Davis and Jeanette McVicker (New York: Pace University Press, 1998), 27. 33. Woolf, Diary 2, 259. 34. Virginia Woolf, Mrs. Dalloway, 11,14. 35. See Froula, Avant Garde, 101. 36. Lee, introduction to "Ill," xiv. 37. Coates, "Exposing the 'Nerves,"' 242. 38. Woolf, "Ill," 13. 39. Ibid., 14. 40. Ibid., 10. 41. Ibid., 15. 42. The many literary allusions to works focusing on death and suicide indicate Woolf's recognition of how heartless the sky may be. See Lee, "On Being Ill," xxx-xxxi. 43. Hire, "Two Bodies," 1. 44. Ibid. 45. Woolf, "Ill," 18. 46. Ibid., 19. 47. Ibid., 10. 48. Lee, introduction to ibid., xxviii. 49. Woolf, "Ill," 23. 50. Ibid., 18. 51. Woolf's essay "Street Haunting" also equates urban identity with vision, comparing the fldnuer!fldneuse figure to an "enormous eye." See Virginia Woolf, The Death of the Moth (New York: Harcourt, Brace, and Jovanovich, Notes • 223

1974), 22. Ogden also interprets "Mrs. Dalloway-with its jlaneuse, domestic, Sapphist, and imperial manifestations of sight-as a tour de force of female visuality." See Daryl Ogden, The Language of the Eyes: Science, Sexuality, and Female Vision in English Literature and Culture, 1690-1927 (Albany: State University of New York Press), 208. 52. Woolf, Mrs. Dalloway, 5. 53. Ibid., 14. 54. Ibid., 4. 55. Ibid., 4-5. Peter Walsh also connects Clarissa's illness with her heart and pos• sible mortality (Mrs. Dalloway, 75). In both passages, bells ring, with funereal connotations. In Mrs. Dalloway's Party: A Short Story Sequence, the group of short stories serving as a creative antecedent to the novel, the character of Clarissa Dalloway also imagines the character of Brad Prichard chatting about many topics: "Bradshaw, catching cod, catching cold, influenza, rheumatism, and Keats." See Virginia Woolf, Mrs. Dalloway's Party: A Short Story Sequence (New York: Mariner Books, 1975), 49. 56. Alfred Crosby, The Forgotten Pandemic, 323. 57. Woolf, Mrs. Dalloway, 5. 58. Niall Johnson, Britain and the 1918-19 Influenza Pandemic: A Dark Epilogue (London and New York: Routledge, 2006), 8. 59. Ibid., 6. 60. Woolf, Mrs. Dalloway, 3. For a deconstructive reading of how Woolf's refer• ence to influenza might operate in the novel, see Johnson, Dark Epilogue, 173-4. 61. Modris Eksteins, Rites of Spring: The Great War and the Birth of the Modern Age (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1989), 256. 62. Woolf, Mrs. Dalloway, 174. 63. Froula, Avant Garde, 101. 64. Ibid., 87. 65. Ibid. 66. Ibid., 88-9. 67. Burian interprets the novel's use of flower imagery in relation to trauma and homoeroticism, with both Clarissa and Septimus included in a network of floral allusions. See Cornelia Burian, "Modernity's Shock and Beauty: Trauma and the Vulnerable Body in Virginia Woolf's Mrs. Dalloway" in Virginia Woolf in the Real World.: Proceedings of the Thirteenth Annual Virginia Woolf Conference, Clemson University Digital Press, accessed November 15, 2005, 70-5. 68. Woolf, Mrs. Dalloway, 5. 69. Lee, Virgina Woolf, 455. 70. Conversely, Tseung interprets Clarissa as ajlaneusewhose errand serves a "spe• cific domestic purpose." She also perceives Clarissa as reactionary, her char• acter still incarnating "the orthodox femininity of the earlier century." See Ching-fang Tseung, "The Flaneur, the Flaneuse, and the Hostess: Virginia 224 • Notes

Woolf's (Un)Domesticating FL1nerie in Mrs. Dalloway," Concentric: Literary and Cultural Studies 32.1 (2006): 219-58 .. 71. To view Vanessa Bell's original cover for Mrs. Dalloway, see The Modernism Lab at BeineckeLibrary, Yale U niversity:http://modernism.research.yale.edu/wikilindex. php/Hogarth_Press#Virginia.E2.80.99s_Collaboration_ with_ Vanessa_Bell. 72. Jennie-Rebecca Falcetta, "Geometries of Space and Time: The Cubist London of Mrs. Dalloway," Woolf Studies Annual13 (2007): 121. 73. Virginia Woolf, The Diary of Virginia Woolf, Volume Two: 1920-24. Edited by Anne Olivier Bell (New York and London: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich, 1978), 2, 263. 74. For an excellent discussion of the cenotaph's history and its different mean• ings in Mrs. Dalloway, see Marlene A. Briggs, "Circling the Cenotaph: Mrs. Dalloway, Historical Trauma, and the Archives," in Approaches to Teaching Mrs. Dalloway, ed. by Eileen Barrett and Ruth 0. Saxton (New York: Modern Language Association, 2009), 58-63. 75. Booth, Postcards, 21. Booth's book analyzes "the empty spaces created by absent bodies, both in England-where governmental policy dictated that corpses would not be shipped home for burial and that photographs of corpses would not be circulated-and at the front, where shell explosions 'could disintegrate a human being, so that nothing recognizable-sometimes appar• ently nothing at all-remained of him,"' 11. 76. Ibid., 33. 77. Ibid., 34. 78. Ibid. 79. Jay Winter, Sites of Memory, Sites of Mourning (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1998), 104. 80. Booth, Postcards, 34-5. 81. Woolf, Mrs. Dalloway, 76-7. 82. Ibid., 105. 83. Froula, Avant Garde, 102. 84. Lee, Virginia Woolf, 744-5. 85. Woolf, Mrs. Dalloway, 7, 13. 86. Ibid., 7. 87. Woolflbid., 13. 88. Ibid., 160. 89. Ibid., 11. 90. Ibid., 46. 91. Ibid., 45. 92. Ibid. 93. Ibid., 17. 94. Froula, Avant Garde, 107. 95. Woolf, Mrs. Dalloway, 191. 96. Ibid., 194. 97. Ibid., 197. 98. Ibid., 201. Notes • 225

99. Ibid. 193. 100. Ibid., 53. 101. I am indebted to Colleen Lamos for this suggestion. 102. Froula, Avant Garde, 123; Froula's emphasis. 103. Woolf, Mrs. Dalloway, 282. Abraham makes a parallel argument in Are Girls Necessary? when she distinguishes between lesbian writing and lesbian novels; the former traps its protagonists in the heterosexual plot so that they must either revert to heterosexuality or get punished for their lesbianism. See Julie Abraham, Are Girls Necessary?: Lesbian Writing and Modern Histories (New York and London: Routledge, 1996), 4-6. Mrs. Dalloway is clearly an example of what Abraham terms lesbian writing. 104. Woolf, Mrs. Dalloway, 50. 105. Froula, Avant Garde, 123. 106. Woolf, Mrs. Dalloway, 47. 107. Hite, "Two Bodies," 5. 108. Woolf, Mrs. Dalloway, 53. 109. For a discussion of twentieth-century philosophy and visuality, see Ogden, Language ofthe Eyes, 4-8. 110. PaulK. Saint Amour, "Aitwar Prophecy and Intetwar Modernism," Comparative Literature Studies 42. 2 (2005): 354. 111. Martin Jay, Downcast Eyes: 7he Denigration ofVision in Twentieth Century French 7hought (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1994), 211. 112. Froula, Avant Garde, 96 ff. 113. Karen DeMeester argues that Clarissa attempts to recover from the private trauma of her sister's death by creating moments of "beauty, harmony, and unity." See Karen DeMeester, "Trauma, Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder, and Obstacles to Postwar Recovery in Mrs. Dalloway," in Virginia Woolf and Trauma: Embodied Texts, ed. Suzette Henke and David Eberly (New York: Pace University Press, 2007), 77-94. Froula also interprets Clarissa as traumatized by her sister Sylvia's death and thus her party as elegiac. See Froula, Avant Garde, 96 ff. 114. Woolf, Mrs. Dalloway, 21. 115. Emily Dalgarno points out that in "Woolf's earliest notes Clarissa and Septimus 'are linked together by the airplane."' See Dalgarno, Vision, 75. 116. Woolf, Mrs. Dalloway, 31. 117. Ibid. 118. Ibid. 119. Ibid., 32. 120. Ibid., 105-106. 121. Ibid., 311. 122. Raymond H. Fredette, 7he Sky on Fire: 7he First Battle ofBritain 1917-8 and the Birth ofthe Royal Air Force (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1991), 55-6. 123. Stephen Kern, 7he Culture of Time and Space: 1880-1918 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1983), 310-11. Fredette's figures are substantially higher than Kern's: 1,414 killed and 3,416 injured. See Fredette, Sky, 231. 226 • Notes

124. Woolf, Mrs. Dalloway, 29. 125. British civilian aircraft viewer charts from World War I are part of the permanent collection at the Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum, Washington, DC. See http:/ /www.nasm.si.edu/ collections/ artifact.cfm?id=A19900879000. Viewed October 13, 2011. 126. Vincent Sherry, The Great \Vttr and the Language of Modernism (Oxford University Press, 2003), 265. 127. Gillian Beer, Virginia Woolf The Common Ground: Essays (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan, 1996), 149-78; Jennifer Wicke, "Mrs. Dalloway Goes to Market: Woolf, Keynes, and Modern Markets," Novel (1994): 5-23. 128. Saint Amour, "Airwar," 141. 129. Ibid., 143. 130. Woolf, Mrs. Dalloway, 42. 131. Clarissa does, however, hear the airplane as she begins her walk: "the strange high singing of some aeroplane overhead." See ibid., 5. 132. Ibid., 41. 133. Melba Cuddy-Keane, Natasha Aliksiuk, Kay Ki, Morgan Love, Chris Rose, and Andrea Williams, "The Heteroglossia of History, Part One: The Car" in Texts and Contexts: Selected Papers from the Fifth Annual Conference on Virginia Woolf ed. Beth Rigel Daughtery and Eileen Barrett (New York: Pace University, 1996), 72-3. 134. Woolf, Mrs. Dalloway, 19. The motorcar making a "loud explosion in the street" as people buy gloves first appears in the short story "Mrs. Dalloway in Bond St." in Mrs. Dalloway's Party: A Story Sequence, 28. 135. Froula, Avant Garde, 88. 136. Woolf, Mrs. Dalloway, 20. Benjamin D. Hagen, "A Car, A Plane, and a Tower: Interrogating Public Images in Mrs. Dalloway'' Modernism/Modernity 16.3 (2009): 537-51. 137. Woolf, Mrs. Dalloway, 24-5. 138. Ibid., 25. Tseung argues that the motorcar in Oxford Street "nicely exemplifies the novel's contestation of hegemonic power." See Tseung, Fliineuse, 241. 139. Hagen, "A Car," 543, 544-5; Hagen's emphasis. 140. Woolf, Mrs. Dalloway, 25-6. 141. Ibid., 28. 142. Hagen, "A Car," 545. 143. Booth, Postcards, 152. 144. Ibid. 145. Meg Albrinck, "Humanitarians and He-Men: Recruitment Posters and the Masculine Ideal," in Picture This: World \Vttr I Posters and Visual Culture, ed. Pearl James (Lincoln & London: University of Nebraska Press, 2009), 327. 146. Albrinck, "Humanitarians," 328. 147. Ibid., 326-9. 148. Wicke, "Mrs. Dalloway Goes to Market," 13. 149. Woolf, Mrs. Dalloway, 132. 150. Ibid., 133. Notes • 227

151. Ibid., 130. 152. Ibid., 133. 153. Judith Herman, Trauma and Recovery: 1he Aftermath of Violence (New York, NY: Basic Books, 1997); DeMeester, "Trauma, Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder, and Obstacles to Postwar Recovery in Mrs. Dalloway," 79-80. 154. Tseung, "The Flaneur, the Flaneuse, and the Hostess"219-58; Daryl Ogden, 1he Language ofthe Eyes: Science, Sexuality, and Female Vision in English Literature and Culture, 1690-1927 (Albany: State Universiry of New York Press, 2005), 204-205. 155. Woolf,Mrs.Dalloway, 117-18. 156. Emily Dalgarno, Virginia Woolf and the Visible World (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Universiry Press, 2001), 84. 157. Woolf, Mrs. Dalloway, 218. 158. Ibid., 226; Woolf's italics. 159. Ibid., 227. 160. Ibid., 227-8. 161. Ibid., 227. 162. Ibid., 272. 163. Ibid., 280. 164. Ibid. 165. Ibid., 284. 166. Ibid., 226. 167. Ibid., 151-2. 168. Tseung, "The Flaneur, the Flaneuse, and the Hostess"; Dalgarno, Virginia Woolf and the Visible World. 169. Ogden, Language, 5. 170. Similarly, Olk argues that Clarissa's glimpses of the old woman through her window allow Clarissa to balance a fragmented version of herself with the whole image of another, making an alternative self possible. See Olk, "Language of the Eyes," 200-201. 171. Woolf, Mrs. Dalloway, 191-2. 172. Ibid., 193. 173. Ibid., 12. 174. Ibid., 283. 175. Ibid. 176. Booth, Postcards, 167. 177. For another interpretation of this scene, see Olk, "Language of the Eyes," 200-201. 178. Woolf, Mrs. Dalloway, 296. 179. Hite, "Two Bodies," 17. 180. Virginia Woolf, A Room of One's Own, Annotated Edition, ed. Mark Hussey (Mariner Books, 2005), 112. 181. Woolf, Mrs. Dalloway, 206-207. 182. Ibid., 208. 183. Ibid., 207. 228 • Notes

184. Ibid., 208. 185. Ibid., 206. 186. Ibid. 187. Tseung, "The Flaneur, the Flaneuse, and the Hostess" 248. Dibert-Himes also connects Elizabeth to an undefined future. See Audra Dibert-Himes, "Elizabeth Dalloway: Virginia Woolf's Forward Look at Feminism," in Virginia Woolf Emerging Perspectives: Selected Papers ftom the Third Annual Conference on Virginia Woolf, ed. Vera Neverow (New York: Pace University Press, 1994), 227. 188. Woolf, Mrs. Dalloway, 209. 189. Ibid., 185-6. 190. Ibid., 204.

4 Vision, Plague, and Apocalypse in "Pale Horse, Pale Rider 1. Katherine Anne Porter, The Collected Stories of Katherine Anne Porter (New York and London: Harcourt, 1972), 354. 2. Janis Stout, Strategies of Reticence: Silence and Meaning in the Works ofjane Austen, Willa Cather, Katherine Anne Porter, and joan Didion (Charlottesville and London: University Press of Virginia, 1990), 125-6. 3. Katherine Anne Porter, Old Mortality in Pale Horse, Pale Rider: Three Short Novels (New York: Harcourt, Brace, and Co., 1964), 189. 4. Porter, Old Mortality, 215. 5. Janis Stout notes the "romantic" limits of Miranda's insight here, "the Byronic exaltation of the solitary rebellious spirit" as well as her later judgment of her youthful "ignorance." See Stout, Strategies, 137. Unrue interprets Miranda as being unable to reconcile what she sees as two false views oflife: the romantic view of her family and the pragmatic view of Eva. She rejects them both, determined to find her own point of view. See Daphne Unrue, Truth and Vision in Katherine Anne Porter's Art (Athens, GA: University of Georgia Press, 1985), 129-30. 6. Unrue, Truth and Vision, 6. 7. Porter's autobiographical experience of the 1918 influenza pandemic was dra• matic and has some parallels to Miranda's experience in "Pale Horse, Pale Rider." As Givner's biography recounts, she did initially fall ill in her rooming house and had great difficulty finding a hospital bed, finally admitted only through the intercession of a friend. She was gravely ill, running a fever of 105 for nine days. The Rocky Mountain News, the newspaper for which she worked, set up her obituary, and the Porter family made funeral arrangements. She was left to die in the hospital and brought back to life by an experimental dose of strychnine. See Joan Givner, Katherine Anne Porter: A Life (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1982), 125-6. 8. Gary Ciuba, "One Singer Left to Mourn: Death and Discourse in Porter's "Pale Horse, Pale Rider," South Atlantic Review 61.1(Winter 1996): 57. Notes • 229

9. Patricia Rae discusses the term "proleptic elegy": "What I am calling prolep• tic elegy is consolatory writing produced in anticipation of sorrow, where the expected loss is of a familiar kind ... It records and responds imaginatively to 'anticipatory grief."' She traces proleptic grieving to Freud and to Derrida. See Patricia Rae, "Double Sorrow: Proleptic Elegy and the End of Arcadianism in 1930's Britain," in Modernism and Mourning, ed. Patricia Rae (Lewisburg: Bucknell University Press, 2007), 213-14. 10. Peter M. Sacks, The English Elegy: Studies in the Genre from Spenser to Yeats (Baltimore and London: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1985), 312. Sacks also observes that elegies associated with World War I particularly appear to be unconventional while still retaining pertinent aspects of the elegiac genre (305-306). See also John Vickery, The Modern Elegiac Temper (Baton Rogue: Louisiana State University Press, 2006), who also addresses war and elegy, specifically modern elegy's tendency to combine with related poetic forms. 11. Sacks, Elegy, 6. The melancholic responds to grief by incorporating the lost beloved within his ego. Unwilling to give up his commitment to the beloved, he identifies with it in a regressively narcissistic move. In successful mourning, however, the mourner is able to find a substitute for the lost beloved, satisfying his desire and offering consolation. 12. Ibid., 7. 13. Porter, "Pale Horse," 161-2. 14. Ibid., 177. 15. Gary Ciuba describes Adam as the romantic male counterpart to Amy Rhea and Miranda's double: "Appearing as innocent as his unfallen namesake, as golden as the sun god, Adam is the glorified male counterpart of the much• admired Amy." See Desire, Violence, and Divinity in Modern Southern Fiction: Katherine Anne Porter, Flannery O'Connor, Cormac MacCarthy, Walker Percy (Baton Rogue: Louisiana State University Press, 2007), 104. 16. Porter, "Pale Horse," 156 and 157. 17. Ibid., 164-5. 18. See Sacks, Elegy, 261. In The Great War and Modern Memory, Fussell repeatedly remarks on how the poetry and prose ofWorld War I soldiers engage the conven• tions of the pastoral tradition, sometimes in ironic contrast to the destruction and savagery of battle, sometimes sincerely in recognition of the alternate life the trenches came to represent. For one example, see Paul Fussell, The Great War and Modern Memory (London and New York: Oxford University Press, 1975), 233. 19. Sacks, Elegy, 19-21. 20. Ibid., 19. 21. Ibid. 22. Porter, "Pale Horse," 160. 23. Ibid. 24. Ibid., 161. 25. Ibid., 187. 26. Ibid. 230 • Notes

27. Ibid., 199. 28. Ibid., 201. 29. Ciuba also notes Porter's "post-mortem" voice in "Pale Horse, Pale Rider." See Ciuba, "One Singer," 73-4. 30. A major loss mourned in "Pale Horse, Pale Rider" is one of time itsel£ Even as they are experiencing the present, Adam and Miranda feel its urgency and brev• ity. Conversations between these primary characters center around a lost future, a future Adam and Miranda desire to experience together but know they will be deprived of either by the war (if one or more of them live) or the influenza pan• demic (if one or more of them die). Vickery also discusses mourning impersonal losses such as time. See Vickery, Modern Elegiac Temper, 192 ff. 31. Sacks, Elegy, 21. 32. Unrue, Truth and Vision, 8. 33. Ibid. 34. Katherine Anne Porter, The Collected Essays and Occasional Writings of Katherine Anne Porter, (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1970), 33-4. 35. Sacks, Elegy, 21-2. 36. Vickery, Modern Elegiac Temper, 3. 37. Sacks, Elegy, 314. 38. Porter, "Pale Horse," 198. 39. Ibid., 145-6. 40. Ibid., 158. 41. Ibid., 159. 42. Ibid. 43. Stout, Strategies, 140. 44. Stout also finds Adam and Miranda's private idiom useful: "Their speech becomes a self-protective device or mask ... Adam and Miranda's patter ... is a calculated strategy." See ibid., 139. 45. Porter, "Pale Horse," 176-7. 46. Ibid., 177. 47. For another discussion of the constraining nature ofAdam's uniform, see Mary Titus, The Ambivalent Art ofKatherine Anne Porter (Athens, GA: University of Georgia Press, 2005), 164. 48. Joan Givner, Katherine Anne Porter: A Life (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1982), 129. 49. Titus, Ambivalent Art, 162. 50. Porter, "Pale Horse," 147. 51. Ibid., 175. 52. Ibid., 149. 53. Ibid., 165. 54. Ibid., 157. 55. See Ciuba's analysis oflanguage in "Pale Horse, Pale Rider" as "fatally flawed" in "One Singer." 56. Porter, "Pale Horse, 143. 57. Ibid., 152. Notes • 231

58. Ibid., 153. 59. Ibid., 172-3. 60. Ibid., 197. For a propaganda cartoon showing a similar illustration, see http:// www.kcl.ac.uk/depsta/iss/archives/cartoons/3-01pic1.html. 61. Pearl James, Picture This: World War I Posters and Visual Culture (Lincoln and London: University of Nebraska Press, 2010), 5. 62. Ibid., 6. 63. Jean Gallagher, "The Great War and The Female Gaze: Edith Wharton and the Iconography of War Propaganda," Literature Interpretation Theory 1 (January 1996): 27. 64. Although most of her article focuses on racial issues in war propaganda, Keene has an excellent discussion of the purposes of Liberty Bonds and the advertis• ing campaigns necessary to support them. See Jennifer D. Keene, "Images of Racial Pride: African American Propaganda Posters in the First World War," in Picture This: World War I Posters and Visual Culture, ed. Pearl James (Lincoln and London: University of Nebraska Press, 2010), 207-40, esp. 221-2. 65. Porter, "Pale Horse," 144-5 66. Ibid., 146. 67. Ibid., 144. 68. Ibid., 150. 69. Ibid., 154. 70. Ibid., 174-5. 71. Ibid., 144. 72. James, "Images," 274. 73. Ibid., 274-5. 74. Joan of Arc poster, Library of Congress, LC-USZC4-9551, 1918. Haskell Coffin. War savings stamps were similar to Liberty Bonds but necessitated less initial expense and were thus more affordable to women who exercised less economic power. 75. Pearl James, "Images of Femininity in American World War I Posters," in Picture This: World War I posters and Visual Culture (Lincoln and London: University of Nebraska Press, 2010), 278-9. 76. Poster, Library of Congress, LC-USZC4-1347, Pennell, Joseph 1918. 77. Poster, Library of Congress, LC-USZC4-9735, Christy, Howard Chandler 1917. 78. James, "Images," 281. 79. Howard Chandler Christy became famous for his coquettish representations of young women in World War I posters. For a discussion of "The Christy Girl," see James, "Images," 288-91, where James argues that the Christy Girl is one version of the new woman in the sexual power that she wields. 80. Poster, Library of Congress LC-USZC4-7756 1914-18, no illustrator Poster, LC-USZC4-9645 1918 Benda, Wladyslaw T. (Wladyslaw Theodore). 81. Porter, "Pale Horse," 171. 82. Ibid., 157. 83. Ibid., 150. 232 • Notes

84. Ibid., 157. 85. Poster, Library of Congress LC-USZC4-10023 1917 Fisher, Harrison. 86. Poster, Library of Congress LC-USZC4-10241 1917 Foringer, Alonzo Earl. 87. For a discussion of the physically exhausting, often traumatizing work of World War I nurses, see Margaret R. Higonnet, "Authenticity and Art in Trauma Narratives of World War I," Modernism/modernity 9.1 (January 2002): 96-100. 88. Sandra Gilbert, "Soldier's Heart: Literary Men, Literary Women, and the Great War," Signs 8.3 (1983): 443. 89. Porter, "Pale Horse," 150-3. 90. Ibid., 165-6. 91. Elaine Showalter, The Female Malady: Women, Madness, and English Culture (New York: Virago, 1987), 172. 92. Ibid., 171. 93. Porter, "Pale Horse," 166. 94. Ibid., 167. 95. Ibid., 171. 96. Mary Titus, Ambivalent Art, 163. 97. While several critics have given Adam credit for heroics in choosing to nurse Miranda and perhaps risk infecting himself (Porter, "Pale Horse," 180-4), the novella clearly suggests she was infected while visiting the army hospital the day before she awakens with a headache, implying the local source of the influenza pandemic lies in the army camp rather than the city itsel£ This model of infection would be consistent with the known epidemiology of the 1918 influenza pandemic itself in the United States. 98. Porter, "Pale Horse," 155. 99. Ibid., 184. 100. Ibid., 188-90. 101. Ciuba, "One Singer," 71. 102. Porter, "Pale Horse," 203. 103. Ibid., 154, 157, 158. 104. Ibid., 158. 105. Ibid.. 106. Ibid., 184. 107. Ibid., 162-3. 108. Ibid., 163. 109. Ibid. 110. For a thorough discussion of the Angel of Mons phenomenon, including a consid• eration of how rumors are disseminated in wartime, see David Clarke, The Angel of Mons: Phantom Soldiers and Ghostly Guardians (Chichester, UK: Wiley, 2004). 111. For discussions of the iconography of plague, see Samuel K. Cohn, Jr., The Black Death Transformed: Disease and Culture in Early Renaissance Europe (New York: Oxford University Press, 2002); and Andrew Cunningham, The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse: Religion, Wllr, Famine and Death in Reformation Europe (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2001). Notes • 233

112. Alfred Crosby, America's Forgotten Pandemic (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), 315. 113. Christine M. Boeck!, Images ofPlague and Pestilence: Iconography and lconology, Sixteenth Centuty Essays and Studies. LIII (Kirksville, Missouri: Truman State University Press, 2000), 12, 36. 114. Ibid., 45. 115. For a complete list of apocalyptic iconography, see ibid., 47. 116. Ibid., 38. 117. According to Boeck!, "[d]ark douds, indicating pestilential air, are sometimes illustrated in secular works as well because so many treatises emphasized plague douds." See ibid., 47. 118. Porter, "Pale Horse," 188. It is Apollo's ability to cause plague that sets in motion the actions of Homer's Iliad. See Fagels, Iliad, Book 1, 7. 119. Boeck!, Images ofPlague, 47. 120. Porter, "Pale Horse," 199-200. 121. See Genesis 9:13-14 and Revelation 4:3;10:1 King James Version. 122. Boeck!, Images ofPlague, 47. 123. Porter, Collected Stories, 354; see Maty Titus, "'Mingled Sweetness and Corruption': Katherine Anne Porter's 'The Fig Tree' and 'The Grave,"' 122. 124. Titus associates the fig tree with maternal nurturing and love. See Titus, '"Mingled Sweetness," 122-4. 125. Porter, Collected Stories, 361. 126. See Richard Kaye, '"A Splendid Readiness for Death': T.S. Eliot, the Homosexual Cult of St. Sebastian, and World War I," Modernism/Modernity 6.2 (April1999): 107-34. 127. Cohn, Transformed, 74; Boeck!, Images ofPlague, 60-1. 128. As Boeck! notes, the figure of St. Sebastian is eclectic, combining classical myth with Judea-Christian sources: "The oldest emblematic sign of pestilence, the arrow, may have its origin in Greek mythology. Antique literary sources describe Apollo and his sister Diana shooting plague arrows to punish humans with a pestilential disease. However, long before the Black Death, this symbol became suffused with Christian meaning" (Images of Plague, 46). Saints Sebastian and Christopher were invoked as plague intercessors as early as the sixth and seventh centuries because of their immunity to arrows (ibid.). As in the classical iconog• raphy of Apollo, arrows, darts, or bundles or arrows falling from the heavens continued to represent plague as divine retribution throughout the Renaissance. See ibid., 47. 129. Ibid., 55. 130. Ibid. 131. Ibid., 56. 132. Ibid., 47. 133. Ibid., 56. 134. Maureen Moran, "The Art of Looking Dangerously: Victorian Images of Martyrdom," Victorian Literature and Culture 32.2 (2004): 478. 135. Richard Kaye, "Splendid Readiness," 113. 234 • Notes

136. Ibid. 137. Ibid., 114. 138. Ibid., 126. 139. Ibid. 140. Ibid., 126-7. 141. The poem was included in a letter to Conrad Aiken dated July 25, 1914. See Christopher Ricks, T.S. Eliot: Inventions ofthe March Hare: Poems 1909-1917 (New York and London: Harcourt Brace and Company, 1996), xi. Porter's knowledge of "The Love Song of St. Sebastian'' is unknown, although she remained a keen reader of Eliot's poetry. In her notebooks, she records attend• ing a reading by T. S. Eliot in 1942 when he "read some of his early poems ... " See Porter, Collected Essays, 300. 142. Kaye, "Splendid Readiness," 112; Kaye's emphasis. 143. Ibid., 121. 144. Rita Felski, "Redescriptions of Female Masochism," Minnesota Review: A journal ofCommitted Writing 63.64 (Spring Summer 2005): 129 ff. 145. Gross notes the likely source of Eliot's interest in St. Sebastian was Gabrielle D'Annunzio's Le Martyre de Saint Sebastien performed in Paris in 1911. The title role of St. Sebastian was performed by Ida Rubinstein. Yet the role empha• sized Rubinstein's boyish figure and her androgynous qualities; instead of mak• ing St. Sebastian feminine; the point was to make Rubinstein masculine (and rival Oscar Wilde's Salome}. See Harvey Gross, "The Figure of St. Sebastian," The Southern Review 21.4 (Autumn 1985): 977-8. 146. Unrue, Truth and Vision, 8. 147. Kaye, "Splendid Readiness," 120. 148. Sacks, Elegy, 26-7. 149. Porter, "Pale Horse," 191. 150. Ibid. 151. Ibid., 191-2. 152. Ibid., 169. 153. Ibid., 198. 154. Ibid., 202. 155. Julia Kristeva, Powers ofHorror: An Essay on Abjection (New York and London: Columbia University Press, 1982), 2. 156. Ibid., 3--4; Kristeva's emphasis. 157. Porter, "Pale Horse," 195. 158. Ibid., 196. 159. Ibid. 160. Ibid., 195. 161. Ibid., 200. 162. Ibid., 20 1. 163. Ibid. 164. Ibid. 165. Ibid., 202. 166. Ibid. Notes • 235

167. Ibid., 203. 168. Ibid., 204. 169. Ibid. 170. Ibid., 206. 171. Ibid., 207. 172. Ibid. 173. Ibid., 208. 174. Ibid. 175. Ibid. 176. Theresa Heffernan, Post-Apocalyptic Culture: Modernism, Postmodernism, and the Twentieth-Century Novel (Toronto, Buffalo, London: University of Toronto Press, 2008), 4. 177. Frank Kermode, Ihe Sense ofan Ending: Studies in the Iheory ofFiction (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 2000), 93. 178. Frank Kermode, ''Apocalypse and the Modern," in Visions ofApocalypse: End or Rebirth? ed. Saul Friedlander (ed. & intra.), Gerald Holton (ed.), Leo Marx (ed.), Eugene Skolnikoff(ed.) (New York: Holmes, 1995), 95. 179. Heffernan, Post-Apocalyptic Culture, 5. 180. Porter also draws on Durer's engraving of Ihe Knight, Death and the Devil for part of her inspiration in "Pale Horse, Pale Rider." See Jewel Spears Brooker, "Nightmare and Apocalypse in Katherine Anne Porter's Pale Horse, Pale Rider," Mississippi Quarterly: Ihe journal of Southern Cultures 62.1-2 (Winter-Spring 2009): 227-8. Another possible candidate that might have influenced Porter is John Hamilton Mortimer's 1784 engraving "Death on a Pale Horse" owned by the British Museum. Morter's engraving, showing only one crowned skeletal figure on a horse, brandishing a sword, actually parallels Porter's description of the "lank greenish stranger" in her dream more closely than either of the Durer engravings do. Porter may have known of Mortimer's engraving through Charles Baudelaire's poem "Une gravure fantastique" (''A Fantastic Engraving") published in Fleurs du Mal (1857). 181. Brooker makes a similar argument: "Through her tide allusion to the four horse• men, then, Porter both points to the contemporary situation and puts it into the context oflarge impersonal forces. In the story itself, the war is the essential background; the foreground is the personal journey of an individual caught in historical crisis. From beginning to end, Porter keeps her heroine in focus and, at the same time, points beyond her to Everyman. Through allusions to medi• eval literature and art, she both retains the particularity of Miranda's experience and universalizes it." See Brooker, "Nightmare," 227. 182. Here is the full text of the relevant passage from the King James Bible, Revelation, Book 6, 1.1-7.

lAnd I saw when the Lamb opened one of the seals, and I heard, as it were the noise of thunder, one of the four beasts saying, Come and see. 2And I saw, and behold a white horse: and he that sat on him had a bow; and a crown was given unto him: and he went forth conquering, and to conquer. 236 • Notes

3And when he had opened the second seal, I heard the second beast say, Come and see. 4And there went out another horse that was red: and power was given to him that sat thereon to take peace from the earth, and that they should kill one another: and there was given unto him a great sword. 5And when he had opened the third seal, I heard the third beast say, Come and see. And I beheld, and lo a black horse; and he that sat on him had a pair of balances in his hand. 6And I heard a voice in the midst of the four beasts say, A measure of wheat for a penny, and three measures of barley for a penny; and see thou hurt not the oil and the wine. 7And when he had opened the fourth seal, I heard the voice of the fourth beast say, Come and see.

183. Brooker, "Nightmare," 225. 184. For an overview of this figure, see Cunningham, Four Horsemen. 185. Porter, "Pale Horse," 159. 186. Cunningham, Four Horsemen, 16. 187. Leon Morris, The Book of Revelation, Tyndale New Testament commentaries, 2nd ed. (Grand Rapids, Michigan: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1987), 100-105. 188. Brooker, "Nightmare," 25. 189. Porter, "Pale Horse," 142. 190. Ibid., 143. 191. Ibid., 142. 192. Ibid. 193. Ibid., 143. 194. Ibid., 142. 195. Brooker also considers the range of colors in "Pale Horse, Pale Rider," citing Unrue's observation that gray, as a mixture of black and white, often represents neither life nor death in Porter's work, but a twilight zone in between. See Brooker, "Nightmare," 230. 196. Porter, "Pale Horse," 107. 197. Brooker, "Nightmare," 230. 198. Porter, "Pale Horse," 203. 199. Ibid., 208. 200. Lodwick Hardey and George Core, Katherine Anne Porter: A Critical Symposium (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1969), 13. 201. Unrue, Truth and Vision, xii; Unrue's italics. 202. Hardey and Core, Critical Symposium, 14. 203. Ibid. 204. Heffernan, Post-Apocalyptic Culture, 5 205. Porter, "Pale Horse," 208. 206. Titus, Ambivalent Art, 145 Notes • 237

207. Porter, "Pale Horse," 142. 208. Sacks, Elegy, 36. 209. Hartley and Core, Critical Symposium, 10. 210. Joan Givner, Katherine Anne Porter: A Life (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1982), 130-6. 211. Stout, Strategies, 33. 212. Daphne Unrue, Katherine Anne Porter: 7he Life ofan Artist (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi), 63. 213. Givner,ALife, 137. 214. Heffernan, Post-Apocalyptic Culture, 6. 215. Sacks, Elegy, 32. 216. Kristeva, Powers ofHorror, 207-208. 217. Ibid., 208. 218. Kirby Farrell, Post-traumatic Culture: Injury and Interpretation in the Nineties (Baltimore and London: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1998), x. Porter makes a similar point in "My First Speech," notes for a speech given before the American Women's Club in Paris, 1934: "For some [American writers], life dates from the great war." See Porter, Collected Essays, 436.

5 Munro's 11 Carried Away" and Voigt's Kyrie: Ghostly Hauntings, Sublime Eclipses

1. Horace Foote, Courtship, Valentine's Day, 1918: Three Plays from the Orphan's Home Cycle (New York: Grove Press, 1994); Kaye Gibbons, Divining Women (New York: Harper-Perennial, 2005); Goldberg, Wickett's Remedy: A Novel (New York: Anchor, 2006); Kevin Kerr, Unity (1918) (Talonbooks: Vancouver, British Columbia, 2002); Christina Schwarz, Drowning Ruth (New York: Doubleday, 2000); Wallace Stegner, On a Darkling Plain (New York: Harcourt, Brace and Co., 1940); and James Rada, Jr., October Mourning (Gettysburg, PA: Legacy, 2006). Stegner's narrative is notable for parallels with Porter's "Pale Horse, Pale Rider." Published a year after Porter's narra• tive, its main character is a returned soldier who becomes a nurse during the height of the 1918 influenza pandemic; the novel also draws on hallucinations and dreams. On a Darkling Plain, however, does not include the apocalyptic emphasis central to Porter's work. Other contemporary 1918 influenza narratives will undoubtedly follow. 2. For examples of popular children's literature centering on the 1918 influenza pandemic, see Karen Hesse, A Time for Angels (Hyperion, 1997); and Jenny Moss, Winnie's War (Walker Childrens, 2008). 3. See Heble who argues that all of Munro's works partake of this paradigmatic discourse, emphasizing the possibility of what might have been in order to create a more satisfactory form of realistic fiction. Ajay Heble, The Tumble of Reason: Alice Munro's Discourse of Absence (Toronto, Buffalo, London: University of Toronto Press, 1994), 1-18. 238 • Notes

4. Ildik6 de Papp Carrington, "What's in a Title?: Alice Munro's 'Carried Away,"' Studies in Short Fiction 30 (1993): 555-6. 5. Helen Hoy, "Alice Munro: 'Unforgettable, Indigestible Messages,"' Journal of Canadian Studies 26.1 (Spring 1991): 17. 6. Ibid., 17. 7. Mark Levene, "'It was about vanishing': A Glimpse of Alice Munro Stories," University of Toronto Quarterly 68:4 (Fall1999): 855. 8. Alice Munro, "Carried Away," in Open Secrets (New York: Vintage, 1994), 4. 9. Ibid., 29. 10. For negative connotations involving female invalids, see chapter 1 in Diane Price Herndl, Invalid Women: Figuring Feminine Illness in American Fiction and Culture, 1840-1940 (Chapel Hill and London: The University of North Carolina Press, 1993). 11. In an interview published in the Paris Review, Munro mentions Katherine Anne Porter as a Southern woman writer whom she really loved because "[t]here was a feeling that women could write about the freakish, the marginal" ("Carried," 423). See Jeanne McCulloch, "Alice Munro: The Art of Fiction," in The Paris Review Interviews, Vol. II, ed. Philip Gourevitch; Orhan Pamuk (intro); Maureen Freely (trans.) (New York, NY: Picador, 2007), 395-431. 12. Munro, "Carried," 11. 13. Ibid., 5. 14. Ibid., 19. 15. Ibid., 3. 16. Ibid., 35. 17. Ibid., 19-20. 18. Ibid., 26. 19. Ibid., 16-17. 20. Ibid., 48. 21. Ibid., 5. 22. Ibid., 11. 23. Ibid., 17. 24. Ibid. 25. Ibid. 26. Ibid., 7. 27. Ibid., 10. 28. Ibid., 11. 29. Ibid., 4. 30. Ibid., 10. 31. Ibid. 32. Miriam Marty Clark, "Allegories of Reading in Alice Munro's 'Carried Away,"' Contemporary Literature 37.1 (Spring 1996): 56. 33. Munro, "Carried," 11. 34. For an expanded interpretation of the "dramatic irony" of this passage, see Carrington, "Title," 558. 35. Munro, "Carried," 13. Notes • 239

36. Ibid., 18. 37. Ibid., 14. 38. Ibid., 20. These prints continue the Scottish influence present in much of Munro's work. See Magdalene Redekop, "Alice Munro and the Scottish Nostalgic Grotesque," in The Rest of the Story: Critical Essays on Alice Munro, ed. Robert Thacker (Toronto: ECW Press, 1999). The "dog on his master's grave" could well be "Greyfriars Bobby," a well-known Edinborough canine whose devotion to his master after his death was memorialized in several nineteenth-century monuments and prints, one of which was hung in the National Galleries of Scotland. The reference to "Highland Mary singing in the fields" almost certainly refers to Robert Burns's famous song "Highland Mary," which commemorates a lover lost to death. The identity of the third print remains obscure. 39. See Mary Ellen Brown, Burns and Tradition (Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press, 1984). 40. Munro, "Carried," 20. 41. Ibid., 27. 42. Ibid., 29. 43. Ibid., 37-8. 44. Ildik6 de Papp Carrington, Controlling the Uncontrollable: The Fiction ofAlice Munro (De Kalb: Northern Illinois University, 1989), 5. 45. Munro, "Carried," 51. 46. Ibid., 39. 47. Ibid., 29. 48. Ibid., 28. 49. Ibid., 32. 50. The print described as representing the "Battle of Flodden Field" may be Sir Edward Burne-Jones's Flodden Field (1882), commemorating the death of King James IV of Scotland in 1513 during the largest battle between England and Scotland. 51. The "Boy King" refers to Napoleon's son by his second wife Maria Louisa; the young man died at the age of 21. His death was widely represented in engrav• ings of the period. 52. Munro, "Carried," 32. 53. For more information about this painting, see the National Galleries of Scotland website: http://www.nationalgalleries.org/collection/online _search/4:324/result/0/5264. 54. "Carried," Munro, 28. 55. Ibid., 15. 56. Louis A. Montrose, "A Midsummer Night's Dream and the Shaping Fantasies of Elizabethan Culture; Gender, Power, Form," in Rewriting the Renaissance: The Discourses of Sexual Difference in Early Modern Europe, ed. Margaret W. Ferguson, Maureen Quilligan, and Nancy J. Vickers (Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1986), 77. 57. Munro, "Carried," 39. 240 • Notes

58. Levene, "Vanishing," 854. 59. Munro, "Carried," 30-1. 60. Ibid., 35-6. 61. Ibid., 40. 62. Ibid., 39. 63. Ibid. 64. Ibid., 48. 65. Ibid., 50. 66. Ibid., 44. 67. Katherine Mayberry, "Narrative Strategies of Liberation in Alice Munro," Studies in Canadian Literature/Etudes en Litterature Canadienne (SCL) 19.2 (1994): 57. 68. Munro, "Carried," 46-8. 69. Ibid., 47. 70. Ibid., 48. 71. Ibid., 49-50. 72. Carol L. Beran, "Thomas Hardy, Alice Munro, and The Question of Influence," The American Review ofCanadian Studies (Summer 1999): 242. 73. Ibid., 248. See also Levene, "Vanishing," 847. 74. Harold Horwood, "Interview with Alice Munro," in The Art ofAlice Munro: Saying the Unsayable, ed. Judith Miller (Toronto: McGraw-Hill-Ryerson, 1971), 124. 75. Emily Bronte, Wuthering Heights, ed. Alison Booth (London: Longman, 2008), 27. 76. Munro, "Carried," 49. 77. Ibid. 78. Robert Thacker, Alice Munro: Writing Her Lives A Biography (Toronto: McClellan and Stewart, Ltd. 2005), 450. 79. Beran, "Thomas Hardy," credits Munro's preference for mulriplicity to the "layering of cultures in Canada: characters and plots, like the nation, must be perceived from multiple viewpoints" (251). 80. Levene, "Vanishing," 854-5. 81. Munro, "Carried," 51. 82. Ibid. 83. Ibid. 84. Ibid., 6. 85. For a discussion of Munro and Hardy, see Beran, "Thomas Hardy." For a discussion of Munro and Cather, see Robert Thacker, "Alice Munro's Willa Cather," Canadian Literature 134 (1992): 42-57. 86. Ibid., 54. 87. Ibid. 88. Munro, "Dulse," The New Yorker (July 21, 1980): 39. 89. As a sequence, Kjrie consists of 57 sonnets divided into three different sections with one sonnet each serving as a prologue and an epilogue. In Voigt's arrange• ment, we see her attention to chronology. Each section corresponds to a season, Notes • 241

beginning in June 1918, continuing through the winter of 1919, and concluding in spring 1919. Its second or middle section is roughly twice as large as the first and third sections, emphasizing the severity of the influenza pandemic during the long, cold 1919 winter, and granting the sequence a symmetrical form. 90. See Joanne Feit Diehl, Women Poets and the American Sublime (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1990); and Helen Regueiro Elam, "Dickinson and the Haunting of the Self," in The American Sublime, ed. Mary Arensberg (Albany: State University of New York Press), 83-99. 91. In an interview, Voigt discusses form in poetry as a response to the human need for order: "We have a huge appetite for order; that's part of the human animal. We love forms of any kind. We just want it, and we want it to con• tinue. Suzanne Langer says that all art is the providing of the form of the emotion." See Ernest Suarez with T. W. Stanford III and Amy Verner, "Ellen Bryant Voigt," in Southbound: Interviews with Southern Poets (Columbia and London: University of Missouri Press, 1999), 77. 92. Ibid., 77. 93. Ellen Bryant Voigt, Kyrie (New York: W.W. Norton & Co., 1996), 11. 94. For a discussion of the sonnet's form in relation to gender and history, see Stacy Carson Hubbard, '"A Splintery Box': Race and Gender in the Sonnets of Gwendolyn Brooks," in Diversifying the Discourse: The Florence Howe Award for Outstanding Feminist Scholarship 1990-2004, ed. by Mihoko Suzuki and Roseanna Lewis Dufault (New York: Modern Language Association, 2006). 95. Suarez, Southbound, 27. 96. Deborah Pope, "A Litany in the Time of Plague," The Southern Review 32.2 (Spring 1996): 363. 97. For a more sustained discussion of the Romantic sublime in Barrett Browning's poetry in general and her sonnets in particular, see Marjorie Stone, Elizabeth Barrett Browning (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1995), especially the chapter "The Scene of Instruction: Romantic Revisionism." For a discussion of silence in Barrett Browning's sonnets, see Amy Charlotte Billone, '"In Silence Like to Death' Elizabeth Barrett's Sonnet Turn," Victorian Poetry 39: 4 (2001)" 533-50. 98. Elizabeth A. Dolan, Seeing Suffering in Womens Literature ofthe Romantic Era (Ashgate: Hampstead, England and Burlington: VT, 2008), 28. 99. Smith favored the sonnet form, especially in Elegiac Sonnets. Barrett Browning frequently used the sonnet as well, most famously in the sequence Sonnets from the Portugeuse, but also in many individual sonnets. See Billone, "Silence"; and Dorothy Mermin, Elizabeth Barrett Browning: The Origins of a New Poetry (Women in Culture and Society Series) (Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1989) for discussions of Barrett Browning's many other sonnets. 100. Dolan, Seeing Suffering, 46-7. 10 1. Stone, Barrett Browning. 102. Jerome Mazzaro, "Mapping Sublimity: Elizabeth Barrett Browning's Sonnets from the Portuguese," Essays in Literature 18.2 (1991): 166, 177; Mermin, Barrett Browning, 129-34. 103. Suarez, Southbound, 27. 242 • Notes

104. Ibid., 27-8. 105. Ibid., 28-9. 106. Ibid., 38. 107. Voight discusses the balance between lyric and narrative in Kyrie at greater length: "The sonnets are lyrics, but the books uses a loose overall narrative structure. I had written about thirty poems, thirty lyrics, and I thought that I'd learn something by trying to sustain a whole book of them. A few things seemed necessary. First, I needed some recognizable, recurring characters so that the reader will say, 'I know who that is,' which would buy me some latitude for a chorus of other voices. Second, I had to enlarge the lens, the context, which meant bringing in the war. Third, I wanted some passage of time because, as I remarked, there was none within the individual lyrics. They all spoke out of a moment when somebody died, or escaped death; time is frozen forever on that subject. So I had to start the book earlier on the time line, to write some earlier sonnets, before the characters were aware of what was going on, and I also had to extend it beyond the epidemic when danger had passed." See ibid., 73. 108. Voigt, Kyrie, 50. 109. Mazzaro, "Mapping," 170. 110. Voigt, Kyrie, 50. 111. Ibid. 112. Ibid., 11. 113. Ibid., 37. 114. Ibid., 35. 115. Ibid., 53. 116. For the sonnets written in the form of Price's letters to Mattie, see ibid., 16, 32, 41, and 48. 117. Ibid., 70. 118. Ibid., 50. 119. Ibid., 51. 120. Ibid., 49. 121. Voigt speaks of her narrative intentions in an interview: "Though [Kyrie] does have a narrative line, it's very different from fiction, very different from complex narrative." See Candice Baxter and Wendy Sumner Wimer, "Interview with Ellen Bryant Voight," The Missouri Review (Spring 2009): 75. 122. Voigt, Kyrie, 49. 123. See Ellen Bryant Voight, ''Angel Child," in A William Maxwell Portrait: Memories and Appreciations (New York: WW Norton & Co., 2004), 137. 124. Voigt, Kyrie, 21. 125. Ibid., 56. 126. Ibid. 127. Ibid., 43. 128. For a detailed discussion of A. S. Eddington's expedition to photograph the 1919 eclipse and thereby test Einstein's theory of relativiry, see Matthew Stanley, Practical Mystic: Religion, Science, and A.S. Eddington (Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 2007). Notes • 243

129. Voigt, Kyrie, 15. 130. Ibid., 63. 131. Ibid., 61. 132. Ibid., 60. 133. Ibid., 63. 134. Ibid., 61. 135. Ibid., 73. 136. For discussions of the sublime's relationship to the subject, see Mary Arensberg, "Introduction: The American Sublime," in The American Sublime, ed. Mary Arensberg (Albany: State University of New York Press), 1-20; and Thomas Weiskel, The Romantic Sublime: Studies in the Structure and Psychology of Transcendence (Baltimore and London: Johns Hopkins Press, 1986). 137. For another sonnet using repetition wirh a listing of professions and a refrain resembling a song, see Voigt, Kyrie, 40. 138. "Kyrie eleison" is used in the Roman Catholic, Greek Orrhodox, and Anglican churches as a response, often set to music, the entire phrase meaning "Lord, have mercy on me." 139. Ibid., 27. 140. Ibid. Note also how by borrowing rhe biblical language of the psalms, Voigt also borrows the traditional iconography of plague, especially rhe image of Apollo's arrows. 141. Pope, "Litany," 365. 142. Voigt, Kyrie, 52. 143. Suarez, Southbound, 26. 144. Voigt, Kyrie, 45. 145. Ibid., 43. 146. See Mazzaro, "Mapping"; and Weiskel, Romantic Sublime. 147. See Mazzaro, "Mapping"; Arensberg, American Sublime; Weiskel, Romantic Sublime. 148. Voigt, Kyrie, 63. 149. Suarez, Southbound, 84. 150. Voigt, Kyrie, 11. 151. Ibid., 73. 152. Ibid., 75; Voigt's emphasis.

6 The 1918 Influenza Pandemic in the Developing World: Elechi Amadi and Buchi Emecheta's Occluded Vision

1. For a discussion of different approaches to gathering and presenting data concerning the mortality of the 1918 influenza pandemic in Africa, see Matthew M. Heaton and Toyin Faiola, "Global Explanations Versus Local Interpretations: The Historiography of the Influenza Pandemic of 1918-19 in Africa," History in Africa 33 (2006): 205-208. Their sobering conclusion "[n]o real, accurate statistics will ever be compiled" should be borne in mind. For a definitive discussion of influenza mortality and morbidity in Asia and 244 • Notes

Africa, see Howard Phillips and David Killingray, The Spanish Influenza Pandemic of I918-19: New Perspectives (New York and London: Routledge, 2005), 9-11. 2. Heaton and Faiola, "Global," 213. 3. Ibid., 214. 4. Elizabeth Isichei, A History of the Igbo People (London and Basingstoke: Macmillan Press: 1976), 224. Isichei also records the severity of the pandemic among the Igbos, with 80-90 percent of the population affected in some areas. She dates the pandemic as 1920, which is relatively late, compared to worldwide mortality figures. 5. Indeed, one can make an argument that Elechi Amadi's The Great Ponds, which received widespread positive reviews in the Western academic press, could have been used to reacquaint First World readers with the experience of the 1918 influenza pandemic. 6. Buchi Emecheta, HeadAbove Water: An Autobiography (Oxford and Botswana: Heinemann, 1986), 214. 7. Emecheta makes a parallel point in an interview where she describes how the writer Flora Nwapa's grandmother wanted "improvement" for her daughter, so she sent her to a mission school. Afterward she married a man who wanted only one wife; yet "[w]hen they had to go to Lagos and Port Harcourt to work, she became more of a slave, because she gave everything to the man." See Adeola James, ed., In Their Own Voices: African Women Writers Talk (London and Nairobi: Heinemann and James Currey, 1990), 44. 8. Although a male writer, Amadi has been praised for his sensitive portrayal of female characters. Ezeigbo puts Amadi in the same category as Emecheta as a feminist writer "because of the way they explore a kind of feminism that is revolutionary in its challenge to a system of domination that incorporates both patriarchal and sexist oppression ... We are given in their recent works accounts of women ... responding to a society that would deny them a place, a voice, value and at times even visibility." See Theodora A. Ezeigbo, "Reflecting the Times: Radicalism in recent Female-Oriented Fiction in Nigeria," in Calabar Studies in African Literature 5: Literature and Black Aesthetics, ed. Dele Orisawayi, Ebele Eko, Julius Ogu, Emilia Oko, and Agantiem Abang (Ibadan, Nigeria: Heinemann, 1990), 145. 9. Elechi Amadi, The Great Ponds (Oxford and Ibadan, Nigeria: Heinemann, 1969), 67 and 76; Alfred Kiema, ''Allegory in The Great Ponds by Elechi Amadi," Bridges: A Senegalese journal ofEnglish Studies 9 (October 2003): 27-30. 10. Amadi, The Great Ponds, 62. 11. Ibid. 12. Ibid., 158. 13. Ibid., 206-207. 14. Ibid., 159. 15. Ibid., 199-200. Another example of Olumba's disorientation is when Oda returns and he is convinced he is dreaming, this time in a positive fashion. See ibid., 203-204. Notes • 245

16. Ibid., 200. 17. Ibid., 178. 18. Ibid., 182. 19. Kiema, "Allegory," 27, points out the women's relative powerless and opposition to the war. 20. Ibid. 21. Amadi, The Great Ponds, 169. 22. Ibid. 23. Ibid., 204. 24. Ibid. 25. See Chandra Mohanty, "Under Western Eyes: Feminist Scholarship and Colonialist Discourses," Feminist Review 30 (Autumn 1988): 61-88. 26. Ibid., 74; Mohanty's emphasis. 27. Buchi Emecheta, Double Yoke (New York: George Braziller, 1983), 163. 28. Katherine Frank, "The Death of the Slave Girl: African Womanhood in the Novels ofBuchi Emecheta," World Literature Written in English 21.3 (Autumn 1982): 478. 29. Emecheta, The Slave Girl, 25; Emecheta's italics and ellipses. 30. Ibid., 27. 31. Ibid, 26. 32. In her autobiography, Emecheta makes an obscure reference to "my mother who lost her parents when the nerve gas was exploded in Europe, a gas that killed thousands ofinnocentAfricans who knew nothing about the Western First World War ... " See Emecheta, Head, 3. There was considerable European engagement in both Eastern and Western Africa during World War I, but it relied on conven• tional weapons rather than gas. Her conflation of the 1918 influenza pandemic with gas may be an example of magical thinking regarding the origins of the pan• demic, similar to the cloud seen over American cities after the citing of German submarines in "Pale Horse, Pale Rider." In any case, in Emecheta's worldview it more firmly ties the influenza's origin to the European colonizers and their war. 33. Emecheta, The Slave Girl, 15-16. 34. Heaton and Faiola, "Global," 209-10. 35. Emecheta, The Slave Girl, 27. 36. Ibid. 37. Ibid., 28. 38. Ibid., 30. 39. Misty Bastian, "Irregular Visitors: Narratives about Ogbaanje (Spirit Children) in Southern Nigerian Popular Writing," in Readings in African Popular Fiction, ed. Stephanie Newell (London and Bloomington: Indiana University, 2002), 59. 40. Chandra Mohanty, '"Under Western Eyes' Revisited: Feminist Solidarity through Anticapitalist Struggles," Signs 28.2 (Winter 2003): 511. 41. Emecheta, The Slave Girl, 19. 42. Bastian, "Irregular Visitors," 59. 43. Ibid., 60. 246 • Notes

44. Emecheta, The Slave Girl, 22-3. 45. Bastian, "Irregular Visitors," 61. 46. Emecheta, The Slave Girl, 30. 47. Bastian, "Irregular Visitors," 62. 48. Ibid. 49. During this period, African colonial administrators were dedicated to abolish• ing slavery but only as part of a gradual process; slavery "lost its legal status but was not officially illegal." See Suzanne Miers and Martin A. Klein, eds., Slavery and Colonial Rule in Africa (London and Portland, OR: Frank Cass Publishers, 1999), 4. Some freed slaves found themselves as unpaid appren• tices to their former owners; many slaves took initiatives "in their own libera• tion" and simply fled. See ibid., 6-7. 50. In an interview, Emecheta compares her use of the ogbaange in The Slave Girl to Toni Morrison's use of a similar ghostly character in Beloved: "In Toni Morrison's Beloved, for example, abiku, that is someone born to die, comes out of Nigeria ... If you now compare it to my own ogbange [sic], which is the Igbo name for abiku in the novel, The Slave Girl, you will find out that mine is the raw thing. Ogbange means someone who comes several times, someone who is born again and again. In her own case, it has been diluted with slavery and yet she used it to produce a marvelous book." See Oladipo Ogundele, ''A Conversation with Dr. Buchi Emecheta," in Emerging Perspectives on Buchi Emechta, ed. Marie Emeh (Trenton, NJ and Asmara, Eritrea: Africa World Press, 1995), 452. 51. Emecheta, The Slave Girl, 62. 52. Ibid. 53. Ibid. 54. Drawing on Gilbert and Gubar's Madwoman in the Attic, Florence Stratton argues that the recurring character of the slave woman buried alive, which appears in three of Emecheta's novels (The Slave Girl, The Bride Price, and The joys ofMotherhood), acts as an archetype for female characters in African women's narratives: "The shallow grave ... in itself provides a paradigmatic image of the novelists' reflection of female experience. Their female char• acters are enclosed in the restricted spheres of behavior of the stereotypes of a male tradition, their human potential buried in shallow definitions of their sex." Stratton interprets the ogbaanje's status negatively, arguing in both The Slave Girl and The Bride Price Emecheta "uses the ambiguous status of [ogbaanje] to represent the state of her sex in a society that denies the female any measure of self-determination." See Florence Stratton, "The Shallow Grave: Archetypes of Female Experience in African Fiction," in Emerging Perspectives on Buchi Emecheta, Marie Umeh (ed. and intro.) and Margaret Busby (foreword) (Trenton, N]: Africa World, 1996), 147-8. See also Frank, "Death," 480. 55. Joanne Sullivan, "Redefining the Novel in Africa," Research in African Literatures 37.4 (2006): 177-8. 56. Ibid., 179. 57. Stratton, "Shallow Grave," 148. Notes • 247

58. Rosanne Kennedy, "Mortgaged Futures: Trauma, Subjectivity, and the Legacies of Colonialism in Tsitsi Dangarembga's The Book ofNot," Studies in the Novel40.1&2 (Spring and Summer 2008): 89. 59. The work ofMohanty and other postcolonial critics remind us how race, eth• nicity, class, sexuality, geography, gender, and colonialism interact, with gender as only one variable. See Mohanty, "Under Western Eyes" and "Revisited." 60. Female slaves were in higher demand, brought higher prices, and did many different jobs; their primary duties were not focused on human reproduction. See Claire C. Robertson and Martin A. Klein, eds., Women and Slavery in Africa (Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann, 1997), 5-6. 61. Ibid, 6. 62. Bella Brodzki, "'Changing Masters': Gender, Genre, and the Discourses of Slavery," in Borderwork: Feminist Engagements with Comparative Literature, ed. Margaret R. Higonnet (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1994), 56. 63. Emecheta, The Slave Girl, 21. 64. Ma Palagado fits the paradigms of female slave owner discussed in Robertson and Klein, Women and Slavery, 12-13. For an enlightening discussion of the economic role women played as slave owners in Igbo culture, see Don C. Ohadike, "'When Slaves Left, Owners Wept': Entrepreneurs and Emancipation among the Igbo People," in Slavery and Colonial Rule in Africa, ed. Suzanne Miers and Martin A. Klein (London and Portland, OR: Frank Cass, 1999), 189-93. 65. Emecheta, The Slave Girl, 129 ff. 66. Ibid., 132. 67. Ibid., 29, 137. 68. Ibid., 148 ff. 69. Ibid., 146. 70. Ibid., 152. 71. Ibid., 154. 72. Ibid., 158. 73. Ibid., 168. 74. Ibid., 172. 75. Ibid., 173. 76. Ibid., 174. 77. Bastian, "Irregular Visitors," 59. As both a slave and an ogbaange (or spirit- child), Ojebeta also faced dual social bias. See Ohadike, "When Slaves Left." 78. Emecheta, The Slave Girl, 179. 79. Ibid. 80. Ibid. 81. Ibid., 36. While many colonial administrators initially outlawed slavery, they "depended heavily on slave-holding elites to administer their empires. Administrators were convinced that freeing the slaves would lead to a decline in economic productivity and a rise in lawlessness." See Miers and Klein, Slavery, 1-2. Getting rid of slavery (or any other form of unpaid or under• compensated labor) is always a slow task because of the ingrained economic 248 • Notes

opposition to it. The Igbo internal slave trade, which Emechera represents in The Slave Girl, was particularly resistant to change because of irs economic entrenchment in Igbo society. See Ohadike, "When Slaves Left." Emecheta may blame European colonialism for the continuation of slavery because of irs unrealized promises for abolishing slavery; yet in reality tribal culture was the primary cause. 82. Dennis Cordell, "No Liberty, Nor Much Equality, and Very Little Fraternity: The Mirage of Manumission in the Algerian Sahara in the Second Half of the Nineteenth Century," in Slavery and Colonial Rule in Africa, ed. Suzanne Miers and Martin A. Klein (London and Portland, OR: Frank Cass, 1999) 50-2. Also see Robertson and Klein, Women and Slavery in Africa, for an extensive discussion of marriage and slavery. 83. Bastian, "Irregular Visitors," 61. 84. Ibid., 64. 85. Frank, "Death," 480; Emecheta, Head, 213. 86. Tom Spencer-Walters, "Orality and Patriarchal Dominance in Buchi Emechera's The Slave Girl," in Emerging Perspectives on Buchi Emecheta, Marie Umeh (ed.) Margaret Busby (foreword) (Trenton, NJ: Africa World, 1996), 127. 87. Emecheta, Head, 6-11, quote from James, In Their Own Voices, 37. 88. James, In Their Own Voices, 39. 89. Emecheta, Head, 25. 90. Emechera's relationship to her native language is more complex; as she explains in her interview, "I can write Yoruba bur nor Igbo, so I have to write in English," with English appearing as a last resort. See James, In Their Own Voices, 37, 40-1. 91. Emechera, Head, 28 ff. 92. Ogundele, "Conversation," 448; James, In Their Own Voices, 39-41. 93. Since objaange themselves are prone to create more objaange when they repro• duce, it is interesting that Emecheta does not draw on this possibility in either the novel or her own autobiography. She herself was born two months pre• maturely and required unusual measures on her mother's part, including a trip to a Western hospital, in order to survive. See Emecheta, Head, 9-11. In important ways, Emecheta herself resembles the positive version of a spirit• child. See Bastain, "Irregular Visitors," 59. 94. Amadi, The Great Ponds, 209. 95. Ibid., 217. 96. Barry Ivker, "Elechi Amadi: An African Writer Between Two Worlds," Phylon 33.3 (Third Quarter 1972): 292-3. 97. For a discussion of the war allegorized in The Great Ponds, see Kiema, "Allegory," 40. 98. Amadi, The Great Ponds, 200. 99. For an extensive discussion of World War I engagements in Africa, see Hew Strachan, The First World War: Volume l· To Arms (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003). 100. Amadi, The Great Ponds, 209. Notes • 249

Epilogue: Loss, Contagion, and Community

1. For good examples, see Mark Honigsbaum, Living with Enza: The Forgotten Story ofBritain and the Great Flu Pandemic of 1918 (New York and London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009); and the 2011 film Contagion, directed by Steven Soderbergh. 2. Priscilla Wald, Introduction to Contagious: Cultures, Carriers, and the Outbreak Narrative (Durham and London: Duke University Press, 2008), 12. 3. Ibid. 4. Christopher Lane, "When Plagues Don't End," Gay and Lesbian Review Worldwide 8.1 (2001): 32. 5. Ibid., 30-1. 6. Michael Cunningham, The Hours (New York: Farrar, Straus, Giroux, 1998), 10-11. 7. Ibid., 211. 8. Ibid., 225. 9. David L. Eng and David Kazanjian, Introduction to Loss: The Politics of Mourning (Berkeley and London: University of California Press, 2003), 4-5. 10. Ibid., 5. 11. For information about the growth of the American Red Cross during World War I and the 1918 influenza, see the American Red Cross Museum's home page: http://www.redcross.org/museum/history/ww1a.asp. Accessed October 3,2011. 12. Patricia]. Fanning, Influenza and Inequality: One Town's Tragic Response to the Great Epidemic of 1918 (Springfield, MA: University of Massachusetts Press, 2010). Index

Abraham, Julie, Ch. 3n103 Barry, John M., 3, Prologue n 9, n14 Are Girls Necessary?, Ch. 3n103 American aspects of the Aeneid (Virgil), 59, Ch. 2n127, n129 pandemic, 3 AIDS, 7, 14, 20, 23, 166, 198, Prologue The Great Influenza: The Epic Story n36,n69,n129,n130 ofthe Deadliest Plague in Albrinck, Meg, Ch. 3n145, n146 History, 3 Altman, Lawrence K., 23, Prologue n129 Bastian, Misty, Ch. 6n39 Amadi, Elechi, 25, 28, 38, 177, "Irregular Visitors: Narratives about Ch. 6n5, n9, n96 Ogbaange (Spirit Children) in The Great Ponds, 25, 35, 38, 177, Southern Nigerian Popular 178-79, 181, 187, 193, 194, Writing," Ch. 6n39 Ch. 6n5, n9 Battle of Etaples, Prologue n70 American Experience: Influenza 1918, Battle of Mons, 128 Prologue n12, n67 Baudelaire, 27, 33, 34, 36, 197, American Red Cross Nursing Corps, 201 Ch. 1n1, n2 The Anchises, 54-55, 58-60, 65-66, "The Painter of Modern Life," Ch. 1n2 126, Ch. 5nll7, n129 "A une Passante," 127, 197 interpretations of ship's name, 59-60 Bell, Vanessa, 83, Ch. 3n71 Apollinaire, Guillaume 2 cover illustration for Mrs. Dalloway, 83 Armistice, 2, 8, 15, 34, 69, 136, 138, Benjamin, Walter, 27, Ch. 1n1 154, 166-68, 171 Beran, Carol L., Ch. 5n72 Arthurian legend, 43, 54 Black Death, 14, 18, 105, 128, Ch. Avian origin of influenza, 10-11 4n111, n128 in China and southeast Asia, 12 comparisons to 1918 Influenza media attention to, 24, Prologue Pandemic, 14, 18, 105 n56, n62 representations of St. Sebastian, 128, 129, 131 Barker, Pat, 9 surviving literary representations of, Another World, 9 128-29 The Eye in the Door, 9 Blanchot, Maurice, 2, Prologue n10 The Ghost Road, 9 The Writing ofthe Disaster, Regeneration, 9 Prologue nlO 252 • Index

Boeck!, Christine M., 129, 131-32, Cather, Willa Ch. 4nl13, nl17, nll9, n122, education in classical languages, n127, nl28 Ch. 1nl27 Book ofRevelations ofSt. john the exposing homosocial bonds, 65, 71 Evangelist, 129, Ch. 4n187 gender choices, 41, 76 Booth, Allyson, 7, 83, 95 love of classical literature, Cenotaph, 83-84 Ch. 2n127 Postcards from the Trenches, 7, Prologue Munro's allusions to, 163-64 n37, Ch. 1nll, Ch. 3n30 "The Namesake," Ch. 2n127 Brodzki, Bella, 188, Ch. 6n62 Not Under Forty, 39, 64, Ch. 1n19, Brooker, Jewel Spears, 141, 142, 143, Ch. 2n8 Ch. 4n180, n181, n183, "The Novel Demeuble," 32, 40, 41,72 n188, n195, n197 One ofOurs, 28, 35, 36, 37, 39-72, Browning, Elizabeth Barrett, 165, 73, 105, 126, 149, 163, 192, Ch. 5n97, n99, n101, nl02 197, Ch. 2n5, n12, n20, n21, Buder, Judith, 40, 64, 200, Ch. 2n7 n42,n59,n82,n90,n94,n98 Cather's negotiation of sexual Cather's disorientation of gender boundaries, 64 roles in, 39, 48, 70 comments upon Cather's male critical debate surrounding, protagonists, 40 69-70 Byerly, Carol, 29, Ch. 1n7, n10 de Troyes, Chretien, 43, 54, Fever of War: The Influenza Ch. 2n21 Pandemic in the US. Army Gerhardt, David, 40, 46, 60-61, During World War], 29 63,66 evokes cycles of mythology, 60 Camp Funston Army Base, 12, 29, Hamlet as compared to Claude Ch. 1n8 (and cover image) Wheeler, 46 memorial location, 30-31 heterosexual marriage depicted as possible influenza origin site, 12, negatively in, 40, 69 29-30 homoerotism in, 42, 46, 62-63, Cannan, May Wedderburn, 2, 34 65, 71, Ch. 3n67 Bevil Quiller-Couch and, 2 Maxey, illness of 65 The Splendid Days, 34-35 Mrs. Wheeler, 35-36, 40, 43, 47, "Women Demobilized," 34 48,66-6~68-69, 71, 72, Caramagno, Thomas, 75, Ch. 3n9, n30 73, 197, 198, 200, The Flight ofthe Mind: Virginia Woolf's Ch. 2n172, n179 Art and Manic Depressive religious vision, 35, 47 Illness, 75, Ch. 3n9, n30 role in conclusion of One of Carrington, Ildik6, 157, Ch. 5n4, n34, n44 Ours, 72 Controlling the Uncontrollable: "Paul's Case," echo of, 69 The Fiction ofAlice Munro, use of Arthurian legend in, 43, 54 Ch. 5n44 war propaganda in, 47, 54 Caruth, Cathy, 19, Prologue n106, n109 Wheeler, Claude, 36-72, 73, 126, Unclaimed Experience: Trauma, 163, 200, Ch. 2n22, n54, Narrative, and History, 19 n87, n98, n172 Index • 253

attraction to martyr figures, Colonialism, 198, 200-01, 47-49 Ch. 6n59, n81 double life, 41, 54, 58, 60, see also Emecheta, Buchi 66-67, 72, 73 Conrad, Joseph, 70, 133, Ch. 4n141 Enid and, 40, 42-46, 48, 55, Heart ofDarkness, 70 62-63, Ch. 1n29, Ch. 2n21, Crosby, Alfred W., 3, 5, 12, 17, 128, n22,n36,n94 Prologue n14, n15, n25, n46, experience during influenza n64,n80,n81,n82,n85, pandemic, 54-60 n86, n94, nlOO, Ch. 3n56, feminine identifications, 46 Ch. 4nll2 identification with Joan of Arc, America's Forgotten Pandemic: 47-53 The Influenza of1918, 3, interpretations of name, 42 Prologue n85 mother and, 40, 66-72 public recognition of pandemic, 5 Wheeler, Enid, 43-48, 54 systematic study of pandemic, 5 as protomodernist, 46, 71 Cuddy-Keane, Ch. 3n133 recasting popular enthusiasm for Cunningham, Michael, 198-99, Joan of Arc, 52 Epilogue n6 representation of influenza pandemic The Hours, 198-99 progression, 55, 57 research on 1918 influenza Dalgarno, Emily, 98, Ch. 3nll5, pandemic, 55 n156, n168 "the thing not named," 32-33, 36, DeMeester, Karen, 70, Ch. 2n190, 40-41,46,52-53,62 Ch. 3nll3, n153 World War I memorial offering, 71-72 discussion of modernism, 70 Cavell, Edith, 47, 48, 49, Ch. 2n59 Diamond, Jared, 7, Prologue n35 comparisons to Joan of Arc, 47, 49 Guns, Germs, and Steel, 7 execution of, 48 Doctors' struggles with 1918 influenza Cenotaph, 83-85, 93, Ch. 3n74 pandemic, 15 Censorship, 8, 13, 35, 62, 64, 114 lack of success in treating the in American media, 13 pandemic, 9, 14-15 of influenza death rate, 13-14 Welch, Vaughn and Lewis, 15 Center for Disease Control and Dos Passos, John, 4, 62 Prevention, 23 U.S.A.: The 42nd Parallel/19191 Ciuba, Gary M., 107, 126, Ch. 4n8, The Big Money trilogy, n15, n29, n55, n101 Prologue n19 Desire, Violence, and Divinity in Modern Duncan, Kirsty, 5 Southern Fiction, Ch. 4n15 Duplessis, Rachel, 145 Coates, Kimberly Engdahl, 78, Ch. Writing Beyond the Ending: Narrative 3n2, nll, n37 Strategies for Twentieth• Cohen, Debra Rae, 62, Ch. 2n83, n143 Century Women Writers, 145 Collier, Richard, Prologue n24, n50, Durer, Albrecht, 140-42, 146, n65,n71,n79 Ch. 4n180 The Plague ofthe Spanish Lady, The Four Horsemen ofthe Apocalypse Prologue n24 engraving, 140-42, 146 254 • Index

Eksteins, Modris, 99, Prologue n45 Falcetta, Jennie-Rebecca, 83 Rites ofSpring: The Great War and Farrell, Kirby, 147 the Birth ofthe Modern Age, "FIGHT or Buy Bonds" poster, see 81, Prologue n45 World War I Posters Eliot, T.S., 69, 109, Ch. 4n141 Flanders, Jacob, 7 depictions of Saint Sebastian, fldneur, 27, 32, 36, 100, 197, Ch. 1n3, 133-34 Ch. 3n70, n187 "The Love Song of]. Alfred see also fldneuse Prufrock," 144 jldneuse, 27, 28, 37, 97, 103, 105, "The Love Song to St. Sebastian," 146, 160, 197, 199, Ch. 1n3, 133, Ch. 4n126 Ch. 3n51, n70, n138, n187 "The Wasteland," 36 Folk magic, 35, 38, 177, 186 Emecheta, Buchi, 28, 38, 149, 177, 187, see also Emecheta, Buchi, The Slave 191, Ch. 6n7, n8, n32, n50, Girl and Amadi, Elechi, The n54,n81,n90,n93 Great Ponds autobiography Head Above Foucault, Michel, 77 Water,178, Ch. 6n32, n93 Frank, Katherine, 182 authorial vision, 177, 192-93 Fredette, Raymond H., Prologue n109, criticisms of feminine roles, 178, nll8, Ch. 3n123, Ch. 4n9 181-82, 188-90, 194 Freud, Sigmund, 19 The joys ofMotherhood, 188 daughter Sophie and, 2 The Slave Girl, 35, 38, 177, 178, 181, mourning, 108-09 182-88, 191-92 return of the repressed, 19 as a bildungsroman, 187-88, 190 Froula, Christina, 82, 85, 88, 90, 93, colonialism, 178, 181-83, 188-89, Ch. 3n30, nll3 191, 192, 194, Ch. 6n81 Virginia Woolf and the Bloomsbury depiction of gender Avant-Garde, 82 differences, 181 Fussell, Paul, 1, 2, 6, 9, 26, 71 influenza pandemic as a "curious literariness," 26 catalyst, 181 homoeroticism in warpoetry, 71 narrative of "unbecoming" The Great War in Modern Memory, (Kennedy), 188-89, Ch. 4n18 190-91 ogbaange, 177, 184, 187, 192, Gallagher, Jean, ll7 Ch. 6n50, n77 Gay, Miranda, see Porter, Katherine Ojebeta, 38, 181, 183-84, Anne 185-93, Ch. 6n77 Gay, Peter, Prologue n109 slavery, views of, 178, 186, 188-89, gaze,32 191-92 Sartre and Lacan, Ch. 1n15 Ender, Evelyne, Ch. 3n24 gender roles, 2, 25, 106-07, 150, Eng, David L. and David Kazanjian, 178-79,194-95,198,201, 200-01 Prologue n48, Ch. 1n3, Loss: The Politics ofMourning, Ch. 2n6, n138, n172, 200-01 Ch. 5n94, Ch. 6n59 Engel, Jonathan, Prologue n130 in "Carried Away," see Munro, Alice Index • 255

changing, 36-37, 39-40 Heaton, Matthew M. and Toyin Faiola, conventional gender roles during 178, 183, Ch. 6nl, n2, n34 WWI,28-29 Heffernan, Teresa, 140, 144, 146 creating imaginative space for definition of apocalypse, 140, 144, women, 25, 28, 118 146 gender fluidity, 25 Herman, Judith, 19-21, Prologue n118 in The Great Ponds, see Amadi, cultural amnesia, 21 Elechi Trauma and Recovery, 19 in Kyrie, see Voight, Ellen Bryant "traumatic contertransference," 20 Mrs. Dalloway, see Woolf, Virginia "vicarious traumatization," 20 in One ofOurs, 37, 40, 46-72, see "Highland Mary" Scottish song, 155- also Cather, Willa 56, Ch. 5n38 in "Pale Horse, Pale Rider," 117, 119, Hite, Molly, 74-75, 78-79, 80, 89, 102 124-26, 128, 135, see also "Virginia Woolf's Two Bodies," Porter, Katherine Anne 74-75 in The Slave Girl, see Emecheta, analysis of Clarissa Dalloway, 75, Buchi 78-79,80,89 in World War I, see World War I Holocaust, 7-8 Gilbert, Sandra, 124, Prologue n3, Ch. Huyssen's analysis of, 7-8 ln28,n29,Ch.2nl38 literary representations of, 7-8 Givner, Joan, 114, 146, Ch. 4n7 Homoerotism, 34, 71 Gold Star Mothers' Pilgrimages, 72 see also Cather, Willa; Woolf, Graves, Robert, 2, 8-9 Virginia Spanish influenza and, 2 Honigsbaum, Mark, 21, Prologue n24, Good-bye to All That, 8-9 Epilogue nl "The Greatest Mother of All" poster, analysis of avian components of 1918 see World War I posters influenza virus, Prologue Green, Barbara, Ch. In3 n62, n70 Griffiths, Frederick, 62 Living with Enza: The Forgotten Story Gubar, Susan, Prologue n3, ofBritain and the Great Flu Ch. 2nl38 Pandemic of1918, Prologue No Man's Land Volumes I-III, n24,n52,n62,n63,n70, Prologue n3 nl25, Epilogue nl Gurney, Ivor, 68 public health structures in Great Britain, Prologue n125 Hagen, Benjamin D., 94 use of antibiotics, 21 Hankins, Leslie, Ch. 3n32 Hoy, Helen, 150 Hardy, Harry A., Ch. InS Huyssen, Andreas, 19, 24, Prologue Hartley, Lodwick and George Core, nl12, nl31 Ch. 4n200 on Adorno's view, 7 Katherine Anne Porter: A Critical argumentation against silence as a Symposium, Ch. 4n200 tribute, 8, 24 Haskell County, Kansas, 12 Present Pasts: Urban Palimpsests and as possible influenza origin the Politics ofMemory, 7 location, 12 postmodern hunger for narratives, 24 256 • Index

Hynes, Samuel, Prologue n3 Johnson, Niall, Ch. 3n58, n60 A War Imagined: The First World Jordan, Dr. Edwin, 12 War and English Cultures, Frank McFarlane and, 12 Prologue n3 Joyce, James, 70

Iliad (Homer), Ch. 4n118 Kaye, Richard, 132, 133, Ch. 4n126 Influenza 1918 PBS Documentary, Kennedy, Rosanne, 188 Prologue n12, n67 Kermode, Frank, 140 America-centric focus of, Prologue n67 Kern, Stephen, 91, Ch. 3n123 Isichei, Elizabeth, 178, Ch. 6n4 The Culture of Time and Space: Ivker, Barry, 193 1880-1918, Ch. 3n123 Killingray, David, and Howard James, Pearl, Prologue n3, Ch. 1n29, Phillips, Prologue n9, n48, Ch. 4n64 Ch. 1n6, Ch. 6n1 analysis of Enid in One ofOurs, 42 Kingsbury, Celia M., Ch. 2n214 females' roles in World War I, 118-19 Klein, Martin A., 191, Ch. 6n49, n60, line between military and civilians n64, n81, n82 blurred by total warfare, 116 Slavery and Colonial Rule in Africa, 191 Picture This: World War I Posters and Kolata, Gina, 3, 5, 21, Prologue n85 Visual Culture, 116 depiction of influenza pandemic as a Jay, Martin, 90 mass murderer, 16 Jensen, Kimberly Flu: The Story ofthe Great Influenza cataloging forms of shell-shock, 68, Pandemic of1918 and the Ch. 1n26, n28, Ch. 2n81, Search for the Virus that n138 Caused It, Prologue n12 Mobilizing Minerva: American investigations of origin of influenza Women in the First World virus, 11, 15, 16, Prologue n67 War, Ch. 2n180 Joan of Arc, Ch. 2n54, n58, n59, n82, Lamos, Colleen, Ch. 3n101 n87, n167, Ch. 4n74 Lane, Christopher, 198 allied troops' propaganda symbol, Lee, Hermione, 62, 71, 83, Ch. 2n1, 51-52, 119 n4,n9,n20,n52,n98,n184, as archetypal liminal figure, 49, 52 Ch. 3n2, n8, n42 beatification and canonization of, illness in Mrs. Dalloway, 78 50-51 Virginia Woolf(biography), 75, Ch. 3n8 Claude Wheeler's identification Woolf's physical health, 7575, Ch. 3n8 with, 40, 47-49 Leeds, Eric]., Prologue n3 as foundational symbol in One of Levene, Mark, 150,159,163, Ours, 47-54 Ch. 5n7, n73 surge of interest in during WWI, 51 symbol of suffrage movements, martyr figures, 47-48 50-51 Maxwell, William, 169 "Joan of Arc Saved France" poster, see mother's death from influenza, 4, World War I posters Ch. 2n111 "Joan ofArc They Are Calling You," 51, 66 They Came Like Swallows, 28 Index • 257

Mayberry, Katherine, 160-61 in The Slave Girl, 184, 186 McFarlane, Frank, 12 women in, 27 Dr. Edwin Jordan and, 12 Munro, Alice, 28, 26, 149, 150, 151, McNaron, Toni A. H., Ch. 3n15 157, 161, 162, 163, 164, Ch. McNeill, William H., 12 5n3, nll, n38, n85 Plagues and Peoples, 12 "Carried Away," 35, 38, 149-64, McCarthy, Mary, 4 192, 198 Memories ofa Catholic Girlhood, 4 Agnew, Jack, 150-62 McComas, Dix, Ch. 2n 12, n42 ghost of, 160-62 Meltzer, Francoise, 49-50, Ch. 2n92 allusions to Thomas Hardy's For Fear of the Fire: joan of works in, 163, Ch. 5n72, Arc and the Limits of n79,n85 Subjectivity, Ch. 2n67 art prints in, 155-59 A Midsummer Night's Dream Arthur's marriage proposal to (Shakespeare), 158-59 Louisa, 160 Miers, Suzanne, (and Klein), 191, Ch. class differences separating 6n49, n64, n81 characters after war, 153-54, Slavery and Colonial Rule in Africa, 161 191, Ch. 6n81, n64, n49 Doud, Arthur, 150-52, 154, 156 Modernism, 36, 69, 70, 72, 133 echoing earlier women writers of Mohanty, Chandra Talpade, 181-82, the 1918 influenza pandemic, Ch. 6n25, n59 163-64, 165 "Under Western Eyes: Feminist Jim Frarey, 150-51, 152, 154-55, Scholarship and Colonial 156, 158, 159 Discourses," 181-82 letters, 150, 151, 153-56 Moran,Maureen,4~ 132 Library, 151, 152, 153, 154-55, the reader's double gaze, 47, 132 156-57, 158, 159-61, 163 Morris, David B., 10 Louisa, 150-64 Illness and Culture in the Postmodern constructing her own narrative, Age, 10 155-56 Morris, Leon, Ch. 4n187 erotic response to Jack Agnew's Morris, Linda A., 49 ghost, 162 Gender Play in Mark Twain: Cross- as a failed fldneuse, 160-61 Dressing and Transgression, 49 fears of madness, 152-53, 161 Morens, DM, Prologue n75 public versus private identities, motor cars, 89-90, 92-94 159 mourning, 3-4, 28, 34, 36, 82, 84-85, romances involving literacy, 151 93, 197, 200, Ch. 4n9, nll, visual images, 155-56 n30 visual perception in, 150-51, 160 figurative depictions of, 27 expanding conventions of fictional in RJrie, 170 reality, 162 in Mrs. Dalloway, 88-89, 93-94 gender, views of, 150, 153, in One ofOurs, 71-72, 158 156, 164 in "Pale Horse, Pale Rider," 37, Open Secrets, 150-63 107-8, 109, 111, 139 space in narratives, 159-60 258 • Index

National Institutes of Health, 22 Nurses, 34, 48, 122-25, Ch. 4n87 Nigeria, 15, 25, 28, 38, 149, 177, female in World War I, 48, 55, 122-25 178, 181, 183, 184, 186, male characters as, 36, 48, 55, 56, 189, 192, 193, 194, 198, 61, 77, 126, 135, Ch. 4n97 Ch. 6n8, n50 1918 influenza pandemic, 1, see also O'Brien, Sharon, Ch. ln29, Ch. 2n4, Porter, Katherine Anne n9,n150,n172 American contexts surrounding, 3 Ogden, Daryl, Ch. 3n51, n109, n154 children's rhyme about, 10 Owen, Wilfred, 1, 29, 46, 168, compassion fatigue, 6 Prologue n45, Ch. ln5 contemporary interest in, 24 "The Show," 29 contemporary recreation of virus, 5 Oxford, ].S., Prologue n63, n70 cultural silence surrounding, argument for influenza origin, Battle 4, 8, 14 ofEtaples, Prologue n70 death of young and fit, 9 Oxford, John, 4, 17 demoralizing effect upon Western beliefs, 18 "Pale Horse, Pale Rider," see Porter, in first world countries, 23 Katherine Anne generative impact of, 28-29, 36 Pandemic, see 1918 influenza pandemic hypotheses surrounding origin and Pankhurst, Christabel, 51 transmission of, 3-5, 9-13, Parsons, Deborah, 32, Ch. ln3 15,17-18,28,29-30 Phillips, Howard, Prologue n9, n48, interdependency of combat and, 6 Ch. ln6, Ch. 6nl lack of visible damage of, 7 The Spanish Influenza Pandemic of mortality rate of, 10 1918-19, Prologue n9, Ch. in Nigeria, 15, 177-78 6nl oral tradition of, 4, 18, 177-78, Pope, Deborah, 173 192-93 Porter, Katherine Anne, 33-34, 36, political consequences of, 16-17 37, 39, 76, 105-47, 150, pregnant women's deaths from, 169 194-95, 201, Ch. ln21, psychological scars of, 7, 16, 17 Ch. 2n185, Ch. 4n7, n29, religion and, 9 n141, n180, n181, n195, reports of, 3, 6, 8, 14, 197 n218, Ch. 5nl, nll resistance to treatments, 9, 14-15, as Catholic, 134 17, 21 domestic power relations and gender respiratory symptoms of, 11, 23 roles, 33 sequence of genome, 22 gender and vision, 117 trenches, ideal spawning ground for, Old Mortality, 105-7, 139 6,12,29 "The Old Order," 105-6 waves of, 15, 28, 40, 65, 170, 173 "Pale Horse, Pale Rider," North, Michael, 71, Ch. 2nl, n36 allusions to late medieval and discussion of critical opposition to Renaissance images of plague Cather's One ofOurs, Ch. 2nl and apocalypse, 105, 127-32, Reading 1922: A Return to the Scene 134, 135, 140-45, Ch. 4n111, ofthe Modern, Ch. 2nl, n185 n117, n118, n128 Index • 259

Barclay, Adam, 36, 105, 107-15, return to job at Rocky Mountain 117, 122, 126-27, 131, News, Ch. 4n7, 145-46 134-36,141-44,198,200, Propaganda, see Wartime Propaganda Ch.4n15,n30,n44,n4~n97 and World War I death of, 135-37, 139, 144, 146 Prostitution in World War I, 62 interpretations of name, 108-9 Public health initiatives, 15, 22 as nurse to Miranda, 134-35 globalization of, 22 personification of St. Sebastian, 134 Raitt, Suzanne, Prologue n3 Biblical figures, 129, 139-43 Womens Fiction and The Great War, colors, meanings of, Ch. 4n195, Prologue n3 n142, n143 Reid, Ann, 4 and T.S. Eliot's work, 109, 133- cultural silence surrounding flu 34, 144, Ch. 4n126, n141, pandemic, 4-5 n145 seeking samples of 1918 influenza Gay, Miranda, 35 virus, 5, Prologue n56 as female Saint Sebastian, Remarque, Erich, 6, 8 133-34 Ails Quiet on the Western Front, 6, 8 as fldneuse figure, 105-46 Rosenberg, Charles, 6 illness of, 106, 116, 127, 128, Explaining Epidemics, 6 136, 140, 142, 143 transmission of flu virus, 6 and liberty bonds, 117, 119-21 Rosowski, Susan, 71 loss of social freedom, 112 argument for Claude's desire to be a mystical vision of afterlife, 35, woman, 47 105, 111 Claude Wheeler's sense of reaction to Adam's death, 108, empowerment, 54 135 discussion of female nurses in and wartime censorship, 114 WWI, 55 and Greek myth, 129, 135, One ofOurs and Tennyson's Idols of 140, 144 the King, Ch. 2n21 homoeroticism in, 131-33, Ryder, MaryS., Ch. 2n117 135, 145 nurses, 124-25, Ch. 4n87 Sacks, Peter M., 108, 109, 111, 112, reversing traditional dynamic of 145, 146, Ch. 4n10, nll, n18 elegy, 107-9, 111-12, 134, The English Elegy: Studies in the 135, 145, Ch. 4n9, n10, Genre from Spenser to Keats, n11, n18 108, Ch. 4n10 Rouncivale, Chuck, 125 Saint-Amour, Paul gender trauma, 125 World War I as optical war, 3 Saint Sebastian, 131-33 Saint Sebastian, 131-33 as turning point in career, 145 Eliot's depictions of, 133-34 and wartime propaganda posters, Miranda's dream about, 134 105, 116-21, 123-24, 127, SARS, 23-24, 201 Ch. 4n64, n79, see also World Sassoon, Siegfried, 1, 46, Prologue n45 War I posters Schwind, Jean, 42, 61, Ch. 2n54 260 • Index

Semele, 60-61, 66 Strachan, Hew, Prologue n9, Ch. 2n91, shell shock, 35, 68-69, 73, 98, Ch. 6n99 Ch. ln26, Ch. 2nl80 Stratton, Florence, 187, Ch. 6n54 Sherry, Vincent, 92 Suf&age,28,50-51, 106,194-95, Showalter, Elaine, 125, Ch. ln26, Ch. 2n59 Ch. 2nl80 Sullivan, Joanna, 187, Ch. 6n55 The Female Malady, Ch. ln26 Singer Sergeant, John, 30-32, 126, Tate, Trudi, Prologue n3 Ch. lnl4, figure 1.1 Women's Fiction and The Great War, drawing of influenza hospital Prologue n3 (image), 31, figure 1.1 Taubenberger, Jeffery, Prologue n56 Skehel, Sir John, Prologue n56 agnosticism regarding influenza's The Slave Girl, see Emecheta, Buchi origin, 11 Slavery, 177-79, 185-86, 188-89, recovery of original 1918 flu 190, 191-92, 194, Ch. 6n49, virus, 5 n50,n81 Thacker, Robert, 164, Ch. Sn38, n85 colonial contributions to, 185-91 Tickner, Lisa, 51, Ch. 2n77 female, 38, 178, 188, Ch. 6n60, n64 Titus, Mary,114, 126, 130, 144, Smith, Charlotte, 165, Ch. Sn99 Ch. 4n47, nl23, nl24 Smith, Septimus, see Woolf, Virginia Trauma, 1, 6, 19-21, 35, 37, 70, 78, 84, Social constructions of disease, 200-01 85, 90, 94, 97, 101, 104, 125, Sontag, Susan, 3, 7, 12-13 132, 147, 171-72, Prologue AIDS and Its Metaphors, 7 n118, Ch. 3nl5, n67, n74, Illness as Metaphor, 3 nl13, Ch. 4n87 influenza pandemic, 12-13 Herman and, 19-21, Prologue n118 martial metaphor for illness, 13 repression of memories, 19 Spencer-Walters, Tom, 192 temporal distance, 35 Spiegelman, Art, 8 wa~ 1, 19,21,35,84,90,94,97-98, Maus, 8 101, 132 Sproles, Karyn, SO Trout, Steven, 67, 70, Ch. InS, nl2, ambiguity of Joan of Arc's gender, SO Ch. 2nl, n4, n6, n82, nl72, Stallworthy, Jon, Prologue n45, Ch. InS n179,n184 Wilfred Owen: Complete Poems and Memorial Fictions: Willa Cather and Fragments, Ch. InS, Prologue the First World War, Ch. n45 2nl,n4 Stich, Klaus P., Ch. 2n20, n21 On the Battlefield ofMemory: Stout, Janice P., 41, 67, 146, Ch. 2n5, The First World War and n20, nl31, nl85, Ch. 4n5, n44 American Remembrance, on character Miranda, 106, 113 1919-1941, Ch.lnS Coming Out of War, Prologue n3, Tseung, Ching-fang, Ch. 2nl Ch. 3n70, n138 importance of songs in WWI, Twain, Mark, 49, Ch. 2n65 Ch. 2n81 on Porter's relationship with Cather, Unrue, Daphne, 106-7, 111, 146, Ch. Ch. ln21 4n5,n195 Index • 261

Vaughn, Victor, 15, 18 Woolf, Virginia Vickery, John B., 111-12, Ch. 4n10, n30 aging, 33, 77 The Modern Elegiac Temper, Ill bi-polar manic depression, 75 Virgil (Aeneid), Ch. 2n 127, n129 heart problems of, 75, 81 Virilio, Paul, 90 "Illness: An Unexploited Mine," see Voight, Ellen Bryant, 28, 38, 167 "On Being Ill" challenges in composing Kyrie, influenza as parallel to the war, 76 Ch. 5n107, n121, n123 jacob's Room, 7, 8, 70, Kyrie, 3, 35, 38, 164-76, 177, Ch. Ch. 2n186, n189 5n89,nlO~n12l,n13~n138 "Mr. Bennett and Mrs. Brown," innovative form, 165-66 33,37 interpretation of title, 172 Mrs. Dalloway, 8, 28, 33, 35, 46, 68, parallels with "Carried Away," 168 69, 70, 73-104, 105, 145, Romantic sublime, 164-65, 174, 149, 192, 197, 198, 199, Ch. Ch. 5n97, n136, n147 3n30, n51, n55, n60, n67, solar eclipses depicted in, 170-71 n70,n7l,n74,n103,nll3, visuality, 167 n134 airplanes in, 90-92 Wald, Pricilla, 197 Dalloway, Clarissa, 35-37, 73, Warner, Marina, Ch. 2n58, n87, n92 77-78,80 Wartime propaganda, 2, 35, 47, 51, gender non-conformity, 86, 88, 54, 57, 95, 105, 108, 112, 90, 102 113, 114-15, 116, 117, 118, illness, 80-81, 86 119, 121, 122, 124, 127, 138, and Miss Kilman, 86-89, 100, Ch. 2n59, n117, Ch. 4n60, 103 n64, see also World War I mourning, 28, 37, 40, 80, 82, Propaganda Posters 84-85,88-89,93-94,100 in One ofOurs, 47, 54, 57 urban fldneuse, 97 in "Pale Horse, Pale Rider," 35, 116-28 visionary body, 75, 77, 78-79, religious connotations, 124 80,85-86,88,100,102 Welch, William, 15, 17, 18 visual fields, 90, 199 Wilson, Woodrow, 6, 113 windowsand,83,96,98,200 possible suffering from influenza, Dalloway, Elizabeth, 37, 73, 87, 16-17 104, 199, Ch. 3n187 Winter, Jay, 84 "Chinese eyes," 37, 73, 102, 104 Sites ofMemory, Sites ofMourning, homoeroticism in, 88, 89, Ch. 3n67 84 illness and disempowerment, Wolfe, Thomas, 4, 28, Prologue nl7, 73-74, 75-77, 86 Ch. 2n111 mourning in, 84-85 brother's death from pneumonia in Smith, Septimus, 35, 36, 73, 85, Look Homeward, Angel, 4, 89-91,93,97-99,101-2, 28, Ch. 2n111 198-99, Ch. 3n67, n115 Women in military, 28 suicide of in Mrs. Dalloway, Woolf, Janet, Ch. ln3 68,82 Woolf, Leonard, 75 Walsh, Peter, 84, 86, 87, Ch. 3n55 262 • Index

Woolf, Virginia-Continued impact of upon literature, 1, 3-4, Whitehall Cenotaph in, 83 28, 128, 198, Prologue n3, windowsin,83,88,94-96 n45n Ch. 5n2 Mrs. Dalloway's Party: A Short late twentieth-century Story Sequence, representations of, 9 Ch. 3n55, n134 memorials for, 29-32, 72, 82-84, "On Being Ill," 33, 37, 73, Ch. ln5,n8,nl2,Ch.5n38 75-76, 78, 80, 85, 89, 97, World War I Propaganda Posters, 99, Ch. ln27, Ch. 3n2, 122, 124 n13, American Red Cross ("You Can n24,n42 Help"), 121-22, figure 4.2 physical health problems, 74 "FIGHT or Buy Bonds," 119-21, poetry for patients, 78-79 figure 4.1 sympathy, 76 "The Greatest Mother in the World," A Room ofOne's Own, 102 123-24, figure 4.3 Stephen, Julia, 76, Ch. 3n27 Joan of Arc, 51-52, 119, figure 2.1 strength through illness, 78-79 "On Which Side of the Window Are To the Lighthouse, 75 You?" 95, figure 3.1 vision, 36, 37, 79-80 "Women of Britain Say-GO!" 96, World Health Organization, 22 figure 3.2 World War I Wuthering Heights, 161-62 airplanes, use of, 89, 93-94, 109, Ch. 3nll5, n131 Yeats, W.B., 40