Subtropical Agriculture and Environments 71:36-48.2020 Review of Major Crop and Animal Arthropod Pests of South Texas
Holly N. Davis1*, John A. Goolsby2, Donald Thomas2, Ismael Badillo1, Rupesh Kariyat3, Christopher Vitek3, Danielle Sekula2
1Texas A&M AgriLife Research and Extension Center, Weslaco, TX 2USDA-ARS Cattle Fever Tick Research Laboratory, Edinburg, TX 3The University of Texas Rio Grande Valley Center for Vector-Borne Disease, Edinburg, TX
*Corresponding author e-mail: [email protected]
ABSTRACT
The Lower Rio Grande Valley is an area in Texas that consists of the four southern-most counties. This area contains a diverse range of agriculture and land-use including vegetable, row-crop and livestock production. The year-around cool to hot subtropical climate means that green vegetation is continually present, including many crops. Geographically, it shares an international border, making it a region vulnerable to new invasive species and the re-introduction of pests that have been previously eliminated in the United States. These com- bined factors lead to an array of arthropod pests that may have serious impacts on the crops, animals, and people in the region. This review focuses on arthropod pests that have historically, currently, or have the potential to significantly impact vegetables, row-crops, livestock, and humans in the LRGV. This is not an all-inclusive re- view but aims to focus on many of the arthropods that have been significant in the last 20 years.
Additional index words: Lower Rio Grande Valley (LRGV), insect pests, livestock pests, vegetable, row-crop ______
The Lower Rio Grande Valley (LRGV) is a flood- stock. plain in Southern Texas consisting of Cameron, Hi- The goal of this review is to discuss major arthro- dalgo, Starr and Willacy Counties. It is an incredibly pod pests of row crops, vegetables and animals. diverse area with an estimated 530,300 acres in crop While it is not an exhaustive list, it aims to highlight production, 103,500 livestock, and a human popula- selected pests that have historically, currently, or have tion of over 1 million (USDA, 2019). The sub-tropical the potential to have a serious impact on the LRGV and semi-arid climate allows for the successful pro- and beyond. Each entry aims to provide a brief histo- duction of a wide range of row crops, vegetables, and ry of the pest, the type of damage it causes, the eco- livestock year-around. Temperatures in the area rare- nomic impact, and applicable integrated pest manage- ly dip below 3⁰C and a hard freeze is a rare occur- ment methods. rence (Weatherspark, 2019). This variety of plant and animal hosts combined with the lack of a prolonged REVIEW cold period allow the LRGV to support a diverse range of arthropods, a few of them potentially serious Agricultural Pests pests. Another challenge in the LRGV is its shared international border or transboundary region which Pest presents the potential threat of new invasive species Boll weevil, Anthonomus grandis Boheman as well as persistent re-introduction of, or continued Crop pressure from, a few important pests. Thus, the Cotton LRGV remains a quarantine zone for several pests Citations: Allen, 2008; Bohmfalk et al., 1982; that are considered effectively eradicated in the ma- Metcalf et al., 1962; National Cotton Council, 2019; jority of the United States. In general terms, insects Smith, 1998; Texas Boll Weevil Eradication Founda- and mites may feed on various plant parts including tion Inc., 2019; Torres and Bueno, 2018. seeds, seedling plants, roots, stems, foliage, flowers, During the late 19th century, the boll weevil mi- and fruits, leading to the additional time and expense grated into the United States from Mexico and infest- of control measures as well as possible yield reduc- ed all U.S. cotton-growing areas by the 1920s, devas- tion. In addition, some of these insects may vector tating the industry and the people growing cotton in pathogens that cause severe economic losses in crops the American South. Adult weevils use their snout to as well as illness and loss of life in humans and live- bore into and feed on cotton terminals, buds and flow-
36 Subtropical Agriculture and Environments 71:36-48.2020 ers. Females may also deposit eggs into punctures on successfully transmit viruses (Saksena et al., 1964). squares and young bolls, covering the cavity with a They can also indirectly harm host plants by hindering secreted sticky substance (Bohmfalk et al., 1982; photosynthesis by secreting honeydew which enables Metcalf et al. 1962.) Cotton squares and bolls may mold to grow (Jasrotia et al., 2018). R. maidis can yellow and drop to the ground where larvae complete also impact the ecosystem due to its mutualistic rela- development (Metcalf et al., 1962). Larger bolls may tionship with ants, including Solenopsis invicta, the not drop but developing lint is still damaged. The invasive red imported fire ant (Vinson and Scar- Boll Weevil Eradication Program, created in the U.S. borough, 1991; Barton and Ives, 2014). in 1978, allowed full-scale cultivation to resume in Various measures can be taken to minimize the many regions. Today, the boll weevil is considered negative impact of R. maidis, including biological eradicated throughout most of Texas, except in the control, pesticides and resistant crops. Natural preda- Lower Rio Grande Valley where the Cotton Boll Wee- tors such as parasitoid wasps, and coccinellid beetles vil Eradication Foundation, Inc. continues to oversee have been implemented as biological controls against the mandatory Boll Weevil Eradication Program R. maidis (Faria et al., 2007; Michels and Matis, (Smith, 1998). Management tactics include weekly 2008). Pesticides, selective such as Bt toxin based or monitoring of pheromone traps used to effectively broad spectrum such as synthetic pyrethroids, may be time malathion insecticide applications, mandatory used but these measures are mostly for managing the stalk destruction to prevent overwintering, and control pest and vectored diseases rather than eradication. of volunteer cotton (Allen, 2008). The extensive and However, preventative measures against this pest can repetitive use of a single insecticide creates significant be taken before seedling germination and establish- pressure for the development of resistance (Torres and ment, especially since substantial yield loss is experi- Bueno, 2018). It is estimated that Texas cotton produc- enced when the aphid infests seedlings (Bing et al., ers spend approximately $70 million each year con- 1991). Seeds can be treated with an insecticide or mu- trolling the boll weevil while this pest still causes an- tualistic fungal species or, planting resistant crop vari- nual loses upwards of $200 million (Nat. Cotton eties in order to diminish the impact (Bitsadze et al., Council, 2019). In areas where the boll weevil has 2017; Ahman et al., 2019). Advances in molecular been eradicated, the National Cotton Council estimates biology and chemical ecology has found additional annual savings from reduced insect damage, reduced plant defense responses including ethylene and control costs, and increased yields of $80 million. Jasmonic acid mediated phytohormone signaling path- Research on this important pest continues with focus ways in maize (Louis et al., 2015) and resistance on finding more effective ways to eradicate it from the through secondary metabolites such as flavonoids in Lower Rio Grande Valley. sorghum (Kariyat et al., 2019). Pest Pest Corn leaf aphid, Rhopalosiphum maidis Fitch Corn leafhopper, Dalbulus maidis (DeLong & Wilcott) Crop Crop Corn, sorghum, barley, rye, oats, wheat, and millet Corn Citations: Ahman et al., 2019; Asin and Pons, 2001; Citations: Pitre, 1967; Nault and Bradfute, 1979; Barton and Ives, 2014; Bing et al., 1991; Bitsadze et Nault and Madden, 1985. al., 2017; Faria et al., 2007; Fartek et al., 2012; Guo et The corn leafhopper is an insect pest found on corn al., 2017; Jasrotia et al., 2018; Kariyat et al., 2019; from Mexico to South America. The insect species, Louis et al., 2015; Michels and Matis, 2008; Moraes et which is believed to have originated in Mexico (Pitre, al., 2005; Saksena et al., 1964; Sappington et al., 2018; 1967), can only complete its life cycle in corn and USHDA, 1960; Vinson and Scarborough, 1991. teosintes (Zea spp. that are the wild progenitors of Corn leaf aphid (CLA) is a hemipteran insect pest domesticated corn) making corn the only plant host of that has been documented in the Rio Grande Valley as economic importance (Pitre, 1967; Nault and Madden, early as 1960 (USDHA, 1960). This aphid’s hosts 1985). This insect pest causes yield losses by its direct include cereal crops such as corn, sorghum and barley feeding and oviposition damage and indirectly by (Kariyat et al., 2019). They directly affect their hosts transmitting three different pathogens: two corn- by piercing vascular organs with their needle-like stunting mollicutes, Maize bushy stunt phytoplasma mouth parts (stylet) and consuming contents (Fartek et and the corn stunt spiroplasma, Spiroplasma kunkelii, al., 2012). For example, on corn, CLA tend to feed on in addition to the plant infecting-virus Maize rayado the content of vascular organs located in the plant’s fino virus (Nault and Bradfute, 1979). This insect pest tassel and upper leaves and thus decrease crop yield and plant pathogen vector was present in the southern (Asin and Pons, 2001; Moraes et al., 2005). They also United States, including the Lower Rio Grande Valley impact yield by vectoring various viruses including the in South Texas, during the mid- to late 1990s (Badillo- Barley Yellow Dwarf Virus (BYVD-PAV), cucumber Vargas, personal communication). However, the corn mosaic virus, sugarcane mosaic virus, maize dwarf leafhopper seems to have been completely absent or mosaic virus (MDMV) and cucumber mosaic virus present in low numbers in South Texas for almost two (Sappington et al., 2018; Guo et al., 2017). It is esti- decades until its reappearance during the summer of mated that CLA has four major different biotypes that 2016 when it was found in one commercial and one
37 Subtropical Agriculture and Environments 71:36-48.2020 experimental corn field in Weslaco, TX (Jones, Espar- is very important to rotate between different modes of za-Diaz, and Badillo-Vargas, personal communica- action (Cartwright et al., 1987). tion). More recently, this insect has been observed on Pest corn during the fall of 2018 (Wayadande and Badillo- False chinch bug, Nysius raphanus Howard Vargas, personal communication). However, no re- Crop ports of pathogens potentially vectored by this pest Crucifers, cotton, sorghum were reported. Citations: Cranshaw, 2013; Demirel and Cran- Pest shaw, 2006; Leigh, 1961; Wood and Starks, 1972. Cotton aphids: Cotton aphid, Aphis gossypii (Glover) False chinch bugs prefer canola, mustards, cab- Green peach aphid, Myzus persicae (Sulzer) bage, and other cruciferous plants but are highly po- Cowpea aphid, Aphis crassivora Koch lyphagous and therefore are a potential pest of several Crop South Texas crops. Populations may build up in sesa- Cotton me, canola and other mustard crops then migrate in Citations: Corrêa et al., 2005; Isakeit, 2019; Silva et huge numbers into adjacent cotton, onion, and sor- al., 2008, Vyavhare and Kerns, 2017a. ghum fields (Cranshaw, 2013). They feed with pierc- While several species of aphids may feed on cotton, ing-sucking mouthparts and may overwhelm seedling including green peach, cowpea and cotton aphids, they plants, causing them to wilt and even die (Leigh, typically only become a concern when a broad- 1961). Damage is probably most common in canola spectrum insecticide application destroys natural ene- where feeding on flowers and seedpods later in the my populations that typically keep aphid populations season can cause significant injury (Demirel and Cran- in check (Vyavhare and Kerns, 2017a). Intense aphid shaw, 2006). Feeding directly on heads in sorghum, pressure can stress plants, cause squares and small while uncommon, can have detrimental effects on bolls to drop, or lead to smaller bolls with incomplete yield (Wood and Starks, 1972). fiber development (Vyavhare and Kerns, 2017a). Pest Aphis gossypii is capable of vectoring cotton leaf roll Potato psyllid, Bactericera cockerelli (Sulc) dwarf virus, also known as cotton blue disease (Corrêa Crop et al., 2005). This disease, which is only known to be Chipping potatoes and other Solanaceae transmitted by aphids, was originally discovered in the Citations: Goolsby et al., 2007; Goolsby et al., Central African Republic in 1949 (Silva et al., 2008). 2012 ; Guenther et al,. 2012 ; Munyaneza et al., 2007; It was first detected in the United States in 2017 in Workneh et al. 2018. Alabama and has since been found in Florida, Georgia, The potato psyllid vectors the zebra chip disease Mississippi, and South Carolina (Isakeit, 2019). At and is a major pest of chipping potatoes in the Rio the time of publication, it is not an imminent threat to Grande Valley (Guenther et al. 2012). It was first doc- Texas cotton as it has not been detected in any com- umented in 2007 and an IPM program was developed mercial cotton fields, but growers should be on the to control the pest to prevent disease transmission lookout for symptomatic plants. (Munyaneza et al., 2007; Goolsby et al., 2007, Gools- Pest by et al., 2012). Approximately 3,000 acres of pota- Diamondback moth, Plutella xylostella (L.) toes are impacted in Hidalgo Co. (Guenther et al., Crop 2012). Potato psyllid is also a minor pest on other Crucifers solanacecous crops such as tomato, tomatillo, and pep- Citations: Capinera, 2001; Cartwright et al., 1987; per, which when infected by the disease-causing agent, Harcourt, 1963; Philips et al., 2014; Shelton et al., display a disease commonly known as psyllid yellows 2000. (Workneh et al., 2018). The diamondback moth originated in South Africa Pest and the Mediterranean but is now a cosmopolitan pest Spider mites: of all cruciferous growing regions of the world Two-spotted spider mite, Tetranychus urticae Koch (Harcourt, 1963). Thus, larvae are potential pests of all Banks grass mite, Oligonychus pratensis (Banks) cruciferous crops in the LRGV. Because larvae are Crop small and feed on the underside of leaves, damage is Cotton, corn, soybean, vegetables and others often not noted until larval development is nearly com- Citations: Cronholm et al., 1998; Drees and Jack- plete. Large populations can cause significant defolia- man, 1998; Hinomoto et al. 2001; Vyavhare et al., tion and may disrupt head formation in cabbage, broc- 2018. coli, and cauliflower (Philips et al., 2014). Even minor Spider mites are prevalent pests in cotton, corn, feeding damage or the presence of larvae on market soybeans, citrus, vegetables and many other crops in produce can lead to total rejection (Capinera, 2001). the Valley. There are two well-known species of spi- Effective control of diamondback moth larvae using der mites widely seen in most crops in the LRGV: insecticides often requires multiple sprays and they Banks grass mite and the two-spotted spider mite. have developed some level of resistance to almost There is a third mite, commonly referred to as the car- every class of insecticide (Shelton et al., 2000), thus, it mine spider mite that is now recognized as a red form of the two-spotted spider mite (Hinomoto et al. 2001).
38 Subtropical Agriculture and Environments 71:36-48.2020
Both color forms of the two-spotted mite are most cane (Wilson, 2019). Crop loss from their foliar feed- common in cotton whereas Banks grass mite is known ing and disease transmission, has made the SCA an for feeding primarily in corn and sorghum (Vyavhare economically important insect, especially in sorghum et al., 2018). Adult mites are small in size (0.4mm), in the United States. (Armstrong et al., 2015; Kaur et making detection difficult. Their life cycle from egg to al., 2020). adult generally takes 5 to 20 days depending on the Pest temperature and females can lay about 50 clear eggs Stinkbugs, multiple species resulting in rapid population growth (Drees and Jack- Crop man, 1998). Both nymphs and adults pierce plant tis- Cotton, soybeans sues with their stylets, extracting juices (chloroplasts) Citations: Hopkins et al., 2009; Sosa-Gómez et al., out of the plant cells, leading to cell death (Vyavhare 2019; Vyavhare et al., 2014; Wene and Sheets, 1964; et al., 2018). They feed on the undersides of leaves Whitworth and Davis, 2009. along the midrib. Early damage can be detected on the Stink bugs use piercing-sucking mouthparts to suck top of leaves and will appear as yellow or red spotting. sap from succulent tissue in a wide variety of plants Continued infestations result in bronzing of the entire and can become an economic pest when they feed leaf and eventually, defoliation. As their name sug- directly on pods in soybeans and bolls in cotton gests, heavy infestations of spider mites result in a fine (Vyavhare et al., 2014, Whitworth and Davis, 2009). webbing on the underside of the leaves. Spider mite Studies indicate that the most common species in the pressure can occur at any time during the season, but region are brown stink bugs including Euschistus ser- they tend to be favored by hot, dry weather. Infesta- vus (Say), E. Quadrator Rolston and E. obscurus tions tend to be sporadic in fields but when heavy in- (Palisot), along with the southern green stink bug, festations of spider mites are present, they can cause Nezara viridula (L.), and green stink bug, Chinavia stunted plant growth and significant yield loss hilaris (Say) (Hopkins et al., 2009). In addition, an (Cronholm et al., 1998). invasive species, the redbanded stink bug, Piezodorus Pest guildinii (Westwood) has become a potential threat to Sugarcane aphid, Melanaphis sacchari (Zehntner) soybeans and cotton due to its wide host range and Crop good mobility (Vyavhare et al., 2014). In cotton, stink Grain and forage sorghum, sorghum/sudan hybrids, bugs pierce bolls and feed, causing small bolls to be- sugarcane come soft and yellow leading to damaged and shriv- Citations: Armstrong et al., 2015; Bowling et al., eled seeds and stained lint (Wene and Sheets, 1964). 2016; Kaur et al., 2020; Kerns et al., 2015; Knutson et In soybeans, feeding on developing seeds within pods al., 2016; Michaud et al., 2016; Wilson, 2019. can lead to small, shriveled and deformed seeds The sugarcane aphid (SCA) is an invasive hemip- (Whitworth and Davis, 2009). Feeding punctures ex- teran insect that originated from Africa and the Middle pose bolls and pods to moisture, air, and pathogens East but became a significant problem for TX sor- (Whitworth and Davis, 2009). Stink bugs can be diffi- ghum growers in 2013 (Bowling et al., 2016). Like cult to manage with foliar insecticide applications and other aphids, SCA can reproduce asexually, giving many failures have been reported, in many cases due birth to live clones, thus populations grow very quick- to the development of resistance (Sosa-Gómez et al., ly. These aphids damage sorghum by removing plant 2019). Increased resistance to commonly used organ- sap from the underside of leaves and producing copi- ophosphates, neonicotinoids, and pyrethroids has been ous amounts of honeydew leading to sooty mold documented (Sosa-Gómez et al., 2019) Annual losses buildup (Knutson et al., 2016). Significant infestations due to stink bugs in south Texas have ranged from just may lead to plant death, reduced numbers of heads, over $160,000 to more than $4 million (Hopkins et al., reduced seed weight, delayed development, and re- 2009). duced harvest efficiency due to excessive honeydew Pest (Bowling et al., 2016; Kerns et al., 2015). Two prod- Texas potato beetle, Leptinotarsa texana Schaeffer- ucts, sulfoxaflor and flupyradifurone have been found Crop to provide high aphid mortality with a minimal impact Solanaceous crops on beneficial arthropods, mitigating secondary pest Citations: Cuda et al., 2002; EPPO Bulletin, 2007; outbreaks and SCA resurgence (Michaud et al., 2016). Hsiao, 1988; Kariyat and Chavana, 2018; Lefoe et al., Commercially available sorghum hybrids with some 2020; Olckers et al., 1995 and 1999; Pallister, 1953; level of aphid resistance are available with continued Petanidou et al., 2018; Sperling and Mitchell, 1991. breeding for host plant resistance underway (Bowling The Texas potato beetle is commonly found in et al., 2016). SCA can occur on both crop and non- South Texas (including the Lower Rio Grande Valley) crop plants (e.g. sorghum and sugarcane) as well as and has a range that extends from Missouri through Johnsongrass. In addition to this damage, these aphids Texas into Mexico (Pallister, 1953). Beetles of the have been identified as vectors of the Sugarcane Yel- genus Leptinotarsa are specialist feeders of host plants low Leaf Disease (SCYL) (Knutson et al., 2016). This that belong to the Solanaceae family (Hsiao, 1988). is a significant threat to agriculture in the U.S. and The beetle feeds on silver leaf nightshade, Solanum Mexico which produce over 1.1. million ha. of sugar- eleaegnifolium, a species native to the Rio Grande
39 Subtropical Agriculture and Environments 71:36-48.2020
Valley, but highly invasive in other parts of the world it to feed on plants (=phyto) as well as on other small (EPPO Bulletin, 2007; Petanidou et al., 2018). Both arthropods (=zoo) (Calvo et al., 2009; Sanchez et al., the adults and the grubs feed on all parts of S. ele- 2014). This voracious general predator is frequently aegnifolium and have shown some host specificity to- used to control several insect pests in greenhouses wards this species, and a few other members of the such as the silverleaf/sweetpotato whitefly and the family (Kariyat and Chavana, 2018). Thus, L. texana greenhouse whitefly (Albajes et al., 2006). Nonethe- has been implemented as a biocontrol agent for silver less, this insect could be a devasting pest in crops such leaf nightshade in South Africa (Sperling and Mitchell, as sesame and tomato (Urbaneja et al., 2009). The 1991; Olckers et al., 1995 and 1999) and is currently tomato bug was initially detected in South Texas in tested in Australia (Lefoe et al., 2020). It has economic 2012 (Esparza-Diaz and Villanueva, personal commu- importance in the United States, as well as in other nication), and its presence in subsequent years (2013 parts of the world due to its voracious feeding, primar- through 2019) clearly shows that this exotic species is ily on the noxious weed, S. eleaegnifolium as well as now established in the Lower Rio Grande Valley in crops that belong to the Solanaceae family including South Texas. Under certain circumstances, however, tomato, potato and eggplant (Cuda et al., 2002). this insect can be a biological control agent of agricul- Pest turally important insect pests and vectors as is the case Thrips: Onion thrips, Thrips tabaci Lindeman for potato psyllids in potatoes (Esparza-Diaz and Ba- Western flower thrips, Frankliniella occidentalis dillo-Vargas, personal communication). (Pergande) Pest Bean thrips, Caliothrips fasciatus (Pergande) Whiteflies: Silverleaf whitefly, Bemisia argentifolii Crop Bellows and Perring or Bemisia tabaci biotype B Cabbage, cotton, onion Bandedwing whitefly, Trialeurodes abutilonea Citations: Diaz-Montano et al., 2011; Greenberg et (Haldeman) al., 2009; Riley et al., 2011; Vyavhare and Kerns, Crop 2017b; Riley et al., 2011. Cotton, crucifers, cucurbits, ornamental plants, toma- There are several species of economically im- toes, other Solanaceae portant thrips including onion thrips, western flower Citations: Bellows et al., 1994; Bi et al., 2001; Ci- thrips, and bean thrips (Greenberg et al., 2009). Pres- omperlik and Goolsby, 2017; Goolsby et al., 1998; ence of a particular species depends largely on the Goolsby et al., 2005; Henneberry and Faust, 2008; crop being grown, or crops in the near vicinity. Onion Hogenhout et al., 2008; Horowitz et al., 2020; Jones, thrips are a significant pest of onions where feeding on 2003; Zhang et al., 2011. leaves causes blotches, premature senescence and dis- Silverleaf whitefly and Bandedwing whitefly attack torted, undersized bulbs resulting in up to 50% yield a broad range of host plants. The silverleaf or sweet loss (Diaz-Montano et al., 2011). Thrips often migrate potato whitefly, Bemisia tabaci Biotype B, is specifi- to germinating cotton fields after onion harvest where cally the only biotype present thus far in the Lower they feed on leaves, leaf buds, and small squares. Rio Grande Valley in Texas (Bernal Jimenez and Ba- Damage includes deformed leaves and destroyed ter- dillo-Vargas, personal communication) and is consid- minal buds creating excessive branching, and delayed ered one of the most important cotton pests worldwide growth (Vyavhare and Kerns, 2017b). Thrips may (Zhang et al., 2011). The silverleaf/sweet potato white- make cabbage unmarketable due to the blistered, fly has a significant economic impact on United bronzed, and scarred appearance caused by their feed- States’ agriculture, approaching $10 billion from 1980 ing. Additionally, thrips are capable of vectoring to 2000, due to crop loss, job displacement, and cost of tospoviruses including tomato spotted wilt virus and control (Henneberry and Faust, 2008). In cotton, feed- iris yellow spot virus, to various crops, potentially ing by these sucking insects may lead to stunted leading to devastating yield losses (Riley et al., 2011). plants, cotton defoliation, boll shed, and reduced For example, in the U.S., tomato spotted wilt virus yields (Bellows et al., 1994; Bi et al., 2001). If honey- caused and estimated $1.4 billion in losses over a 10- dew is deposited on fiber it creates ‘sticky’ cotton year period (Riley et al. 2011). An outbreak of iris which causes problems during lint processing yellow spot virus led to 60-70% onion yield losses in (Bellows et al., 1994; Bi et al., 2001). When cotton is the mid-2000’s (Anciso, personal communication). defoliated large whitefly populations may move into Pest various cruciferous crops where they may cause stem Tomato bug, Nesidiocoris tenuis (Reuter) blanching and whitening (Henneberry and Faust, Crop 2008). Additionally, issues related to the growth of Sesame and tomato sooty mold on secreted honeydew can interfere with Citations: Albajes et al., 2006; Calvo et al., 2009; photosynthesis. Whiteflies are known to vector over Hoberlandt, 1955; Sanchez et al., 2014; Urbaneja et 100 plant viruses worldwide, including Tomato yellow al., 2009. leaf curl virus, which severely limits tomato produc- The tomato bug, of Mediterranean origin, is an in- tion in South Texas (Jones, 2003; Hogenhout et al., vasive pest of sesame and tomato (Hoberlandt, 1955). 2008). Insecticide resistance is an ongoing problem in It has a zoophytophagous feeding behavior that allows the control of whiteflies as resistance has been detect-
40 Subtropical Agriculture and Environments 71:36-48.2020 ed to more than 60 active ingredients and most major tending into south Texas, however Feria-Arroyo et al. classes of insecticides (Horowitz et al., 2020). Biologi- (2014) confirm that the tick and the Lyme disease cal control has played an important role in mitigating agent is present on deer in south Texas and northern whitefly problems in the LRGV. The USDA imple- Mexico. The larval hosts for this tick are usually ro- mented a national program including the release of dents, but it prefers reptiles in the southerly part of its whitefly parasitoids in the mid-1990’s that resulted in range (Pepin et al., 2012). The larval host in the Rio the successful establishment of Eretmocerus hayati Grande Valley is unknown; surveys here have only (Goolsby et al., 1998; Ciomperlik and Goolsby, 2017). found the adults. The difference is critical as amplifi- This success is likely due to the parasitic wasp’s nar- cation of the etiological agent occurs in small mam- row host range and high attack rate as well as the cli- mals. Surveys have shown that a large percentage of matic match of the LRGV to its native Pakistan coyotes and rabbits are seropositive for the Lyme dis- (Goolsby et al., 2005). Good IPM practices have al- ease agent in Texas (Burgess and Lindberg, 1989). lowed this parasitoid to provide consistent control of This tick species is also the vector of human granulo- whitefly populations. However, cotton defoliation and cytic anaplasmosis (Dahlgren et al., 2011), human broad-spectrum insecticide applications can suppress Ehrlichiosis and human Babesiosis (Mitchell et al., parasitoids which leads to occasional whitefly out- 2016; Williamson et al., 2010). Regarding wildlife, I. breaks (Ciomperlik and Goolsby, 2017). scapularis has been implicated as the vector of Babe- sia odocoilei in Texas (Waldrup et al., 1992) and Livestock and Medical Pests uniquely in Texas it is the vector of Rickettsia cooleyi, a non-pathogenic organism (Billings et al., 1998), but Pest whose presence complicates diagnostic testing. American Dog Tick, Dermacentor variabilis (Say) Pest Host Cattle fever ticks, Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) sp. Dog, Coyote, Horses, Cattle, Human Host Citations: Dantas-Torres, 2007; Kocan et al. 1992, Cattle, nilgai, white-tailed deer, horses Sonenshine, 2018; Stiller and Coan, 1995. Citations: Esteve-Gassent, et al., 2014; Foley et al., The American dog tick is the most important vector 2017; Goolsby et al., 2016; Graham and Hourrigan, of the causative agent of Rocky Mountain Spotted 1977; Pérez de León et al., 2012; Singh et al., 2018, Fever, Rickettsia ricketsii in the United States Tidwell et al. 2019; USDA, Texas Cattle Fever. (Sonenshine, 2018). It is the deadliest tick-borne dis- Cattle fever ticks, Rhipicephalus (=Boophilus) mi- ease in the US primarily because it is difficult to diag- croplus Canestrini and Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) nose in the early stages (Dantas-Torres, 2007) and is annulatus (Say) have a wide geographic distribution, often lethal if untreated. This is a 3-host tick and alt- spanning tropical and subtropical regions between hough called the dog tick, it has a wide host range. parallels 32°N latitude and 35°S latitude (Goolsby et Canines are its preferred host but they will also bite al., 2016). These livestock pests cause huge economic livestock, pets and humans. It also vectors the agents losses to milk and meat production, both directly of Equine babesiosis (Babesia caballi), Equine piro- (reduced weight gain and milk production, anaemia, plasmosis (Theileria equi) and Bovine Anaplasmosis and, mortality) and indirectly by inducing quarantines (Anaplasma marginale) (Stiller and Coan, 1995). In- and transmission of various disease-causing patho- terestingly, the latter disease is vectored almost exclu- gens such as Babesia spp. and Anaplasma spp. (Pérez sively by the male ticks (Kocan et al. 1992). de León et al., 2012). Cattle fever ticks and bovine Pest babesiosis are estimated to have caused losses to the Black-Legged Tick, Ixodes scapularis Say U.S. livestock industry close to $3 billion annually in Host today’s currency before they were eradicated from the Humans, White-tailed deer U.S. (Graham and Hourrigan, 1977; USDA, Texas Citations: Billings et al., 1998; Burgess and Lind- Cattle Fever). An eradication program based on con- berg, 1989; Dahlgren et al., 2011; Dennis et al., 1998; tinuous surveillance by mounted inspectors and the Feria-Arroyo et al., 2014; Mitchell et al., 2016; Pepin use of acaricides has been implemented in the U.S. et al., 2012; Syzoni et al., 2015; Waldrup et al., 1992. along the Texas-Mexico border to manage periodic Williamson et al., 2010; Zhang et al., 2006. outbreaks (Tidwell et al. 2019). However, novel strate- The black-legged tick is a 3-host tick with deer gies are needed for the continued detection, suppres- being the typical host of the adult stage. It is the pri- sion and eradication of cattle fever ticks in the perma- mary vector of Lyme disease over the northeastern and nent quarantine zone due to the emerging role of 1) midwestern U.S. The CDC estimates the economic exotic nilgai antelope, Boselaphus tragocamelus impact of Lyme Disease in the U.S. at $203 million (Pallas) and white-tailed deer, Odocoileus virginianus annually (Zhang et al. 2006). The incidence and distri- (Zimmerman) as cattle fever tick hosts; 2) growing bution of the clinical disease in Texas suggests that evidence of acaricide resistance; and 3) the invasion of many cases were acquired elsewhere or are misdiagno- pathogenic landscape-forming species such as the gi- ses (Szyoni et al., 2015). The distribution map by Den- ant reed, Arundo donax, and other exotic plant species nis et al. (1998) does not show Ixodes scapularis ex- that contribute to suitable habitat for cattle fever ticks
41 Subtropical Agriculture and Environments 71:36-48.2020
(Esteve-Gassent et al., 2016; Foley et al., 2017; Pérez on cattle. The distribution A. nitens is south Texas to de León et al., 2012; Singh et al. 2018). Argentina and the Caribbean Islands where it was Pest probably introduced. It became established in Florida Cayenne Tick, Amblyomma mixtum Koch in 1958. It is a one-host tick and aside from its usual Host equine host has also been reported on cattle and dogs. Cattle, Deer The only sylvatic host record is a solitary report on a Citations: Mitchell et al., 2016; Nava et al., 2014; deer hide (Hooker et al., 1912). In fact, they heavily Scoles et al., 2011; Williamson et al., 2010 infest deer at the Laguna Atascosa National Wildlife Technically a misnomer because the true cayenne Refuge in Cameron county Texas. Inasmuch as horses, tick, Amblyomma cajennense (F.), is restricted to parts cattle and dogs are not native to the New World. The of South America (the Guianas, fide Nava et al., common occurrence of this tick on white-tailed deer 2014). The species found in the Rio Grande Valley, on the coastal areas of south Texas suggests that deer Amblyomma mixtum Koch occurs from south Texas to are the likely native host. On both horses and deer, the Ecuador. A 3-host tick, adults have been recorded on preferred infestation site is in the ears. cattle, horses, donkeys, pigs, dogs and humans Pest (Strickland et al., 1976). Wild hosts include coyote, Mosquitoes squirrel, armadillo, tapir, peccary and badger (Guzman Yellow fever mosquito, Aedes aeypti (Linneaus) -Cornejo et al., 2011). However, it is most abundant Asian tiger mosquito, Aedes albopictus (Skuse) on white-tailed deer. As A. cajennense in Texas it has Southern house mosquito, Culex quinquefasciatus Say been implicated as the vector of equine piroplasmosis Host (Scoles et al., 2011), human Ehrlichiosis, and Borrelia Humans and other animals lonestari, the suspected agent of southern tick associ- Citations: Champion and Vitek, 2014; Dye- ated rash illness (Mitchell et al., 2016; Williamson et Braumuller et al., 2019; Martin et al., 2019; Sames et al., 2010). al., 1996 Pest Mosquitoes, including Aedes aegypti, Ae. albopic- Gulf-Coast Tick, Amblyomma maculatum Koch tus , and Culex quinquefasciatus are present in the Host Lower Rio Grande Valley in South Texas indoors and Cattle, Horses, Sheep, Goats outdoors all year long; although their abundance and Citations: Cooley and Kohls 1944; Lada et al., distribution fluctuate with temperature, precipitation, 2018; Mitchell et al., 2016; Parker et al., 1939; Teel et and land use patterns (Champion and Vitek, 2014). al., 2010. These three species of mosquitoes are known vectors The gulf coast tick is widespread, occurring across of arboviruses and, along with other mosquito species, the southern US from Florida to California south to act as nuisance pests. The species Aedes aegypti and Paraguay (Lada et al., 2018). They are an important Ae. albopictus both are known to transmit Dengue pest of cattle infesting sheep and horses as well virus, Chikungunya virus, and Zika virus with humans (Cooley and Kohls, 1944) and is another tick that pre- acting as the reservoir host, while C. quinquefasciatus fers the ears as the bite site. A 3-host tick, the larvae transmits West Nile virus, St. Louis encephalitis, and infest primarily birds. They harbor Rickettsia in the Western equine encephalitis (Martin et al., 2019), spotted fever group (Parker et al., 1939) and human which have zoonotic hosts including local bird species. Ehrlichiosis (Mitchell et al., 2016). Experimentally it Either in response to nuisance pests calls or due to is an efficient vector of heartwater fever, a disease their disease transmission surveillance, mosquito con- introduced into the Caribbean region on African cattle, trol is usually observed at dawn or dusk in different thus posing an existential threat to the livestock indus- areas in the Lower Rio Grande Valley, often targeting try on the American mainland (Teel et al., 2010). The Culex species of mosquitoes. Vector control may con- latter estimate annual losses of $58 million due to in- sist of larviciding and adulticiding (i.e., the process to festations of this tick on livestock. control the immature and mature mosquito stage, re- Pest spectively) in critical in areas that have been deemed Tropical Horse Tick, Anocentor nitens (Neumann) “ hot spots” for arbovirus introduction and establish- Host ment, such as the Mexico – Texas border, to protect Horses, Donkeys, White-tailed Deer human health, although other control methods such as Citations: Barbosa et al., 1995; Borges, 2000; habitat reduction work well for Ae. aegypti and Ae. Hooker et al., 1912; Schwint et al., 2008; Stiller and albopictus. Adulticiding often consists of utilizing Coan, 2008. backpack sprayers or truck-mounted ULV sprays to The tropical horse tick is the most important ecto- target resting adult mosquitoes, while larviciding will parasite of horses and donkeys in Latin America introduce pesticides to the aquatic larval habitat (often (Borges, 2000). It is the vector of equine babesiosis consisting of granules, pellets, or “donut-like” dunks) and equine piroplasmosis (Barbosa et al., 1995; (Dye-Braumuller et al., 2019). Concerns about the Schwint et al., 2008). There is also evidence that they evolution of resistance to commonly used insecticides are at least potential vectors of bovine Anaplasmosis (Sames et al. 1996) necessitate the implementation of (Stiller and Coan, 1995) although they are rarely found new strategies and control efforts. Recent efforts to
42 Subtropical Agriculture and Environments 71:36-48.2020 expand control using integrated pest management mol. 30: 1127-1134. (IPM) strategies such as removing breeding or resting Barbosa, P., B. R. Peymann, and K. T. Friedhoff. habitat as well as limiting interaction between humans 1995. Epidemiological aspects of equine and mosquitoes through changes in human behavior or babesiosis in a herd of horses in Brazil. Vet. use of repellents (Dye-Braumuller et al., 2019). Parasitol. 58: 1-8. Barton, B. T., and A. R. Ives. 2014. Direct and indirect effects of warming on aphids, their predators, DISCUSSION and ant mutualists. Ecology. 95: 1479–1484. doi: 10.1890/13-1977.1 The pests discussed in this review represent a wide Bellows, Jr. T. S., T. M. Perring, R. J. Gill, and D. H. range of arthropods with the potential to impact the Headrick. 1994. Description of a species of crops, animals, and people of the LRGV. Some of Bemisia tabaci (Homoptera: Aleyrodidae). An- these pests are present in economically important nu. Entomol. Soc. of Am. 78: 195-260. numbers every year, while others may be present at Bi, J. L., G. R. Ballmer, D. L. Hendrix, T. J. Henne- low levels until favorable conditions allow populations berry, and N. C. Toscano. 2001. Effect of cotton to reach levels that require control. Some of these nitrogen fertilization on Bemisia argentifolii arthropods do not typically directly impact crops but populations and honeydew production. Ento- may vector diseases that lead to significant yield loss- mol. Exp. Appl. 99: 25-36. es. Regardless, all the arthropod pests in this review Billings, A.N., G.J. Teltow, S.C. Weaver, and D.H. have historically required, and will continue to require, Walker. 1998. Molecular characterization of a the development of integrated pest management meth- novel Rickettsia species from Ixodes scapularis ods to mitigate their damage. These methods include in Texas. Emerg. Infect. 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