FUT1T, EXPERIMENTS
4. 1 • INTRODUCTION
Fuel is one of the important components of
VOC. It has assumed great importance in India in view of the dependence of the country on oil imports to a large extent. The objective of fuel experiments was to establish accurate relationships between fuel consumption of common vehicles found in India and important roadway, vehicle and traffic characteristics. The investigations on fuel consumption were also carried out from User Survey data
(Ref. 37). The two independent approaches rendered it possible to make a comparision of the two sets of relationships (Ref. 46).
4.2. FACTORS AFFECTING FUEL CONSUMPTION
There are a number of factors which affect fuel consumption of vehicles. The subject Matter is highly complex and it is worth-while to identify the more important of the factors under some broad heads, such as : Roadway'factors
Vehicle fac±ors
Traffic factors
Driver factors
Environmental factors Fuel factors The important road-way factors are Type of the surface
Riding quality of the surface
Gradient, upward or downward
Width of the pavement
The factors pertaining to vehicles are
Type
Make 3, Horse-power
Number of cylinders
Mechanical efficiency
Tyres
Load carried 8. Condition of engine
The factors attributable to traffic turn. be as under : Speed Volune of traffic (congestion)
3. Extent of forced stoppages
Driver habits and behaviour can influence fuel consumption to a great extent. Excessive speeding, avoidable acceleratio n and deceleration, selection of inappropriate gear etc are some of the points that go to iaffect fuel consumption. The enviromental factors that are known to
fluence fuel consumption are
1. Altitude of the place Temperature Wind velocity and direction
The characteristics of the fuel ±nfluence fuel consumption.
The important 'factors are
1., Type of fuel
Anti-knock value octane number) and
ignitability (octane number) Wax content
4. Sulphur content
4.3.. TEST VEHICLES
Considering the popular vehicle types in
India and the need to include a heavy commercial vehicle to represent future preferences, the following vehicles were selected for the experiments (Ref.61,62,63,64,65) V Ambassador car Premier Padmini car 1iahindra diesel jeep
Tata Truck 1210 SE/42
5. Ashok Leyland Beaver Haulage Truck.
The particulars of the vehicles are given in Table 4.1.
.4. EQUIZMENT FOR STUDIBS
The equipment used for the studies were
Ref. 29,46)
1. Fuel meters (Transflo ) with connection Ambassador Primier Mahindra Tata Truclr Ashok L eyrielud isle Car Padmini Car Diesel Jeep 1210/SE 42 Beaver 11.01-lage Truck
Horse Power 50 BET at 47.5 BHP at 38 BHP at 112 BET at 180 BHP at 4200 RPM 4800 RPM 2300 RPM 2800 RPM (83.5KW) 2200 RPM ( 134.5EN)
No of Cylinders 4 4 4 6 6 Engine Capacity ( c c) 1489 1089 23 50 4788 11100 ru el P etrol P etrol Diesel Diesel Diesel Unladen Weight (Kg) 1165 885 570 6120 8125 ad on „.11eight (Kg) 1528 1215 1200 1 2180 16260 No. of Axles 2 2 2 2 2 No. of Wheels 4 4 4 6 6 Tyre Size 5.90x15 5.20x14 6.00x16 9.00x20 or 10.00x20 11.00x20
Overall Length (m) 4.31 3.93 3.73 6.97 8,16
OverR1 1 Width (m) 1.68 1.46 1.75 2.30 2.51 Wheel Base (m) 2.50 2.34 2,31 4.23 4.57 Height (m) 1.60 1 .47 1.70 3.10 3.10 Frontal area (m2 ) 2.15 1.63 2.38 5 .37 5.37
- 210
Stop watches Distance measuring device Loading arrangement (cement concrete blocks) Weighing device
4.5. STEADY STATE FUEL EXPERIMENTS
4.5.1• Under steady state fuel experiments, the test vehicles were driven at selected speeds over a pre-marke d length of test road. Roads with different values of roughness and vertical gradient were selected. The length of the test section was generally 1 km,, and in excep tional cases a length of 500 m was accepted. Trucks were loaded in stages.
Table 4.2 gives the range of values of the road characteristics, speeds and power-weight ratio..
4.'5. 2. The experiments were carried out after bringing the engin e to a good tuned condition, and keeping the tyre pressure at the manufacture' s recommended values. Wind veloc ity was measured to eliminate work under extremely windy condition, bp.t the wind velocity itself has not been indude d in the analysis. The effect of wind was partially nullified by taking equal number of readings (about 3)- in each direction at each site at each selected speed. The gears at which the vehicles were run were selected after preli minary trials keeping the manufacturer' s recommendations in view. The vehicle was brought over the test section at the desired speed and the fuel meter RANGE OF VALUES OF VARIABLES FOR STEADY STATE FUEL EXPERIMENTS ...._ Ambassador Premi er P admini Diesel Ashok Leyland Variable Symbol Unit Car Car Jeep Tata Truck Truck
Speed V Km/hr 14-83 20-81 14-74 10-72 9.7-53.3 Rise RS m/Km 0-50 0-50 0-50 0-50 0-50 1' cal Ia. m/Km 0-50 0-50 0-50 0-50 0-50 Roughness RG mm/Km 4190-8200 4190-8200 2130-10110 4190-8280 4190- 9334 Power-Weight PW Kw/tonne - - - 4.41-13.65 5.92-16 .53 Ratio
212 -
and stop watch were started at the -test section beginning
and stopped at the test section end-. The time taken for
travel o v er a known distance gives the actual speed of travel and the fuel meter reading gives the fuel consumed.
1 2, 4.5.3. The analysis was done using V-- and V as the speed variables in addition to roadway variables
RG, RE and FL and load variable PW (for trucks). The 2 transformation of V to V and V has been found to be a useful method in earlier studies (Ref 66,67). The results 2 are presented in Table 4.3. The equations have high R
ialues and the regression coefficients are well determined. The fuel consumption *6 Speed curve follows the typical
U chap e ( Fig 4.1, 4. 2 , 4.3 , 4.4 and 4.5) . The optimum speed for minimum fuel consumption is given in Table 4.4.
TABLE 4.4. OPTIMUM SPEED FOR MINIMUM FUEL CONSUMPTION
Optimum speed for minimum Vehicle fuel consumption km hr Disel Jeep 35 - Ambassador Car 40 Premier Padmi3toi Car 40
Tata Truck 1210 SE 45 Ashok Leyland Beaver truck 35
Tables 4.5, 4.6, 4.7, 4.8 and 4. 9 give the
sumption of the vehicles derived. from the equations f erent roadway, speed and load conditions. These
e arly establish how bad road and overloading
TABLE-4.3 FULL CONSUMPTION EXPERIMENTAL EQUATIONS 2 qamalL Standard .5;2_NO. R Sine. Error ** FOE - 1 PC + 2258.11 2** ** + 0.0242 V +0.0012 RG 0.973 209 5.502 (Diesel jeep V (-12.39) (60.36) (48.40) (6.00) + 1,2776 RS **- 0.5647 FL** (46.8) (-20.70)
FCE - 2 FC = ** 4* 10.31 + 1675.52 + 0.0133 V 2 +O.:0006 RG (Ambassador V (2,12)` (26.23) (21.53) (1.01) 0.880 313 12.731 Car) ** ** + 1.3879 RS - 1.0322 FL (26.18) (-19.74)
FOE - 3 = 49.84 +319,0698 ** n** ** V 0.0035 V +0.0019 RG (Premier (5.33) Padmini Car) (12,81) (8.82) (3.04) 0.969 105 4.218 0.9416 RS"- 0.6769 FL** (36.30)
TABLE=A.3 _LContd.,/
SampIs Standard A.0 NO. ELL_ Size Error - ** FCE - FC = 266.52 + 2517.27** 2 ** V +0.0362 V +0.0066 RG (Ashok (26.02) (25.23) (13.03) , (4.55) 0.792 410 41.77 ** ** ** Leyland Beaver FL - Truck) + 4.2647 RS - 2.7368 6.2596 PW (19.98) (-12.82) (-10.51)
** FCE - 2 ** 5 FC = 85.07 + 3904.64Vdm + 0.0207 V +0.0012 RG (Tata Truck) (8.75) (46.73) (9.41) (0.75) 0.932 352 28.635 ** ** ** + 3.3281 RS - 1.7769 FL - 6.2306 PW (26.67) (-14.25) (-12.83)
Note : 1 't' value are given in parenthesis
2 denotes significant at 5% level, ** denotes significant at 1% level 3 FC Fuel consumption in d.c. per km (litres per 1000 km)
4 V, RG, RF, FL, PW : As explained in Table 4.2 0 0
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FUEL CONSUMPTiON IPTY ASAc LEYLAND T RUCK V SPEED ON \IEL ROAD 0 mm/ km
RA 'ABLE EFFECT OF SPEED ON FUEL CONSUMPTION
Speed Diesel Jeep Ambassador Car Premier Padmini Car Tata Truck 1210 SE Ashok-. Leyland Beaver Truck Km/hr A B A B A B A 10 - 181.6 239.3 89.7 126.3 397.0 298.4 444.8 145.5 15 129.9 186.7 - - 270.0 203.8 365.4 119.6 20 96.6 138.8 101.8 134.2 74.8 105.5 208.0 156.4 329.8 107.9 25 80.2 115.2 - - - - 174.0 130.8 312.8 102.3 30 72.2 103.7 80.5 106.1 71.3 100.3 153.0 115.4 305.9 100.1 35 69.6 100.0 - - - - 142.0 106.8 305.7 100.0 N I\) 40 71.1 102.2 75.9 100.0 71.0 100.0 135.0 101.5 310.3 101.5 0 50 82.7 118.P 79.5 104.8 72.6 102.2 135.0 101.5 330.3 108.2
60 103.0 148.0 58.5 116.6 75.4 106.1 143.0 107.5 361.7 118.3 70 130.8 187.9 1C1.8 134.2 79.2 111.1 162.0 121.8 402.8 131.8
80 - 118.8 156.2 83.8 118.0 186.0 139.8 452.6 148.0 90 _ - 139.1 183.3 89.3 125.8 216.0 162.4 - - 100 - - 162.5 214.1 95.6 134.7 - - - - Note : 1 Column A denotes fuel consumption in c.c per Km or litres per 1000 Mm 2 Colu mn B _-demotes fuel consumption expressed as per centage of optimum 3 Black-topped road considered for all cases. 4 Trucks have been considered empty. TABLE - 4.6 EFL CT OF ROUGHNESS ON FUEL CONSUMPTION PrimierFadmini TataTrudk Ashok Leyland Roughness Expected type Diesel Jeep Ambassador Car Car 1210 SE Beaver Truck mm^K m of surface A B A B A B A A
3000 Asphaltic 66.7 100.0 75.3 100.0 69.0 100.0 132.2 100.0 309.1 100.0 Concrate(AC)
5000 Premix Carpet 69.1 103.6 76.5 100.6 72.8 105.5 134.6 101.8 322.3 104.3
6000 Surface 70.3 105.4 77.1 102.4 74.7 108.3 135.8 102.7 328.9 106.4 Dressing
8000 Good WBM 72.7 109.8 78.3 104.0 78.5 113.8 138.2 104.5 342.1 110.7
12000 Poor WBK 77.5 116.2 80.7 107.2 86.1 124.8 143.0 108.2 368.5 119.2
15000 Very poor WEM , 81.1 121.6 82.5 109.6 91.8 133.0 146.6 110.9 388.3 125.6 Gravel Earth surface
Note : 1 Column A gives fuel consumption in c.c. per Km or litres per1000Km 2 Column B gives fuel consumption expressed as percentage of fuel consumption when o p erating on AC surface 3 Trucks have been considered to be empty. 4 Vehicles are considered to be running at their optimum speeds. TABLE =_4.7 FUEL CCNSUDTPTION OF VEHICLES ON RISING GRADES Upward Diesel Jeep Ambassador Car Premier Padmini Tata Truck Ashok Leyland Beaver Gradient Car 1210 SE Truck (%) A B A B A B A B A 0 69.6 100.0 75.9 100.0 71.0 100.0 133.4 100.0 305.7 100.0
1 82.4 113.4 89.8 118.3 80.4 113.2 166.7 124.9 348.4 113.9
2 95.2 138.8 103.7 136.7 89.8 126.5 199.9 1 4 9.8 391.0 127,9
3 108.0 1F.5.2 117.6 155.0 99.2 139.7 233.2 174.8 433.7 141.9
4 120.8 173.6 131.5' 173. 4 108.0 152.9 266.5 199.8 476.3 156.0 N
5 133.6 152.0 145.4 191.6 118.0 166.2 302.4 226.5 519.0 169.8
6 146.4 210.3 159.3 209.9 127.4 179.4 333.1 249.7 561.6 183.7
7 159.2 228.7 173.2 228.2 136.8 192.7 366.4 274.7 604.3 197.7
Note : 1 Column A gives fuel consumption in c.c. per Km of litres per 1000Km 2 Column B gives fuel consumption expressed as percentage of fuel consumption on 0 per cent grade 3 Black-topped road considered for all cases 4 Trucks have been considered empty. TABLE - 4.8 FULL CONSUMPTION OF VEHICLES ON D0WNWAHD_IRADES MpwnWard Diesel Jeep Ambassador Car Premier Padmini Tata Truck Ashok Leyland Beaver Gradient Car T210 SE Truck (%) A B A B A B A B A B o 69.6 100.0 75.9 100.0 71.0 100.0 133.4 100.0 305.7 100.0
1 64.0 92.0 65.6 86.8 64.2 90.4 115.6 86.6 278.4 91.0
2 58.4 83.0 55.3 73.1 57.4 80.9 97.8 73.3 251.0 82.1
3 52.8 77.1 45.0 59.3 50.6 71.3 80.1 66.0 223.6 73.1
4 47 .2 67.8 34.7 45.9 43.8 61.7 62.3 46.7 196.2 64.2
5 41.6 59.8 24.4 32.2 37.0 52.1 44.5 33.3 168.9 55.2
6 36.0 51.7 14.1 18.6 31.2 44.0 26.8 20.1 141.5 46.3 Note : 1 Column A gives fuel consumption in c.c. per Km or litres per 1000Km 2 Column B gives fuel consumption expressed as percentage of fuel consumption on 0 per cent grade 3 Black-topped road considered for all cases 4 Truck have been considered empty. TABLE-4.9 LFFECT OF LOAD ON FUEL CONSUMPTION OF COMKERCIAL VEHICLES
Load Tata .Truck Ashok Leyland (Tonnes) 1210 SE Beaver Haulage Truck
FC as percentage FC as percentage of empty truck of empty truck PW FC fuel consumption PW FC fuel consumption
(Empty Truck) 13.65 133.0 100.0 16.53 305.7 100 .0 2.5 8.60 165.0 124.0
5.0 6.85 176.0 132.3 10.18 345.1 112.9
7.5 5.70 183.0 137.5 8.54 355.4 116.2
10.0 5.18 186.0 139.8 7.35 362. 8 11 .7
12.5 4.60 190.0 142.8 6.45 368.4 120.1
15.0 3-96 194.0 145.8 5.75 372.8 122.0
17.5 5.19 376.4 123.1
PW is power-weight ratio in Kw/tonne FC is fuel consumption in c.c. per Km or litres per 1000 Km
- 225 -
cause high fuel consumption, end illustrate how it is
necessary to travel at optimum speeds to get the minimum
fuel consumption.
4.6. SATELLITE STUDY ON RADIAL. TYRES
Radial tyres are known to result in fuel
saving s. These tyres are making their first appearance
in India. In order to understand the extent of fuel
savings possible, a satellite study was conducted with
collaboration of M/S JK Industries (Ref 46,68,69). It
was observed that stkkl-belted r pd -I,C1 tyres gave :a ue1 economy of about 7 per cent at speeds in the range of 30-50 km/hr
for Ambassador cars, of about 6 per cent at speeds in the range of 50-90 km/hr for Premier Padmini cars ? of about 3-9 per cent in the speed range of 25-40 km/hr for three-wheeler autorickshaws.
4.7. FURL CONSUMPTION OF TWO-WHEELER SCOOTERS
A small study was carried out to determine
the fuel consumption of two-wheeler scooters at steady state speeds (Ref 46,70). The results indicated that the
fuel consumption followed the U-shaped curve, the optimum
speed for minimum consumption being about 30-40 km/hr.
When sp eeds were in creased to 60-70 km/hr, the fuel consumption
nearly doubled. Similarly, when speeds dro p ped down to 10 km/hr, the fuel consumption nearly doubled.
4.8. IDLE FUFT, CONSUMPTION
Considerable wastage of fuel takes place - 2 2 6 -
when engines are kept idling, for example, at traffic signals and check - barriers. A small experiment was conducted to determine the idle fuel consumption
(Ref 46,71). Table 4.10 gives the results.
TABLE-4.10 IDLE FUEL CONSUMPTION
S.NO. Vehicle Tya2 Idle fuel consum tion cc per minute
1 Ambassador car 13.0
2 Premier Padmini car 10.5 3 Diesel Jeep 12.3 4 Ashok Leyland Beaver truck 35.4 5 Tata truck (1210 SE) 15.3
4.9. ZITGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER WORK
Further work on fuel experiments can be taken up to establish the effect of altitude, acceleration and deceleration and tuned vs =tuned. conditions. 5. STUDY ON ACCIDLITT RATE AND COST
5.1. INTRODUCTION
5.1.1. Cost of road accidents is an important constituent of the Road User Cost. The accident situation in India is alarming. Statistics reveal (Ref 72,73,74) that nearly 21,300 persons were killed in the year 1977-78 due to road accidents irr-India. An internationR1 comparision
of accident rate reveals (Ref 72,75 ) that India has a
very high rate of fatalities (61.5) per 10,000 motor vehicles as compared to 3-6 in the developed countries.
5.1.2 Road accidents are caused by a variety of factors
attributable to the roadway, the road user, the vehicle
and the environment. Since roadway factors con be controlled
to some extent by the engineer by proper design and maintenance, a study of the road accident rate in relation
to roadway factors will help in predicting the accident rate for a number of road design o p tions. Such a study can demonstrate how badly designed roads cause road accidents and how they can be minimised by better design.
5.1.3. Estimation of accident costs facilitates the economic evaluation of schemes intended specifically as safety measures and of schemes where benefits due to reduction in accident rate flow in as a secondary consequence of road improvements.
5.1.4. In view of the importance of this area of resear c h and the inadequacy of previous studies on this - 228 -
topic, the Road User Cost Study took up a limited investigation.
It should be emphasised that the results presented_are by no
means final, and further work should continue.
5.2. METHODOLOGY FOR STUDYING ACCIDENT RATE
The objective of the study was to establish
some relationship between the accident rate and roadway factprs. Some of the important road characteristics which
influence accident rate are 1 Elements of horizontal design, including
radius of curvature, super-elevation and widening of pavements on curves.
2 Verticci profile of the road, including the upward and downward gradients, provision
of summit and valley curves and availability of adequate sight distance for stopping and overtaking. Elements of cross sectional design,
including pavement width, shoulder width,
lateral clearance to obstructions etc. Number of junctions along the road, the adequacy of the design of intersections,
control of access and prasence of ribbon development along highways.
Though each of the above factors is by itself extremely important for traffic safety, a detailed research on understanding how each of them contributes to the accident rate will be extremely large in scope. - 229 -
Considering the limitations of time and resources, it was decided to study the effect cif the following factors alone on the accident rate
1. Horizontal curvature
2: Vertical profile (rise/fall)
Pavement width
Number of junctions per Km
5. Traffic Volume.
The work was taken up in two parts Detailed study of the accident rate on
the Bombay-Pune road, Kilometre by Kilometre (Ref 76).
A study of the accident rate on 34 selected
routes in the country (Ref 77).
The measurement of road geometry on these routes had been carried out by the User Cos't Survey(Ref 37). The accident statistics were collected from the police records for about 4 years (1976-80). The average of the period has been considered for the analysis.
The following symbols are used in the presentation of the results : TABLE - 5.1 SYMBOLS USED AND THEIR EXPLANATION S.NC. Symbol Explanation AR(1) Accident rate per Km. per annum. AR(2) Personal injury accident rae in number per Km. per annum. 3. AR(3) Personal injury accident rate in number per million vehicle Km/annum:. - 230 -
Table 5.1 (Contd..) S.NO lymbol Explanation AR(4) Accident rate per million vehicle km. per annum.
CV Average herizontal curvature in degrees/km.
RF VerticAl profile, denoting the rise and fall in metres per km. J Number of Junctions per Km. Pavement width in metres. 9. QADT Average traffic volume in veh/day.
5.3. BOMBAY - PUNE ROAD STUDY
The Bombay-Pune road is part of National Highway No. 4 and traverses through plain, rolling and hilly terrain. It is a two-lane black-topped road, with a traffic volume of 4747 vehicles per day (Ref 72,76).
114 Kilometres of this road were selected for study. The road geometry was measured for each Kilometre, and the accident data was collected for each corresponding Kilometre.
Table gives the range of geometry characteristics.
TABLE-5.2 RANGE OF VALUE OF GEOMETRY CHARACTERISTICS
S.NO. Geometry characteristics Rage of Value
Horizent p0 curvature 0-710 degrees/km.
Rise and fall 0.8 - 58.4m/km. Number of Junctions 0 - 6 per km.
From the data, the following multiple linear regression equation was developed - 231 -
* * * AR (1) = 0.6576 + 0.0932 RF + 0.0133 CV* (4.43) (6.40) ** + 2.0657 J (19.90) (R2 = 0.802) Note :- 1. ** denotes significant at 1% level 2. Figures in parenthesis are 't' values.
From a separate study of the accident rates
on this road for the years 1974 to 1979, (Ref 76), it has been found that out of the total number of accidents,
40.2 per cent constitute personal injury. Thus multiplying the above equatibh by 0.402, one gets AR (2) = - 0.2644 + 0.0375 RF + 0.0053 CV + 0.8304 J
The personal injury accident rate per million vehicle Km per year is given by : AR (3) = - 0.1526 + 0.0216 RF + 0.00310V+0.4793 J The above equations can be used to predict
accident rates on two-lane black-topped roads in other parts of India under a variety of geometric conditions. The equations developed are similar to those developed by TRRL for Kenya and Jamaica (Ref 78).
5.4. ACCIDENT RALE_LaT=ON_SZLBCTED ROUTES As an extension. of the above work, a study of accident rates on 34 routes in different parts of the country was taken up. The routes selected covered single lane, intermediat e lane and two lane widths, and various values of curvature, rise and fell, number of junctions per km. and traffic volume. Table 5.3 gives the range of - 252 -
values of geometry characteristics.
TABLE-5.3 RANGE OF VALUES OF GEOMETRY CHARACTERISTICS S.NO. Geometr Characteristics Range of Values Horizontal curvature 16.16-727.5 Degrees/km, Rise and fall 1.23- 44.67 m/km. Number of junctions 0.02- 2.69 per km. Pavement width 3.75- 8.46 m.
The following equations have emerged AR (1) = 0.2171 + 0.002884 CV% 0.4126 J (7.73) (1.10) - 0.3447 W + 0.001274 Q ** (-1.49) (6.70) ADT (R2= 0.759)
AR (i) = - 0.9134 + 0.0545 RF ** + 0.5560 J (2.72) (1.43) - 0.2220 W + 0.001177 QADT" (-0.97) (6.36) (R 2 = 0.766) The above equations give the accident rate in number per Kilometre per annum. Multiplying the terms by 0.48, the number of personal injury accidents per kilometre er annum can be obtained. This factor has been derived after studying the accident statistics an a number of roads for 6 years (Ref 77).
.5. ISSUES IN ACCIDENT COSTING 5.1. It has been argued by some ( R ef 79) whether nelusion of e.ccidIoat cost in economic analysis is Levant for a developing country. Since India has a. high
cident rate, it is nevertheless desirable to include t - 233- accident costs in economic analysis. Only then can awareness be created amongst planners, economists, engineers and administrators on this vital issue.
5.5.2. There are two broad approaches in accident costing, viz, (i) ex-ante costs and (ii) ex-post costs. The former represent those for preventing accidents and hence the society t s willingness to pay for accident prevention. The latter deal with costs incurred by the community after the accidents have taken place. For a developing country like India with limited resources it is considered sufficient to consider ex-post costs which are considerably lower than ex-ante costs.
5.5.3. The loss of future output of persons involved in accidents in an important component of accident cost. The question often asked is whether the victim, future consumption should be deducted. Since the practice in most countries now is to consider the gross output ( without deducting for future consumlotion), the same procedure is recommended for India.
5.5.4. The rate of discount of future loss of output can vary from 6 to 12 per cent (Ref 79). A rate of 10 per cent has been adopted in the present study. A nominal increase of 2 per cent per annum in the income of the victims has also been allowed in the present work, this rate being quite near to the rise of per capita national income at constant prices. - 234 -
5.5.5. Accidents involve pain and suffering to the victims and those who care for the victims. The monetary
quantification of this is riddled with difficulty. At
the same time, total disregard of it is also not proper.
An amount equal to 20 per cent of the quantifiable costs
has been added in the present study to account for this.
5.6. DATA SOURCES AND DATA COLLECTION FOR ACCIDLNT COSTING
The sourcessfrom which data has been collected for the study are listed below
S.NO. Source Data collected
Hospital 1. Cost of medical treatment (G.D. Pant Hospital) 2. Hospital overheads
police 1. Age spectrum of victims (Delhi Traffic Police)2. Police overheads 3. Insurance Compares 1. Age spectrum of victims Income distribution of victims Insurance overheads
4. Miscellaneous 1. National life expectancy sources 2. Administration expenses of Accident Tribunals Legal expenses Funeral expenses 5. Travel costs of victims and relatives.
The average age of a fatal Tictim was found to be
32 years. Considering the average life expectancy in
India as 54 years, the average fatal victim loses 22 years of useful productive life. The average income was found to be Rs. 4200 per annum. - 235 -
5.7. COST OF VARIOUS TYLIA OlL_MCIDINTS The break-up of the cost of a fatal accident is given in Table 5.4.
TABLE,.5.4 SUMMARY OF COST OF A FATAL ACCIDENT S.NO. Item_ Cost (Rs.)
Gross loss of future output 39,220
Notional value of pain, grief and 7,844 suffering
Hospital expenditure 140
Expenditure by courts, Tribunals 1,600 and on lawyer's fee
5. Administrative expenses of Police, 1,000 Insurance CoMpanies, visits by relatives, funeral expenses etc. TOTAL 49,804/-
The break-up of the cost of a serious injury accident is given in Table 5.5.
TABIW SUMMARY OFACCILENT2I2222 SERIOUS INJURY
S.NO. Item Cost_i2s.)
Hospitalisation charges 7,000
OPD visits and hospital expenditure 300
Coat of accessories like 500 artificial limbs
Cost of establishment Of courts, 1 ,600 tribunal and lawyer's fee
Cost of establishment of Police, 500 Insurance Companies and cost of visits by relatives
Monetary value of loss of future 19,610 output due to permanent disability
TOTAL 29,510 - 236
Table 5.6 summarises the cost of various types of accidents.
TABLE- 5.6 SUMMARY OF ACCIDENT COSTS
S.NO. Ty2 e of Accident Accident cost (Rs.) at 1978 prices
1 Fatality 49,804 2 Serious Injury 29,510 3 Minor Injury 321 4 Cost of damages to bus 5,467
5 Cost of damages to trucks 6,111 6 Cost of damages to cars 1,200
7 Cost of damages to two-wheelers 300
5.8 AN ESTAIMATE OF TOTAL COST OF ROAD ACCIDENTS IN INDIA
Using the cost norms in Table 5.6, the total cost of road accidents for the years 1978 has been worked out and is presented in Table 5.7
TABLE-5.7 COST OF ACCIDENTS IN INDIA IN THE YEAR 1978
N 9Aat Rate m_or 1978 Cost S-.1\10. Accident Category Accidents Accident CLCrores ____(33. 1. Fatal 21,409 49,804 107.02 2 Serious Injury 24,410 29,510 72.03 3 Minor Injury 73,231 321 2.31 4 Damages to buses 40,764 5,467 22.29
5 Damages to trucks 45,164 6,111 27.60 6 Damages to cars 41,251 1,200 4.95 7 Damages to two-wi-zelers 1 5,279 300 0.46 TOTAL 236.66 - 237 -
It is seen the aost of road accidents works out roughly 0.3 per cent of the national income of the country. In this connection, it may be mentioned that Fouracre and Jacobs (Ref 79) have found that the cast of accidents in some of the developing countriesranged from 0.3 to 1.5 per cent of the Gross Domestic Product as compared to 0.7 per cent in the case of Great Britain. - 238 -
6. VALUE OF TRAVEL TIME SAVINGS 6.1. INTRODUCTION
Transportation project generally result in travel time savings. Such savings are enjoyed by passengers, crew of vehicles, vehicle operators and consigners of commodities. Since time has a monetary value, it stands to reason that the travel time savings be valued and acc'ottritecli for in economic analysis. An attempt has been made in this study to provide rough-and-ready values for time savings. More sophistication and detailing are possible, but have been left for future research. A question commonly asked is whether in developing countries, where under - employment and unemployment prevail, the concept of time savings is at all relevant (Ref 80,81). Since travel time savings can be quantified, the economic analysis can be done both by including the same and by excluding the same. The final choice can then be left to policy makers.
6.2. SOME ISSUES IN EVALUATION OF TRAVTF, TIME SAVINGS One concept in valuing time is based on "willingness to pay". This assumes that time spent in travelling has an opportunity cost (Ref 82). The alternative approach is to consider time as having utility just as any other commodity and hence a cost (Ref 82).
The distination between working time and leisure time is necessary, but the evaluation of these separately is difficult. Working time itself composes of - 239-
walking time, waiting time and in-vehicle time. Journeys
made to and from the work-place autside the work period
have different value than those performed during the work period.
6.3. POSSIBLE APPROACHES
A number of approaches are available for evaluating passengers travel time savings.
Some of these are :
Wage rate approach
Opinion survey approach 3. Revealed preference approach
The simplest approach is to treat the value
of. time for 'working time' journeys as equal to the wage I rate. A suitable addition is made to account for the employer's overheads. Leisure time value can be treated
as a' fraction of the working time value.
The opinion survey approach is to elicit
information from the passengers about the monetary value
they attach for time savings of various magnitudes. Though thecreticPlly simple, it is often found that the
questionnaire approach does not yield meaningful results.
Perhaps the most scientific approach in evaluating travel time savings is to study the choice people actually make when faced with a number of alternatives
(Ref 83,84,85,86). The choice can be (i) mode of 'travel (ii) route (iii) trip destination (iv) location of housing - 240 -
in relation to work-place.
Earlier studies in India have been limited. They have used the wage.rate approach (Ref 87,88,89) and revealed preference approach (Ref 90).
6 4 . PASSENGERS' TRAVEL TIME SAVINGS
The questionnaire approach did not yield
consistent and meaningful results in the present study
(Ref 91). It was therefore decided that the simple and
straight - forward 'wage rate' approach could be followed. Accordingly, data on passenger' s income were collected
from bus passengers and car/taxi passengers on a few
routes (Ref 92). Adding 20 per cent to account for the
overheads associated with the employment, a rate of Rs.7,00 was found to be the average hourly wage of a bus passenger
on trump routes. On secondary routes, the same was foUnd to be Rs. 4.50. The value of time of car/taxi passengers
has been found to be Rs.10.00. Leisure time can be tentatively valued at 25 per cent of working time.
The average occupancy of buses was found to be 43 passengers in addition to the driver and conductor.
The average occupancy of cars was found to be 2.7 for 1 sub-ur b an conditions and 4.5 for rural cond.itons ( R ef93) •
6,5, CREW COSTS
The crew costs were determined by collecting
data from a large number of operators (Ref 94). Table
6 1 gives' the results.
- 241 -
TABLE - 6.1 CREW COST PER VEHICLE PER DAY
Crew Category Cost per bus Cast per truck per day (Rs. ) per day ()is.
Driver 64 40
Conductor 48
Cleaner 24 16
TOTAL 136 56
These may be combined with the utilisation rates per day ( see para 2.8.10) to arrive a± the crew costs per Km.
6.6. FIXED COSTS OF BUSES AND TRUCKS In addition to running costs ( fuel, tyres, spare parts , depreciation etc. , there are certain fixed costs which are incurred by the op erators, These include: 1 Interest on.capital
2. Insurance 3,, Road tax
4. Other taxes Registration fee
Garraging charges
7. Other fixed charges such as fin eet,' tolls, octroi etc.
. Permit charges
9. Loading and unloading charges ina respect of trucks only
10 . Commission on booking (in respect of trucks only 11. Overhead charges - 242 -
With highway inTrynovements, utilisation can be enhanced and consequently the fixed costs per Km, come down.
Data collected from selected o p erators have yielded the values of fixed cots given in Table 6.2 (Ref 95)
TABLE 6.2 FIXED COSTS PER VEHICLE
0.=°11,°••••°-
Cost /year Cost/year Cost/c3lay Cost/day Vehicle incl.taxes exel.taxes incl.taxes excl.taxes Type of Operator Type (Rs.) (Rs.) Rs.) (Rs.)
Public Sector Bus 78142 47065 260 157
Private Sector Bus 35098 13545 117 45 private Sector Truck 68041 5 90 57 248 217
6.7. TIME SAVING-S ENJOYED BY COMMODITIES
The commodities carried by trucks can reach their destination quicker if roads are improved.con.sequent1y, the consigners enjoy a benefit. They can plan with lesser inventory costs. To arrive at a rough value of such savings to be used in economic analysis ., a survey of the loads carried by trucks was made. Ari average vr-Clue per tonne of the commodity was worked out and was found tvi-mt th6 average value of a truck load of commodity worked out -to $s.36000
(1978 prices). With an interest rate of 15 per cent per annum, the time value of commodity can be taken as
Re. 2.00 per hour (Ref 72). - 243 -
7. 11,sTau1`LLI,TIAlio
7.1. INTRODUCTION
The project involved accurate measurement of
a number of variables. This was accomplished by a good
system of instrumentation. The sejec.ion of instrumentation
was done with the help of TRRL (U.K.), The procurement
of the equip ment from abroad was also made through TRRL (U.K.) and the World Bank's agents in London, M/s Scott,
Wilson and Kirkpatrick and Partners, U.K. (Ref 29).
Some equipment was procured indigenously.
7.2. PORTABLE WHEEL WEIGHING EQUIPMENT This is a small portable equipment (weight 451q.) developed by M/s Trevor Deakin from a design by TRRL. The weighing platform has load cells underneath which record
the weight of a wheel in an indicator. The working range is 0-10,000 Kg. which renders it possible to use the
device upto 20,000 Kg, axle loads. Three such units were
procured at a cost of Rs. 1.35 lakhs.
7 .3 . TOWED FIFTH WHTFL BUMP INTEGRATOR
One of the well - known equipments for roughness
measurements is the British Towed Fifth Wheel Bump
Integrator . Two such units were procured , at a cost of Rs. 3.24 lakhs. One indigenous unit manufactured by
M/s Ved Engineering Co., New Delhi was also pro-cured
at a cost of Rs.21,400 (Pef 33). All the equipment gave tremble-free service.