UNIVERSITY OF MALTA

The Evolution of Clothing in Malta

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The Evolution of Clothing in Malta after World War II till the 1980s

By

Lara Farrugia

May 2013

A Dissertation presented to the Facility of Arts of the University of Malta in part fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of Bachelor of Arts (Honours) in History.

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UNIVERSITY OF MALTA FACULTY/INSTITUTE/CENTRE: ______

DECLARATION

Student’s I.D. /Code ______

Student’s Name & Surname ______

Course ______

Title of Long Essay/Dissertation/Thesis ______

______

______

I hereby declare that I am the legitimate author of this Long Essay/Dissertation/Thesis and that it is my original work.

No portion of this work has been submitted in support of an application for another degree or qualification of this or any other university or institution of learning.

______Signature of Student Name of Student (in Caps)

______Date

4.05.2011

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To Daniel & my family

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Acknowledgements

Before initiating with this study, I would like to thank all those persons whose aid, assistance and moral support were indispensable for this achievement. Starting with my tutor and lecturer, Professor Dominic Fenech as without his guidance, patience and teaching I would have not gotten so far. I would like to thank the rest of the lecturing staff of the Department of History for making these past three years sufficiently rewarding. The Militensia staff at the University of Malta, for their patience and assistance throughout my research in finding the base of this dissertation. To all those individuals who donated photographs which were taken throughout this period. Special thanks goes to my family, close friends and Daniel for their close companionship, support and encouragement in pursuing my studies.

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Table of Contents

Acknowledgements ...... V

Chapter 1 ...... 1

1. Introduction ...... 1

Chapter 2 ...... 9

2. Literature Review ...... 9

2.1 Introduction ...... 9

2.2 Mass Production ...... 10

2.3 Clothing Styles ...... 12

2.4 Conclusion ...... 20

Chapter 3 ...... 24

3. Women’s Clothing ...... 24

3.1 Introduction ...... 24

3.2 Women’s Fashion in the 1950s...... 29

3.3 Women’s Fashion in the 1960s...... 37

3.4 Women’s Fashion in the 1970s...... 44

3.5 Women’s Fashion in the 1980s...... 53

VI

Chapter 4 ...... 62

4. Men’s Clothing ...... 62

4.1 Introduction ...... 62

4.2 Men’s Fashion in the 1950s ...... 66

4.3 Men’s Fashion in the 1960s ...... 72

4.4 Men’s Fashion in the 1970s ...... 79

4.5 Men’s Fashion in the 1980s ...... 85

Chapter 5 ...... 91

5. Conclusion ...... 91

Bibliography ...... 97

Primary Sources ...... 97

Printed Sources ...... 97

Oral Testimonies- Public Memory Archive, UOM...... 97

Newspapers ...... 98

Secondary Sources ...... 99

Books ...... 99

Articles ...... 107

Dissertations ...... 109

Dictionaries ...... 109

Websites ...... 109

VII

List of Illustrations Page

Figure 1 – Clothing coupons used in Malta during World War II...... 2

Figure 2 – Fashion magazines that influenced clothing in Malta...... 3

Figure 3 – A Clothing shop ( R.Zampa) in Valletta during sales...... 5

Figure 4 – An advert of the Wrangler’s jeans...... 6

Figure 5 – Maria Fleri Soler...... 8

Figure 6 – Two women wearing the ghonella ...... 28

Figure 7 – Maltese women showing off their dresses...... 31

Figure 8 – Red and gold brocade evening dress...... 33

Figure 9 – Marilyn Monroe and Doris Day ...... 36

Figure 10 – Marylike fashion...... 39

Figure 11 – Twiggy ...... 42

Figure 12 – Dresses in the 1970s...... 46

Figure 13 – ‘The Best Girl in Hot Pants’ competition...... 48

Figure 14 – Women wearing trousers...... 49

Figure 15 – Bathing costumes before and after World War II...... 52

Figure 16 – ‘Power dressing’ inspired by Margaret Thatcher...... 56

Figure 17 – Madonna...... 59

Figure 18 – Skin-tight leotards worn by women in Malta...... 60

Figure 19 – A group of Maltese men in suits...... 64

Figure 20 – The traditional Maltese costume...... 65

Figure 21 – Men in double breasted and single breasted suits...... 68

Figure 22 – Three friends, all 'Teddy boys', Birkirkara, Malta...... 70

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Figure 23 – A popular Maltese Elvis Presley impersonator...... 71

Figure 24 – Men in suits by the 1960s...... 74

Figure 25 – The Beatles clothing style...... 76

Figure 26 – Marc Storace with his rock music band Krokus...... 77

Figure 27 – Charles Arrigo and Victor Galdes in suits...... 80

Figure 28 – Man with bell bottom trousers...... 82

Figure 29 – Men in bellbottoms at the Savoy Cinema in Valletta ...... 83

Figure 30 – John Travolta ...... 84

Figure 31 – Michael Jackson and a Michael Jackson impersonator...... 90

List of Tables

Table 1- Imported clothing from 1957-1959 ...... 91

Table 2 - Imported clothing from 1960s ...... 91

Table 3 - Imported clothing from 1970s ...... 91

Table 4 - Imported clothing from 1980s ...... 91

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Chapter 1

1. Introduction

In a letter to the editor of the Times of Malta in 1965, a woman asked why Maltese traditional attire was being constantly excluded from fashion shows held in Malta.1 Foreign influence in fashion was relentlessly penetrating, relegating Maltese traditional dress to the status of folk costume. After World War II, both Maltese men and women eagerly started to adapt to modern ideas, not least in the manner in which they dressed.2

Advances in technology, science, industry and economy set the scene for several changes.3 Most significant was the development in communication, which brought countries and individuals closer together than ever before so that after World War II one is able to identify the connection between Malta and other countries among other things through the manner in which Maltese men and women dressed. As war rationing for clothing in Malta ended, interest in fashion augmented.4 Chiefly, Malta became greatly influenced by British, Italian, French and also German and American clothes wear.5 Undoubtedly, the presence of the British colony in Malta played some part in inspiring the inhabitants to adopt looks similar to those of the British who were staying among them.6

1 Adrienne Schembri , ‘Letters to the editor: Why no Maltese fashions?’, Times of Malta, (Malta, Allied Newspaper Ltd, 1965), 11 2 Zammit Vincent, Il-Kostum Malti u d-Drapp fl-istorja ta’ Malta,(Malta, Pubblikazzjonijiet Indipendenza, 2005), 173 3 Ibid. 173 4 Times of Malta, 3 August 1941 5 Stephania Camilleri, Influences on Maltese Fashion during the last 40years, B.ED. honours dissertation, Department of Education, University of Malta, 1989, 33-35 6 Zammit, 173

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Figure 17 – Clothing coupons used in Malta during war (World War II) rationing.

Another crucial factor which impacted Maltese attire was fashion magazines. Already by 1914, Miller Distributers Limited had initiated the distribution of English magazines in Malta. By 1965 Italian and French magazines were being imported and then by the 1980s they introduced German ones.8 One in particular, the German magazine Burda, had started to be imported by another company as early as the 40s and 50s. It was greatly popular with Maltese tailors and those who knew how to sew, as it was one of the first magazines here that contained pattern charts.9 Although few Maltese were familiar with the language used in Burda, many followed its clothing patterns as it was easy to use and was good value for money.10 Later on, by the 70s

7 Times of Malta, 3 August 1941 8 Camilleri, 74 9 Camilleri, 75 10 Ibid. 77

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Maltese clothing magazines also emerged for the local market.11 Amongst these were Il- Mara ta’ Llum (1970s), Fashion, Femme (1970s), Elegance (1983) and Images (1988), all edited by Maltese individuals.12

Figure 213 - Fashion magazines that influenced clothing in Malta.

Television also played a vital role in influencing fashion for both men and women. As from the 1950s, when television sets started to infiltrate the homes of Maltese families, Italian influence in clothing was further enhanced.14 Due to geographical proximity, Italian television stations were at first the only foreign channels Malta had access to. Italian programmes which transfused knowledge about the current fashions were predominantly Donna Sotto Le Stelle and Non Sa La Moda.15 In this way, while Italian fashion reached our shores, the Maltese became more familiar with the language

11 Ibid. 82 12 Ibid. 82-84 13 Camilleri, 74 14Zammit, 173 15 Camilleri, 34

3 of the Italian fashion magazines imported to Malta.16 Movies shown in cinemas in Malta similarly influenced fashion, in Malta as elsewhere. Anne Rooney argues that there was an ‘intoxicating influence of music and movie stars’, mainly from America, which stimulated many European teenagers.17

All these factors combined to awaken a newfound interest in the world of fashion in Malta. Vincent Zammit wrote that ‘as from then [after World War II], the most important word became fashion’.18 Probably, rather than fashion itself what the Maltese were really enthusiastic about was the idea of modernity. However, being fashionable was without doubt catching on. Malta could no longer remain isolated as it became exposed to worldwide changes, mostly European, in the way clothing was manufactured, produced and worn.19

16 Ibid. 173 17 Anne Rooney, Costume and Fashion, Source Book; The 1950s and 1960s, (England, Chelsea House, 2009), 23 18 Zammit, 173 19 Guido Lanfranco, Drawwiet u Tradizzjonijiet Maltin, (Malta, Pubblikazzjonijiet Indipendenza, 2001), 11

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Figure 320 – A Clothing shop ( R.Zampa) in Valletta during sales.

Meanwhile, when manufacturing industry began to take root in Malta in the 1960s, it did so first in the textile sector. This increase in clothing and textile manufacture occurred as foreign investment in the 1960s moved further to the south and east of Europe in search of cheaper manufacturing cost.21 As early as the 1950s, Malta Associated Textiles Limited in Floriana imported material from the UK to manufacture clothing locally. Once manufactured, it was then available in local shops in Malta under the Hersco label.22 The Wrangler’s jeans started to be manufactured in Malta in 1964 by the American company called Blue Bell.23 Melita Knitwear Limited, a prominent British textile company, was established in Malta by 1969 and exported its articles to Britain,

20 Photograph by courtesy of Raymond Zampa 21 John Sibley Butler, David V. Gibson, Global Perspectives on Technology Transfer and Commercialization; Building Innovative Ecosystems, (UK, Edward Elgar Publishing Limited, 2011), 201 22 Ibid. 23 Daniel Vaughan-Whitehead, Working and Employment Conditions in New EU Member States: Convergence or Diversity?, (Switzerland, International Labour Office, 2005), 237

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France, Poland and Germany.24 Calypso Clothing Company manufactured swimwear in a factory in Marsa and also exported them to Western Europe and the United States.25

Figure 426 – An advert of the Wrangler’s jeans published in a Maltese magazine.

Ready-made franchised apparel that was not found in Malta was brought from abroad by holidaying shoppers. Italy (especially Catania in Sicily and England were the main destinations for many Maltese shoppers, especially women. In contrast to previous decades, progress in mass production, transport and communication had clearly opened up Malta to a wider spectrum of international clothing styles and vogues mainly through ready-made apparel.

For this reason, the popularity of tailors in Malta declined steadily. Although some Maltese still bought locally tailored outfits, it became much easier and inexpensive to buy ready-made clothing.27 In fact, a former tailor in Malta explained that it has now

24 Gerard Kester, Transition to workers’ self-management; its dynamics in the decolonizing economy of Malta, (Michigan, University of Michigan, 1980), 52 25 M.R, ‘Heard in the Hive’, Times of Malta, (Malta, Allied Publications, 1984), 26 26 Saghtar, March 1971 27 Camilleri, 35

6 become common for him to repair rather than produce clothing.28 On the other hand, by 1947 the government of Malta established a tailoring school in Valletta where classes were offered for both men and women.29 On completion of the four year course, those attending had to finally sit for the City Guilds of London examination. Later on however, the role of tailors started to be replaced by the local fashion designer. One in particular was Maria Fleri Soler, who eventually became one of the most successful dressmakers on the island.30 Like her, Georgina Principe was a renowned fashion designer from Victoria, Gozo.31 Interest in fashion designing grew further with the wider selection of sewing courses available.32

28 Cikku Gatt, Hal Qormi, 12th April, 2012 (Interview is deposited at the Public Memory archive) 29 A correspondent, ‘ They are being taught to make your clothes’, The Sunday Times of Malta, (Malta, Allied Newspaper Ltd, 1949), 5 30 Camilleri, 53 31 Ibid. 32 Ibid.

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Figure 533 - Maria Fleri Soler, one of the most successful dressmakers in Malta by the 1970s.

33 Camilleri, 53

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Chapter 2

2. Literature Review

2.1 Introduction

Clothing is clothes for the body.1

Defining the word clothing is rather straightforward, yet its connotations are far more complex. This is due to the fact that the clothes one wears bring forth various but distinct standpoints. For instance Honoré de Balzac, a French novelist and playwright, utilized clothing to display “a particular social, spatial, and temporal setting,” as well as to convey the “personality, character, ambitions, inner emotions, even destiny” of his playing characters.2 Similarly, Joshua I. Miller stands in agreement with novelists and journalists, claiming that the clothes one wears in real life deliver a message3, which helps identify a character or make a point.4 The popular style of clothing at a given time becomes what is known as ‘Fashion’.5 Clothing, as George B. Spores argues, can thus be seen as the ‘classic product of Fashion-oriented behaviour’.6 Indeed, the cultural, socioeconomic and political aspect in a society determines the introduction of a new clothing style – a new fashion. Therefore, this merge between clothing and fashion which is called ‘clothing fashions’,7 enables one to understand the setting of the evolution of clothing from 1945 until the 1980s.

1 Joyce M. Hawkins, The Oxford Mini-Dictionary,(Oxford , Clarendon Press, 1991), 90 2 Ruth P. Rubinstein, ‘ Paris: Fashion: A cultural History by Valerie Steele’, Woman’s Art Journal, XI, 1 (1990 ), 50 3 Joshua I. Miller,’ Fashion for Democracy; Fashion and democratic Relationships ‘, Polity, XXXVII, 1 (2005), 10 4 P. Rubinstein, 50 5 M. Hawkins, 182 6 George B. Sporles, ‘Analyzing Fashion Life Cycles; Principles and Perspectives’ , Journal of Marketing, XLV, 4, (1981), 116 7 Ibid.

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To begin with, the main function of clothes’ designs is to give a visual representation of oneself to others.8 It is however fashion which, as described in the book Adorned Dreams, gives one the true identity while portraying the media through which the phenomenon of attire fluctuates and progresses.9 Blumber in fact argues that fashion should not be bound to only costume and adornment, as this disregards the idea of the actual scope of its happening.10 In addition, Malcolm Barnard points out that fashion presents the class and gender of that particular individual.11 Hence, as I have already mentioned, fashion not only expresses self image but also reflects economic progress, technological advancement, social influences, ideological perspectives, social relations and creativity through the creation of new clothing styles.

2.2 Mass Production

Little changes in clothing styles were recorded before the phenomenon of mass production.12 Nevertheless, prior to the 1300s, a famous French architect and theorist called Viollet-le-Duc claimed that changes in style were already becoming vast.13 The 14th century chronicler Limburg had also argued that ‘the fashion in raiment [dress] was so changed, that he who last year was a master-tailor, became in a twelvemonth a labourer’.14 However, despite these references to changing styles in the 14th century, the true clothes fashion expansion actually began with the arrival of industrialization. Michael Zakin ascribes the development and diffusion of fashion to the re-opening of European trade in 1815 and the emergence of warehouses in America after the civil

8 I. Miller, 22 9 Kenneth J.Bindas, ‘Adorned in Dreams; Fashion and Modernity by Elizabeth Wilson’, The History Teacher, XXIV, 1 (1990), 127 10 Herbert Blumer, ‘ Fashion: From Class Differentiation to Collective Selection’, Journal of Marketing Research, Christopher M.Miller, Shelby H. Mclntyre and Murali K. Mantrala(eds.), American Marketing Association, 1993, 142 11 Malcolm Barnard, ‘Fashion as Communication’, Journal of design history, Caroline Evans(ed.)Oxford of University Press 1997, 231 12 J.Bindas, 127 13 Eugene Viollet, ‘ le – Duc: Dictionnaire du Mobilier Francais’, The Journal of the British Economic Association, F.Y Edgeworth, 1893, 464 14 Limburger Chronik, ‘Fashion’, The economic Journal; The Journal of the British Economic Association, F.Y Edgeworth(ed.), New York 1893, 465

10 war.15 Moreover, he says that productivity increased with the introduction of the much- anticipated sewing machine.16 Whether or not change in styling was frequent and extensive before is irrelevant as later changes were far broader by comparison.

Undoubtedly, the evolution in clothing was at its peak following World War II when technological advances had greatly progressed. For example, the increasing use of shuttleless looms which were first operated by Rudolf Rossmann facilitated the mass production of fashionable clothing, as it had a multi-filling insertion capability that could weave multicoloured and patterned fabric.17 In the aftermath of the Second World II, global competition grew and several industries in particular the textile industry increasingly rose.18 Valerie Steel asserts how technology promoted a sort of new artistic pursuit,19 which is also evident in clothing. The growing capitalism in the West, not only pushed mass-production through its markets but also, as Elizabeth Wilson states, made people want “to display their social station”.20 Fashion became “not just the necessity for market survival, but the cycle of desire itself, the endless process through which the body decoded and recoded, in order to define and inhabit the newest territorial spaces of the capital’s expansion” Faurschou writes.21

Consequently, there was a great demand for new clothes styles, which could now be more easily produced. Already by the early 1900s although there were high priced clothing lines, a vast amount of cheap ready-to-wear clothing was being produced.22 Hence, clothing fashion became accessible to a wider class of society and not restricted solely to wealthy individuals. As a matter of fact it has been noted that ‘by the 20th

15 Micheal Zakin, ‘A ready-Made Business ; The Birth of the Clothing Industry in America’, The Business History Review, LXIII,1, (1999), 68 16 Ibid. 64 17 B. Peter Pahigian, ‘ Demand Uncertainty and Sales; A study of fashion and Markdown pricing’, The American Economic Review, LXXVIII, 5, (1988), 944 18 Eric Abrahamson and Gregory Fairchild, ‘Lifecycles, Triggers, and Collective Learning processes Administrative Science Quarterly’, Management Fashion, XLIV, 4(1999), 714 19 Rubinstein, 49 20 J.Bindas, 127 21 Gail Faurschou, ‘Fashion and the Cultural Logic of Post modernity’, Journal of Consumer Research, Graig J. Thompson and Diana L.Haytko ( eds.), The university of Chigago Press, 1997, 3 22 Steven Fraser, ‘Combined and Uneven Development in the Men’s Clothing Industry‘, The Business History Review, LVII, 4(1983), 531

11 century, shopping, transformed by mass produced merchandise, had become a national activity’.23

2.3 Clothing Styles

New fashions of clothing evolve in a historical continuity of styling modifications from time to time.24 As it has been discussed, the manner in which one dressed and thus what became considered fashionable was determined by various factors. Foley writes that ‘human products’, which in this case refer to clothing, tend to be used to express particular aspects of one’s life according to one’s own individuality, circumstances and objectives in life.25 In addition to this, influences from different areas in the world tend to affect the manner of the development of new clothing styles. Newly introduced styles lead to a fashion trend, which as described both in Journal of Marketing Research and Journal of Marketing Theory and Practice can be considered a ‘fad’; meaning a short term change in a fashion trend. On the other hand, change in clothing styles can be long term, becoming diverse from the original due to persisting influences over time.26 27 For instance, a short term change in clothing styles occurs as a result of the changes happening in society, behaviour, unpredicted events, discoveries or other changing characteristics in the environment. Whereas long term changes in fashion happen as a result of permanent changes in the environment which include technological advancement, legal and regulatory reforms and also the behaviour of the consumers as they get older.28 As Jeff B .Murray concludes, clothing designs are contextualized within the social system, cultural discourses and institutional structures in order to continue

23 Sunshine Psota, ‘ Boss of the Road; Early-20th-Century Consumer Selections of Work clothing from Alabama Gates Camp’, Historical Archaeology, XXXVI, 4 (2002), 112 24 B. Sporles, 117 25 Caroline A. Foley, ‘Fashion; The Economic Journal’, The Journal of the British Economic Association, F.Y. Edgeworth ( ed.), New York 1893, 464 26 Christopher M.Miller, Shelby H.Melntyre and Murali K.Mantrala, ‘Toward Formalizing Fashion Theory’, Journal of Marketing Research, XXX, 2 (1993), 143 27 Ronald E. Goldsmith, ‘Characteristics of the heavy user of fashionable clothing’, Journal of Marketing Theory and Practice, VIII, 4(2000), 22 28 Ibid. 22

12 influencing the potential buyer. Then as one type of fashion subsides, it is afterwards followed by a newly improved one so that the clothing industry keeps active.29

This can be eventually observed in the West throughout the period between the Second World War and the late 20th century. In fact, Davis and McCraken argue that the development of Western fashion features swift changes, an explosion in styles and most of all the mass utilization of fashion goods.30 This occurred mainly after the introduction of the so called ‘New look’ in 1947 by Christian Dior which became the post-war fashion.31 Consequently, this led to the development of new clothing styles which will eventually continue in the following decades. According to Irene Taviss Thomson ‘the 1950s are remembered for conformity, the 1960s for rebellious individualism and the 1970s for narcissistic individualism, images of the 1980s contain an ambiguous mixture of individualism and conformity’.32 Notwithstanding the importance of each fashion style, writers emphasize other crucial features happening in society which were reflected in the clothing of each decade.

2.3.a Clothing Styles in the 1950s

The 1950’s clothing is said to be rather traditionalist,33 however to a certain extent as Elizabeth Wilson claimed, this decade ended the class and sex war which had been greatly present before World War II.34 A few decades earlier people were already rejecting the ‘restrictive society’ in which individuals were unable to express themselves35 and this was now developing further. In fact, it has been found in the Journal Marketing Research that in the 50s a white tee-shirt and Levis were worn to

29 Abrahamson and Fairchild, 713 30 Graig J. Thompson and Diana L.Haytko, ‘Speaking of Fashion; Consumers’ Uses of Fashion Discourses and the Appropriation of Countervailing Cultural meanings’, Journal of Consumer Research, XXIV, 1 (1997), 3 31 David Hayes, New Standard Encyclopaedia, II, (Chicago, Standard Educational Corporation , 1992), 285 32 Irene Taviss Thomson, ‘ Individualism and Conformity in the 1950s vs. the 1980s’, Sociological Forum, VII, 3 (1992), 497 33 Ibid. 498. 34Birmingham Feminist History Group, ‘ Reflections on 25years; Feminism as Femininity in the Nineteen-Fifties?’, Feminist review, LXXX (2005), 7 35 Taviss Thomson, 499

13 symbolize rebellion.36 Nevertheless, clothing styles in this period reflected mostly the initiation of a struggle amongst sexes and genders which had earlier been rather silent.

Women started to be considered by society as ‘equal but different’ to men, which meant that both men and women could have separate spheres in their own right.37 Not only did women start to find shorter skirts more comfortable [skirts had before been floor-length],38 but now also opted to wear trousers instead, which henceforth continued to dominate women’s fashion. It is worth noting, however, that the idea of women wearing shorter skirts and trousers was already present before the 20th century. Early in the 1850s, some American women used to shorten their dresses and wear loose, full trousers underneath39 but men weren’t yet fully convinced about this ‘masculinisation of women’ and many disputed “What’s next? Moustaches?” or “First the pants, then the shirts, now the hair...it is time for us men to step down and make our women look feminine.”40 Regardless of such opinions, by this time both single and married women had gradually started to allow themselves to spend money on the clothing they personally opted for.41

On the other hand, the transformation in gender roles started to be reflected in men’s clothing. Men started to embrace the notion of having a more relaxed carefree look, amongst both the young and the older age groups.42 Unlike before, men in the 1950s had a greater freedom to express themselves in clothing by wearing a variety of patterns and colours.43 This possibility in clothing might have encouraged gay men to come out of the ‘closet’; a term which was coined later in the 1960s. This signified the

36 M.Miller, H. Mclntyre and L.Mantrala, 147 37Birmingham Feminist History Group, 8 38 Linda Welters, Abby Lillethun, The Fashion Reader; Second Edition, (USA, Berg, 2011), 130 39 Patricia A. Cunningham, Reforming Women’s Fashion, 1850-1920; Politics, Health, and Art, (USA, Kent State University Press , 2003), 33 40 Ilaria Serra; ‘Italy; America’s War Bride. How Life magazine Feminized Italy in the 1950s’, Italica, LXXXVI, 3(2009), 458 41 Birmingham Feminist History Group, 21 42 Clare Lomas, ‘Men don’t wear Velvet you know! Fashionable Gay Masculinity and the shopping experience’ , Oral History, XXV, 1, (2007) , 87 43 Ibid. 83.

14 identification of homosexual men from the rest44 and was greatly apparent through their particular clothes wear. Hence, men’s clothing too mirrored the struggle amongst men themselves regarding their gender roles in society.

2.3.b Clothing Styles in the 1960s

By the 1960s, the generations of the baby boom led to a great increase of youth influences in fashion across all social classes.45 According to Irene Taviss Thomson, there still remained the objective for individual self which implied that clothing enabled one to present his/her personality.46 On the other hand, David Jenkins asserts that clothing revolved mostly around a particular group rather than portrayed the concept of individualism.47 To some extent, this explains how some social scientists at that time saw fashion – ‘analogous to the formation of mobs and riots and posited bandwagon effects’.48 On the other hand, particular styles in clothing most of the times were inspired by a particular group or a popular icon.49 As Anne Rooney argues, there was an ‘intoxicating influence of music and movie stars...’ which gave individuals an alternative style to copy.50

This could be observed through the mainstream influence of subcultures which was mostly coming from the United States. Music groups and street generated clothing styles were first apparent in the United States and then spread to other areas.51 Likewise, in the 1960s Britain experienced similar changes in women’s attire. The British actress and singer, Lesley Lawson nicknamed Twiggy, created a crucial manifestation of the idea of thinness. Being herself a thin person, she developed her own line of clothing, and thus started to promote the idea of a body shape which differed

44 Henry Urbach, ‘Closets, Clothes, Disclosure Assemblage’, Assemblage, 30 (1996), 68 45 Diana Crane, ‘ The Social Diffusion of Ideas and Things; Diffusion of Models and Fashion ; A Reassessment’, Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, DLXVI, (1999), 15 46 Taviss Thomson, 512 47David Jenkins, The Cambridge History of Western Textiles, II Volume Boxed Set , (UK, Cambridge University Press, 2003), 1068 48 Crane, 16 49 Jenkins, 1068 50 Rooney, 23 51 Crane, 19

15 from the traditional voluptuous female ideal.52 Such groups and individuals were of great influence on young adults, especially those who were fashion conscious. Indeed, this outcome proves an observation made by the Journal of Marketing Research which states that people tend to highly influence others but at the same time are also highly influenced by others.53

Meanwhile, from this period onwards there was a shift in former fashion capitals, which had been previously dominant for years. Paris, which was the centre for women’s fashion, and London, which was the hub for men’s fashion, was gradually being replaced by the increasing production of American manufactures since the 1940s.54 In the words of Horace H.F Jayne, the general public ‘could not repress a feeling of excitement that the responsibility of leadership in the field of fashion seemed now transferred to the side of the water’55 from Britain, France and Italy to America.

2.3.c Clothing Styles in the 1970s

Irene Taviss Thomson calls the 1970s the ‘me decade’56 or ‘do it yourself ethic’57. This meant that the idea of individualism continued to further strengthen and one became increasingly free from social conformity.58 In addition, Pamela Stecker argues that this decade continued to convey the refusal of the morals and values by the younger generations.59 Eventually, as already seen in the 1960s, the development of the so called ‘street fashion styles’ by young people became the epitome of fashion design.60

52 Graig J. Thompson and Diana L.Haytko, ‘ Consumers’ Uses of Fashion Discourses and the Appropriation of Countervailing Cultural meanings’, Journal of Consumer Research, XXIV, 1(1997), 18 53 M.Miller, H. Mclntyre and L.Mantrala, 148 54 Taviss Thomson, 17 55 Horace H.F . Jayne, ‘Renaissance in Fashion 1942’, The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin, XXXVII, 5 (1942), 123 56 Taviss Thomson, 498 57 Angela Mc Robbie, ‘Fashion and Beauty; Fashion Culture; Creative Work, Female Individualism’, Feminist Review, LXXI , (2002), 54 58 Ibid. 499. 59 Pamela Stecker, The Fashion Design Manual, ( Australia, MACMILLAN EDUCATION, 1996), 37 60 Mike Easey, Fashion Marketing, (UK, Blackwell Publishing, 2009), 19

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This situation tapered the influence of fashion designers. As a matter of fact, when designers intended to introduce longer skirts [calf-length skirts] into fashion in the 1970s, this resulted in what Diana Crane describes as a fashion ‘disaster’.61 The public, or more specifically women, preferred to wear shorter mini-skirts which they had become used to since the sixties.62 Shorter skirts were then further promoted by Vivienne Westwood, an English fashion designer, who combined the tutu and a tailored adaption of the Victorian crinoline, creating what was known as the ‘mini-Crini’, later in the 1980s.63 Despite its resemblance to the traditional mini-skirt, the so-called ‘mini- Crini’ is an example of the changing role of the fashion designer. Diana Crane observes that ‘the role of designers in elite fashion worlds changed. Their objective is not to set trends but to produce or locate ideas for the trends’.64 Therefore, copying ideas particularly those of subcultures became the medium through which designers created ‘new’ designs to attract the customers and therefore retain their credibility.

Another crucial aspect in the 1970s was the rapid expansion of the media. Mike Easey explains how at this point the media had a major role in influencing individuals in the way they dressed.65 The media had in fact hastened the diffusion of new clothing styles all over.66 Nevertheless, Angela Mc Robbie argues that despite several forms of media such as magazines, fashion journals, television and many others; there seems to be no ‘coherent map of this field’.67 Regardless of this, the media in the 70s continued to spread the idea to ‘overthrow all existing structures in the name of individual self’.68

61 Diana Crane, 18 62 Rennay Craats, History of the 1970s, (USA, Weigl Educational Publishers Limited, 2000), 36 63 Caroline Evans and Minna Thornton,’Fashion, Representation, Femininity’, Feminist Review, XXXVIII, (1991), 58 64 Diana Crane, 18 65 Easey, 19 66 Diana Crane, 15 67 Mc Robbie, 55 68 Taviss Thomson, 512

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2.3.d Clothing Styles in the 1980s

The 1980s were partly a ‘return to the fifties’.69 In the book The 1980s, fashion in this decade is said to be influenced by the dichotomies, which meant the separation of different or contradictory things which were mostly seen in the 1970s.70 On the other hand, Fred Davis argues that fashion in the 80s was rather indefinite.71 Clothing styles were back to using conservative guidelines, and having a more sophisticated look than previously. Hence a more conformist look like that of the 1950s, as Irene Taviss Thomson says, became a popular one.72 Such a look was perhaps the product of the social and economic perspectives at this point in time.

As big business augmented, people were pressured to have a more professional look which had to be of course classier. Eventually, designers’ clothing designs are once again conducted according to the general trend. In the case of men, fashion designers came up with various types of tailored business suits that fitted for all occasions.73 Apart from this, the business-like look could have also inspired the growth in independent fashion outlets. Several fashion outlets such as Miss Selfridge, Top Shop and more greatly expanded throughout the 1980s, inspiring others to set up their own businesses.74 A result of the great expansion, was the emergence of the ‘Yuppie’ style which stood for Young Urban Professionals that William Leiss and Jackie Botterli referred to as ‘the new dandy of this period’.75 Irene Taviss Thomson says that some attempted to follow the individualistic professional style of the yuppie, which mainly aimed ‘to push America forward into a much more competitive global marketplace and to deliver everyone from the evils of the high inflation, the bloated social programs, the

69 Ibid. 498 70 Bob Batchelor, Scott F.Stoddart, The 1980s; American Pop Culture through history, (USA, Greenwood Press, 2007), 67 71 Ibid. 498. 72 Taviss Thomson, 498 73 Batchelor, 67 74 Mc Robbie, 55 75 William Leiss, Social Communication in Advertising ; Consumption in the mediated Market place, (Great Britain, Taylor and Francis group, 2005), 454

18 economic inefficiencies and the liberations of the 1970s”.76 Hence, clothing reflected once again resistance, but this time it was produced in a more conforming and reserved manner.

On the other hand, other struggles within society were still ongoing. By the 1980s, women’s image in society was still unsettled and this is mirrored by women’s clothing. Firstly, as Shealeen A. Meaney argues, women continued to struggle with how much exposed flesh was socially acceptable in public.77 Secondly, women were in conflict about how “boyish” society allowed them to be.78 In spite of these issues, which had been previously tackled, women’s fashion was still restricted mainly owing to the question of morality. This can in fact be illustrated by the popularization of the two piece women’s swimwear, known as bikini. The introduction of the bikini created, as Dan Parker explained, ‘shock’ but at the same time the public was ‘excited to embrace it’. 79 Moreover, despite the controversies, women continued to wear masculine styles, but gradually started to incorporate more feminine characteristics.80

As mentioned earlier, this decade can be compared to the 1950s. Nevertheless, by this time several developments had taken place and there were of course differences between the two decades. Inner conflicts, meaning the psychological struggle within the mind due to society’s restrictions, had decreased when compared to the 50s.

76 Leiss, 454 77 Shealeen A.Meaney, ‘ “ Sans Clothes and Sans Reproche” ; Beauty, Nature, and Transgression in Post-Suffrage American Women’s Travel Narratives ‘, Journal of Narrative Theory, XXXV, 3 (2005), 350 78 Ibid. 79 Dan Parker, The Bathing Suit; Christian Liberty or secular Idolatry, (USA, Xulon Press, 2003), 155 80 J. Thompson and L.Haytko, 11

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2.4 Conclusion

A number of issues relating to fashion can be included in each and every decade. The evolution of clothing can still be acknowledged once the crucial aspects throughout the mid-1940s, 1950s, 1960s, 1970s and 1980s are identified. The technological advancement after World War II enabled individuals to express themselves more than ever before in the manner in which they dressed. According to Joshua I. Miller, clothing has a sort of multi-function since ‘people often proclaim their allegiances- political, cultural, religious, and professional- by the way they dress.’81 This confirms what I have already mentioned that clothing was not solely for the body but also a means to present, identify or classify one person from another. Clothes wear can be traced to cultural, political and economic influences of each decade. Eventually clothes wear, each trace the evolvement of either the cultural, political or economic setting of the contemporaries in each decade.

By the end of World War II, technological progress increasingly enhanced the textile industry which eventually made the mass production of clothing possible. In this way, the evolution of clothing was seen to have become a constant one as new fashions were constantly being developed. Consequently, this gave rise to struggles which had rarely been dealt with before. Most visible is the struggle between classes and sexes,82 which came to determine the type of clothing men and women wear today. The transformation and continuous alteration in the length of women’s skirts,83 is perhaps the best example that represents the changes in clothing.

Later by the 1960s, the concept of ‘individuality’ became prevalent. Regardless of what class one pertained to, fashion became greatly impacted by the youth influences84 which promoted the expression of the individual self.85 Nevertheless, rather than having an individual style, individuals started copying their preferred fashion icon, in time with

81 Joshua I. Miller, 14 82 Birmingham Feminist History Group, 7 83 M.Miller, H. Mclntyre and L.Mantrala, 143 84 Crane, 15 85 Taviss Thomson, 512

20 the rise of popular groups or movie stars, especially American.86 This could have been partly responsible for the shift amongst the prominent fashion markets. America was gradually expanding its market of fashion industry and thus Paris and Britain were no longer the mainstreams for clothing manufacture.87 America was not, however, the sole medium through which fashion was developed. Other countries, such as Britain still continued to play a crucial role in the creation of new fashion mostly through its subcultures.

The media by the 1970s continued to strengthen the concept of Individualism.88 As the use of the media grew, new fashion styles were now easily and quickly transferred around the world. By the end of the 1960s, both men and women started to adopt a more do it yourself attitude.89 As Vogue argued, ‘The real star of fashion is you-the wearer’90 since the concept of morality or values no longer restricted how one wanted to express oneself through clothing. Consequently, fashion designers were only successful if their new designs were based on the existing ones and not completely different what was currently worn among the subcultures.91

The 1980s, however, went back to the conformist look of the 50s.92 Political trends combined with progress in technology resulted in significant changes, mostly visible in the introduction of the business-like look.93 Several independent fashion outlets and other businesses greatly expanded,94 and making more profit became more than ever a crucial factor.95 The yuppie style became in fact a prominent trend in the 80s, as it portrayed the professional look which had at this point became a must.

86 Rooney, 23 87 Taviss Thomson, 17 88 Angela Mc Robbie, 54 89 Deirdre Clancy, Costume since 1945; couture, street style and anti-fashion, (USA, Drama Publishers, 1996 ), 108 90 Ibid. 91 Crane, 18 92 Taviss Thomson, 498 93 Batchelor, F.Stoddart, 67 94 Mc Robbie, 55 95 Clancy(1996), 144

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Urban life in the 80s also started to change, as it seemed to be moving in a ‘fast forward mode’.96 Family roles were revolutionized as women gradually started to occupy working positions same as their opposite sex.97 Women, saw it fit to attempt to have more flexible clothes wear which society would not condemn. It can be noted here that like previous decades clothing continued to mirror the conflicts happening within a society. The development in technology and mindset in the 1980s gave individuals a newfound freedom to express themselves through their style of clothing. A lower rate of inner conflict was in fact recorded when compared to previous decades.98

In conclusion, the evolution of clothing between the mid-1940s and 1980s is mostly evident in the short term and long term changes in the fashion of clothing. As described in the Journal of Marketing, changes in the styles of clothing can be either seen in ‘the long run time frame’ or in ‘the short run perspective.’99 Here one must also acknowledge the creativity each clothing style involved, which was created by either the designers or the general public. It widely acknowledged that after World War II, there was the belief that everyone could be a potential artist and thus could develop his own art, which in this instance was applied to clothing.100 This was made further possible due to the progress of technology which facilitated the production in mass quantities and at a cheaper price, creating an ongoing cycle in the clothing industry. The cycle of fashion has in fact been in a continuous sequence from one extreme to another throughout a period of thirty to fifty years or more.101 Undoubtedly, the changes in styles reflected the settings of the societies at that point in time. The Journal of Consumer Research states that ‘fashion becomes a salient marker of the social situations’.102 Consequently, clothing enables one to unearth the social setting throughout the mid-

96 Ibid. 97 Ibid. 98 Taviss Thomson, 500 99 B. Sporles, 117 100 Daryl Chin and Vanessa Beecroft, ‘Models of Fashion’, A Journal of Performance Art, XX , 3 (1998), 22 101 Ibid. 117 102 J. Thompson and L.Haytko, 15

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1940s until the 1980s, because individuals are said to have used clothing as a ‘wordless dialogue’.103

103 Joshua I. Miller, 18

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Chapter 3

3. Women’s Clothing

3.1 Introduction

Women’s clothing has undergone many changes in the history of fashion.1 For this reason, the production and merchandise of women’s apparel has been the main focus in all sectors of the clothing market.2 Styles and the different vogues in women’s attire reflect the cultural, political and social changes happening from time to time.3 Fashion, has also served as a way of personal feminine expression.4 According to Elizabeth D.Lowe ‘the sequence of women’s fashion through time would appear to arise from simultaneous operation of inertia, cultural continuity, a rule system of esthetic proportions, and an inherently unpredictable element.’5

After the end of World War II, women’s clothing industry received a strong boost.6 With the establishment of mass production, the manufacturing of clothing developed more stable patterns which inevitably enhanced the ready-to-wear industry.7 Eventually, as Dr. Wray stated in 1954, ‘Women’s outerwear production is one of the oldest and one of the newest industries’.8 The manufacture of clothing for women was further enhanced by the introduction of Dior’s ‘New Look’ in 1947, as women became more fashion conscious.9 At this point in time, interest in wearing fashionable clothing was

1 B.Peter Pashingian, 946 2 Ibid. 3 John W.G. Lowe and Elizabeth D .Lowe, 541 4 Kenneth J.Bindas, 127 5 W.G. Lowe and D .Lowe, 521 6 Clancy(1996), 10 7 Elizabeth Ewing, History of the 20th Century Fashion, (London, B. T. Batsford Publishers, 1974), 145 8 Wray, Margaret, M.A.,Ph.D., ‘ The Women’s Outerwear Industry’, History of the 20th Century Fashion, Elizabeth Ewing (Ed.), London, B. T. Batsford Publishers, 1974 , 145 9 Ibid. 154

24 also increasing amongst Maltese women. Giovanna Schembri, a former Maltese housewife from the post-war years, stated that she got her first elegant dress as soon as World War II ended.10 At first, textiles for clothing and garments throughout and shortly after the war were only obtainable in Malta through clothing coupons of war rationing.11 However, as soon as rationing was no longer required, clothing for women became more easily accessible and therefore more varied. As from then, articles regarding women’s fashion at a particular point in time were regularly published in the Times of Malta. From 1955 to 1985, 1055 fashion advertisements were published in the Times of Malta every five years.12 Most notably at first were fashion articles written by Rudy Reed, Carol Dane and Daphne Bliss, which appeared frequently in a page in this newspaper dedicated to women.13

For ten years, women’s silhouette in clothing had remained the same.14 However, it all changed when Christian Dior insisted on designing clothing for “flower-like women, with rounded shoulders, full, feminine busts, and hand-span waists above enormous spreading skirts”.15 This so called ‘New Look’ comprised mainly of rounded, gentle lines which created a feminine and elegant look.16 Following the ‘New Look’, several new and distinct styles in women’s fashion were introduced and eventually copied by leading manufacturers.17 The straight-line silhouette was revived by the development of man- made fibres and fabrics that created interesting weaves.18 Most popular in the 50s were the simple straight dresses which were also known as sack, sheath or chemise dresses.19 Full swirling skirts which were either pleated or stitched flat over the hips were also in vogue.20

10 George Cini, Strada Stretta – It-triq li darba xeghlet il-Belt, (Malta, Allied Publications, 2010), 70 11 Cini, 69 12 Camilleri, 70 13 Several articles written by Rudy Reed and Carol Dane appear in the Times of Malta; Times of Malta, 30 March 1952; Times of Malta, 4 January, 1953; Times of Malta, 23 June, 1959 14 Clancy (1996), 11 15 Ewing, 155 16Ibid.159 17 Ibid.160 18 Hayes, 285 19 Hayes, 286 20 Clancy (1996), 11

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Photographs and footage21 taken in Malta, all prove the presence of this kind of attire amongst most of the Maltese women. Madame Manfre, who was at this time a famous Maltese dress maker, was also greatly inspired by Dior’s styles after attending the viewing of his collections.22 In addition, adverts in Maltese newspapers, specifically those publicized by a Maltese company which imported Gor-Ray Skirts, used an image of a woman wearing a straight calf-length dress to promote their merchandise.23 With regard to the skirts, Joseph Cachia and Company imported Gor-Ray skirts which were pleated or plain, full or pencil slim24 from London while The Puma Smartwear in Valletta sold pleated skirts for 2.5. shillings and plain skirts for 1.5. shillings.25

Coats, also adopted a new form of style with the influence of the ‘New Look’.26 Unlike dresses, coats for women were designed oversized as they were intended to be ‘ample enough to flow over accented hips and full skirts’.27 Nevertheless, they were still made from rich fabrics and comprised of fur trims, capelets, large pockets and turned back cuffs.28 All these characteristics in women’s coats were also found in Malta. An article in il-Berka, explained which type of coat is or is not suitable for a woman of a particular body shape and body size.29 Here, the author mentioned several styles of coats available in the local market which were similar to those of the ‘New Look’.30 In another article in a Maltese periodical, the author emphasized the popularity of coats in the local market, since they were considered elegant and suitable for special occasions.31

21 Retrieved on 1 February 2013 from www.britishpathe.com; Malta welcomes the king in 1943. 22 Wilma Friggieri, ‘ Madame Manfre; A dressmaking legend in the 20th century’, Costume in Malta; an history of fabric, form & fashion, Nicholas De Piro, (Ed.), Malta, Patrimonju Publishing 1998, 160 23 Times of Malta, 9 May 1949 24 Times of Malta, 21 August 1955 25 Times of Malta, 28 January 1957 26 Daniel Delis, As Seen in Vogue; A Century of American Fashion in Advertising, (United States, Texas Tech University Press, 2007), 77 27 Ibid. 28 Ibid. 29 Il-Berka, 31 January, 1948 30 Ibid. 31 Il-Berka, 21 February, 1948

26

A notable characteristic was that after World War II, dresses, skirts and long coats were shorter when compared to previous decades.32 For daytime, the skirts had in fact started to not fully cover women’s legs, but stopped roughly twelve inches from the ground.33 According to Deirde Clancy, these skirts could have ‘15 to 25, even 30 yards of fabric, in itself a sinful extravagance to women who for years had made do with 2.5 yards of 36 inch wide utility tweed’.34 Already in 1947, the Archbishop of Malta raised the issue regarding the length of women’s dress in a Pastoral letter.35 He wrote that women must not be ‘carried by the tide of evil that is beating against our shores’ and therefore should wear modest dresses in order to safeguard the public morality and the Christian dignity in Malta.36 Perhaps it was still believed, as an old Maltese saying stated, that “long skirts sweep dirt, short skirts sweep souls”.37 Regardless of the Archbishop’s warning, by time the evolution of women’s clothing eventually gave rise to further issues that went against the traditional dogma of the Catholic Church in Malta. Women’s clothing gradually started to reveal more skin and change in a way which was before considered offensive, particularly in the Maltese context.38

On the other hand, not all Maltese women had immediately adapted to modern fashions.39 Those women who lived in villages and were still attached to their traditional customs continued to wear clothing that almost covered their entire body.40 Most notably, was the ghonella which was the traditional Maltese headdress and shawl for women.41 From the early 20th century until the end of World War II many Maltese women wore the traditional black ghonella over long dresses for various occasions.42 However, by the second half of the 20th century this traditional head dress was often

32 Hayes, 286 33 Clancy (1996), 11 34 Ibid. 35 Times of Malta, 13 May 1947 36 Ibid. 37 Lanfranco, 23 38 Ibid. 39 Zammit, 173 40 Ibid. 41 Lanfranco, 28 42 John Bezzina, ‘ L-Ilbies Malti fl-Imghoddi’, Saghtar, VII, (Malta, Moviment Qawmien Letterarju, 1972), 7

27 worn only by the religious congregation known as M.U.S.E.U.M.43 When Queen Elizabeth visited Malta in 1954, she stopped to talk to a Maltese woman specifically because unlike the rest of the crowd this woman was wearing the ghonella.44 Therefore, despite the ongoing evolution in women’s fashion after World War II, certain individuals still maintained the traditional Maltese costumes.

Figure 645 – Two women wearing the ghonella as they walk down in Kingsway, Valletta.

As we shall see, women’s clothing in Malta was to undergo a series of changes in the following years even though some were reluctant to let go of their traditional customs. Like in other areas, these ongoing changes in fashion after World War II also showed how women gradually obtained a sense of personal liberation.46

43 De Piro Nicholas, Costume in Malta; an history of Fabric, form and fashion, (Malta, Fondazzjoni Patrimonju Malti, 1998), 226 44 Vincent, 144 45 Photograph by courtesy of Edgar Vella 46 Ewing, 155

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3.2 Women’s Fashion in the 1950s

In the 50s, as Elizabeth Ewing explains, ‘fashions continued to flourish and to meet the needs of most women over 25.’47 Since the upshots of war were fading and rationing ended, fashion for women was mainly inspired by the designers of Paris and was given a great vigour throughout this decade.48 For this reason, the ‘New Look’ fashion further altered its popularity amongst women and came to be considered as the typical post- crisis dress following World War II.49 By the mid-fifties, Christian Dior had reintroduced new styles for women which included the ‘H-line’ cut (1954) and ‘A-line’ (1955) cut.50 Paris inspired a sophisticated look, the United States created the ‘American Look’ while Italy and California promoted sportswear for women.51 Other designers, such as Pierre Balmain, Cristobal Balenciaga and Hubert Givenchy also dominated the fashion industry particularly that of women.52 Generally, women’s fashion in the 1950s portrayed the optimism and reappearance of the traditional gender roles that had been forgotten or rather disregarded throughout World War II.53 As Tracey Tolkien explains, ‘Clothing styles reflected this return to a more stable, traditional role’, since many women now returned back home from their wartime workplaces.54 Furthermore, emerging prosperity encouraged several women to spend more money on clothing, namely ready to wear fashions and accessories.55 Unlike previous years, women’s fashion catered for different age groups. In the 1950s, young women (aged from 15-20 years) no longer dressed like adults but had their own clothing styles which became known as fashion for teenagers.56 Street style had also a great impact on women’s fashion as it introduced new trends which served as badges of identity.57 Eventually, these styles were copied

47 Ewing, 178 48 Clancy (1996), 26 49 Camilleri, 17 50 Ibid. 16 51 Stecker, 18 52 Clancy (1996), 26 53 Alissa Burger, The Television World of Pushing Daises; Critical Essays of the Bryan Fuller Series, (United States of America, McFarland and Company, 2011) , 176 54 Ibid. 55 Ibid. 56 Rooney, 13 57 Welters and Lillethun, 434

29 by fashion designers and made their way into fashion magazines.58 Hollywood stars of the 50s such as Marilyn Monroe and Doris Day were also considered to be fashion icons by most women.59 In Malta, women were also looking towards the ongoing evolution in the fashion industry happening worldwide.60 Gradually, clothing amongst Maltese women started to become more homogenous as many adopted new ‘modern’ fashions.

3.2.a General Influence on Women’s clothing

As I have already mentioned, various pages in Maltese newspapers were devoted to update the reader with these current international vogues. Detailed articles were published and they included a photograph of a female model wearing a certain style, which was taken from a particular fashion show that had taken place abroad. By now, some clothing patterns used for that particular style could also be accessed from certain libraries or bazaars in Malta.61 All these served as a means by which many Maltese women familiarized themselves with these contemporary fashions.

At the beginning of the 1950s, women kept on wearing variations of the ‘New Look’ that emphasized the small waist and full skirt.62 However, different styles of silhouette such as the bubble skirt and pencil skirt were introduced.63 In 1952, an article in the Times of Malta discussed the spring shows in London which presented pencil slim and full ballet skirts, like the bubble skirts.64 Another article featured the Dorville Collection which exhibited jackets over slim skirts that were soon available in Britain and overseas.65 Tailored skirts could also be imported to Malta directly from Britain by means of a clothing catalogue which was available in certain local outlets.66 For

58 Rooney (2009), 13 59 David Desser, Garth Jowett, Hollywood Goes Shopping, (United States, University of Minnesota Press, 2000), 159 60 Camilleri,15 61 Times of Malta, 2 December 1955 62 John Hopkins, Basic Fashion Design 05; Fashion Drawing, (United Kingdom, Ingram Publisher Services, 2010), 15 63 Ibid. 64 Meg Claymour,’ Spring Shows in London’, Times of Malta, (Malta, Allied Publications, 1952), 4 65 Rudy Reed, ‘ Straight Lines and Curves’, Times of Malta, (Malta, Allied Publications, 1952), 11 66 Times of Malta, 3 December 1955

30 instance in 1955, Maltese women could order from this catalogue full pleated or full circle flare skirts which came in navy, black, grey, nigger, wine or bottle colour.67 Photographs and footage68 taken in Malta throughout the 1950s also show the presence of such attire amongst Maltese women most of all amongst the younger generations.

Figure 769 - (Right) Four Maltese women showing off their dresses with wide and frilly skirts in fashion in the late 1950s. (Left) Blance Cremona wearing a dress with a waisted bodice and circular skirt in the fifties.

For special occasions, cocktail dresses became popular.70 After Dior’s design of the dirndl dress, the young adapted it to create a new version of it with smaller puffed sleeves or sleeveless, made from nylon, frilled or lace-edged and which was drip-dry and non-iron.71 In these cocktail dresses, ‘women appeared more fragile and feminine’

67 Ibid. 68 Retrieved on 1 February 2013 from www.britishpathe.com. 69 De Piro, 292-293 70 Hopkins, 15 71 Ewing, 169

31 which accentuated their traditional gender role.72 A vintage cocktail dress of the 50s found in Malta was made from satin and comprised a floral pattern, rounded pleated skirts and a V neck with shoulder straps.73 Furthermore, in the 50s cocktail dresses were also found readymade in clothing shops in Malta. For example, a local clothing shop called Ha-ro, found in Valletta and Sliema, sold cocktail dresses made from fabrics like dupion- nylon, shantung and sheers.74 In August of 1955, Sylvia House, another clothing shop in Malta, advertised in the Times of Malta its sale on evening and cocktail dresses.75 Although cocktail dresses were in vogue, throughout the 50s other styles of dresses which embraced similar structures were also worn for evenings or special occasions. In fact, evening dresses such as the silver brocade and gold brocade were also worn by Maltese women.76 Unlike in previous decades, these elegant dresses became available in local markets as ready to wear purchases at reasonable prices. As more women were opting for these elegant dresses the distinction between the higher class and lower class in Malta started to gradually level out.77

72 Charlotte Suthrell, Unzipping Gender; Sex, Cross-Dressing and Culture, ( New York, Oxford International Publishers, 2004 ), 119 73 Information retrieved from the Car Museum, Malta. ‘ 50s/60s Satin Brocade Cocktail Dress with Shawl’ 74 Times of Malta, 5 April, 1952 75 Times of Malta, 11 August, 1955 76 Information retrieved from the Car Museum, Malta. ‘50’s Alison Edwards Red and Gold Brocade Evening dress’, ‘ 50s For You Blanes Silver Satin Brocade Evening Dresses’ 77 Zammit, 176

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Figure 878 – Red and gold brocade evening dress.

Fur coats in the 50s also became popular and were one of the most desired items in women’s wardrobes.79 Evidence of how widely fashion trends were penetrating Malta, was the growing popularity of coats, despite the fact that Maltese weather was relatively mild.80 An article outlined that coats specifically ones in blue with grey fur were very elegant and adequate for outings.81 In addition to this, Raymond Zampa who has been a Maltese owner of a clothing shop in Malta since 1957 stated that in winter he used to sell several coats which he had imported from overseas to many Maltese women.82 Adverts published in Maltese newspapers also show that certain brands of British-

78 Photograph by courtesy of the Car Museum 79 Graziella Parati, New Perspectives in Italian Studies ; The arts and History, (United Kingdom, Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 2013 ), 122 80 A Correspondent, ‘ Il-Kowtijiet jidhru aktar’, Il-Berqa, (Malta, 1950 ), 7 81 A Correspondent, ‘Il-Mara Mdahhla fl-eta’, Il-Berqa, (Malta, 1955) , 7 82 Raymond Zampa, Valletta, 12th April, 2012 (Interview is deposited at the Public Memory archive)

33 designed coats were being imported. This was possible once the customer ordered a specific coat from a catalogue which was distributed in Malta at no charge.83

3.2.b Other Influences on Women’s Clothing

‘Fashion had also been impervious to the influences of Hollywood’84 says Daniel Delis Hill. Nevertheless, popular film stars such as Marilyn Monroe became fashion icons for women in the 50s.85 She was an American actress, model and singer but was mostly well known for her voluptuous sexuality which was certainly emphasized through her clothing.86 Her usual attire comprised of a revealing décolletage, tight outfits, black dresses and sailor tops.87 For many, as Herbert Ganado explained, Marilyn Monroe was at the time one of the main ‘sex symbols’ in Hollywood films.88 For this reason, the Legion of Decency, an organization against content which was considered offensive for the Roman Catholic Church, was continuously keeping an eye on how Marilyn Monroe presented herself in the media.89 Despite this controversy, Malta was constantly being updated with the latest news about Monroe through local periodicals. Monroe’s movies, such as ‘How to Marry a Millionaire’ were being shown in Maltese cinemas for audiences of 16 years and over.90

In terms of clothing Marilyn Monroe had also publicized a more conventional look known as the ‘sweater girl’ look.91 This look included a close-fitting sweater that extended just to the waist or oversized chunky knits with dropped armholes that emphasized a fuller figure.92 Articles in the Times of Malta, also promoted sweaters for

83 Times of Malta, 4 January 1953 84 Delis, 93 85 Veronica Manlow, Designing Clothes: Culture and Organization of the Fashion industry, (New Jersey, Transaction Publishers, 2009) , 48 86 Ibid. 87 William H.Young, Nancy K.Young, The 1950s,(United States of America, Greenwood Publishing Group, 2004), 87 88 Herbert Ganado, Rajt Malta Tinbidel, IV,( Malta, Stamperija “ Il-Hajja”, 1977 ), 128 89 Ibid. 90 Times of Malta, 22 July 1956 91 Stecker, 18 92 Rooney, 13

34 women’s wear for both day and evening wear.93 The factory of Malta Associated Textiles Limited found in Floriana had until this time produced chunky sweaters which were designed by Betty Scott.94 However, shops in Malta started to increasingly advertise sweaters later in the 60s. Photographs and footage95 taken in Malta as well as Maltese adverts, suggest that throughout the 50s women’s blouses, a shirt-like garment,96 were much more popular than sweaters amongst Maltese women.

Doris Day, another American actress who played the part of a wife and mother, became another fashion model.97 As Jerry L. Rodnitzky explains, unlike Marilyn Monroe this actress presented herself ‘strangely sexless, standing amidst shiny kitchens and surrounded by children’.98 Therefore it was easier for ordinary women to identify with her rather any other of Hollywood’s ‘sex symbols’.99 Similarly in Malta, it was surely easier for most Maltese women to relate to Doris Day’s clothing style as she sported a look which was considered more conservative and modest. Catherine Farrugia, a former Maltese housewife from the post-war years, explains that like Doris Day, she and other Maltese women loved to wear a scarf around their neck.100 Her influence spread in Malta particularly through her films as well as through a page in the Times of Malta dedicated to films where many writers wrote about Doris Day including information about her clothing.101

93 Rudy Reed, ‘ Glittering for evening wear’, Times of Malta, (Malta, Allied Publications 1952), 11 94 From a correspondent, ‘ When the label says “ made in Malta”’, Times in Malta, (Malta, Allied Publications , (1969), 21 95 Retrieved on 1 February 2013 from www.britishpathe.com; Queen in Malta, 1954 96 M. Hawkins, 49 97 Jerry L. Rodnitzky, Feminist Phoenix; The Rise and Fall of a Feminist Counterculture, (United States of America, Greenwood Publishers, 1999 ), 88 98 Ibid. 99 Patricia Baker, The 1950s; Fashion of a decade, (New York, Chelsea House Publishers, 2006 ), 26 100 Catherine Farrugia, Hal Qormi, 4th April, 2012 (Interview is deposited at the Public Memory archive) 101 A correspondent,’ Striking wardrobe for Doris Day ’, Times of Malta, (Malta, Allied Publications, 1955), 8

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Figure 9102 – (Right) Marilyn Monroe (Left ) Doris Day

102 Retrieved on the 9th May from http://www.salon.com

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3.3 Women’s Fashion in the 1960s

The 1960s were certainly a time for innovations in women’s fashion.103 At this point, ‘society gravitated towards women’s liberation and fashion became one of the most visible ways of portraying the new woman’.104 For this reason, the designs of Christian Dior, Pierre Cardin and other prominent fashion designers in this decade all personified women’s equality and the detachment from their traditional gender roles in society.105 Moreover, a more youthful look was further incorporated in women’s fashion.106 Mary Quant, a British designer, based her designs on the clothing worn by young girls on the streets of Britain. She stated that she wanted “young girls to have a fashion of their own, absolutely twentieth century fashion”.107 Eventually, Quant played a crucial role in the women’s clothing industry in the 60s, as she had an eccentric and unconventional approach to fashion.108 From this point forward, more young women turned to youthful styles and therefore unlike previous years started to be defined outside the context of their families.109 The ‘Street style’ which emerged from the popular and youth cultural movement was apparent also the 1960s.110 As women’s clothing became more unconventional, clothing enabled women to further express their individual attitude in the manner in which they dressed in public.111 Movie stars and female models also brought about new trends in women’s clothing which not only shaped women’s fashion in the 60s but also in the years that followed.112 By the late 1960s, clothing styles became bolder,113 partly due to the interest in the ‘Space Age’ as fashion designers started incorporating geometric shapes and unusual material such as metal, plastic and

103 Felicia Lowenstein Niven, Fabulous fashions of the 1960s, (United States of America, Lake book manufacturing, 2012), 6 104 Uche Okonkwo, Luxury Fashion Branding; Trends, Tactics, Techniques, (New York, PALGRAVE MACMILLAN , 2007), 31 105 Ibid. 106 Camilleri, 18 107 Ewing, 179 108 Okonkwo, 31 109 Edward J. Rielly, The 1960s, (United States of America, Greenwood Press, 2003 ), 81 110 Okonkwo, 31 111 Ibid. 112 Jen Jones, Fashion Modeling; Being Beautiful, Selling Clothes, (United States of America, Capstone Press, 2007), 26 113 Okonkwo, 31

37 wires in clothes.114 In terms of fashion, society craved for a revolution which encouraged the introduction of new and inventive styles, especially for women.115 Malta, as in the previous decade, retained its connection with the international fashions giving Maltese women a more ‘modern’ and individual look.

3.3.a General Influence on Women’s Clothing

Felicia Lowestein Niven argues that the 60s was one of the most open minded decades throughout history.116 As already mentioned, this decade reflected the reaction against what was traditionally accepted within societies eventually leading to the introduction of numerous new fads in women’s fashion.117 Consequently, some changes in women’s fashion at first seemed rather peculiar and created social controversy118 in Malta, no less. In reaction to this change, some Maltese embraced the so called Marylike fashion. The Marylike fashion was created after a Vatican spokesman affirmed that the Virgin Mary condemned clothing “which is cut deeper than two fingers’ breadth under the pit of the throat, which does not cover the arms at least to the elbows; and scarcely reaches a bit beyond the knees.” This fashion included dresses and patterns for women’s clothing designed according to the Marylike standards which safeguarded the values of the Roman Catholic Church.119 Marylike fashion contests120 and parades had in fact taken place in Malta. For example, one fashion parade that took place in Marsa on 22th May in 1962 exhibited a vast selection of dresses and patterns according to the Marylike standards.121 Nevertheless, changes in women’s fashion that went against the traditional dogma persisted and gradually replaced the old customs.

114 Clancy (1996), 73 115 Okonkwo, 31 116 Lowenstein Niven (Fabulous fashions of the 1960s), 8 117 Ibid. 118 Welters and Lillethun, 203 119 James M.O’Toole, Habits of Devotion; Catholic Religious practice in 20th century America, (USA, Cornwell University Press, 2004), 106 120 Times of Malta, 5 June 1968 121 Lehen is-Sewwa, 19 May 1962

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Figure 10122 – Marylike fashion.

Dresses in the 60s became more rectangular but also shorter.123 Eventually, shorter skirts became greatly in vogue by the mid-1960s after Parisian fashion designer Laurent pioneered skirts above the knee.124 In Malta, in a fashion show that took place at the Pallazo Parisio in 1962, three female models displayed four different outfits which contained a skirt slightly above the knee.125 In another fashion show, a certain Paola modelled a knee length and straight-line dress to show off the summer hat collection created by Rosina House of Valletta.126 A correspondent wrote in the Times of Malta that although Maltese women are up to date with the international fashion, they must wear suspenders in order not to have wrinkled stockings showing under their dresses or

122 Retrieved on the 9th May from http://www.traditionalcatholicpriest.com/2013/02/22/more-on-traditional- mary-like-modesty/. 123 Anne Rooney, 15 124 Ibid. 125 Annalise, ‘ Black, Backless, Beguiling’, Times of Malta, (Malta, Allied Publications, 1962), 12 126 Times of Malta, 29 April 1967

39 skirts.127 Nevertheless, shorter hemlines like the mini-skirts [skirts with a hemline well above the knee] took time to become widespread because standards of public decency in Malta were still very strict. Some still argued about the indecency in women’s clothing in Malta. The Church newspaper Lehen is-Sewwa featured several articles and letters, mostly by men, condemning the wearing of short skirts. One such article considered women in short skirts as very vulgar in public, especially when they knelt during mass.128 A married man wrote about the temptations he got throughout his day due to those Maltese women wearing short and indecent clothing.129 He went on to say that until recently this ‘curse’ had only been seen amongst some foreigners, but was now spreading within those Maltese families who were lax in their religion.130 Nevertheless, the length in women’s dress in Malta was to gradually shorten and transform in a way which had been until then considerably offensive.

Similarly, the popularity of trousers or slacks amongst women also created controversy. The first inspiration to wear ‘slacks’ in public came from Hollywood fashion icons of the 1930s and 1940s.131 Yet, it was not until the 60s that ‘slacks’ became popular and started to be worn by women in public. This coincided with the creation of feminist movements which gave women more freedom and equality in society.132 Trousers for women continued to be promoted with the introduction of the women’s trouser suit.133 Eventually, women in Malta too were inspired to move away from the fashion-forced femininity and were able to wear trousers in public. Maltese newspapers published articles questioning why women could not be like men and at the same time carried advertisements of trousers for women. Not all men were fully convinced about what some referred to as the ‘masculinisation of women’.134 One Maltese man expressed his disgust on seeing a tall Maltese woman who wore slacks in church. In his

127 Observer of Floriana, ‘ The women of Malta’, Times of Malta, (Malta, Allied Publications, 1967), 6 128 G.Brincat, ‘ Ilbies Qasir’, Lehen is-Sewwa, ( Malta, Church Publications, 1962) , 2 129 Ragel Mizzewweg, ‘ Ragel Mizzewweg jikteb ghax-xebbiet u n-nisa’, Lehen is-Sewwa, (Malta, Church Publications, 1962),7 130 Ibid. 131 Ronni Radner, ‘ Wearing the Pants’, OUT Magazine, (UK, Here Publishers, 2003), 44 132 Radner, 44 133 Gillian Franks, ‘ When a women wears Trousers’, Times of Malta, (Malta, Allied Publications, 1967), 5 134 Serra, 458

40 opinion this attire for women ‘took away the femininity that she is naturally born with’.135 One correspondent suggested that slacks were not elegant for travelling and were even banned in certain airlines that travelled across Malta and Australia.136 Like everything else this was a gradual process in women’s fashion and what was considered radical at first became commonplace later. Writing in the 1970s, Herbert Ganado muses that women at Valletta’s Cafe Premier wore slacks when he once recalled them wearing the ghonella.137

On the other hand, women’s fashion in the 1960s brought about a change in the general perception of what the ideal female body should look like. Sarah Grogan explains that, ‘the trend for slimness became particularly acute in the 1960s’.138 Twiggy, a British fashion model, became the role model of many young women as she first introduced a clothing line that fitted her flat-chested, boyish figure and 96lb body.139 She developed a trend that spread all over the United States and Europe and ultimately transformed the general shape and size of women’s clothing.140 Articles regarding Twiggy’s new clothing line also appeared in Maltese newspapers. Her influence in Malta was mostly visible through the imported clothing, as fashion designers adapted their clothing lines according to the new ‘ideal’ body shape for women.141 According to Charles Austin, Twiggy was renowned for the ‘strange impact she’s so suddenly made on the fashion’.142 Clearly, in Malta the idea for a woman to have a slimmer figure was also embraced. Several Maltese newspapers advertised various products that made women look thinner and thus hid what was at times referred to as ‘tummy-bulge’ or ‘thigh-bulge’.143 For instance, many shops in Malta sold girdles to make women’s bodies look thin.144 Other advertisements promoted various diets for losing weight, such as the

135 C.S.A, ‘ Decenza fil-Knisja’, Lehen is-Sewwa, (Malta, Church Publications,1962), 2 136 Melita, ‘ Kif nilbes eleganti’, Il-Berka, (Malta, 1967), 7 137 Ganado ( 1977), 29 138 Sarah Grogan, Body Image; Understanding Body dissatisfaction in Men, Women, and Children, (New York, Routledge Publishers, 1999), 15 139 Ibid. 140 Ibid. 141Nirupama Pundir, Fashion Technology: Today and Tomorrow,(India, Mittal Publications, 2007), 29 142 Times of Malta, 12 December 1966 143 Times of Malta, 31 October 1962 144 Times of Malta, 30 June 1964

41 one known as the Proximal System which included three healthy meals per day.145 The 1950’s preference for a curvy body shape now gave way to a preference for slim bodies and many Maltese women who followed the latest fashion trends did their best to fit into this new ideal.

Figure 11146 – Twiggy

3.3.b Other Influences on Women’s Clothing

Women’s fashion in the 60s was, like men’s fashion, influenced by the subcultures and lifestyles that brought about ‘wild and crazy fads,’147 notably the hippies and rockers.

The ‘Hippie’ style for women was comprised of long skirts, flowing clothing, tie-dye shirts and dresses.148 In Malta, the women who adopted the ‘hippie’ style used to hang

145 Times of Malta, 19 March 1967 146 Retrieved on the 2nd May from http://bleubirdvintage.typepad.com/blog/2009/10/style-muse-twiggy.html. 147 Lowenstein Niven (Fabulous fashions of the 1960s), 8 148 Welters and Lillethun, 101

42 out mainly in Tower Road, Sliema.149 As Marc Storace explained, some of the younger generations in Malta adopted this new trend that seemed at first quite eccentric.150 To some extent, the ‘hippie’ style was a stepping stone towards equality between the sexes since the clothing was very similar for both men and women.151 Despite its presence, the ‘hippy’ style appealed to a limited number of women and was not advertised as such in Malta. This attire was not welcomed in local churches since it was argued by some that extravagant prints and patterns on women’s clothing distracted one’s attention throughout mass.152

The rocker style was inspired by the popularity of rock music in the 60s.153 As for the women who adopted the rocker style, they were mainly identified by the black leather jackets they wore.154 In spite of the fact that rock music was monopolized by men, women like Janis Joplin became a great rock success in the 60s.155 Like men, female members of this culture were generally aggressive and had a manly attitude.156 As soon as rock music hit the Maltese islands, according to Marc Storace, ‘The girls wore skinnies, their skirts got short…very short!’.157 For women in general, the ‘rocker style’ further questioned traditional female gender roles since the clothing and behaviour associated with rockers resembled that of males. In Malta like elsewhere rockers were identified with unacceptable forms of behaviour that could create moral panic within societies.158 Nonetheless, later in the 80s the rocker style started to be more publicized

149 Victor Paul Borg, The Rough Guide to Malta and Gozo, (London, Rough Guides, 2011), 115 150 Marc Storace, 16th a Febuary, 2013. (Interview is deposited at the Public Memory archive) 151 Lowenstein Niven (Fabulous fashions of the 1960s), 8 152 M.A.P, ‘ Nitghalmu nilbsu ma nkunux boloh’, Lehen is-Sewwa, (Malta, Church Publications, 1962), 7 153 Robin Sylvan, Traces of the Spirit; The Religious Dimensions of Popular Music, (New York, New York University press, 2002 ), 153 154 Kayleen M. Hazlehurst, Cameron Hazlehurst, Gangs and Youth Subcultures: International Explorations, (United States of America, Transaction Publishers, 1998), 46 155 Marianne DeKoven, Utopia Limited; The Sixties and the emergence of the Postmodern, (United States of America, Duke University Press , 2004 ), 118 156 M. Hazlehurst, 46 157 Marc Storace, 16th a Febuary, 2013. (Interview is deposited at the Public Memory archive) 158 Stanley Cohen, Folk Devils and Moral Panics; The creation of the Mods and Rockers, (USA, Routledge Publishers, 2011), 2

43 and accepted in Malta. In fact, in a popular magazine for Maltese teenagers called Saghtar, articles regarding rock music and its unique clothing style were included.159

3.4 Women’s Fashion in the 1970s

By the 70s, fashion journalists asserted that ‘fashion is now the expression of women who are free, happy, and doing what they want to be doing’.160 This implied that, unlike previous years women had now obtained enough freedom to be able to wear whatever they wanted to in public.161 Eventually, this decade came to be known as the ‘decade that taste forgot’ since the traditional rules of taste and modesty were increasingly violated.162 Women’s fashion, throughout the 1970s adopted a more do-it-yourself attitude which allowed women to design their own clothing and develop an individual style.163 Women looked towards a more simplistic look and gradually showed less interest in haute couture.164 Moreover, as more women started having careers they attempted to present themselves in a way which ‘minimized the maternal, nurturing, and sexual dimensions of their appearance’.165 For this reason, women’s clothing started to be patterned after traditional menswear therefore challenging the long standing gender norms.166 Fashion designers, such as the French designers Pierre Cardin, Coureges and Ungaro were still influential in the clothing market for women but had to adapt their designs according to the new modern wave.167 Roy Halston and Calvin Klein were at this time also two renowned fashion designers who developed a new kind of minimalistic modernism in women’s dress.168 Meanwhile, street fashion maintained its impact on how some women presented themselves in public through clothing.169 Most

159 Saghtar, May 1982; Saghtar, March 1983; Saghtar, April 1983 160 Nicola White, Nicola Joanne White, Ian Griffiths, The Fashion Business; Theory, Practice, Image,(New York, Oxford International Publishers Ltd, 2000) , 13 161 Ibid. 162 Ibid. 163 Clancy (1996), 108 164 Okonkwo, 32 165 Manlow, 49 166 Ibid. 50 167 Stecker, 19 168 White, 13 169 Ibid.

44 notably, music created new clothing trends that replaced the popularity of those Hollywood stars that had previously been considered fashion icons.170 Once again the influence of international fashions determining women’s clothing in Malta is made evident by the more frequent fashion shows during the 70s.171 In fact the first Maltese fashion magazine called Fashion and Beauty that started to be published in 1977 portrayed the impact of foreign influences on women’s clothing in Malta.172

3.4.a General Influence on Women’s Clothing

It has been noted that ‘by the seventies women over thirty lived through more changes in fashion than at any other time in history’.173 The twenty years preceding the 50s witnessed the rise and fall of several clothing fashions.174 However, the sexual revolution which was at its peak in the 1970s brought about significant changes in women’s attire that survived the following decades. The same applied to women in Malta who were experiencing a gradual revolution from the traditional feminine dress code.

Skirts, until the mid-1970s became either floor length or well above the knee.175 Some women wore long flowing skirts known as maxis or ‘granny skirts’.176 Maria Fleri Soler, who was a top Maltese fashion designer in the 70s, included full length dresses in her autumn and winter collection which was presented at a fashion show in Malta.177 A clothing shop in Valletta called Gopaldas frequently promoted maxi skirts for women.178 On the other hand, longer skirts do not appear to have been enthusiastically welcomed in the 70s as some women preferred the shorter skirts they had grown used to in the

170 Okonkwo, 32 171 Camilleri, 70 172 By a Correspondent, ‘ Producing a fashion magazine’, Times of Malta, (Malta, Allied Publications, 1977), 3. 173 Clancy(1996), 108 174 Ibid. 175Jacqueline Herald, The 1970s , (New York, Infobase publishing, 2006), 62 176 Kelly Boyer Sagert, The 1970s, (United States, Greenwood Publications, 2007), 101 177 Times of Malta, 19 October 1975 178 Times of Malta, 15 June; 16 June; 27 June; 29 June, 1975

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60s.179 Evidently, when compared to the previous decades shorter skirts superseded the popularity of full skirts amongst the Maltese women. The Catholic Church of Malta too became more tolerant towards a slightly shorter hemline in women’s dress. In a photograph taken in Malta in 1975, Archbishop Mercieca is captured presenting a prize to a local female science student who was wearing a knee length dress.180 For the Miss Nationalist competition of 1975, some of the Maltese contestants posed in skirts which were slightly above the knee.181 Meanwhile other Maltese women wore even shorter skirts which were well above the knee. Adverts of locally manufactured goods, such as Kinnie often included photographs of a woman wearing a short dress.182 Regardless of the acceptance of shorter hemlines in women’s dress, some people in Malta still resisted this change and regarded the emergence of very short skirts like the mini-skirts as offensive and scandalous.183

Figure 12– (Left)184 Long flowing dresses in the 1970s. (Right)185 A woman wearing a short dress in a Kinnie advert.

179 Times of Malta, 29 April 1970 180 Times of Malta, 31 July 1975 181 Times of Malta, 1 January 1975 182 Saghtar, October 1972 183 Rita Falzon, ‘Nimxu mal-moda?’, Saghtar, (Malta, Moviment Qawmien Letterarju, 1973), 12 184 De Piro, 296 185 Saghtar, October 1972

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Similar issues arose with the introduction of ‘hot pants’ which were very brief tight shorts for women.186 According to an article in the Times of Malta, these so called ‘hot pants’ were ‘highly adaptable and acceptable almost anywhere, they’re everyone’s answer to clothing dilemma’.187 In Malta, several contests and fashion shows included women wearing hot pants. In a fashion show held at the Palazzo Pescatore in St Paul’s Bay, the Guys and Dolls management hosted by Norman Hamilton presented their collection of ‘hot pants’ in front of 350 spectators.188 A civil employee of the ‘Malta House’ in London, Miss Joan Barbara, also organized a competition for ‘the best Girl in Hot Pants’, specifically for Maltese women living in London.189 However, once again this trend in women’s clothing had its critics, who argued that the woman’s body was indecently exposed taking away her dignity.190 In contrast to this, others believed that Malta must not lag behind fashion wise and therefore one must not be too scrupulous.191

186 Retrieved on 27 March 2013 from www.thefreedictionary.com 187 Natasha, ‘ Swingling Sizzling Summer ’ 71 ; Hot pants’, Times of Malta, (Malta, Allied Publications, 1971), 27 188 Times of Malta, 11 April 1971 189 Anton Gauci, Hwejjeg li rajna, II, (Gozo, L-Awtur, 1986), 145 190 Saghtar, March 1972 191 Ibid.

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Figure 13192 - ‘The Best Girl in Hot Pants’ competition for Maltese citizens in London.

At the same time, trousers or pants for women started to be increasingly accepted within societies.193 Women’s jeans were also in vogue and formed part of casual wear.194 By the 70s trousers had also became a norm amongst Maltese women. According to Josette Farrugia, who was nominated as the ideal woman in Malta from 1975 to 1976, trousers for women were very popular in the 70s.195 Byrite, a clothing shop in Sliema, retailed trousers for both men and women.196 The Guys and Dolls management on September 1971 advertised a trousers supermarket which included 5,500 different styles of pants for both men and women.197 The popularity of trousers amongst Maltese women emerges particularly through fashion shows and modelling

192 Anton Gauci, Hwejjeg li rajna, II, (Gozo, L-Awtur, 1986), 145 193 Welters and Lillethun, 102 194 Stecker, 19 195 Josette Farrugia, ‘ Ilbies l-ahhar moda bil-hwejjeg tal-bierah’, Saghtar, (Malta, Moviment Qawmien Letterarju 1976), 2 196 Times of Malta, 19 October 1975 197 Times of Malta, 19 September 1971

48 contests during this decade. For instance, a fashion show which took place at the Palazzo Pescatore, exhibited women wearing trousers in drip-dry Durapress and shirts.198 In another occasion, for a group photo of the ‘Miss Nationalist 1975’, which was organised by the Nationalist Party Committee of Malta, six out of the ten female contestants wore flared trousers.199

Figure 14 - (Right)200 A fashion show in 1971 at the Palazzo Pescatore which exhibited women wearing trousers. (Left)201 Miss Guardamangia Girl for Tokyo Festival of 1975 in bell- bottomed trousers.

198 Times of Malta, 11 April 1971 199 Times of Malta, 1 January 1975 200 Times of Malta, 11 April 1971 201 Times of Malta, 31 July, 1975

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3.4.b Other Influences on Women’s Clothing

According to Uche Okonkwo, ‘the interaction of fashion and music was an additional prevalent feature throughout the 1970s’.202 Indeed, the emergence of new genres of music infused a nonconformist attitude which was then transmitted also into women’s fashion.203 The ‘disco era’ and punk music had in fact been the most prominent element that influenced the manner in which some women dressed.

Discos brought about a particular fashion style for women in the 70s.204 This style comprised of leotards, stretch jeans and leggings normally made from a stretched fibre in bright colours and extravagant patterns.205 In Malta, women were undoubtedly inspired to wear such fashion with the opening of several discos such as Nigret Night Club (Rabat), The Big Apple (Xemxija)206, Armada Club (Mosta)207 and Pharoah’s Den (Salina Bay hotel).208 Usually, nightclubs in Malta also provided live entertainment known as cabaret 209 that was occasionally conducted by women. For example, Pam Shaw who was a dancer-singer-comedian was a regular performer at the Buskett Roadhouse for those ‘night-outers’.210 Like Pam Shaw, women who were part of the cabaret show at the Nigret Nightclub also advertised their performance with a photograph of them wearing the ‘disco fashion’.211 At the Nigret Nightclub, a woman who was part of the group Heart and Soul wore satin matching trousers and shirt that contained colourful patterns.212 Eventually, the popularity of discos in Malta amongst the younger generations further pushed forward the idea that Maltese women were no longer expected ‘to dress like nuns’.213 However, some were still concerned that this

202 Okonkwo, 32 203 Ibid. 204Jennifer Craik, The Face of Fashion; Cultural Studies in Fashion, (New York, Routledge Publishers, 1993), 325 205 Ibid. 206 Times of Malta, 31 May 1975 207 Times of Malta, 26 July 1969 208 Times of Malta, 21 November 1978 209 M. Hawkins, 64 210 ‘ Pam Shaw back at Buskett’, Times of Malta, (Malta, Allied Publications, 1975), 9 211 Times of Malta, 2 September 1974 212 Times of Malta, 4 January 1979 213 Saghtar, April, 1981

50 kind of clothing might negatively impact the traditional values and morality of women in Malta.214

On the other hand, punk fashion was simultaneously introduced in the 70s.215 Originally, this trend started in the streets of England in response to unemployment amongst young British people.216 For women, this style included ripped clothing held together with safety pins, chains, studded belts, black stockings and the use of second hand clothing which was often dyed and re-customized.217 In 1978 a fashion show in Malta, organized by the fashion retail group Square Deal, included a female model wearing clothing similar to the punk fashion.218 Like in other areas, throughout the 70s a progressive flow of punk movements emerged in Malta and eventually continued in the following years.219 According to Andrew Borg, the punk culture brought about not only a new kind of style but different kind of values and behaviour that fostered violence and obscenity.220 Nevertheless, in a way the punk fashion encouraged more women to adopt the do-it-yourself attitude that went beyond the traditional feminine dress code221 and gave them a newfound freedom to express themselves in public through their clothing style.

Another major trend of this period was the increased popularity of bikinis.222 The bikini, a two-piece bathing suit for women, was originally developed in 1946 but it was not until the 70s that it ‘lost some of its shock value and allure’.223 Already, by the late 1960s and 1970s adverts in Maltese periodicals promoted a wide selection of bikinis to

214 Ibid. 215 Stecker, 20 216 Cumming, C.W. Cunnington and E.Cunnington, 166 217 Ibid. 218 Times of Malta, 15 October 1978 219Jeremy Wallach, Harris M.Berger, Metal Rules the Globe; Heavy Metal Music around the world, (United States, Duke University Press Books, 2011), 275 220 Andrew Borg, ‘ Punk’, Saghtar, (Malta, Moviment Qawmien Letterarju , 1983), 30 221 Amy Lind, Stephanie Brzuzy, Battleground, (United States of America, 2008, Greenwood Press), 322 222 Valerie Steel, The Berg Companion to Fashion , (New York, Berg Publishers, 2010), 78 223 Ibid.

51 be found in local boutiques.224 Swimwear for women not only presented a style but also mirrored the acceptance towards more daring clothing. When compared to previous decades this kind of clothing for women went beyond the traditional customs and religious values. Nevertheless, according to Carmel Muscat, who was a former policeman in the post war era, bikinis became acceptable in Malta after an incident which happened in St. Julian’s, Malta. He explained how a group of young tourists swimming in bikinis had been arrested and charged in court for indecent exposure. In what turned out to be a test case they were released, following which, Muscat notes, bikinis started to be worn at the beach not just by visiting tourists but by many Maltese themselves.225

Figure 15– (Left) 226 Bathing costume used before World War II. (Right)227 The two-piece swimsuit in the 1960s and 1970s.

224 Shops such Camilla Boutique(Times of Malta , 22 June 1969) Elle Boutique (Times of Malta, 30 June 1970), K-Mart (Times of Malta, 2 September 1979) 225 Carmel Muscat, Hal Qormi, 11th April, 2012. (Interview is deposited at the Public Memory archive) 226 De Piro, 282 227 Retrieved on the 1st May from http://cemetarian.com/shopping/pgm-more_information.php?id=6414.

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3.5 Women’s Fashion in the 1980s

In the 80s women’s fashion became more individualistic due to the advance in the scientific and aesthetic domains.228 The discovery and improvement of new natural fibres allowed women to further express themselves by including personal touches to their clothing.229 Yet, women’s fashion in the 1980s had a more conservative look and returned to a body-consciousness style.230 At this point in time, women became increasingly involved in the world of professional business and therefore ‘an image of powerful authority and a soupcon sexualized femininity’ was necessary.231 ‘Power dressing’ was eventually the name given to this sophisticated clothing style that presented the woman as an authoritative and competent individual.232 The first female Prime Minister of England Margaret Thatcher had in fact adopted versions of this style.233 By doing so, she not only encouraged such attire for women, but also promoted equality between sexes especially in areas which had been predominantly male environments.234 Meanwhile, a body-consciousness style became popular and consequently clothing for women became more than ever closer to the body.235 As a matter of fact, women’s clothing which was before considered underwear became now considered part of outerwear.236 Azzedine Alaia, a Tunisian born couturier, gained international attention with his discovery of new high-tech stretch clothing materials that defined the woman’s body.237 Regardless of this, fashion designers also played a crucial part in the female market industry of the 80s. The house of Chanel, together with Milanese fashion designers were at this time most prominent.238 When compared to the previous decades, fashion designers became more popular as there was now a great

228 Camilleri, 24 229 Ibid. 230 Tamami Suoh, Fashion; The Collection the Kyoto Costume Institute; a History from the the 18th to the 20th century, Kyoto (Costume Institute, Taschen Publishers, 2006), 513 231 Ibid. 232 Ibid. 233 Clancy(1996), 168 234 Suoh, 513 235 Ibid. 236 Ibid. 237 Ibid. 238 Camilleri, 27

53 demand for ‘designer label ready-to-wear’.239 Consequently, as Tom Tierney explains, ‘to attract the emerging clientele-professional and newly-affluent women-fashion showings became public relations happening’.240 Furthermore, some women in the 80s were also greatly influenced by the elegant look of British Royals and politicians.241 Stars and famous musicians remained influential in the manner in which some women dressed. Once more, these influences were reflected through the clothing fashions amongst women in Malta. International fashion influences further penetrated in Malta by the 80s due to the increase of clothing shops in Malta which retailed designers’ clothing lines.242

3.5.a General Influence on Women’s Clothing

Women’s fashion of the 80s attempted primarily to have clothing in which ‘no longer would women be constricted and confined by structured foundation of garments’.243 On the other hand, the 1980’s fashion was mainly based on female styles from the previous decades specifically from the 30s, 40s and 50s.244 Nevertheless, clothing styles for women became also increasingly vast and diverse but at the same time contained a particular hallmark.245 The Maltese magazine Saghtar regularly offered tips and examples to show how Maltese women could transform their ‘old’ dresses according to the current fashion throughout the 1980s.246

For women in Europe and the USA this decade was well known as the decade of ‘power dressing’.247 This meant that business suits became greatly popular with the

239 Tom Tierney, ‘The eighties; Nostalgia with comfort’, Great Fashion Designs of the Eighties; Paper Dolls, (New York, Dover Publications, 1998 ), 1 240 Ibid. 241 Ibid. 242 Camilleri, 42 243 Tierney, 1 244 Ibid. 245 Camilleri, 24 246 Saghtar, January 1981; Saghtar May 1981; Saghtar, October 1982; Saghtar, January 1983; Saghtar, March 1985; Saghtar, April 1985; Saghtar, November 1985 247 Paula Nicolson, Gender, Power and Organisation; A Psychological Perspective,(London, Routledge Publishers, 1996), 53

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New Women or the so called female Yuppie (young urban professionals).248 Aspiring professional women started to be considered competent and equal to men and dressed the part.249 Men also claimed that where business is concerned there must be no inequality amongst sexes.250 In Malta, a fashion and beauty fair which took place in Naxxar in 1984 was actually intended to encourage women rather than men to see what goes on in the world of fashion business.251 Inevitably some still believed that “woman has the duty to be decently attired as befits a creature which was devised after some time we men were created”.252 Regardless of this, fashion shows in Malta in many occasions exhibited ‘power dresses’. The Afro Boutique, a clothing shop in Mosta, had in fact included a three-piece satin suit for women in its Spring/Summer collection which was exhibited in a fashion show at the Corinthia Palace Hotel.253 Additional women suits were once again presented in a fashion show at the Phoenicia Hotel which was organized by Anne Borg School of Beauty and Modelling.254 For this fashion show, women suits worn as part of the evening wear were sponsored by the Top Styles Unisex Boutique of Valletta.255 A Milanese collection which incorporated also these so called ‘power dresses’ was also presented in a fashion show at the Corinthia Palace Hotel.256 Besides promoting ‘power dresses’, these fashion shows verified their availability in local shops in Malta.

248 Clancy (1996), 168 249 Nicolson, 53 250 Albert Gauci, ‘ In my Fashion’, The Times and Beauty supplement, (Malta, Allied Publications 1984), iv. 251 Times of Malta, 26 October 1984 252 Albert Gauci, ‘ In my Fashion’, The Times and Beauty supplement, (Malta, Allied Publications ,1984), iv. 253 Correspondent, ‘ Afro Boutique fashion show’, The Sunday Times, (Malta, Allied Publications, 1980), 28. 254 Correspondent, ‘ Graduation fashion show by Anne Borg’, Times of Malta, (Malta, Allied Publications, 1986) , 26 255 Ibid. 256 Correspondent, ‘ Adrienne again’, The Sunday Times, (Malta, Allied Publications , 1986), 27

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Figure 16257 – ‘Power dressing’ was inspired by Margaret Thatcher by the 1980s.

At this time, straight skirts and dresses in varied lengths were in vogue258 even if women’s trousers became an acceptable alternative.259 This is evident in the extensive collection of skirts and dresses exhibited in fashion shows. Afro Boutique included in its collection a beige dress with tan squares, an African print dress in turquoise and multi- coloured pattern and also a gold two-piece cocktail dress.260 Additionally, Eva House of Valletta regularly imported dresses by Vogue, Alexon, Renzor, Atrimas and other international brand names.261 Occasionally it also promoted its vast selection of dresses and skirts for women on the Times of Malta.262 Like this shop, others such as the

257Retrieved on 5th May from http://fashionista.com/2013/04/margaret-thatcher-set-the-bar-for-power- dressing/. 258 Clancy (1996), 168 259 Ibid. 260 Correspondent, ‘ Afro Boutique fashion show’, The Sunday Times, (Malta, Allied Publications, 1980), 28 261 Camilleri, 38 262 Times of Malta, 10 March,1985; Times of Malta, 10 May, 1987; Times of Malta, 19 April, 1987

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County (Sliema, Valletta or Bugibba)263, Claire’s fashion (Paceville)264 and Eloise (Sliema)265 also advertised their collection of fashionable skirts.

In terms of length, dresses and skirts were constantly changing but gradually got shorter as the decade progressed.266 In Malta, the length of skirts was also constantly changing from one season to another. For this reason, articles about how women could alter their skirts or dresses according to the length in vogue were regularly published in Saghtar.267 One in particular explained in detail how to shorten a long dress since ‘this year [1982] shorter dresses are more in fashion and some are perhaps thinking of altering the dresses they already have’.268 Regardless of what length was mostly fashionable, one may note a much higher degree of tolerance where short hemlines were concerned in comparison to earlier decades. Yet, short dresses or skirts were still considered offensive for some. The Mary-Like fashion in fact continued to be promoted in the Maltese Church newspaper Lehen is-Sewwa269 where one writer argued that ‘Catholic women seem to not acknowledge that like monkeys they are copying a pagan fashion, by shortening their dresses inch by inch’.270 It should be noted however that by this time this newspaper’s readership had dwindled so much that it was unlikely to hold any sway on the women it was trying to address.

3.5.b Other Influences on Women’s Clothing

As previously mentioned, ‘fashion of the 1980s was diverse and changing very quickly, with no one style really dominating’.271 In the case of women’s fashion, once again successful names from the music and movie industry greatly influenced clothing

263 Times of Malta, 30 October 1988 264 Times of Malta, 1 April 1987 265 Times of Malta, 10 August 1987 266 Clancy (1996), 168 267 Saghtar, October1982; Saghtar, January 1981, Saghtar, April 1985 268 Saghtar, October 1982 269 Special Correspondent, ‘ Kun bhal Marija billi tilbes Mary-like’, Lehen is-sewwa, (Malta, Church Publications, 1988), 7 270 Ibid. 271 Stecker, 20

57 trends.272 The increased interest in sports and fitness also greatly impacted the manner in which some women presented themselves in public.273

Madonna, the famous pop-star and actress, created what is known as the ‘Madonna phenomenon’.274 As from the release of her first album called Madonna, she became one of the most popular fashion icons in the 80s.275 In Malta Madonna was also very popular most of all amongst teenagers.276 Madonna’s complex fashion style inspired young girls to develop their own identity by creating their own fashion statements.277 Nevertheless, her signature clothing comprised of a pair of customized t- shirts that had the neck cut off and the sleeves rolled up and a miniskirt over footless lace tights.278 Madonna was the first to wear underwear as clothing during her performance.279 By doing so, she promoted clothing that is much closer to the woman’s body. As on other occasions there were the inevitable warnings in the Catholic Lehen is-Sewwa about a ‘wave of immorality which was coming from television programmes, movies, radios and other means of media was full of obscenity and dishonesty’.280 Female members of Catholic groups in Malta were urged not to wear tight-fitting clothing in public so as to be good role models for others.281

272 Tierney, 1 273 Stecker, 20 274 S.Benstock, Suzanne Ferriss, On Fashion, (United States, Library of Congress Cataloging, 1994), 163 275 Ibid. 276 Andrew Borg, ‘ Lenti fuq Madonna’, Saghtar, (Malta, Moviment Qawmien Letterarju ,1986), 32 277 Benstock and Ferriss, 166 278 Deirdre Clancy Steer, The 1980s and 1990s, (England, Bailey Publishing, 2009), 17 279 Lowenstein Niven, 6 280 Special Correspondent, ‘ Kun bhal Marija billi tilbes Mary-like’, Lehen is-sewwa, (Malta, Church Publications, 1988), 7 281 G.Vella, ‘Das-Sajf x’sejrien naghmlu? ‘, Lehen is-Sewwa, (Malta, Church Publications, 1988), 2

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Figure 17282 - Madonna was also very popular in Malta most of all amongst teenagers.

Interest in fitness was another major influence on women’s clothing in the 80s. In this decade, as Vicky Carnegy explains, ‘whether you were Madonna or the president some form of fitness was obligatory’.283 In fact Malta saw a great increase in fitness studios, programmes and diets as people became more aware of their fitness. An article written in 1981 stated that ‘nowadays it has become popular amongst us Maltese of all ages to attend for keep fit classes’.284 Therefore, skin-tight, brightly coloured leotards were being more than ever utilized throughout fitness classes and also as everyday clothing.285 Eventually, clothing shops in Malta such as Muscats General Stores286 and

282 Andrew Borg, ‘ Lenti fuq Madonna’, Saghtar, (Malta, Moviment Qawmien Letterarju ,1986), 32 283 Vicky Carnegy, Fashions of a decade, (New York, Infobase Publishing, 2007), 48 284 Marilyn, ‘Niehdu hsieb il-figura’, Saghtar, (Malta, Moviment Qawmien Letterarju, 1981), 6 285 Carnegy, 48 286 Saghtar, April 1984

59

Eloise in Sliema retailed sports outfits for both females and males.287 A photograph of a group of female performers rehearsing for a musical ‘Chess Mates’ at De La Salle College shows them dressed in leotards or tracksuits while doing their dance routine.288

Figure 18289 – Skin-tight leotards worn by women throughout a fitness class in Malta by the 1980s.

The emergence of the sports and fitness craze eventually induced the idea of having less-structured and more figure revealing suits.290 As a result, by the 80s, the two piece suit together with the one piece suit became widespread amongst Maltese women. Various Maltese fashion shows of the 1980s exhibit women modelling with either two-piece or one-piece swimsuits. One in particular was a fashion show that presented women’s bikinis which were manufactured by Calypso Clothing Company in a factory in Marsa.291 In contrast, ready-made swimsuits were also imported in Malta. Certain women’s swimwear brands like that of Azzura were imported from foreign countries and eventually available in leading shops in Malta.292 Unlike the previous decades, in the 80s the Maltese society was more concerned with women being topless at beaches rather than with women in bikinis. As a matter of fact, by 1985 a religious

287 Times of Malta, 23 January 1987 288 Correspondent, ‘Rock opera at De La Salle ; When pawns mean politics’, Times of Malta, (Malta, Allied Publications, 1986), 9 289 Photograph by courtesy of Ruth Chircop 290 Ibid. 291 M.R, ‘Heard in the Hive’, Times of Malta, (Malta, Allied Publications, 1984), 26 292 Times of Malta, 1 June 1985

60 organization in Malta called Kummisjoni Djocesana Zghazagh (K.D.Z) distributed posters and stickers in churches, hotels, restaurants and shops with the slogan ‘We don’t need to see more!..No more topless bathing’. 293

293 Correspondent, ‘ Kampanja ghad-decenza mill-KDZ’, Lehen is-Sewwa,(Malta, Church Publication, 1985), 3

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Chapter 4

4. Men’s Clothing

4.1 Introduction

Perhaps men’s clothing has not received sufficient consideration in fashion history.1 Such inattention towards the development of the clothes men wore, could be due to the presumption that ‘men dress for fit and comfort, rather than for style’.2 It seems as if women’s flamboyant costumes had overshadowed the evolving history of the masculine fashion.3 Ironically enough however, men’s clothing sculpted the modern female fashion as women intermittently started adapting to the subtle fit of men’s clothing.4 Yet, the masculine figure still seemed to be detached from the progressive world of fashion since there was the prevailing notion that clothing for civilized men was uniformly plain and simple.5

It was the years following World War II that dispelled this notion because following this time the advancement in mass production, technology and communication impacted and transformed men’s wear.6 The introduction of the post-war fashion known as ‘New look’ which was developed by Christian Dior in 19477, initiated and promoted the desire to be fashionable. In Malta, men were also becoming fashion conscious at this point in time. Cikku Gatt, a former Maltese tailor from the post-war years, when asked about his everyday clothing, enthusiastically responded – ‘I used to dress

1 Lomas, 82 2 Ibid, 84 3 Anne Hollander, ‘ The Modernization of Fashion’, Design Quarterly, CLIV, (1992), 28 4 Ibid. 31 5 Ibid. 28 6 Hayes , 714 7 Hayes, 285

62 according to Fashion’. 8 As we shall see, Gatt was no exception in endorsing a variety of new ‘modern’ fashions. As the horrific effects of World War II were gradually waning and clothes rationing ended9, men like women had now a broader access to clothing materials. Thus, an article in The Sunday Times of 24th April 1949 entitled ‘More colour in Men’s clothing’, discusses the newly introduced patterns and styles in men’s wear. 10 Additional articles and adverts published in Maltese periodicals in the following periods further illustrate the evolution in male clothing. As in other countries, Maltese male attire was steadily breaking away from its old customs.

The post war era endorsed the notion of a less formal and more varied casual look in male dress.11 Due to the introduction and increased use of man-made fibres and easy-care garments, worsted lounge suits or flannel trousers became familiar day-time wear.12 Comfortable clothing was also in demand, and consequently it became common amongst men to dress in lightweight suits made from an array of fabrics.13 This trend was visible in Malta, where it was noted that ‘the use of thicker, hairier fabrics, look extraordinary soft and make the wearer appear like a graceful moving picture’.14 Briefly, men’s suits preserved the same universal characteristics and the grey flannel suit ended up being the uniform of the young business man.15 More than ever suits, worn together with a hat, became a key element in men’s wear in Malta. The idea of wearing a suit gradually became popular as it not only defined one as fashionable but also of a high class.16 In fact it has been noted that despite Malta’s high temperatures many still wore jackets in order to maintain formality in the crowd.17 Moreover, it was common for men to wear a flannel shirt as this fabric was a better absorbent of perspiration.18 It is worth noting here that as clothing became cheaper due to mass production a wider

8 Cikku Gatt, Hal Qormi, 12th April, 2012. (Interview is deposited at the Public Memory archive) 9 Times of Malta, 3 June 1945 10 Tim, ‘ More Colour in Men’s Clothing’, The Times of Malta, (Malta, Allied Newspaper Ltd , 1949), 12 11 Doreen Yarwood, European Costume: 400years of Fashion, (Batsford, V & A Publishing, 1975), 265 12 Ibid. 266 13 Ibid. 266 14 Marie Moir, ‘Exquisite Sports Clothes’, The Times of Malta, (Malta, Allied Newspaper Ltd Malta, 1951), 4 15 Hayes, 286 16 Zammit , 173 17 Ibid. 140 18 Ibid. 31

63 range of customers now afforded to spend more on clothing. Although clothing still differentiated between men of different means, it did so less forcefully as clothing styles become more uniform regardless of the wearer’s income.19 Therefore, fashion could now be followed by ‘the young and not so young, by the wealthy and not so wealthy’.20

Figure 1921 – A group of Maltese men in suits early in the 20th century.

Nevertheless, not all men in Malta immediately embraced ‘modern’ styles in clothing. Here I am referring to those men whom the British in Malta referred to as ‘backward’.22 In reality the Maltese men who were still attached to their traditional customs, particularly in clothing, were mostly either village people or people who

19 Ibid. 139 20 Camilleri, 18 21 De Piro, 272 22 Michael Refalo, The Maltese Commercial Class in 1870-1914; Business, Families, Networks, (Pisa, Pisa University Press, 2010), 136

64 worked outdoors, such as farmers and fishermen.23 Only such people continued to wear the terha whilst the rest of the men dropped it in favour of the common belt.24 Additionally, these so called ‘backward’ men were reluctant to wear a jacket or a tie even when appointed to court.25 On the other hand however, these same individuals would then parade with shoes, jackets and jewellery at the village feasts.26

Figure 2027 - The traditional Maltese costume with the terha around the waist.

The evolution of men wear went on despite the resistance of those who did not immediately welcome the new ‘modern’ look. By the 1950s changes in men’s clothing were observed due to foreign influences and changes in one’s mindset. It would be just

23 Evelyn Baluci, Costume in Malta- Exhibition Catalogue, (Malta, Patrimonju pubblishing limited, 1998), 32 24 Lanfranco, 15 25 Ibid. 136 26 Ibid. 27 De Piro, 229

65 a matter of time until the long standing notion ‘that men do not notice clothes’ 28 would become largely irrelevant.

4.2 Men’s Fashion in the 1950s

During rationing men used to give their clothing coupons to their female relatives,29 but would it be the same nowadays if coupons were still distributed? At this point in time, I doubt it. ‘Men’s clothing was certainly changing in the 1950s’30 as innovative ingredients were introduced into fashion designing by the young who were taking over the leading role of adults.31 This ‘rejuvenated’ clothes wear may have been part of the driving force that made men more fashion-conscious than ever before.32 Ideas of a more casual business wear continued to spread from the previous years. The notion of having a more relaxed, carefree look became popular with both the young and the older age groups33. This look can be noted both in the way suits started to be worn, and the use of clothing such as jeans, slacks and shorts.34 The introduction of modern styles and the fact that now it became easier to access consumer goods, stimulated men’s fashion more than ever.35 Eventually, as observed in Men’s Wear, ‘more and more men now buy clothing not merely to replace necessities, but because of a new found interest – an interest in fashion.’36 It bears repeating that foreign influences were being increasingly felt in Malta, since one is able to identify similarities between what Maltese men wore and the contemporary male fashion in the rest of the world.

28 Lomas, 84 29 Clancy, 27 30 Lomas, 86 31 Camilleri, 18 32 Clancy, 27 33 Lomas, 87 34 Rooney, 22 35 Jenkins, 1067 36 Ibid. 87

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4.2.a General Influence on Men’s Clothing

By the 1950s, the United States and Italy acquired a crucial role in the fashion market particularly in the mass production of casual wear for youth.37 This included blue jeans, sweaters and T-Shirts and also the more casual elegance of Italian tailoring.38 For instance the so called ‘Italian look’, consisted of a suit made of lightweight cloths and a tight, streamlined cut.39 England was on the other hand linked with the London boutiques, which supplied for a more ‘gay, male sub-culture’.40 As previously mentioned men’s clothing started to gradually incorporate colours and fabrics which had been previously regarded as effeminate.41 Behind such innovations, an ongoing experimentation of gender and sexual margins was currently happening in society as a whole.42 Moreover, new man-made and synthetic fibres together with cotton and knitted textiles gradually became a key ingredient in men’s clothing.43 All this made the 1950s as described by Men’s Wear fashion magazine, ‘a decade of progress’.44

The suit was the epitome of menswear, even if jackets started to be cut more loosely featuring a noticeable waistline and longer collars.45 This can be seen in footage recording Queen Elizabeth II’s visit to Malta in 1954; where amidst the crowds in Floriana are several men wearing suits.46 A photo of a Maltese couple taken in the 1950s captures the man wearing a wide jacket and baggy trousers.47 Although many men wore suits, not all suits were identical as they varied in their structure and style. The coat or jacket of a suit could be either single breasted, meaning that it had one column of buttons and a narrow overlap of fabric, or double breasted, having a wider

37Jenkins, 1068 38Ibid. 39 Jenkins, 1068 40 Ibid. 41 Lomas, 86 42 Jenkins, 1068 43 Ibid. 1067 44 Anonymous, ‘ The “Fifties ; A decade of Progress, Men’s wear”, The Men’s Fashion Reader, Peter McNeil (ed.), Berg Publishers, New York 2009, 175 45 Retrieved on 1 February 2013 from http://www.suitusa.com/1950s-mens-suits.aspx. 46 Retrieved on 1 February 2013 from www.britishpathe.com. 47 Nicholas De Piro, Costume in Malta; an history of Fabric, form and fashion, (Malta, Fondazzjoni Patrimonju Malti, 1998), 258

67 overlap and two parallel rows of buttons.48 Photographs and footage49 from the 1950s show men wearing single-breasted and double-breasted jackets and coats. It was a matter of preference, but double-breasted coats or jackets were considered to be more formal than the single-breasted ones.50 This is confirmed by Cikku Gatt, the tailor mentioned above, and Carmel Muscat a former Maltese policeman, who assert that double-breasted jackets were usually worn for special occasions.51 On the other hand, with the re-appearance of the Edwardian look in the 50s, single-breasted suits started becoming more frequently worn.52

Figure 2153 – Men in double breasted and single breasted suits during an outside broadcast for the Rediffusion of Valletta in 1951.

48 Richard Woolnough, The A to Z Book of Menswear, (Bermuda, Bespoke Solutions Ltd, 2007), 337 49 Retrieved on 1 February 2013 from www.britishpathe.com. 50 Betsy Durkin Matthes, Dressing the Man you love,(New York, Peter Pride Publishing, 2006), 68 51 Carmel Muscat, Hal Qormi, 11th April, 2012 and Cikku Gatt, Hal Qormi, 12th April, 2012. (Interviews are deposited at the Public Memory archive) 52 Anne Rooney, 23 53 Photograph by courtesy of Albert Galdes

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4.2.b Other Influences on Men’s Clothing

Apart from this, it is vital to acknowledge that by now men’s fashion mirrored other major movements. ‘Individualism’ gradually started becoming a central objective in men’s wear. By the 1950s the fashion industry encouraged men to have a more unique and individual style, which most of the time was inspired by a particular group or a popular icon. 54 As Anne Rooney argues the ‘intoxicating influence of music and movie stars such as Elvis Presley, James Dean, and Marlon Brando’ and others were an alternative style for men to copy.55 Furthermore, American influence stimulated many European teenagers with the clothing that rock and roll idols wore. In Britain, there appeared also a popular teenage boy fashion which was based on the Teddy Boys. 56 The focus on individualistic style can be ascribed to, as Yulia Saltowski argued, ‘the rise of the so-called young generation or teenage cult’. 57

Evidently, in Malta some men also followed the clothing style of their preferred icon. In fact one of the most prominent styles which a number of men in Malta looked up to was the style of the Teddy Boys, originally a subculture born on the streets of South London, England. The Teddy Boys wore a fitted coat made of wool, velvet or satin which was paired with narrow pants in the same or different colour.58 In Malta, many were those young men who loved music and dancing and wore the Teddy Boys trousers.59 Together with other additional features [such as the style of the hair and shoes], the ‘Teddy Boy’ look may have been seen as ‘a strange blend of aggression, narcissism and style’.60 Mirroring this conclusion, a number of articles published in Maltese periodicals feature criticism of the attitude of the Teddy Boys in Malta which they considered arrogant and vulgar.61

54 David Jenkins, 1068 55 Anne Rooney, 23 56 Yulia Saltowski, Children and Clothing: Seminar paper, (University of Osnabrück , 2006), 7 57 Ibid. 58 Professor Martin Halliwell, American Culture in the 1950s , (Edinburgh, Edinburgh University Press, 2007), 24 59 Retrieved on 1 February 2013 from www.um.edu.mt/_data/assets/pdf_file/0014/11632/oralhistorycentre.pdf 60 Halliwell, 24 61 Several articles in the Times of Malta discuss the presence of the ‘Teddy Boys’ in Malta; Times of Malta, 19 September 1955; 5 September 1966; 10 September 1966

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Figure 2262 - Three friends, all 'Teddy boys', Birkirkara, Malta by the 1960.

Elvis Presley, the great American Rock and Roll singer was also a popular fashion icon with some Maltese men.63 His style incorporated mainly a shirt which was normally opened to the chest, together with suits bedazzled with jewels and exotic designs.64 As elsewhere all over the world, there was in Malta an Elvis Presley fan club which frequently organized activities such as dancing65, watching Elvis films in cinemas66 (of which the most popular was Loving You), picnics67 and more. These influences greatly impacted men’s clothing in Malta and endured the following years despite the new fashions that came in.

62 Retrieved on the 3rd January from http://trove.nla.gov.au/. 63 Halliwell, 136 64 Ibid. 65Times of Malta, 25 June 1959 66 Times of Malta, 4 January, 1960 67 Times of Malta, 3 September, 1960

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Figure 2368 – A popular Maltese Elvis Presley impersonator later in the 21st Century.

68 Times of Malta, 4 September, 2012

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4.3 Men’s Fashion in the 1960s

A ‘renaissance’ in men’s fashion is said to have happened in the 1960s.69 This was probably a revival in male attire which, as we have already seen, had started to progress in the previous decade. Italy, Britain and America remained the main agents that further revolutionized men’s fashion in the 60s.70 The so called ‘Italian style’ which consisted of tailored Italian clothing was enhanced by the Italian designers Brioni, Nino Cerruti and Ermenegildo Zegna.71 Meanwhile London started to be referred to as ‘Swinging London’ as it too exhibited the dynamic changes in clothing happening at that time.72 In the United States, the production of Hollywood films promoted the idea that young men should carry a more casual look rather than wearing the same clothing of older men.73 In addition to this, popular sub-cultural youth styles in the 60s, mostly those in Italy, England and United States, had indeed continued to play a crucial role in the introduction of new trends in men’s clothing which were followed by men worldwide.74 Sports, with its increasing popularity, also encouraged men to wear more loose clothing especially knit wear, as it allowed men to move more freely.75 Most visibly in all styles was the use of a combination of bright colours which was becoming more common amongst men and not just women.76 Eventually, as Jennifer Craik explains ‘men in general became a little more adventurous’ from time to time.77 The prominent styles in men’s fashion in the 60s bear out the fact that Malta too ventured into these new male fashions which broadened not only the evolution of men’s wear but also the way in which society perceived men.

69 Francesca Sterlacci, Joanne Arbuckle, The A to Z of the Fashion Industry, (United Kingdom, Scarecrow Press, 2008), 164 70 Jenkins, 1068 71 Manlow, 66 72 Rooney, 27 73 Manlow, 66 74 Jenkins, 1068 75Michael Flood, International Encyclopaedia of Men and Masculinities, (Canada, Routledge Publishers, 2007), 152. 76 Ibid. 77 Craik, 185

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4.3.a General Influence on Men’s Clothing

Briefly, men’s wear in the 1960s further departed from formality and neutral colours, and continued to undergo a series of transformations which may have been considered before the war as unacceptably informal and effeminate.78 Suits however, remained essential items in men’s wardrobe for both daywear and evening wear.79

In Malta, suits were featured commonly in photographs, footage80 and adverts appearing in Maltese periodicals throughout the 1960s. As noted earlier however, men started to incorporate a wider range of colours and different cuts in their clothing.81 A correspondent in a Maltese periodical wrote that it was fashionable for young men to wear jackets in vivid colours especially in red. On the other hand, she recommended that jackets in darker shades such as royal blue were much more suitable for older men.82 In addition to this, she concluded that flower patterned (but not too extravagant) jackets and dressing gowns were also increasingly in vogue for men’s wear.83 Eventually, the incorporation of distinct cuts and bright colours in men’s underwear, shirts and jackets greatly levelled out the long standing distinction between masculine and feminine attire.84 The emergence of unisex clothing allowed men to publicly wear more colourful and distinct styles and fabrics which had only been seen in women’s attire before. This transformation reflected also the shift from the traditional gender roles of men. An article appearing in the Times of Malta in 1969 suggested that unisex clothing was suitable and elegant for both sexes, and was in fact becoming greatly popular among the younger generations.85

78 Flood, 152 79 Ibid. 80 Retrieved on 1 February 2013 from www.britishpathe.com. 81 Craik, 185 82 Melita, ‘ Zommu r-ragel dejjem pulit’, Il-Berqa, (Malta, 1967), 6 83 Ibid. 84 Flood, 152 85 Pamela Lyons, ‘ Let him wear the Velvet Pants’, The Times of Malta, (Malta, Allied Newspaper Ltd, 1969), 11

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Figure 24 – (Right)86 Men in suits for the first quiz show on Maltese television in 1963. (Left)87 Men in suits at the Rediffusion of Malta by the 1960s.

Apart from introducing innovative styles, the use of bright colours and unisex clothing had at the same time reawakened issues which had in the past been concealed within societies. In the case of men, the availability and acceptance of various styles enabled all gay men to express themselves more freely in their clothing.88 Although the Catholic Church in Malta opposed all forms and expressions of homosexuality, some still challenged such values.89 In the 1960s, the so called Wembley Store Boys were a group of homosexual men who regularly gathered in a gay friendly bar in Sappers Street in Valletta.90 Unlike others, these were the first men who exhibited their sexual orientation in the open even though most of the time they were discriminated against and harassed by police. 91 Joseph Carmel Chetcuti argues that for the Wembley Store Boys ‘coming out meant little more than wearing bright and colourful clothes not usually worn by straight men.’92 Regardless of this, Maltese society in the 60s was repressive

86 Photograph by courtesy of Albert Galdes 87 Photograph by courtesy of Albert Galdes 88 Henry Urbach, 68 89 Malta Today, 28 March 2010 90 Joseph Carmel Chetcuti, Queer Memories; penetrating the secret history and silence of gay and lesbian disguise in the Maltese archipelago, (Australia, Lygon Street Legal Services, 2009), 50 91 Chetcuti, 50 92 Ibid. 52

74 with regard to homosexuality and this is why many preferred to veil their sexual orientation in public.93 However, to some extent, the adoption of new clothing fashions was perhaps the primary means that allowed Maltese gay men to freely express themselves in public without being prejudiced. After all, the concept of individualism was strongly in fashion.

4.3.b Other Influences on Men’s Clothing

According to Rebecca Arnold ‘one of the strongest reference points in menswear collections since the 1960s has been sub-cultural style’.94 Despite the popularity of pre- war sub-cultures, additional trends in men’s wear were introduced with the emergence of numerous new social groups. Like in Europe and America, one of the most prominent influences on men’s clothing in Malta were by now those generated by The Beatles, the ‘rockers’ and by the so called ‘hippie’ style.

The Beatles, with their distinctive look helped to pave way for more changes in men’s clothing throughout the 60s.95 In Malta The Beatles’ influence was catching on. Besides the Beatles Fan Club which regularly organized activities such as the ‘Beatle haircut competition’,96 films featuring The Beatles concerts were in high demand in Maltese cinemas.97 Apart from their music, The Beatles became renowned for their subdued suits and ties 98 so it followed naturally that their unique clothing style was widely admired by fans in Malta; one of whom was John Zammit, who remains a great admirer of The Beatles to the present day.99

93 Retrieved on 20th February 2013 from http://daphnecaruanagalizia.com/ 94 Rebecca Arnold, Fashion; A very short introduction, (Britain, OUP Oxford, 2009), 18 95 Jeremy Roberts, The Beatles; Music Revolutionaries,(USA, Lerner Publisher group, 2011), 55 96 Times of Malta, 3 June 1964 97 Times of Malta, 2 January 1964 98 Roberts, 54 99 Retrieved on 13th February 2013 from http://www.maltarightnow.com/Default.asp?module=news&at=Wirja+dwar+il- %26%23295%3Bajja+u+lmu%26%23380%3Bika+ta'+John+Lennon&t=a&aid=99831356&cid=45.

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Figure 25 - (Left)100 The group The Beatles. (Right)101 John Zammit imitates The Beatles clothing style throughout the 1960s.

The rockers who immersed themselves in rock and roll music and fashions, made up another subculture that influenced men’s wear.102 According to Graham Seal, the rocker style was primarily inspired by the ‘motorcycle and car-orientated antics of Marlon Brando and James Dean in films like Wild Ones and Rebel Without Cause’.103 The rocker style consisted mainly of tight jeans worn with leather biker jackets104 which were heavily decorated with metal studs, patches and pin badges.105 For Malta this style was perhaps too radical. A Maltese music group called The Rockers wore suits rather than the traditional rocker style.106 Nevertheless, the rocker style in Malta started to disseminate as the young men of this generation were eager to join the global flow.107

100 Retrieved on the 3rd January from http://www.nickiboards.com/forum/topic/3850-the-beatles/ 101 Retrieved on 13th February 2013 from http://www.maltarightnow.com/Default.asp?module=news&at=Wirja+dwar+il- %26%23295%3Bajja+u+lmu%26%23380%3Bika+ta'+John+Lennon&t=a&aid=99831356&cid=45. 102 Rooney, 28 103 Graham Seal, The Lingo: Listening to Australian English, (Australia, University of New South Wales, 1999), 110 104 Rooney, 28 105 James Sullivan, Jeans: A cultural history of an American Icon, (Gotham, Penguin Putnam, 2006 ), 91. 106 The Times of Malta, 18 May 1963 107 Marc Storace, 16th a Febuary, 2013. (Interview is deposited at the Public Memory archive)

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Marc Storace had started his career as an established rock singer and song-writer in Malta by the 1960s,108 by first joining a renowned Maltese pop-rock music band called The Boys.109 According to Marc Storace, for his band and other rocker fans in Malta,‘colored t-shirts and leather or jean jackets became the norm’.110

Figure 26111 – Marc Storace with his rock music band Krokus.

Deirdre Clancy explains that ‘the hippy culture and its pursuit of love, peace and psychedelia was the antithesis of the 1960’s main street fashion’.112 The fashion that it generated is only one outward manifestation of this culture, which was nurtured in the context of protests against the Vietnam war.113 Generally, the hippie style of men consisted of colourful long loose shirts that had huge sleeves without any cuffs or collars.114 In Malta, the meeting hub for hippies throughout the 60s was Exiles beach in Sliema.115 In Marc Storace’s words, the influence of hippies in Malta ‘gave way to

108 Malta Today, 25 June 2010 109 Retrieved on 17th February 2013 from http://krokusonline.seven49.net/web/. 110 Marc Storace, 16th a Febuary, 2013. (Interview is deposited at the Public Memory archive) 111 Photograph by courtesy of Marc Storace 112 Clancy, 88 113 Rooney, 29 114 Rooney, 29 115 Borg, 115

77 colored flares, sandals, flowery and paisley-shirts, together with beads, headgear and colored sun-glasses’.116

116 Marc Storace, 16th a Febuary, 2013. (Interview is deposited at the Public Memory archive)

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4.4 Men’s Fashion in the 1970s

By the 70s, as Katrina Honeyman argues, ‘the major growth area in menswear is ready to wear and fashion’.117 Men’s wardrobe was becoming more varied, and was constantly being updated according to the style in vogue since ready to wear clothing was easier to access.118 Additionally, the use of brighter colours and distinct patterns were popularized in men’s fashion.119 During this time Italy once again played a crucial role in the industry due to its reinvigoration in the production of men’s textiles.120 The Italian designer Georgio Armani in particular developed a distinctive look in men’s fashion that eventually became popular with men worldwide.121 Nevertheless, by the 70s men had also started to adopt to a more do it yourself attitude which meant that some opted to determine their own sense of style in clothing rather than follow the ones established by fashion designers.122 Popular sub-cultures and street fashions impacted men’s wear because like before some followed the dress style of their preferred icon. Sports also significantly furthered its influence on men’s fashion as it promoted a more casual look which set the stage for sportswear, knitwear and most of all, for jeans.123 In the 70s jeans became considered part of respectable every day casual wear.124 Evidently Malta was prone to the changes happening in men’s wear throughout the 1970s which by now had completely dropped any traditional features of clothing.

4.4.a General Influence on Men’s Clothing

By the 70s Men’s Fashion Reader was noting that, ‘Millions of men are interested as never before in new clothes, different clothes, not just a business suit and jacket’.125 In

117 Katrina Honeyman , Well Suited: A history of Leeds Clothing Industry, 1850-1990, (New York, Oxford University Press, 2000), 244 118 Ibid. 119 Flood, 152 120 Jenkins, 1071 121 Durkin Matthes, 66 122 Clancy, 108 123 Manlow, 68 124 McNeil and Karaminas, 334 125 McNeil, Karaminas, 174

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1978 a fashion show in Malta organised by the Square Deal Company, presented an extensive range of formal and informal styles in men’s wear.126 Nevertheless, suits and jackets remained a basic in men’s wardrobe. In Malta, photographs and adverts throughout the 1970s all point to the continuing importance of suits for both formal and informal occasions.127 These were now made of shiny fabrics such as cashmere and silk, and became more casual.128 Ready to wear suits rather than tailored ones were also becoming more than ever accessible and popular amongst most men.129 In Malta, Mr R. Micallef, who owned the renowned men’s wear store Elite, dedicated a whole floor in his shop for ready-made suits for all ages and sizes and made every effort to keep up with changing styles.130

Figure 27131 – Two popular Maltese broadcasters, Charles Arrigo and Victor Galdes, in suits at the Valletta’s Carnival Celebrations by the 1970s.

126 Times of Malta, 15 October 1978 127 Several photographs throughout different occasions show Maltese men wearing suits. Additionally, in adverts published in Maltese newspapers promoted casual suits and formal suits. 128 Stecker, 19 129 Manlow, 98 130 Times of Malta, 29 July 1973 131 Photograph by courtesy of Albert Galdes

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On the other hand, jeans and knitwear were also becoming more than ever an essential in men’s everyday attire.132 Before, jeans were used mainly for working men’s trousers but increasingly by the 1970s they became associated with youths.133 Malta, being itself involved in the production of jeans since 1964, had indeed further promoted the use of jeans amongst Maltese men.134 Adverts also reflect the popularity of men’s knitwear in Malta. Originally, the knitwear market emerged shortly after the 1960s, as it was greatly influenced by the ‘hippie’ movements.135 Shops in Malta occasionally advertised men’s knitwear which included v-necks, cardigans, polo necks, lace up collars and skinnies.136 Normally knitwear for men comprised of boldly patterned long cardigans and sophisticated sweaters.137 Other patterns and styles were however also incorporated according to their preference.

4.4.b Other Influences on Men’s Clothing

Once again, as Diana Crane explains, sub-cultures allowed men ‘to experiment with identities, often “prefabricated” and requiring little imagination or effort on his part’.138 Most notably in this decade, men’s fashion became increasingly linked with the world of music.139 In this way, existing sub-cultural groups and others which emerged in the 1970s continued to determine the dress code of some men worldwide, and in Malta.

The late 1970s have been referred to as the ‘disco era’.140 Initially, this started within the gay subculture but then spread among many men regardless of their sexual orientation.141 This style was characterised by brightly coloured bell-bottoms made from polyester fabrics, together with tightly fitted shirts with wide collars.142 In Malta, the

132 Manlow, 68 133 Vaughan-Whitehead, 242 134Ibid. 237 135 Manlow, 68 136 Times of Malta, 29 February 1972 137 Herald, 62 138 Crane, 187 139 Micheal Burgan, Popular Culture; 1960-1979, (London, Heinemann, 2013), 22 140 Manlow, 69 141 Ibid. 68 142 Ibid.

81 popularity of discotheques such as the Nigret Night Club (Rabat), The Big Apple (Xemxija)143, Armada Club (Mosta)144 and Pharoah’s Den (Salina Bay hotel)145 had indeed inspired this disco clothing.146 A Maltese band (Heart and Soul) which was playing at the Nigret Night Club, had in fact promoted itself by publishing a photograph of its group, which consisted of both men and women, wearing the so-called disco fashion.147 Nevertheless, this style was not suitable as business wear and therefore had not replaced the importance of the suits in men’s attire.148 It did, however, influence the style of the traditional suit.149 Photos from the 1970s show men wearing suits which comprised of wide ties and bell-bottomed trousers.150

Figure 28151 – Man with bell bottom trousers at Republic Street in Valletta by the 1970s.

143 Times of Malta, 31 May 1975 144 Times of Malta, 26 July 1969 145 Times of Malta, 21 November 1978 146 De Piro, 270 147 Times of Malta, 4 August 1977 148 Manlow, 69 149 Ibid. 150 De Piro, 258 151 Photograph by courtesy of Alan Aplin

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Figure 29152 – Men in bellbottoms at the Savoy Cinema in Valletta in the 1970s.

Punk music in the 70s also developed its own fashion movement in men’s wear.153 A common part of punk fashion for men was the leather jacket with metal studs, chains and zippers worn together with T-shirts displaying outrageous slogans.154 In 1978, a fashion show in Malta presented a male model wearing similar attire and referred to as ‘punk’.155 Whilst the punk movement caught on among Maltese youths, 156 there was a tendency for critics to associate it with Satanism, on account of the radical way they dressed.157 There were even those who argued that Satanism was actually introduced into Malta by the punks who sported satanic slogans on their clothing.158 In the following

152 Photograph by courtesy of Tasilg Filetti 153 Burgan, 26 154 Ibid. 155 Times of Malta, 15 October 1978 156 Wallach and M.Berger, 275 157 Paul Clough & Jon P.Mitchell, Powers of Good Evil; Commodity, Morality and Popular Belief, (United States, Berghahn Books, 2001), 89 158 Ibid.

83 decades, the number of punks in Malta grew as society became more tolerant and less prejudiced about their attire.

Celebrities naturally influenced men’s attire in the 70s as they had done in previous decades. One such notable celebrity was John Travolta, a Hollywood star who was a major hit with the trend-setting film Saturday Night Fever.159 Numerous fashion designers and men around the world copied John Travolta’s look, which sported bright shirts, pastel polyester suits, gold chains and platform shoes.160 Travolta’s movies were very popular in Maltese cinemas and often emphasized his unique clothing style through cinema adverts. Some men in Malta may have directly copied Travolta’s look, however his fashion trend penetrated into Maltese fashion mainly through imported ready to wear clothing.

Figure 30161 – John Travolta, a Hollywood star who was a major hit with the trend- setting film Saturday Night Fever.

159 Micheal Kimmen and Amy Aranson, Men and Men and masculinities, (United States, Library of Congress Cataloging, 2004), 198 159 Welters and Lillethun, 103 160 Several adverts in Maltese periodicals promote John’s Travolta movies which were being shown in cinemas of Malta. 161 Micheal Kimmen and Amy Aranson, Men and Men and masculinities, (United States, Library of Congress Cataloging, 2004), 198 161 Retrieved on 2th May from http://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/film/film-news/9458187/John-Travoltas- Saturday-Night-Fever-suit-is-found.html

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4.5 Men’s Fashion in the 1980s

In the 80s, it has been noted that some men turned into a SNAG: a ‘sensitive new age guy’.162 Men became more sensitive and concerned with their appearance in public and inevitably became increasingly fashion conscious. Fashionable consumerism had in fact played a crucial role in the development and expression of male identities.163 Eventually, well-established designers who had previously created designs solely for women, extended their designs to produce menswear lines.164 Most notable was Georgio Armani who continued to design new styles in men’s wear, emphasizing the body beneath the clothes.165 In Britain, the popularity of high street outlets such as Next increasingly expanded the retailing of clothing for men.166 The so called ‘British look’, according to Jill Condra comprised of the most basic forms of menswear but was unique because of the ‘bold and adventurous use of colour and its unique take on the mixing of patterns.’167 Sportswear became more popular with men due to the growing consciousness in the 1980s of keeping fit and healthy.168 Communication of fashionable dress for men was further enhanced by the progress in the media delivery system such as cable television and Video Home Systems which became widespread in the 80s.169 Additionally, the introduction of periodicals like Cosmo Man, GQ, The Face, i-D and Vogue, which came in English, French and Italian editions, promoted men’s clothing and at the same time kept their consumers up to date with fashion.170 The regular importation of wearing apparel to Malta from overseas gave men the essential means to keep abreast with the international vogues.171

162 Craik, 166 163 Matthew Rampley, Exploring Visual Culture; Definition, Concepts and Contexts, (Edinburgh, Edinburgh University Press, 2005), 74 164 Jill Condra, The Greenwood encyclopedia of clothing through world history; 1801 to present, III, (United States of America, Greenwood Publishing group, 2008), 208 165 Ibid. 166 Paul Jobling, Fashion Spread; Word and image in fashion photography since 1980,(UK, Berg Publishers, 1999),49 167 Condra, 207 168 Carnegy, 48 169 Condra, 196 170 Condra, 207 171 Camilleri, 36

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4.5.a General Influence on Men’s Clothing

Robert Howard argues that in the 1980s ‘designer collections expanded to include nearly everything – not just men’s suits but also shirts, socks, handkerchiefs, even umbrellas and sunglasses.’172 In Malta, the clothing market for men became by time also more varied; as evident in an advert for Elite, the above-mentioned menswear store, promoting new stocks of Lanerossi suits, blazers, sports jacket, trousers, shirts, knitwear and many other items that were arriving on a daily basis.173 Additionally, St Michael in Valletta promoted its importation of high fashion Shetland and lamb’s wool knitwear, trousers, shirts, underwear, anoraks, raincoats and suits for men.174 International franchises of designer labels and other renowned names in menswear also emerged in the local fashion scene.175 By the 1980s, popular labels ranging from high- priced franchises like Lacoste and less expensive ones like Bhs, became available in Malta.176 There was an increasing demand for ‘signed labels’ amongst Maltese men, as it became fashionable wearing ‘labels’.177

Within the context of designers’ collections, the same applied for men’s suits. Suits designed by Giorgio Armani became greatly popular in the 80s for incorporating both fashion and business.178 The Armani suit, characterised by linen or high-quality, sleek and textural synthetic blends, became according to D.T Jenkins, ‘an icon of 1980s style’.179 Additionally, the TV police drama Miami Vice inspired young men to start wearing suit jackets over pastel colours.180 These films or television, available in Malta, might have contributed to the promotion of such fashion trends and designs amongst

172 Robert Howard, The Learning Imperative ; Managing People for Continuous Innovation, (United States of America, Harvard College, 1993), 101 173 Times of Malta, 13 December 1988 174 Times of Malta, 11 November 1988 175 Camilleri, 41 176 Ibid. 42 177 Ibid. 178 Howard, 270 179 Jenkins, 1071 180 Jim Corringan, The 1980s Decade in photos; the triumph of democracy, (United States of America, Enslow Publishers, 2010), 34

86 the Maltese men.181 Nevertheless, this style reached the Maltese mostly through imports as many international fashion designers were following the clothing trends created by Armani and Miami Vice.182 The growing market of ready-made clothing for men in Malta, however, still offered a variety of distinct styles of suits according to one’s taste. Shops in Malta advertised a wide selection of suits that came either in classic or fashion styling.183 Eventually, as Cikku Gatt explains, tailors in Malta were mostly required to repair suits and coats rather than customize new ones since off-the-peg clothing became prevalent.184

4.5.b Other Influences on Men’s Clothing

Briefly, as Deirdre Clancy Steer argues, ‘clothing for men in the 1980s expressed the conservative political climate with great accuracy’.185 It is argued that, by the 80s the style of the left-over hippies and rock stars had to adapt to the New Age spiritual values of real business.186 Physical fitness became an essential and had in fact affected greatly men’s fashion both inside and outside the gym.187 On the other hand, the influence of the media through popular music still continued to fuel the manner in which some men dressed.188 With Malta now being more connected to outside trends than ever before, through the expansion of and access to different forms of media, as well as the proliferation of outlets selling the same brands and labels that one would found in high street stores in any European city; it was inevitable that such international fashion influences spread more easily among Maltese consumers.

181 Times in Malta, 30 January 1982.(American Gigolo shown in Embassy Cinema, Valletta) 180 Times in Malta, 2 May 1988. (The Untouchables shown in the Ambassador Cinema, Valletta) 182 Charles L.Killinger, Culture and Customs of Italy, (United States of America, Greenwood Press, 2005), 195 183 Times of Malta, 11 November 1988 184 Cikku Gatt, Hal Qormi, 12th April, 2012. (Interview is deposited at the Public Memory archive) 185 Deirdre Clancy Steer, The 1980s and 1990s, (England, Bailey Publishing Associates Ltd, 2009), 25 186 Clancy (1996), 162 187 Condra, 201 188 Condra, 204

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The 1980s are known as the decade of the ‘yuppies’.189 The ‘yuppies’ [deriving from young upwardly-mobile professionals] was a nickname given to those men and women who usually worked in large cities, particularly in finance, had a high income, and wore business-like clothing.190 According to Jonnie Rennie Short, the yuppies suggested a ‘life full of work, commitments, movement and meetings’.191 For men to have a serious and professional look it was very popular to wear pinstripe suits combined with a skinny tie and red braces.192 In Malta, the ‘yuppie style’ may have altered the usage of suits amongst men even though this outfit was already widespread decades before the 1980s. Even now, several clothing shops in Malta advertised elegant and casual suits for men.

Sports clothing for men was also supported by the fitness craze happening in the 1980s.193 Men who were not so physically active were also inspired to wear jogging suits, stretch body suits, gym shorts and t-shirts.194 This widespread enthusiasm for keeping fit reached both men and women in Malta. Adverts like that of Muscats general stores LTD195 and that of Eloise shop in Sliema marketed sports outfits for both sexes.196 During a fashion show in Malta, a young male model posed in a black and white tracksuit on the runway.197 A male correspondent also encouraged other men to buy gym clothing after he himself had attended a class for fitness in Malta to which he wore a ‘red silk tracksuit’.198 The rise of gyms and fitness classes for men in many localities across Malta further popularized the market for men’s sportswear.

The ‘Jackson mania’, created by the famous pop star Michael Jackson, had also influenced men’s attire.199 Michael Jackson’s style became ‘the touchstone for hordes of

189 Lowenstein Niven, 13 190 Ibid. 191 John Rennie Short, New Worlds, New Geographies, (New York, Syracuse University Press, 1998 ), 208 192 Jilly Hunt, Popular Culture; 1980-1999, (China, Leo Paper Products, 2013), 46 193 Welters and Lillethun, 104 194 Tom Tierney, Great fashion Designs of the eighties; paper dolls, (New York, Dover publications, 1998), 1 195 Saghtar, April 1984 196 Times of Malta, 23 January 1987 197 The Sunday Times of Malta, 11 May 1988 198 Times of Malta, 30 March 1980 199 Condra, 204

88 copycats’ shortly after the release of his epic album Thriller in 1982.200 The red leather jacket featuring decorative zippers was the main outfit that most Michael Jackson fans copied.201 Michael Jackson gained a lot of popularity especially among Maltese men. Regularly, Times of Malta publicized a competition sponsored by Pepsi which gave winners the opportunity to see Michael Jackson performing live in Rome, among other prizes.202 Eventually, out of the Maltese contestants, thirty won a Michael Jackson jacket and another ten won the trip to Rome.203 Furthermore, Axis discotheque in St Julian’s advertised two shows which were held by Daimyo Jackson204 who was a southern-American impersonator of Michael Jackson.205 Some Maltese men adopted a dress style fashioned on Michael Jackson’s own fashion style. Robert Lautier from Zejtun owns various outfits which he used during his shows as a Michael Jackson impersonator in Malta.206 In 1989, another Maltese called Matthew Mallia won the competition for best Michael Jackson impersonator in a talent show in Italy’s San Remo.207 On returning to Malta, Matthew Mallia said, ‘people started calling me Jackson. Even my mother still calls me Jackson.’ 208

200 Ibid. 201 Ibid. 202 Times of Malta, 2 May 1988 203 Times of Malta, 21 May 1988 204 Times of Malta, 4 November 1988 205 Retrieved on 3 March 2013 http://www.daimyo-jackson-entertainment.com./ 206 Times of Malta, 26 June 2009 207 Times of Malta, 27 June 2009 208 Ibid.

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Figure 31 – (Right)209 Michael Jackson (Left)210 Matthew Mallia, won the competition for best Michael Jackson impersonator in a talent show in Italy’s San Remo.

209 Retrieved on 1st May from http://www.eastbayexpress.com/WhatTheFork/archives/2012/02/29/mid-week- menu-boston-loves-oakland-new-yorkers-hate-oakland-coffee-and-sexytimes-at-hudsons-bar 210 Times of Malta, 27 June 2009

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Chapter 5

5. Conclusion

The main intention of this study was to explore how foreign fashions influenced the evolution of clothing in Malta. Through this study I wanted to extract the broader and deeper meaning of fashion, and discover how the evolution of clothing mirrored the economic and social setting at a particular time.

5.a Economic Setting

After World War II, technological advances brought about a series of changes and developments that affected the clothing industry.1 With technological progress, clothing production became more efficient and started to be manufactured in mass quantities. Clothes became less expensive and therefore more affordable for almost every social class. Even though differences in clothing still existed between people from different social backgrounds, fashion became increasingly widespread and affordable.

Progress in communications technology enabled Malta to keep in touch with the world outside. As clothing rationing ended, several Maltese became more fashion conscious than ever before. Rather than just a basic daily necessity, clothing became an affordable and necessary luxury. Foreign fashion influences swiftly penetrated Malta mainly through magazines, television programmes, films, fashion shows and tourism. The increase in clothing shops, clothing factories, fashion adverts and fashion shows in Malta reflect the growing popularity of fashion. The amount of money people spent on clothing also testifies to this. From one decade to another expenditure on clothing rose as people incorporated a variety of clothing styles in their lifestyle, as the following graphs show.

1 Lanfranco, 14

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In the Annual Abstract of Statistics of Malta, it was recorded that from 1957 till 1989 the expenditure on the importation of wearing apparel in Malta increased considerably every decade.2 In all, from 1957 until 1989 a total of 103,645,001 Maltese Liri was spent on imported clothing.3 This influx of clothing which was designed and manufactured overseas kept Malta in tune with international fashions. At the same time, several factories were set up in Malta by foreign direct investment to manufacture ready-made clothing for export, retaining some to be retailed locally. Eventually, by 1985 there were 165 firms forming part of the textiles and clothing sector which employed 8,835 workers.4 Clothing manufacture followed international fashions and improvements in communications and technology supported the spread of fashion trends among the Maltese.

With the increase in ready-made wearing apparel, the popularity of handmade clothing in Malta inevitably decreased. This explains why the role of tailors in the production of clothing gradually shifted from bespoke tailoring, to services of alterations and repair of ready-made clothes. Having said this, there was still a place for locally made clothing in Malta, in terms of design rather than production, as some fashion designers became established and made use of local fashion shows to display their designs. Prominent fashion designers in Malta often based their clothing designs on the current international fashion and remained generally reluctant to introduce completely new clothing styles. At the same time, the success of local fashion designers may have also encouraged more interest towards fashion sewing courses in Malta. Despite the fact that many bought ready-to-wear clothing, some still preferred tailored clothing particularly for special occasions. To a certain extent, therefore, fashion designers superseded the role of tailors in Malta.

2 Central Office of Statistics, Trade Statistics/Annual Abstract of Statistics, (Malta Government, Printing Press) (Refer to table 1,2,3,4) 3 Ibid. 4 Sibley Butler & V. Gibson, 201

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5.b Social Setting

The evolution of clothing mirrored the mindset of the Maltese society. Prior to World War II, it had not been easy to identify the state of mind of this society through the clothes people wore. For the most part, the manner in which one dressed defined only the status and the class which that individual pertained to. As from the late 1940s, clothing became a wordless medium of expression. Through international fashions, the Maltese were influenced to adopt a look which they mostly related to. Some followed the clothing styles of a particular sub-culture, life-style, music genre or popular film star at that particular time. On other occasions, the manner in which one dressed presented unsettled issues mainly concerning gender roles in Maltese society. Eventually, many were those who took on a particular style regardless of how modest or extravagant it was considered at that time. As from the late 1940s everyone was able to have an individualist look if they wanted to.

Malta became greatly exposed to several international influences which challenged long standing values and morals. For centuries, the Catholic Church shielded Maltese society from all that it considered indecent or unsuitable. The manner in which one dressed was of course central to the Catholic Church which insisted that clothing should conceal one’s body, particularly in the case of women. Post-war foreign influences obviously challenged the traditional dress code approved by the Church. To a certain extent, the Church attempted to adapt modern fashions limiting them within the parameters of traditional norms of decency. The Marylike fashion is a clear example of how the Catholic Church as a whole developed a new set of rules in its dress code to keep in tune with modern clothing styles. Nevertheless, unlike previous decades, the Church in Malta was not able to halt the influence of foreign fashions. Even when certain ‘modern’ clothing styles went far beyond what the Catholic Church commended, many still took to the current fashions. Disputes on how moral and adequate one dressed in public still occurred. Although influences of modern fashions were immensely strong in Malta, the sense of Christian values was still rooted amongst the Maltese.

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Women were protagonists in the evolution of clothing. From the end of World War II until the 1980s, women’s clothing styles underwent several changes. When compared to previous decades the changes in women’s fashion can be considered rather drastic. For centuries, many Maltese women in public covered almost their entire body with clothing, particularly with the ghonella. However, as the use of the ghonella diminished more women adopted more revealing outerwear. As early as the 1950s, the length of women’s skirts was shortened, and clothing for women became tighter and more body revealing, albeit gradually. Thus in the 50s Maltese women were more likely to identify with the likes of Doris Day in fashion and outlook, than with the sex symbol Marilyn Monroe. Meanwhile, the popularity of the two-piece swimsuit by the 70s is a clear marker of how women in Malta were breaking away from long standing notions on clothing decency. Later on, the introduction of new trends further encouraged tighter and more body revealing clothing particularly with the fitness craze of the 80s. Nevertheless, some Maltese women were still doubtful of short hemlines and clothing which exposed the female body substantially.

Regardless of this, the changes in women’s fashion also mirrored body and gender issues. With regard to body consciousness, clothing fashion for women presented a change in what had been considered the ideal body shape. The ‘perfect’ body shape shifted from the voluptuous look of Marilyn Monroe in the 50s, to a thin one like that of Twiggy a decade later and ultimately to a healthy slim figure by the 80s. For many decades, women’s attire was also in many ways different from that of men. Nevertheless, the introduction of new clothing styles for women such as the hippie style, rocker style, punk style and yuppie style, encouraged clothing that approximated that of men. Of particular importance was the introduction of women’s trousers and the power suits which became increasingly popular in the 1970s and 1980s amongst women in Malta. Apart from the fact that this was a drastic change in women’s clothing styles it also mirrored women’s changing position and status in society, as women slowly began to attain higher positions in society that had previously been the domain of men.

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Men experienced fewer changes in fashion than women during the period under review. However change was present and it reflected social developments. From the 50s onwards, more colour and pattern started to be incorporated in the everyday attire of men allowing men to sport a distinct look and follow any particular trend of their choice. Other men also imitated clothing styles of their preferred music or film star. Ultimately, men in Malta became more fashion conscious than ever and experimented with new clothing styles. By time men’s clothing in Malta also started having a more relaxed look. Even if suits remained in vogue at all times, a more relaxed, carefree look was incorporated and accepted as part of men’s every day clothing. By the 1980s, a more comfortable outerwear was further promoted with the increased popularity of sportswear, which in itself could have inspired more men to obtain a fitter body. Therefore to some extent, while women’s clothing during these years came to adopt a number of features from men’s clothing, the reverse was also true. As men’s clothing became more flexible it soon became an essential means of expression.

To sum up, an insight of the evolution of clothing of both men and women reflects not only new fashions but also the changes in the social and economic setting in Malta. From the end of World War II, Malta became increasingly exposed to the ongoing changes happening overseas. The concept of modernity was a fundamental element that not only shaped new clothing styles but also other aspects of social life in Malta. During these decades it can ultimately be said that in Malta, as elsewhere, clothing served as a ‘wordless dialogue’.5

5 I. Miller, 18

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Flood Michael, International Encyclopaedia of Men and Masculinities, (Routledge Publishers, Canada, 2007) [Gives a description of men’s clothing and styles]

Foley Caroline A., ‘Fashion; The Economic Journal’, The Journal of the British Economic Association, (F.Y. Edgeworth (ed.), New York, 1893) [A brief history of the evolution of clothing through different epochs]

Gauci Anton, Hwejjeg li rajna, II, (L-Awtur, Gozo, 1986) [Information about ‘Hot Pants’ competitions amongst Maltese contestants throughout the 1970s]

Grogan Sarah, Body Image; Understanding Body dissatisfaction in Men, Women, and Children, (Routledge Publishers, New York, 1999) [A review and results of some new research about body image.]

Hayes David, New Standard Encyclopaedia, II, (Chicago, Standard Educational Corporation, 1992) [Gives a concise description of the introduction of the main clothing styles after World War II]

Hazlehurst Kayleen M., Hazlehurst Cameron, Gangs and Youth Subcultures: International Explorations, (Transaction Publishers, United States of America, 1998) [A brief overview of the rockers style and its influence on clothing throughout the 1960s]

Herald Jacqueline, The 1970s, (Infobase publishing, New York, 2006) [A description of knitwear patterns and styles for men’s clothing in the 1970s]

Honeyman Katrina, Well Suited: A history of Leeds Clothing Industry, 1850-1990, (Oxford University Press, New York, 2000) [A detailed overview of the changes in menswear in the 20th century]

Hopkins John, Basic Fashion Design 05; Fashion Drawing, (Ingram Publisher Services, United Kingdom, 2010) [A practical approach in describing the process and history of fashion particularly that of women’s dress in the beginning of the 1950s]

Howard Robert, The Learning Imperative ; Managing People for Continuous Innovation, (Harvard College, United States of America, 1993) [A concise insight to the popularity of designer clothing for men throughout the 1980s]

Hunt Jilly, Popular Culture; 1980-1999, (Leo Paper Products, China, 2013) [A detailed description of the yuppie clothing style throughout the eighties]

Jenkins David, The Cambridge History of Western Textiles, II Volume Boxed Set, (Cambridge University Press, UK, 2003) [A detailed overview of a study that brings together the leading experts on textiles from eight countries, ensuring authoritative coverage of the production and uses of textiles in western societies from the earliest times to the present day]

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Jobling Paul, Fashion Spread ; Word and image in fashion photography since 1980, (Berg Publishers, UK, 1999) [Information regarding the high street fashion outlets in Britain that retailed men’s clothing] Jones Jen, Fashion Modeling; Being Beautiful, Selling Clothes, (Capstone Press, United States of America, 2007) [An understanding of how models and popular movie stars influenced women’s clothing lines throughout the 1960s]

Kester Gerard, Transition to workers’ self-management; its dynamics in the decolonizing economy of Malta, (University of Michigan, Michigan, 1980) [A concise background information about the knitwear production in Malta]

Kimmen Micheal and Aranson Amy, Men and Men and masculinities, (Library of Congress Cataloging, United States, 2004) [A concise introduction regarding the emergence of John Travolta and his influence on men’s clothing in the 1970s]

Lanfranco Guido, Drawwiet u Tradizzjonijiet Maltin, (Pubblikazzjonijiet Indipendenza, Malta, 2001) [Gives a brief description of clothing in Malta after the World War Two]

Leiss William, Social Communication in Advertising ; Consumption in the mediated Market place, (Taylor and Francis group, Great Britain, 2005) [A critical view of the ‘ yuppie style’ throughout the 1980s]

Lind Amy, Brzuzy Stephanie, Battleground, (Greenwood Press, United States of America, 2008) [Provides a resource for understanding the most pressing issues involving women, gender, and sexuality]

Lowenstein Niven Felicia, Fabulous fashions of the 1960s, (Lake book manufacturing, United States of America, 2012) [A detailed background information about the fashions and costumes popular during the 1960s]

Lowenstein Niven Felicia, Fabulous fashions of the 1980s, (Lake book manufacturing, United States of America, 2012) [A detailed background information about the fashions and costumes popular during the 1980s]

Manlow Veronica, Designing Clothes: Culture and Organization of the Fashion industry, (Transaction Publishers, New Jersey, 2009) [Focuses on the significance of fashion in society, the creative fashion design, and how fashion unfolds in an organisational context where design is conceived and executed]

Matthes Betsy Durkin, Dressing the Man you love, (Peter Pride Publishing, New York, 2006) [A detailed description of clothing styles for men particularly men’s suit.]

McNeil Peter, Karaminas Vicki, The Men’s Fashion Reader, (Bloomsbury Academic, USA, 2009) [A detailed overview of the changes in casual wear for in the 20th century]

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Nicolson Paula, Gender, Power and Organisation; A Psychological Perspective, (Routledge Publishers, London, 1996 [Examines the influence on women’s clothing as a result of the role of women in the working industry throughout the 1980s]

Okonkwo Uche, Luxury Fashion Branding; Trends, Tactics, Techniques, (PALGRAVE MACMILLAN, New York, 2007) [Provides a concrete strategic analysis on the business of luxury companies of clothing.]

O’Toole James M., Habits of Devotion; Catholic Religious practice in 20th century America, (Cornwell University Press, USA, 2004) [Background information about the Marylike fashion and its standards in women’s clothing]

Parati Graziella, New Perspectives in Italian Studies ; The arts and History, (Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, United Kingdom, 2013) [A brief introduction to the popularity of coats for women in the 1950s.]

Parker Dan, The Bathing Suit; Christian Liberty or secular Idolatry, (Xulon Press, USA, 2003) [A brief insight of how society perceived the introduction of bikini amongst women]

Professor Halliwell Martin, American Culture in the 1950s, (Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh, 2007) [A detailed description of main characteristics of the Teddy clothing style.]

Radner Ronni, ‘Wearing the Pants’, OUT Magazine, (Here Publishers, UK, 2003) [A brief overview of the introduction of trousers in women’s clothing]

Rampley Matthew, Exploring Visual Culture; Definition, Concepts and Contexts, (Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh, 2005) [A brief introduction of how social background influenced men’s clothing in the 1980s]

Refalo Michael, The Maltese Commercial Class in 1870-1914; Business, Families, Networks, (Edizjoni Plus, Malta, 2010) [Gives brief information regarding men’s clothing for peasants in Malta by the early 20th century]

Rielly Edward J., The 1960s, (Greenwood Press, United States of America, 2003) [Describes in each chapter various aspects of popular culture including clothing throughout the 1960s]

Roberts Jeremy, The Beatles; Music Revolutionaries, (Lerner Publisher group, USA, 2011) [An introduction about the Beatles and their influence in menswear by the 1960s]

Rodnitzky Jerry L., Feminist Phoenix; The Rise and Fall of a Feminist Counterculture, (Greenwood Publishers, United States of America, 1999) [Each chapters focus on how feminists used music as a counterculture and how they attempted to liberate media such as cinema, television, and advertising]

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Rooney Anne, Costume and Fashion, Source Book; The 1950s and 1960s, (Chelsea House, England, 2009) [Gives a detailed description of the international fashion styles from the 1950s till the 1960s]

Sagert Kelly Boyer, The 1970s, (Greenwood Publications, United States, 2007) [Focuses on the social, cultural, economic, and political situation in the 1970s and its influence on clothing]

Saltowski Yulia, Children and Clothing: Seminar paper, (University of Osnabrück, 2006) [A brief introduction of sub-cultural groups in London particularly the Teddy Boys]

Seal Graham, The Lingo: Listening to Australian English, (University of New South Wales, Australia, 1999) [An introduction to the rockers style and how it influenced menswear]

Shor John Rennie, New Worlds, New Geographies, (Syracuse University Press, New York, 1998 [A brief overview of the social setting of the Yuppie lifestyle throughout the 1980s]

Stecker Pamela, The Fashion Design Manual, (MACMILLAN EDUCATION, Australia, 1996) [Gives a detailed description of the evolution of fashion, the fashion industry and fashion production]

Steel Valerie, The Berg Companion to Fashion, (Berg Publishers, New York, 2010) [This volume contains several entries covering designers, articles of clothing, key concepts and styles]

Steer Deirdre Clancy, The 1980s and 1990s, (Bailey Publishing, England, 2009) [Background information about the 1980s fashions and costumes popular during this time, and how these fashions were inventive or derivative of past decades]

Sterlacci Francesca, Arbuckle Joanne, The A to Z of the Fashion Industry, (Scarecrow Press, United Kingdom, 2008) [A brief overview of men’s fashion in the 1960s]

Sullivan James, Jeans: A cultural history of an American Icon, (Penguin Putnam, Gotham, 2006) [A description of the main characteristics dressed by the rocker’s throughout the 1960s]

Suoh Tamami, Fashion; The Collection the Kyoto Costume Institute; a History from the the 18th to the 20th century, (Costume Institute, Taschen Publishers, Kyoto, 2006) [Showcases a vast selection of women’s clothing and gives an understanding of clothing sociologically, historically, and artistically throughout the 20th century]

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Suthrell Charlotte, Unzipping Gender; Sex, Cross-Dressing and Culture, (Oxford International Publishers, New York, 2004) [An understanding of how culture including clothing shaped the notions of sexuality and gender]

Sylvan Robin, Traces of the Spirit; The Religious Dimensions of Popular Music, (New York University press, New York, 2002) [A brief overview of the rockers style and its influence on clothing throughout the 1960s]

Tierney Tom, ‘The eighties; Nostalgia with comfort’, Great Fashion Designs of the Eighties; Paper Dolls, (Dover Publications, New York, 1998) [A background information regarding the popularity of designer labels and their influences in clothes wear throughout the 1980s]

Vaughan-Whitehead Daniel, Working and Employment Conditions in New EU Member States: Convergence or Diversity?, (International Labour Office, Switzerland, 2005) [Brief information about the Wrangler’s casual wear company and popularity of jeans in menswear]

Wallach Jeremy, Berger Harris M., Metal Rules the Globe; Heavy Metal Music around the world, (Duke University Press Books, United States, 2011) [An insight of the influence of punk music on the clothing amongst the young in Malta]

Welters Linda, Lillethun Abby, The Fashion Reader; Second Edition, (Berg, USA, 2011) [An overview of key writings on the history, culture and business of fashion drawn from several sources including interviews, exhibition catalogues, and academic journals]

White Nicola, White Nicola Joanne, Griffiths Ian, The Fashion Business; Theory, Practice, Image, (Oxford International Publishers Ltd, New York, 2000) [Explores the theory and culture of fashion, design, industry, image and marketing]

Woolnough Richard, The A to Z Book of Menswear, (Bespoke Solutions Ltd, Bermuda, 2007) [Defines the name and use of specific clothing garments for men]

Wray Margaret M.A.,Ph.D., ‘The Women’s Outerwear Industry’, History of the 20th Century Fashion, (Elizabeth Ewing ( Ed.), B. T. Batsford Publishers, London, 1974) [A long view of the course of women’s clothing manufacture until the 1950s]

Young William H., Young Nancy K., The 1950s, (Greenwood Publishing Group, United States of America, 2004) [This volume presents a nuanced look at a surprisingly complex time in American popular culture]

Zammit Vincent, Il-Kostum Malti u d-Drapp fl-istorja ta’ Malta, (Pubblikazzjonijiet Indipendenza, Malta, 2005) [Gives a brief description of clothing in Malta after World War II]

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Articles

Abrahamson Eric and Fairchild Gregory, ‘Lifecycles, Triggers, and Collective Learning processes Administrative Science Quarterly’, Management Fashion, XLIV, (1999). [A brief insight in the development of technology that impacted the textile industry]

Bindas Kenneth J., ‘Adorned in Dreams; Fashion and Modernity by Elizabeth Wilson’, The History Teacher, XXIV, (1990). [Review of the book written by Elizabeth Wilson which particularly describes how clothing identifies a person in a society]

Birmingham Feminist History Group, ‘Reflections on 25years; Feminism as Femininity in the Nineteen-Fifties?’, Feminist review, LXXX, (2005). [An insight of the feminist movements with reference to the way women presented themselves in public through clothing throughout a 25 year period]

Chin Daryl and Beecroft Vanessa, ‘Models of Fashion’, A Journal of Performance Art, XX, (1998). [An analysis of changes in the social fabric binding of the international culture after World War Two including that of clothing]

Crane Diana, ‘The Social Diffusion of Ideas and Things; Diffusion of Models and Fashion ; A Reassessment’, Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, DLXVI, (1999). [A concise description of the youth influence on the fashion throughout the 1960s]

Evans Caroline and Thornton Minna, ’Fashion, Representation, Femininity’, Feminist Review, XXXVIII, (1991). [An understanding of the changes happening in the length of women’s dress]

Fraser Steven, ‘Combined and Uneven Development in the Men’s Clothing Industry‘, The Business History Review, LVII, (1983). [A brief information regarding the production of clothing and the price range of ready to wear apparel]

Goldsmith Ronald E., ‘Characteristics of the heavy user of fashionable clothing’ , Journal of Marketing Theory and Practice, VIII, (2000). [Briefly describes the factors that determined long term and short term changes in clothing styles throughout history]

Hollander Anne, ‘The Modernization of Fashion’, Design Quarterly, CLIV, (1992). [A detailed description of the modernization of clothing and the importance of women’s fashion ]

Jayne Horace H.F., ‘Renaissance in Fashion 1942’, The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin, XXXVII, (1942). [An understanding of how through time the major leaders of fashion shifted to other areas]

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Lomas Clare, ‘Men don’t wear Velvet you know! Fashionable Gay Masculinity and the shopping experience’, Oral History, XXV, (2007). [A brief description of men’s fashion in the 1950s , 1960s and 1970s]

Lowe John W.G. and Lowe Elizabeth D., ‘Cultural Pattern and Process; A study of Stylistic Change in Women’s Dress’, American Anthropologist, LXXXIV, (1982). [An insight to how the cultural, political and social changes were reflected through clothing]

Mc Robbie Angela, ‘Fashion and Beauty; Fashion Culture; Creative Work, Female Individualism’, Feminist Review, LXXI, (2002). [Explores some of the key dynamics of the UK fashion industry as a result of the post-industrial, urban based and cultural economy which constituted of a youthful female workforce]

Meaney Shealeen A., ‘ “Sans Clothes and Sans Reproche” ; Beauty, Nature, and Transgression in Post-Suffrage American Women’s Travel Narratives’, Journal of Narrative Theory, XXXV, (2005). [An overview of how society perceived women’s clothing as it became more revealing when compared to previous decades]

Miller Christopher M., Melntyre Shelby H. and Mantrala Murali K., ‘Toward Formalizing Fashion Theory’, Journal of Marketing Research, XXX, (1993). [Briefly describes the factors that determined a long term and short term change in clothing styles throughout history]

Miller Joshua I., ’Fashion for Democracy; Fashion and democratic Relationships’, Polity, XXXVII, (2005). [A critical view of the physiological aspect of clothes wear]

Pahigian B. Peter, ‘Demand Uncertainty and Sales; A study of fashion and Markdown pricing’, The American Economic Review, LXXVIII, 5,(1988). [An outline of the main technological progress which progressed the production of clothing after the World War II]

Psota Sunshine, ‘Boss of the Road; Early-20th-Century Consumer Selections of Work clothing from Alabama Gates Camp’, Historical Archaeology, XXXVI, (2002). [A critical view of clothing industries in the 20th century]

Rubinstein Ruth P., ‘Paris: Fashion: A cultural History by Valerie Steele’, Woman’s Art Journal, XI, (1990). [A critical insight to the cultural history of fashion particularly that of France]

Serra Ilaria, ‘Italy; America’s War Bride. How Life magazine Feminized Italy in the 1950s’, Italica, LXXXVI, (2009). [An understanding of how men perceived the changes in women’s clothing]

Sporles George B., ‘Analyzing Fashion Life Cycles; Principles and Perspectives’, Journal of Marketing, XLV, (1981). [A critical view of the physiological aspect of clothes wear]

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Thompson Graig J. and Haytko Diana L., ‘Speaking of Fashion; Consumers’ Uses of Fashion Discourses and the Appropriation of Countervailing Cultural meanings’, Journal of Consumer Research, XXIV, (1997). [A critical insight of the introduction of new clothing styles and their impact on the clothing industry in the West]

Thomson Irene Taviss, ‘Individualism and Conformity in the 1950s vs. the 1980s’, Sociological Forum, VII, (1992). [A critical outlook of the differences and similarities between the clothing styles of the 1950s and the 1980s]

Urbach Henry, ‘Closets, Clothes, Disclosure Assemblage’, Assemblage,(1996). [Information about the connection between gay movements and clothing]

Viollet Eugene, ‘le – Duc: Dictionnaire du Mobilier Francais’, The Journal of the British Economic Association, F.Y Edgeworth, (1893). [A critical view of the changes in fashion with a reference to Eugene Viollet who discussed the changing styles throughout the 14th century]

Zakin Micheal, ‘A ready-Made Business ; The Birth of the Clothing Industry in America’, The Business History Review, LXIII,1, (1999). [Information about the development of technology and its effect on the clothing industry in America]

Dissertations

Camilleri Stephania, ‘Influences on Maltese Fashion during the last 40years’, Unpublished dissertation B.ED. honours, Department of Education, University of Malta, 1989 [ Detailed information regarding foreign influences on clothing in Malta]

Dictionaries

Hawkins, Joyce M., The Oxford Mini-Dictionary, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1991.[Used for a concise definition of clothing according to the Oxford Dictionary]

Websites

http://www.suitusa.com/1950s-mens-suits.aspx. Retrieved on 1 February 2013. [A detailed description of men’s suits throughout the 1950s]

109 www.um.edu.mt/_data/assets/pdf_file/0014/11632/oralhistorycentre.pdf.Retrieved on 1 February 2013 [ An interview with a Maltese man who was influenced with the clothing styles of the Teddy Boys throughout the 1950s] http://daphnecaruanagalizia.com/ Retrieved on 20th February 2013 [Gives a brief understanding of how the Maltese society perceived homosexual men in the 1960s] http://www.maltarightnow.com/Default.asp?module=news&at=Wirja+dwar+il%26%2 3295%3Bajja+u+lmu%26%23380%3Bika+ta'+John+Lennon&t=a&aid=99831356&cid =45 Retrieved on 13th February 2013.[ Information regarding John Zammit who is a great fan of the Beatles and had organized an exhibition in Valletta in October 2011] http://www.daimyo-jackson-entertainment.com.Retrieved on 3 March 2013 [A detailed biography of Daimyo Jackson] www.thefreedictionary.com Retrieved on 27th March 2013 [A concise definition of ‘ Hot Pants’] www.britishpathe.com. Retrieved on 1 February 2013 [A world’s leading multimedia resource with history stretching over a century which gives a helpful insight of clothing in Malta from the 1940s till the1960s.]

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