P A P E R The Present State of Autonomous Underwater Vehicle (AUV) Applications and Technologies

AUTHORS ABSTRACT J. W. Nicholson, Ph.D., CAPT, USN AUVs have proved their usefulness in recent years and continue to do so. This paper is a United States Naval Academy review of the current state of the art of AUVs. Present AUV capabilities are reviewed through A. J. Healey, Ph.D. a discussion of feasible present-day AUV missions. The state of key AUV design features Center for AUV Research and sensor technologies is also addressed, identifying those areas most critical to continued Naval Postgraduate School future progress in AUV development.

I. Introduction II. Present AUV Applications AUV-based survey potentially can use more evelopment and application of AUV Present-day AUVs are particularly use- sensor platforms and covers a larger area technology has grown steadily over the ful as unmanned survey platforms, carrying than a manned platform (MacNaughton Dlast few decades, with particularly rapid sensor payloads along pre-programmed et al., 2003). AUV mobility also enables growth in the last decade. This growth trajectories to gather data for a variety of measurements in inaccessible or hard-to- is fueled by the increasing number of applications. The typical AUV operates in access areas such as under the polar ice missions made possible by advances in “flight” mode, translating along segmented (Bellingham et al., 1993; WHOI, 2007). technology and growing awareness of linear trajectories that lie largely in the Mobility also enables optimized sampling these capabilities by potential AUV cus- horizontal plane, attempting to efficiently strategies, positioning a limited quantity tomers. As capabilities became feasible, survey as large an area as possibly subject of sampling platforms in the regions of and seemed close enough to feasibility to vehicle performance constraints. Some greatest interest, significance, or variability; to warrant research efforts, and as cus- specific applications are exceptions to this e.g., ocean fronts (Curtin et al., 1993), as tomers bought in to the advantages of operating profile in that they involve sig- depicted in Figure 1. such systems, the number of customers, nificant navigation in the vertical direction, Extended AUV missions are the do- systems and system developers grew for example, in shallow/deep water ocean main of underwater gliders, low-power quickly. Although it started with a few data gathering and sampling. AUVs using wings and buoyancy changes players in the oceanographic, military for propulsion in a manner analogous to and academic fields, today’s AUV com- A. Hydrographic Survey glider aircraft. This is an efficient method munity is a robust group that includes An early stimulus for AUV develop- of propulsion, albeit at speeds on the order these and several commercial players. ment was to improve the ability to conduct of one knot. For large area ocean survey And although applications and technolo- oceanographic survey and mapping (Blid- gies have reached a fair level of maturity, berg, 2001). AUV mobility enables spatial AUVs have not yet reached their full and temporal sampling along desired Figure 1 potential for utility and continue to be trajectories, a significant advantage over Autonomous Oceanographic Sampling Network an active area of research. other methods such as the sparse number of (Bellingham, 2006, used with permission). This paper surveys the present state static oceanographic moorings or free-drift- of AUVs, as viewed by the authors, by ing floats. Manned platforms with towed addressing present applications and tech- instruments also provide mobility, but plac- nologies. It focuses on what a present-day ing instrumentation on an AUV separates operator can expect from typical AUV the instrument from the noisy sea surface. systems, rather than ongoing research, Surveys are more efficient when compared which does not yet significantly influence to towed instruments because AUV turns AUV operations. are tighter and take less time than a surface vessel with a long tow line. Also, the initial and daily operating cost of a manned vessel usually exceeds the costs of an AUV with similar capabilities. For the same cost, an

44 Marine Technology Society Journal missions, gliders have proven particularly mental energy harvested by this method dives and has been instrumental in obtain- useful providing the ability to perform ver- reduces battery power requirements and ing video surveys of deep water thermal tical zigzag maneuvers with little energy significantly extends mission duration vents (Yoerger et al., 2005). Included are consumption. They can last in the ocean (Webb et al., 2001). avoidance capabilities that react to features for many days, and some up to a month Most commercially available AUVs and automatically avoid sharply rising or more where obtaining temperature and feature hydrographic instrumentation as ocean bottoms. salinity measurements as a function of depth standard equipment or an option. Both A unique AUV for a mission of this are of key interest. Naturally this leads to Hydroid (Hydroid, 2007) and Bluefin nature is the Clementine AUV devel- sound speed profiles for prediction of ocean Robotics (Bluefin, 2007) offer vehicles with oped for the DEPTHX project and used acoustic propagation in deep water. Glid- conductivity-temperature-depth (CTD) to explore the world’s deepest flooded ers have demonstrated such long-distance instruments as standard equipment, and sinkholes. This project, and the follow-on operations as a 600-mile transit from Mas- most AUV manufacturers offer as optional ENDURANCE project in Antarctica, are sachusetts to Bermuda (Nevala, 2005). The equipment a basic CTD or more advanced both NASA-funded developmental efforts Spray glider used in this experiment and in oceanographic instrumentation such as pH to use a hovering and highly autonomous other research has been made commercially meters, oxygen analyzers, fluorometers, and AUV to ultimately explore the liquid- available by Bluefin Robotics. The Seaglider, spectrometers. Most commercially available water ocean believed to lie under the icy developed at the University of Washington, AUVs also provide the ability to collect surface of Europa, one of the moons of has been used for oceanographic work and bathymetric data, usually by depth sound- the planet Jupiter (Tuttle, 2007). Naviga- is being considered for naval missions as ers or as one output of a Doppler velocity tion is particularly challenging in that the well (Doughman, 2008). Another glider log (DVL), although swath bathymetry vehicle must navigate and avoid obstacles frequently used in oceanographic research system modules for rapid survey of bot- in three dimensions. is Webb Research Corporation’s SLOCUM tom topography are also available. Given glider, shown in Figure 2. The electric ver- the well established ability of AUVs to B. Undersea Oil/Gas Production sion, which uses battery power to vary its follow a survey pattern, their usefulness as One specific hydrographic application buoyancy for glide propulsion, is similar hydrographic tools is largely driven by the of AUV technology is undersea exploration to the other gliders. However, the thermal capabilities of hydrographic sensors avail- and production of oil and gas. Undersea version uses a unique propulsion system able to be carried as payloads. surveys to locate deposits have recently based on the phase change of a working Designed for deep ocean survey, the used Maridan and Hugins AUVs in the fluid caused by ocean temperature variation ABE vehicle from Woods Hole Ocea- North Sea and Gulf of Mexico respectively, with depth to vary its ballast. The environ- nographic Institute has performed many with exceptional results in characterizing the bottom and sub-bottom (Bingham, Figure 2 2002). The inherent mobility of AUVs in this application results in time savings SLOCUM Glider (Photo courtesy Webb Research Corporation). of 60% or better when compared to less- maneuverable towed systems (Morr, 2003). Savings increase with surveys in deeper waters, which are becoming increasing common as shallow water production fields are depleted. AUVs have also been used for undersea pipeline inspection once the field has been established. This trend in exploration and production points to an increasing future usefulness of AUVs in this application.

C. Hull inspection Recent attention to the security of ship- ping and ports has motivated development of methods to inspect both cargo and the vessels carrying it, including the difficult to survey underwater hull. One tool for this application is a hull inspection AUV, car-

Spring 2008 Volume 42, Number 1 45 rying sensors over the contours of the hull Freedom in 2003, the first opportunity missions assigned to AUVs (Whitman, to search for devices such as limpet mines. to use AUVs for mine warfare operations 2002). Other countries are similarly invest- This new mission has been demonstrated since the development of this capability. ing in AUVs for military applications, such by vehicles such as the CETUS II (Trimble, During this operation, a system based on as the Talisman built by BAE in the United 2002) or the Bluefin HAUV (Vaganay, Hydroid’s REMUS 100 AUV, shown in Kingdom, and Hugins built by Kongsberg 2006). The hull inspection mission is Figure 3, was used by the U.S. Navy in in Norway. significantly different from other AUV mine clearance operations in Umm Qasr The utility of AUVs in these military missions in that the vehicle must follow a Harbor (Ryan, 2003). missions, and their future utility as technol- three-dimensional trajectory roughly con- Other AUVs with military applications ogy progresses, points to their increasing forming to the three-dimensional surface are being acquired by the U.S. Navy. The role in military operations. The guidance defined by the ship’s hull, a significant dif- Surface Mine Countermeasures Unmanned for future development and applications ference from the straight-line flight-mode Underwater Vehicle Increment 2 (SMCM/ is contained in the U.S. Navy’s UUV trajectories typical of other AUV missions. UUV-2) is undergoing development for Master Plan (U.S. Navy, 2004), which Hull inspections may be performed using installation on MCM-1 class mine coun- lays out a fifty-year vision of military optical or acoustic imaging sensors. termeasures ships (Wilcox, 2007). It is a AUV applications, and the Office of the 12.75 inch vehicle, larger than REMUS Secretary of Defense’s Unmanned Systems D. Military Applications 100 and designed for deeper water. The Roadmap 2007-2032 (OSD, 2007). These A significant driver of AUV research Battlespace Preparation AUV (BPAUV), documents lay out a long-range vision of and development has been military applica- shown in Figure 4, is a 21” vehicle being military AUV applications, many not yet tions, which benefit from the covert nature developed as part of a mine warfare mission feasible with current technology. As such, of AUVs, the elimination of risk to manned module for the U.S. Navy’s littoral combat fulfilling these missions will involve signifi- vessels, as well as other benefits of AUVs ship (Morral, 2003). Both these AUVs are cant research in the coming years. discussed above. Much of today’s successful also capable of covertly conducting hy- AUV technology was initially government drographic surveys. Submarine-launched funded for military applications. AUVs are also under development, includ- III. AUV Design and A significant military application is ing the long-term mine reconnaissance sys- Technologies mine warfare, which makes good use of tem (LMRS) and its successor the mission Present AUV capabilities are defined AUV characteristics to provide covert, reconfigurable UUV (MRUUV). The latter and limited by the design and maturity rapid, controlled, and efficient survey of will carry a variety of sensors ranging from of the various technologies that equip the a potential minefield without risking a mine countermeasures and hydrographic vehicle. This section reviews the state of human operator. AUVs are particularly sensors to above-water surveillance cameras AUV development from the perspective useful for very shallow water minehunt- and electronic warfare antennas/receivers, of these technologies, all of which are cur- ing and were used during Operation Iraqi thereby expanding the range of military rently evolving.

Figure 3 Figure 4

REMUS 100 AUV (Photo courtesy Hydroid). Battlespace Preparation AUV (U.S. Navy photo).

46 Marine Technology Society Journal A. Modular Design rogates an array of acoustic transponders, vehicles, such as the Hydroid REMUS, use An easily reconfigurable AUV design which are moored at known positions, both types of heading sensors in a comple- is advantageous for several reasons. The whose responses are timed to determine mentary manner (Hydroid, 2007). configuration of an AUV tends to vary over vehicle position relative to the known The fusion of several navigation instru- time as technology upgrades and changing absolute transponder locations. Such sys- ments can minimize navigation error in missions result in software and hardware tems provide frequent fixes, although they a package small enough to be carried by changes, which are easier to accomplish in require the presence of transponders which larger AUVs. The Kearfott SEA DeViL is a modular design. Also, system costs can be must be deployed in locations known to an example of a GPS-INS-DVL navigation reduced significantly if a single AUV can the vehicle prior to operations. Long-, system that provides exceptional navigation carry one of many different sensor packages medium-, and short-baseline acoustic accuracy for AUVs through the integration to perform various missions; when com- navigation systems are variants of this ap- of these precision navigation instruments. pared to the cost of multiple single-purpose proach. Hydroid’s REMUS vehicles mostly Navigation accuracy of 0.05% of total vehicles or one larger vehicle carrying a va- use acoustic beacon navigation. distance traveled has been demonstrated riety of mission hardware. Finally, modular A second predominant method, which when DVL bottom-lock is maintained batteries permit reduced system down time eliminates the need to deploy transponders, (Kirkwood, 2005) More highly accurate for battery replenishment by permitting is to obtain GPS fixes by surfacing periodi- inertial sensors may be obtained if survey rapid replacement of depleted batteries cally. Because surfacing for a fix represents accuracy requires but the cost is greater and instead of recharging installed batteries. As an undesirable interruption of the vehicle’s not always justified. such, modularity is increasingly addressed mission, fixes are infrequent. Navigating in AUV design and is becoming evident during the long intervals between fixes C. Communications in commercial products. The Gavia AUV is done with inertial navigation systems, Although AUV operations generally from the Icelandic manufacturer Hafmynd usually assisted by other instruments. An involve minimal or no communications, ehf is of highly modular design; the basic example is the Bluefin-21 BPAUV, which some communication is desirable for data vehicle consisting of nosecone, battery, con- surfaces periodically for GPS fixes and download, mission updates, or status trol and communication, and propulsion uses an attitude and heading reference monitoring. The underwater environment and servo modules. The modules connect system (AHRS) inertial sensor to measure imposes many of the same electro-mag- end-to-end, using mechanical and electrical vehicle attitude and heading and a Dop- netic constraints on communications that connections that can be made by hand in pler velocity log (DVL) to measure vehicle it does to navigation. As a result, in most the field, to form a torpedo-shaped hull. velocity to navigate between GPS fixes. instances AUV communications options A variety of modules are available to allow Bluefin’s use of post-mission renavigation are limited to either intermittent use of equipping the AUV with various camera, to GPS-correct data gathered during dead- radio methods, available only when the sonar, and hydrographic sensors; navigation reckoned portions of the mission reduces AUV surfaces to expose an antenna, or instruments; communications devices; and overall navigation errors in recorder data to acoustic methods which have limited additional batteries (Gavia, 2007). Other (Bluefin, 2007). range and very limited data rate. Optical AUVs with some modular design features In general, AUVs with either of the and laser-based communications systems include the Bluefin 9, with a replaceable above navigation systems employ DVLs, have shorts ranges in water and require battery module for rapid vehicle turn- which provide measurements of velocity complex systems to provide motion sta- around (Bluefin, 2007); and the REMUS and altitude above bottom. DVLs also bilization because of the narrow beams 100 and 600 vehicles, with a modular front provide measurements of water current involved. As a result, with other more end capable of being reconfigured for vari- direction and magnitude as a function and practical means available, these are not ous sensors (Hydroid, 2007). depth when used in the acoustic Doppler commonly used for communications current profiler (ADCP) mode, making between moving platforms. B. Navigation it a hydrographic instrument as well as a As a result of the desire to keep antenna The underwater operating environment navigation instrument. Vehicles of all types size reasonable, most AUV radio systems does not permit continuous access to GPS almost universally carry some form of head- use carrier frequencies of approximately 1 signals, causing AUV designers to pursue ing reference as well, either inertial or mag- GHz or more. Common systems include other navigation methods. Most AUVs use netic. Magnetic sensors, usually electronic 900 MHz wireless modems or 2.4 GHz one of two predominant approaches. compass modules, are most common but 802.11 wireless networks for line-of sight Because acoustic energy propagates fur- are susceptible to magnetic disturbances operations when operating AUVs near ther in water than other forms of energy, it from the vehicle or the environment. shore or support craft. Longer distance is the basis of many navigation systems. In Inertial sensors are not susceptible to such radio links make use of satellite circuits a typical acoustic system the vehicle inter- disturbances, but drift over time. Some such as Iridium. Because radio communi-

Spring 2008 Volume 42, Number 1 47 cations can only commence after the AUV D. Power vehicle remains on the surface; and discharge has exposed an antenna above the surface, Because they operate underwater, during submerged operations. Long-endur- an operator cannot command an AUV to isolated from the atmosphere, the vast ance solar-powered operations have been the surface to initiate such communica- majority of AUVs use batteries as their air- demonstrated during a 30-day simulated tions. Communications opportunities are independent power source. Since battery mission (Crimmins, 2006 ). therefore determined by the AUV. capacity limits AUV endurance, improved Fuel cells have been used to a limited When more continuous communica- battery technologies have been rapidly degree as a replacement for batteries in a tions are needed, or the AUV must be adopted for AUV use. Lithium batteries, few AUVs (Tsukioka, 2004), however they contacted while submerged, acoustic means widely used in demanding applications are relatively complex compared to battery are generally employed. Acoustic modems such as photography, cellular phones, and power sources, involve the handling of re- modulate data as acoustic energy for trans- laptop computers, are common in AUVs. actant gasses or chemicals, and are roughly mission through the water, but the water Rechargeable, or “secondary”, lithium-ion equivalent to primary lithium batteries medium has several disadvantages such batteries are used in REMUS and Gavia in expense and performance (Griffiths, as limited range and bandwidth. Com- vehicles, and similar lithium-polymer bat- 2005). As a result, their adoption to date munications are also highly variable and teries are used in Bluefin vehicles. Such has been limited. dependent on factors such as depth, bottom power systems provide mission duration type, temperature, salinity, and sea state. A on the order of a day at speeds on the order E. Sensors summary of acoustic modem capabilities is of a few knots. One design feature which As discussed previously, AUVs are the subject of Kilfoyle (2000). Common mitigates short battery life that is used particularly well suited as sensor platforms acoustic modems include the Benthos in some REMUS and Bluefin vehicles is due to their mobility and autonomous op- Telesonar© system, which is capable of swappable batteries, allowing rapid vehicle eration, and commercial models frequently kilobit-per second data rates at ranges on turnaround by battery replacement instead feature basic oceanographic instrumenta- the order of a kilometer (Green, 2002); of battery charging. Another means of tion as standard or optional equipment. LinkQuest modems, which have been extending mission duration is the use of Because they are generally compact, almost used in offshore petroleum work; and the non-rechargeable “primary” lithium batter- any oceanographic instrument is suitable Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution ies, which allow longer mission duration, for deployment onboard an AUV. (WHOI) modem, which has been widely at the significant cost of having to dispose Imaging sensors are also standard equip- used in AUV research and is the basis of of and replace them once discharged. Such ment on many AUVs. Side scan sonar is the the Hydroid REMUS acoustic modem an option is available for the Gavia vehicle most common high-resolution underwater (Grund, 2006). (Gavia, 2007). imaging sensor, and is available on most A hybrid communications option is the Mission duration of battery-powered AUVs. Figure 5 shows analysis of side scan use of a surface buoy employing an acous- vehicles can be extended by periodically sonar imagery collected by the REMUS tic modem below the surface and a radio recharging vehicle batteries during a mis- AUV. Synthetic aperture sonar, another transceiver above. Radio communications sion, usually by docking with an underwa- high-resolution acoustic imaging sensor between the controlling station and the ter charging station. Such stations, which with the potential for improved range, reso- buoy are converted to acoustic commu- have seen limited use to date, may supply lution, and ability to detect buried objects, nications that are sent through the water power from their own batteries, from has been under development for a few years between the AUV and the buoy. Doing cabled connections to a power source, or (Fernandez, 2004). AUVs are particularly so allows a controlling station to be many from environmental energy sources. These suited to carrying this sensor because the miles away (within radio range of the buoy) require an AUV capable of accurately navi- imaging process requires precise vehicle from the AUV. The AUV must be within gating into the dock and establish electrical navigation along an underwater path, al- acoustic communications range of the buoy connections, either directly or inductively. though vehicle position and attitude must to complete the communications link to Several have been tested in recent years and be more tightly controlled than for other the controlling station, which is compatible are described in Podder (2004). sonar systems. Sub-bottom profilers have with missions requiring AUVs to remain The use of solar power has been demon- been carried by AUVs to image geological in a particular geographic area such as an strated in the Solar AUV (SAUV), a unique features beneath the seafloor for work such intensive survey mission; or missions with vehicle developed by Falmouth Scientific as petroleum exploration, and multi-beam communications periods during which the Inc. and the Autonomous Undersea Systems sonar for swath bathymetry seafloor map- AUV closes within acoustic communica- Institute. The SAUV is equipped with a solar ping (Henthorn, 2006). Acoustic cameras tions range of the buoy. An example of such cell array and lithium ion batteries, designed such as the dual-frequency identification a buoy is the Hydroid Paradigm/Gateway for long-duration missions during which sonar (DIDSON) have been carried by sev- system (Hydroid Gateway, 2007). cells charge during daylight hours while the eral AUVs for demanding imaging applica-

48 Marine Technology Society Journal Figure 5 and as confidence grows that the vehicle’s autonomous actions enhance mission per- Analysis of REMUS side scan sonar data (U.S. Navy photo). formance without endangering it, AUVs become more useful and capable. Most present-day missions involve a very low level of autonomy in that they are either pre-programmed as a series of waypoints, or pre-programmed and later modified mid-mission through exchange of data and orders with a human operator. Autonomy in such missions consists largely of automatic control of vehicle position, velocity, and attitude while passing through a sequence of waypoints. Payload and com- munications functions occur continuously or at pre-determined times or positions. This level of autonomy is satisfactory for applications such as surveying.

Figure 7 tions such as hull inspection (Son-Choel, sensor’s physical size, power requirement, Vehicle response in vertical plane as shown in the side 2006). The submerged use of optical or desired period of deployment exceeds scan sonar image (Horner and Yakimenko, 2007). cameras is limited by water clarity, which that of the host AUV. is generally on the order of a few feet, but they can also be mounted on an AUV mast F. Autonomy to observe conditions above the surface at Bandwidth limitations and other dif- long distances (Allen, 2006). ficulties with underwater communications Examples of other sensors carried by place a large premium on AUV autono- AUVs include magnetometers (Wynn, mous operations. Limited opportunities 2002), chemical and biological sensors for telemetry of sensor data or vehicle status (Farrell et al, 2003), and 100-meter-long and for follow-on human intervention vector sensor arrays capable of acousti- requires the vehicle be more autonomous cally detecting and tracking other vessels that unmanned ground, aerial, or space (Benjamin, 2007). In general, most sensors vehicles. The enabling technology is au- are compatible with an AUV, unless the tonomy. As progress is made in this area,

Figure 6

Obstacle detection in the horizontal and vertical planes using the blazed array sonar on the NPS REMUS vehicle, showing obstacle width and height, (Horner and Yakimenko, 2007).

Spring 2008 Volume 42, Number 1 49 An incrementally higher level of au- The two most significant technological Bellingham, J.G., Hobson, B. 2006. Future tonomy is represented by vehicles whose challenges, which if overcome would most Developments and Applications Of Marine default operations are as described above, advance the utility of AUVs, are power and Robotics. Keynote paper, Proceedings of the but which have the additional capability autonomy. Present power sources limit IFAC Conference, MCMC, Lisbon, Portugal, to momentarily and reactively depart from the duration and spatial extent of AUV September 20-22, 2006. preprogrammed operation in response to missions and therefore the amount of data Bingham, D., Drake, T., Hill, A., Lott, R. specific, clearly defined stimuli. An example gathered per deployment. Just as nuclear 2002. The Application of Autonomous Un- is obstacle detection and avoidance, shown power unleashed the potential of manned derwater Vehicle (AUV) Technology in the in Figure 6, whereby the vehicle momentar- submarines, a significant breakthrough in Oil Industry – Vision and Experiences. FIG ily departs from its pre-programmed trajec- powering AUVs would greatly enhance XXII International Congress, Washington tory to maneuver around a sensed obstacle their capabilities. Present autonomy limits D.C., April 19-26 2002. Available at: www. and later returns to its pre-programmed the degree to which AUVs may be left unat- fig.net/pub/fig_2002/Ts4-4/TS4_4_bing- track (Horner, 2005; Healey, 2006). Work tended by human operators; thereby raising ham_etal.pdf. underway at Naval Postgraduate School their operating costs, limiting the types of focuses on the use of a small blazed array missions they may perform without human Blidberg, D.R. 2001. The Development of from BlueView Technologies, Inc. to detect presence, and exposing them to underway Autonomous Underwater Vehicles (AUVs); underwater obstacles in both vertical and hazards that they cannot autonomously A Brief Summary. Available at; http://www. horizontal directions linked to vehicle avoid. One example of improved autonomy ausi.org/publications/ICRA_01paper.pdf. avoidance response as demonstrated in would be a long-duration military AUV Bluefin. 2007. Bluefin Website: http://www. Healey and Horner (2006) and Horner surveillance mission in which the AUV’s bluefinrobotics.com. and Yakimenko (2007). Such extensions of sensors and processing enable it to classify autonomy potentially reduce risk to the ve- and interpret sensor data, determine and Ciani, C.M., Zurawski, W. 2002.Perform- hicle when avoiding hazards, while adding execute optimal positioning for further ance of Fusion Algorithms for Computer minimal additional risk from unpredictable data gathering, decide which events war- Aided Detection and Classification of Bot- vehicle behavior in that the vehicle eventu- rant reporting, identify risks of collision tom Mines in the Shallow Water Environ- ally returns to pre-programmed behavior. or counter-detection, and execute evasive ment. Oceans 2002 Proceedings, vol 4, pp. Higher levels of autonomy would en- maneuvers. Given the strong motivation to 2164-2167. able such high-level activities as reliably overcome these challenges and replace vul- Crimmins, D. M. et al. 2006. Long-Endur- classifying detected objects or transmis- nerable and increasingly expensive manned ance Test results of the Solar Powered AUV. sions; reliably detecting, classifying, track- systems with their relatively inexpensive Oceans 2006 Proceedings, pp. 1-5. ing or avoiding other vehicles; diagnosing unmanned counterparts, and given the and taking corrective action for vehicle difficult nature of these challenges, much Curtin, T.B., Bellingham, J.G., Catipovic, J., hardware/software faults; or autonomously effort on further developments can be Webb, D. 1993. Autonomous Underwater replanning vehicle trajectories to optimize expected for the foreseeable future. Sampling Networks. Oceanography. 6(3):86-94. sensor performance based on in situ meas- Doughman, A. 2008. From the Deep, UW urements. Such activities are presently too Glider draws U.S. Military Attention. 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