The American West, 1835-1895 Workbook 2

Name:

60 minutes 6 questions to answer. Total of 40 marks. Q1. Interpretation content to explain differences – 4 marks Q2. Interpretation provenance to explain differences– 4 marks Q3. How convincing is the interpretation? – 8 marks Q4. Describe 2 problems / solutions question – 4 marks Q5. In what ways were ……affected question – 8 marks Q6. Which was more important question – 12 marks

Author: Miss Tait

US Government Policy towards Indians 1830-51

Policy of Concentration 1850s

In 1851 the US government changed its policy towards the Indians to reduce conflict. The new policy was called the Policy of Concentration (Concentration – a close gathering of people or things). The Indians were no longer to be given the whole of the Great Plains, they were to be moved onto specified areas of the Plains, that were not wanted by the white settlers, to clear a route for travellers moving west and allow the trans-continental railroad to be built. The aim was to ‘civilise’ the Indians by confining them to the reservations and setting up schools.

The Fort Laramie Treaty (1851) was the government’s first attempt to concentrate the Plains Indians in certain areas. It defined the territory of each tribe to try and minimise inter-tribal conflict. This treaty was between the government and the Plains Indians; they agreed that Plains Indians would not to attack anybody on the Oregon Trail and they would allow some roads and forts to be built on their land and in return they would get some agreed hunting areas and receive an annual payment.

This policy became known as “concentration” because the Indians were put together in certain areas. The days of “One Big Reservation” were over. So were the days of the Permanent Indian Frontier.

Why did Indians move to reservations?

White settlement on the Plains had reduced the Indian food supplies and hunting grounds, so they were partially forced into this decision. The government promised that tribes would be cared for on the reservations with regular food supplies and opportunity to go onto the hunting grounds to hunt buffalo. Some tribes actually sided with the US government against their enemies, whilst others actively refused to move leading to the US army to physically force the Indians onto the reservations. US Government policy: The Fort Laramie Treaty, 1851

On 17th September 1851, the Fort Laramie Treaty was signed between representatives of the Plains Indian tribes and the American Government

The consequences of the Fort Laramie Treaty (1851):

Neither side kept to the treaty. Not all tribes agreed with it and many didn’t even know it existed. The US government didn’t keep its side of the deal either – it couldn’t ensure settlers kept to the agreement, and in 1852 it reduced the yearly payments from 50 years to 10. The government never allowed existing treaties to prevent settlement it was in favour of – it simply negotiated new ones. For example, thousands of people encroached on Cheyenne land in Colorado during the Pike’s Peak Gold Rush (1858 – 1861). The government then negotiated the Fort Wise Treaty, reducing Cheyenne land to make room for white settlers, and moving the Cheyenne to poor quality land on the Sand Creek Reservation. Some Cheyenne later claimed that they didn’t understand the terms of the treaty when they signed it.

The Treaty had a large impact:

 Settlement increased in California and Oregon.  Restricting Native Americans to reservations threatened their way of life, as did the building of roads and forts in their territory.  Broken promises increased Native American resentment towards government and settlers.

The Fort Laramie Treaty is significant because it marked the end of the Permanent Indian Frontier – the Native Americans could no longer live freely on the Plains. It paved the way for further treaties in the 1850s and 1860s which resulted in tribes losing land. For example, in 1853 treaties were made in Kansas and Nebraska to make room for settlers in those areas – these tribes lost nearly 17 million acres.

1. How did the government change its policy toward the Indians in 1851?

2. What was the Fort Laramie Treaty?

3. Explain why the Indians agreed to live on reservations.

4. When agreeing to the Fort Laramie Treaty what terms did the Indians agree to?

5. When agreeing to the Fort Laramie Treaty what did the US government say they would do?

6. How did the Indians break the Fort Laramie Treaty?

7. How did the government break the Fort Laramie Treaty?

8. Explain the impact of the Fort Laramie Treaty.

9. Explain why the Fort Laramie Treaty is significant

10. In the treaty territories were set out for the Indians, what consequence did this have?

11. In the treaty white Americans were given land, what consequence did this have?

12 In the treaty tribes were to receive resources from the US government, what consequence did this have?

What can you remember?

What does the term Give two examples of What was the Timber What factors pushed Manifest Destiny mean? how the Plains Indians Culture Act 1873? White Americans from the adapted their way of east? life to living on the Great Plains.

Give two problems migrants Describe how the What was the Indian What was discovered in would experience when reservation policy Removal Act (1830) 1848 that led to thousands travelling west. affected the lives of of white Americans Americans. travelling west across the Great Plains?

How did the US Give two examples of What was the Mountain Give TWO problems faced government destroy the how the railway Meadow Massacre? by Homesteaders on the Indian way of life? affected Americans. Great Plains.

What was The Fort Explain what life as a What was the Give TWO uses of the Laramie Treaty (1851)? miner was like. Homestead Act 1862? buffalo to the Plains Indians.

Questions 1-3 on your exam paper are interpretation questions.

Interpretation A Interpretation B When society and savagery are brought so The President told me to work, and I have close together that they cannot coexist, done it…… Although other people often move the rights of white Americans should be from place to place, yet I have always stayed followed and the Indians should be forced on our land. It is ours…….I have sown wheat to give way. The Indians have continued to and planted corn and have performed all my

roam freely across the Plains despite our promises to the President. I have raised treaty and they waste the land that could enough on my farm to support myself, and be used to improve the economy of our now it seems just as though the government country. It is, therefore, no matter of were trying to drown me when he takes my regret that such a large amount of land away from me…… The land is our own……

territory has been taken from them and I have broken no treaties, and the President then given to the civilised Christian people. has no right to take it from me.

An extract from an interview with the Chief

Adapted from an extract from a report of the Ponca tribe. The Ponca tribe co- written by Luke Lea in 1852. Lea was the operated with the government’s Commissioner of Indian Affairs for the concentration policy and settled on a

American government between 1850 and reservation that was located within their 1853. The Office of Indian Affairs helped to ancestral lands on the Great Plains. In 1877, manage the government’s relations with they were forcibly relocated to a new,

Native Americans. smaller reservation.

Read the interpretations above and answer the following questions:

1. What does interpretation A say about attitudes towards the government’s policy of relocating Native Americans?------

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2. What does interpretation A suggest about attitudes towards the government’s policy of relocating Native Americans? ------3. What does interpretation B say about attitudes towards the government’s policy of relocating Native Americans?------

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4. What does this suggest about attitudes towards the government’s policy of relocating Native Americans?------7 ------

Read the interpretations above and answer the following questions:

5. What does the provenance of interpretation A say?------

------6. Why would the provenance of interpretation A influence what the interpretation says about the government’s policy of relocating Native Americans?------

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------7. What does the provenance of interpretation B say?------

------8. Why would the provenance of interpretation B influence what the interpretation says about the government’s policy of relocating Native Americans?------

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Read the interpretations above and answer the following questions:

9. What does interpretation A say about the government’s policy of relocating Native Americans, that you know is convincing (accurate)?------

------10. How do these quotes from the interpretation match up with what you know about the government’s policy of relocating Native Americans? ------

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11. What does interpretation B say about the government’s policy of relocating Native Americans , that you know is convincing (accurate)?------

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------12. How do these quotes from the interpretation match up with what you know about the government’s policy of relocating Native Americans?------

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The Mormon War 1857 - 58

Relations between the Mormons and the outside world continued to be difficult. As more and more emigrants moved west, tensions grew as they complained that the Mormons were charging high prices for ferry crossings and supplies. The Mormons had also converted some Indians to the Mormon faith and this also increased tension. Rumours began to spread that the Mormons were planning to kill all non-gentiles. The federal government was also concerned about the Mormon practice of polygamy and that Brigham Young often ignored US laws. The US government decided to send a non-Mormon governor and an army of 2500 men to Utah in June 1857 to replace Brigham Young. Brigham Young mobilised defence forces (Nauvoo Legion) against the army. Their strategy was to harass the army and make it difficult to get supplies. They were so successful that the army had to spend the winter at Fort Bridger.

The Mountain Meadow Massacre

With neither side wanting to start a full scale war, the number of casualties in the Mormon war of 1857-58 was minimum. The greatest number of casualties happened in one incident when a wagon train of families travelling through Utah and heading for California were attacked by either Paiute Indians or Mormon militia. It is still uncertain who started the trouble.

The families were attacked (by Indians and Mormons disguised as Indians) and 7 were killed before they could defend themselves. A five day siege then ensued. The Indians went for help and 50 Mormons arrived. When it was realised that the migrants knew the Mormons were involved, it was decided to kill everyone so that there would be no witnesses. The travellers were tricked into leaving the protection of their wagons but as they left they were all killed apart from 17 young children.

The Mormons then spread the story that the Indians had been responsible but they were not believed. The US government sent more troops to Utah and thousands of Mormon families began to flee. In April 1858, the US government offered the Mormons a full pardon if they accepted US authority. They agreed and a gentile governor was appointed and the Mormons were allowed to live in peace. Utah was not allowed to enter the Union as a state until it banned polygamy which it did in 1896.

What does the term Manifest Give two examples of how What was the Indian What factors pushed Destiny mean? the Plains Indians adapted Removal Act (1830)? White Americans from the their way of life to living east? on the Great Plains.

The Mormon War:

• Travellers on the Oregon and California Trails complaine d that the Mormons charged high prices for supplies. • The fact that Mormons were converting some Indians to the Mormon faith raised new fears about the Mormons plotting to kill all gentiles (non - Mormons). • The federal government was concerned that polygamy was illegal and that the Mormon leaders’ control of Utah was becoming a state ruled by religion. • In July 1857 a new non-Mormon governor, along with 2500 troops were sent to Utah to replace Brigham Young. • Brigham Young organised his defence forces, the Nauvoo Legion. Their strategy was to annoy the US army’s advance into Utah and make it difficult for them to gather supplies, but not start any fighting.

Events of the Mountain Meadow Consequences of the Mountain

Massacre. Meadow Massacre: • During the Mormon War a wagon train of • As part of their cover-up, the Mormons 140 emigrants who were travelling spread the story that the Indians had through Utah for California was been responsible, but this was not attacked. believed. • The emigrants were attacked (by Indians • The US government investigation that and Mormons disguised as Indians) and 7 eventually followed was hampered by the were killed before they could defend Mormons and did not result in any charges themselves. until 1874. In the end just one Mormon, a • A five day siege then took place. militia leader John Lee, was convicted and • When it became obvious that the executed in 1877, twenty years later. travellers knew that the Mormons were • News of the massacre inflamed public involved, the local Mormon militia leader opinion against the Mormons and the decided to kill everyone so there would federal government sent more troops to be no witnesses. Utah. In response, thousands of Mormon • The travellers were tricked into leaving families packed up their homes to flee the protection of their wagons and all from the expected attack. This flight of were killed, except for seventeen men, women and children turned public children under the age of seven. These opinion back in the Mormons’ favour. were taken into Mormon homes.

Put the events of the Mountain Meadow Massacre into chronological order:

Event. Sequence of events: The Mormons then spread the story that the Indians had been responsible but they were not believed. The US government decided to send a non-Mormon governor and an army of 2500 men to Utah in June 1857 to replace Brigham Young.

Relations between the Mormons and the outside world were still difficult.

In this atmosphere of increased tension a wagon train of 140 emigrants who were travelling through Utah for California was attacked.

The Indians went for help and 50 Mormons arrived. When it was realised that the migrants knew the Mormons were involved, it was decided to kill everyone so that there would be no witnesses. The Mormons agreed to the terms of their pardon and a gentile governor was appointed and the Mormons were allowed to live in peace. Utah was not allowed to enter the Union as a state until it banned polygamy which it did in 1896.

As more emigrants moved west they began to complain that the Mormons were charging high prices for ferry crossings and supplies. The Mormons had also converted some Indians to the Mormon faith and rumours began to spread that the Mormons were planning to kill all non-gentiles. The federal government was also concerned about the Mormon practice of polygamy and that Brigham Young often ignored US laws The travellers were tricked into leaving the protection of their wagons but as they left they were all killed apart from 17 young children.

In 1848 the Territory of Utah was created and Brigham Young was made governor.

The US government sent more troops to Utah and thousands of Mormon families began to flee. Brigham Young mobilised defence forces (Nauvoo Legion) against the army.

The families were attacked (by Indians and Mormons disguised as Indians) and 7 were killed before they could defend themselves, with a five day siege following.

In April 1858, the US government offered the Mormons a full pardon if they accepted US authority. 12

Use the information above to complete the fill in the gaps activity below:

In 1848 the Territory of Utah was created and ………………………………………… was made governor. Relations between the ……………………….. and the outside world were still

…………………………..As more and more emigrants moved ……………. tensions grew as they complained that the Mormons were charging ……………….. prices for ferry crossings and ……………... The Mormons had also converted some ……… to the Mormon faith and this also increased tension. Rumours began to spread that the Mormons were planning to kill all ……………………... The federal government was also concerned about the Mormon practice of ……………… and that Brigham Young often ignored US laws. The US government decided to send a non-Mormon ……………………. and an army of ………. men to Utah in June 1857 to ……………….. Brigham Young. Brigham Young responded by mobilising a defence force

(…………………………………………..) against the army. Their strategy was to ……… …the army and make it difficult for them to get supplies. In this atmosphere of increased tension a wagon train of ……. emigrants who were travelling through Utah for California was ………………….. Historians argue over why the trouble started. Different views are:

• The Mormons …………… the trouble as Brigham Young had declared ………………………………………… and insisted that Mormons did not ………….. with non-Mormons. • The members of the wagon train were from ………………where a Mormon leader had been ……….. so the Mormons deliberately attacked them for ……………. • The members of the wagon train were to blame as they behaved very badly and

………………………… the attack (……….. the Indians, released their ………..and shouted insults at Mormon women).

Whatever the reason, the families were attacked (by …………….. and …………… disguised as Indians) and ….. were killed before they could defend themselves, with a ……….day siege following. The Indians went for help and 50 Mormons arrived. When it was realised that the migrants knew the ……………………………. were involved, it was decided to kill everyone so that there would be no …………………………………..The travellers were ………… into leaving the protection of their wagons but as they left they were all killed apart from 17 young ……………………. The Mormons then spread the story that the ………………..had been responsible but they were not believed. The US government sent more troops to Utah and thousands of Mormon families began to…………... In April 1858, the US government offered the Mormons a full ………….if they accepted US ………………..They agreed and a gentile …………… was appointed and the Mormons were allowed to live in ………………. Utah was not allowed to enter the …………………… as a state until it banned polygamy which it did in ……….. The movement of white settlers onto the Plains from the 1860s 1896, 2500, Indians, witnesses, Arkansas, abused, Brigham Young, started, replace, Mormons, high, difficult, trade, killed, revenge, Nauvoo Legion, governor, Mormons, flee, five, tricked, attacked, 13children, Indians, governor, harass, west, cattle, peace, authority, Indians, 7, supplies, martial law, non-gentiles, polygamy, 140, provoked, Mormons, pardon, Union, What can you remember about the Mormons? You may need to re-read information in the first workbook to help you complete thee grid below.

1. What was the name of the 2. Give 3 reasons why the 3. Name 3 places (in the East) first Mormon leader? Mormons were persecuted in that the Mormons moved to the East.

4. Name the Mormon’s second 5. Why did the Mormons 6. Give 2 solutions the leader. choose to move to Salt Lake? Mormons came up with to the problems of travelling across the Plains.

7 Give 2 problems of living in 8. Give 2 solutions that the 9. When Salt Lake became Salt Lake Mormons came up with to the part of America it became problems of living in Salt Lake. part of the Territory of……….?

In the second half of the nineteenth century thousands of people sold their homes and left their friends and families and travelled, in some cases, thousands of miles to settle on the Great Plains. They were either pushed or pulled to settle on the Plains for a number of different reasons.

1) Economic Reasons: By the 1860s young people seeking land for their families were unable to afford it in the East and the Plains offered them lots of land very cheaply. After the end of the Civil War (1865) hundreds of thousands of ex-soldiers moved to the Plains as they didn’t believe there were any opportunities in the East. The Plains also offered a chance for ex-slaves to get land as American citizens, and to escape the prejudice and persecution of the Southern states.

2) Actions of the US government: The US Government wanted settlers to move onto the Plains in huge numbers but the high cost of land put many off. Therefore in 1862 the Homestead Act was passed

Homesteading on the Plains

From the start of homesteading in 1862, thousands of people moved to the Plains to set up farms but they faced serious challenges. They needed at least $800 dollars in the first place to purchase the goods, horses and materials required to get started. Over half of homesteaders who moved to Kansas quit by 1890, showing the challenges they faced. Despite the number of problems, there were plenty of new inventions and solutions which did allow some homesteaders to survive.

1. Give TWO reasons the white Americans viewed the Great Plains as uninhabitable.------2. Give TWO reasons the buffalo was important to the Plains Indians.------3. Give TWO ways the Tipi was suited to life on the Great Plains.------4. Explain TWO ways Manifest Destiny encouraged white Americans to move west. .------5. Explain how the 1848 Californian gold rush was positive for white Americans. .------.------

------.------6. What was the Permanent Indian Frontier ? ------7. Explain what the 1851 Fort Laramie Treaty? ------

------8. Explain the impacts of the 1851 Fort Laramie Treaty ------

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Problems and solutions to homesteading on the Plains

Describe TWO problems faced by the homesteaders on the Great Plains. 4 marks

In the summer when the grass was The Great Plains had never been farmed before. The dry, it was easy for Prairie fires to grasses had dense, tangled roots and the early cast- start. If they were too big for people iron ploughs needed constant repairs. Ploughing was a to fight then their crops would be slow, back breaking task.

destroyed. Plagues of grasshoppers swept across the Great Plains, Extremes of The shortage of descended on the land destroyed weather was a crops. water was a major major problem. problem. It could lead Drought in summer to the total failure of For most Homesteaders the only and cold in winter crops. This would lead material available for building a house could damage or in turn to bankruptcy was earth. Blocks of earth (Sods) destroy crops and starvation. were cut out by hand or with a special

plough to make bricks.

Sod Houses with earth floors, walls and roofs There was no wood for fencing so were very difficult to keep clean. They harboured there was nothing to protect growing all sorts of pests, such as bed bugs, fleas, mice crops from buffalo or straying cattle. and snakes. It was all too easy for disease to

Nor was it possible to mark land develop and illness was common among boundaries clearly, and this could lead Homesteaders, particularly children.

to disputes.

The Homesteaders planted the crops they

John Deere invented a strong plough had always grown, such as Maize and soft

which could deal with tough grass winter and Spring Wheats. These were not roots. This was known as a ‘sod well suited to the weather conditions on the Great Plains buster’.

Key:

There was no wood to Extreme weather burn for heating and Dirt and disease cooking. Instead they Farming problems used buffalo or cow Growing crops Water shortages. ‘chips’ –dried dung. Building a home 19

Describe 2 solutions that the homesteaders used to help them survive life on the Great Plains. Farmers began to Homesteaders who settled on the In 1874 Joseph Glidden grow surplus food to High Plains realised it was better to invented barbed wire. This sell. With this money keep sheep and cattle than just grow provided cheap and effective they could buy better crops. Russian immigrants introduced solution to the problem of equipment and hard winter wheat (Turkey Red wheat)

fencing and protecting crops. increase their surplus which flourished on the Plains as the climate was similar to where the Russians had come from. The Farmers ploughed the land when there had been heavy homesteaders who grew it were also rain or snow. This left a thin layer of dust over the successful. The Russians also ground which trapped and preserved the moisture in the accidently brought Russian weeds soil. The land was then left fallow for next year’s crops. mixed in with the wheat seed which also flourished especially tumbleweed John Deere invented a strong plough which seen in many Western movies could deal with tough grass roots. This was known as a ‘sod buster’. In 1874 Daniel Halliday invented a self-governing windmill. This was used to pump water from underground. A high- powered drill was used to get down to the water then the The homesteaders were supported by wind pump was fitted. It would pump water night and day the railroads which took them there, for people to use in their homes and to irrigate the land. brought them equipment and carried their crops to market.

From 1880s other farming machinery was developed. This included reapers, binders and threshers which were easily transported by the railroad. The machines increased the area the homesteader could farm and were well suited to the wide-open space of the Plains.

By the 1890s a Homesteaders who settled in the combination of river valleys might be able to use . inventions had helped wood for homes and, the small solve the problems of number who could afford it also paid Key: farming and the Plains to have wood transported from the Inventions became a fertile area east. However for the majority the for wheat production. only material available for house Use of natural The majority of building was earth. Blocks of earth resources homesteaders (sods) were used to construct the prospered. Their walls and then windows and doors Change in farming success was a fitted. The roof was boards and techniques. combination of more sod and then the outside walls Use of the determination, hard were plastered with a clay-like mud. railway. work and adaptability They could be cool in summ20 er and warm in winter, but difficult to stop

leaks when it rained. Use the information on the previous page to complete the table below. This will help you understand the problems the homesteader’s faced on the Great Plains and the solutions they came up with in order to survive:

Problems the homesteaders faced: Solutions the homesteaders came up with:

Match the key word with its definition: Homesteader Moving in search of animals to hunt or grass to feed horses. Reservation A belief that the expansion of the USA was a God given duty. Indian agent A law by President Andrew Jackson on May 28, 1830, giving the Indians land on the Great Plains in exchange for land in the east. Nomadic An extensive stretch of flat land, much of it covered in prairie, steppe, and grassland, located to the west of the Mississippi River in the United States. Treaty of A settler who moved west in the 1860’s and acquired free land on which they Fort Laramie farmed and built their home. Individuals who were responsible for working between the US government and the The Great Indian tribes. They were the government's representatives on reservations and, as Plains such, they had great power over food supplies, medical supplies and land distribution.

Manifest Area of land set aside by the US government for the Indian nations to live on. Destiny Indian An agreement signed in 1851 between the white Americans and the Sioux Indians to Removal Act try and bring peace to the Great Plains.

The Transcontinental Railroad, 1869

Americans had been calling for a railroad (railway) across the continent since 1817, they saw two key benefits: 1. It would help develop the west (settlement, fulfilling Manifest Destiny and bring law & order) 2. It could open up trade across America and between the West and Asia.

In what ways were the lives of Americans affected by the coming of the railways to the West?

The new railroad Some farmers felt that the railway Quicker access between also provided an companies charged high prices for a poor ports on the two coasts service. meant more foreign trade easier journey and helped USA become west so the wealthier. homesteaders no longer needed to Trade and heavy industry profited as raw travel in wagons. materials and finished products for export could now be transported easily from east to Increasing number of west. By the 1890s, this had helped the west people travelled and to be part of the great industrial boom or Conflict was caused settled in the west. People between white revolution taking place in the USA. settled on the Plains settlers and the themselves as well as the US army on one growing towns and cities. side and the Plains The railroads also helped the Indians on the homesteaders increase their other after 1870. profits. In the early years on This was because the Great Plains homesteaders railways disrupted By the 1880s new farming machinery was would plough enough land to buffalo herds and developed. This included equipment such grow food to feed their family. therefore the as reapers, binders and threshers. All In later years they could Indians traditional could be easily transported and delivered plough more land and grow way of life. by the railroad. These machines gave the more crops. This would Thousands of homesteaders the ability to farm larger produce a surplus that they settlers wanted to areas and the potential to earn even more live on the Plains could sell. money. Indians traditional hunting ground.

Cities close to the railway grew quickly. Some of the temporary shanty towns became Towns not on or near the railway lines often became deserted, and the permanent settled towns and businesses in them collapsed. grew in size.

It became very easy for homesteaders to Key: buy cheap land. This was because the railway companies had been given 6,400 acres of federal land alongside their tracks Positive impact for every mile of track that they built. The companies then advertised this land and Negative sold it cheaply to the homesteaders. impact 24

Describe 2 problems the railroad posed to the Plains Indians

The Indians were unable to maintain their The railways caused conflict between white traditional way of life. This is because Americans and Native Americans. This is railways disrupted buffalo herds and scared because an increasing number of people away game. They also brought thousands of travelled and settled in the west. People settled on the Plains themselves as well as settlers, who wanted to live on the Plains the growing towns and cities. This meant which was the Indians traditional hunting ground. White settlers further depleted that large areas of what had once been

natural resources like farmland, water, and Indian hunting ground were now occupied by game, especially buffalo that were hunted settlers. The Plains Indians thought the nearly to extinction for their hides railroads and settlers were ruining sacred land which caused hostility and conflicts. To further add to the tension the railways meant that US soldiers could be easily transported to the west. The railways also led to the destruction of the buffalo hunting for hides. This is

because in 1871, an eastern tannery The railways also led to the destruction of the discovered a process to produce high buffalo. This is because as the railway was quality leather from buffalo hides. This being built the track builders had to be fed caused the price of buffalo hides to and buffalo was the obvious meat source. increase. The railroads could transport the Buffalo hunters were employed to keep the hides east to the tanning industry. By 1875 workers on the railways supplied with fresh the southern herd had been destroyed. By meat. Once the railway was completed hunting 1883 the northern herd was destroyed. of the buffalo increased because special excursion trains were run so that people could

go out and shoot buffalo for sport.

The railways reduced the areas in which the Native Americans had to live on. This is because the Homesteaders were settling on land which was once occupied by Key: the Indians. Before the homesteaders first arrived at the Destruction of the buffalo

Great Plains, the land had been Destruction of the Plains Indians way used for buffalo pasture and was of life. part of what the Indians considered to be not only their Conflict with white Americans. home but also hunting land. Reduced the land available to the Plains Indians.

Why did the homesteaders settle on the Great Plains in the 1860s?

The US government wanted settlers to move The railroads on the Great Plains helped the onto the Plains. In 1862 they passed the Homesteaders increase their profits. In the Homestead Act. This gave 160 acres of land to early years on the Great Plains homesteaders each family on the Plains. The land was free as would plough enough land to grow food to feed long as the family farmed it and lived there their family. In later years they could plough for five years. In 1877 the US Government more land and grow more crops. This would passed the Desert Land Act. This gave produce a surplus that they could sell to markets settlers the right to claim a further 640 acres in the east. The railway also meant that supplies, of land cheaply that was unfit for immediate such as the sod buster, could be easily farming due to lack of water. The transported to the Plains making life easier and homesteader had to irrigate the land and more profitable. after three years could buy it for the low price of $1 an acre. In 1873 the US government passed The railroad encouraged Homesteaders onto the Great Plains. This is the Timber and because when the Pacific Railroad Act was passed in 1862, the journey Culture Act. This from the east of America to the west suddenly became a lot easier. The awarded an extra new railroad meant that the Homesteaders no longer needed to spend five 160 acres of land as months crossing the Great Plains in wagons. The railway provided a quicker, long as 40 acres safer and easier way to cross the Great Plains. were planted with trees. The railway also encouraged settlement on the Great Plains because after the railway was completed it became very easy for Government policies promoted the idea of Manifest Homesteaders to buy cheap land. This was Destiny in order to increase settlement on the Great because the railway companies had been Plains in the 1860’s. The US government needed the given 6,400 acres of federal land alongside whole of America to be settled and developed to their tracks for every mile of track that make the USA rich and prosperous. In order to help they built. The companies then advertised white Americans meet their Manifest Destiny they this land and sold it cheaply to the moved the Indians onto reservations by introducing Homesteaders. This land could be purchased the Small Reservations Act. This opened up 2.5 with a 10-year loan making it easily million acres for settlement which the government accessible to even the poorest in society encouraged people to move onto through a number of including Americans who had been uprooted further acts. by the civil war and unemployed soldiers who had left the army after the civil war.

The railway also encouraged the development of towns Key: along the railroad making the west less isolated. Cities close to the railway grew quickly. Some of the The railroad temporary shanty towns became permanent settled 26 Government policies. towns and grew in size How did the increased settlement of the west affect the Indians traditional way of life after 1860?

The Fort Laramie Treaty did lead to a period of peace. However, as the settlement of the West continued and as thousands of settlers began to move onto the Indian land on the Plains, the Fort Laramie Treaty was broken and the traditional Indian way of life was increasingly threatened. This happened for several reasons:

1) Actions of the government: The government failed to prevent movement onto Indian land and this quickly increased the settlement of the Great Plains:

 In 1858 gold was discovered in the Rocky Mountains and the Colorado Gold Rush began. In 3 years up until 1861 roughly 100 000 settlers and miners poured into Colorado and Kansas looking for gold. They were moving onto Indian lands and breaking the Fort Laramie Treaty but the US government ignored this.  The Homesteaders Act of 1862 increased settlement on the Plains to states such as Kansas and Nebraska. This also broke the treaty.  The government used any excuse to accuse the Indians of breaking the treaty (such as going on the hunt without permission) to take more land away from the Indians and reduce their reservation size.  Reservations became smaller and did not include Indian hunting grounds, so Indians increasingly could not hunt buffalo. Also, reservation land was poor for farming (which Indians did not know how to do anyway). This meant they became dependent on government money and supplies. The government could stop payments etc if the Indians “broke” the Treaty.  The Bureau of Indian Affairs, who ran the reservations, were often corrupted and cheated Indians out of their supplies.

2) Actions of white settlers, transport and railroad companies:

 As detailed above the number of settlers moving onto the Plains increased. They moved onto the lands that had been identified as Indian reservations, breaking the Treaty. The settlers killed the buffalo for food and their cattle grazed on the grass reducing the food for the buffalo. The barbed wire also disrupted the buffalo’s migration patterns. Organised transport links across the Plains from the late 1850s also broke the treaty. In 1858 John Butterfield’s overland mail coaches began to run regularly from Mississippi to San Francisco. Railroad surveyors also began to look for the best route across the Plains.

Impact of the railroads

The Pacific Railroad Act ended Indians’ rights to the land. In 1870, the Pawnee tribe agreed to move onto reservations, this was followed by other tribes. The Northern Pacific Railroad ran through Dakota, where

tens of thousands of Indians lived. In 1870 the railroad was given 40 million acres to sell to settlers. This triggered conflict leading to the Great Sioux War in 1876. Railroad land reduced grazing land for the buffalo whilst fences blocked buffalo migration and also the Indians’ hunting grounds. The railroad also hired Buffalo Bill to clear buffalo from the tracks, he killed 4280 in a year!

The Indian Wars, 1862-68

Conflict between Native Americans and white Americans deepened after 1840, and broke out into serious fighting from the 1860s. Yet, when the first white Americans had crossed the Great Plains, relations with the Native Americans who lived there were generally good. This was because, at first, the number of white migrants was small, and groups such as the mountain men lived in a way similar to that of the Plains’ Indians.

During the 1840s, most Indians of the Great Plains did not object to white settlers crossing Indian Territory. Even when the USA gained California and Oregon in the 1840s, most Plains’ Indians tolerated the increased numbers crossing their lands on their way to the new US territories along the Pacific. To begin with, most white migrants still saw the Great Plains as the “Great American Desert”. However, tensions began to increase when large numbers of white miners and farmers wanted to settle permanently on the Plains – and were increasingly encouraged by the US government to do so. From the mid-19th century, the US government decided that the Indians of the Great Plains should not be allowed to stand in the way of Manifest Destiny and the development of the West. In 1848, gold was discovered in California and later Colorado. So the numbers of miners and settlers crossing Indian Territory on trails such as the Oregon Trail, and disturbing and hunting the buffalo herds, hugely increased, crossing the lands of the Plains Indians. The US government began frequently breaking the 1832 – 34 agreements with the Indians, in order to give miners, settlers and Railroad Company’s access to land west of the so-called “Permanent Indian Frontier.” Native American attacks on wagon trains and mining camps increased. Not surprisingly, the migrants demanded protection from the US army against what they saw as unprovoked attacks. However, although the government sent in cavalry units and established forts, tensions and clashes continued to grow. As attacks by Native Americans on wagon trains and miners camps increased, the US government dropped the policy of “one big reservation” – that the Indians could have all the apparently worthless Great Plains.

The growing tensions and occasional outbreaks of violence between some Plains’ Indians and the migrants crossing the Plains led the US government to take action. At this stage, it believed the best policy would be to negotiate with the Plains Indians. However, this was not easy, as tribes within a nation, and bands within a tribe, had a lot of independence. Consequently, war parties – often involving only small numbers of warriors – might decide not to accept agreements made by senior chiefs. Eventually, at Fort Laramie in 1851, a major peace council was held: more than 10,000 Plains Indians attended. An US government agent met with the chiefs of the main tribes. The treaty promised that the government would give 28

the chiefs gifts and an annual payment of $50,000 to the tribes for the next ten years as compensation for each tribe having to live in smaller tribal areas or reservations. These were to be clearly defined as an attempt to limit conflict between the different Plains’ nations and tribes. It was also stated that the Plains Indians would be free to leave their reservations at certain times to hunt buffalo on certain areas of the Great Plains.

The most pressing concern of the Plains Indians – that of restricting the numbers of white settlers – was also addressed by the Treaty, as the US government said that white migrants could not enter or settle on these reservations, and promised to protect Indians against any crimes committed by US citizens. In return, the Plains Indians chiefs agreed to give up previously agreed right of unlimited access to the Great Plains, and to leave open the main routes through Kansas and Nebraska – such as the Oregon Trail. They also agreed to allow the US army to build roads and forts on Indian Territory to protect the travellers across the Plains. The acceptance of individual reservations divided and separated the different nations and tribes, and made it more difficult for them to band together. For the same reason, this policy of concentration made it much easier for the US army to control the movements of the Plains Indians. By 1854, the US army had 52 forts in the West. However, as the numbers of white settlers crossing the Plains increased, the numbers of soldiers in the forts also increased. Very soon, the US government began to demand more land concessions from the Plains Indians. It appeared that they had never seriously intended to abide by the terms of the 1851 treaty. As early as 1854, Kansas and Nebraska were “opened up” by the US government for white settlers and this further reduced the Indians land. Increasingly, Plains Indians felt cheated and betrayed yet again. In addition, chiefs did not have control over all their warriors, many of whom objected to the Treaty which restricted their traditional hunting and their right to roam freely across the Great Plains.

Although life on the reservations was hard, the Fort Laramie Treaty was followed by a period of peace. Between 1840 and 1860, over 250,000 travellers followed the California and Oregon Trails, fewer than 400 were killed. Of these, 90 per cent were killed west of South Pass – not on the Great Plains. However, this peace on the Great Plains was broken by four important developments:

The The Plains Homesteaders 29 The Miners Indians

Tension arises

There are four main reasons why tension arises between the white

Americans and the Plains Indians. These are:

1. In 1858 ______was discovered in the Rocky Mountains and the Colorado Gold Rush began. In the three years to 1861, roughly ______settlers and miners poured into parts of Colorado and Kansas looking to get ______quick. They were moving onto Indian lands in breach of the treaty but the US government chose not to ______it.

2. Nor did the government do anything to stop a second development, the movement of the ______on to the plains of ______and Nebraska from 1854 onwards. 3. The third development was the start of organised ______links across the Great Plains. In 1858 Butterfield’s overland ______began to run regularly from St Louis, Missouri, to San Francisco, California. Meanwhile ______surveyors began searching for the best routes across the Plains.

4. Fourth and finally, while the ______of the Indian nations might have agreed to the peace treaty, the nature of the Plains Indian society meant that there would always be ______or bands who would not feel bound by that agreement.

Railroad, warriors, 100,000, rich, chiefs, enforce, mail coaches, settlers, transport, gold, Kansas

The Fort Laramie Treaty of 1851 put the Indians onto reservations. These reservations were supervised by government-appointed Indian Agents, selected by the Indian Bureau. Their roles were to distribute food and money, and to encourage Native Americans to give up hunting, and to live as farmers instead – although, at first, some Indians were allowed off the reservations at certain times to hunt buffalo. Later this “right” was removed.

Many Indians soon came to resent being confined, for most of the time, to reservations – which were much smaller than the land they had previously lived on. The idea of this confinement – or imprisonment- was, of course, to keep them away from the growing numbers of settlers on the Plains.

Once on the reservations, they were encouraged to grow crops – but often this was on poor land, or in unhealthy areas, which the settlers did not want. This made it difficult for the Indians to feed themselves. They were also pressured to abandon their language, customs and beliefs – in particular, children were to be taught English and American values, and wear European clothes.

They also hated the idea of becoming dependent on the distribution of beef rations and other supplies, which had to be bought with the annual payments sent by the US government after the 1851 Treaty of Fort Laramie. Many wanted to be free to follow and hunt the buffalo wherever they went. For many, they felt their culture, way of life and even their self-respect and dignity were being destroyed. This was especially true for the younger men because they had previously been able to gain and maintain status and honour in their group by the skill and bravery shown in hunting or warfare. To make matters worse, many of the government – appointed white Indian Bureau agents who ran the reservations were incompetent or corrupt. Such agents often stole money intended for the Indians or sold part of their food rations to white traders or settlers. As a result, food on the reservations was poor and often in short supply. At first, the US government allowed the chiefs to distribute the food rations. This later changed, with the government getting the heads of families to collect the rations instead. Later, in 1887, the Dawes Act allocated land to individual families. This was a deliberate way of destroying Native American culture and power structures. It was intended to turn the Indians into Christian “Americans”.

Medical treatment was often inadequate and many Indians suffered greatly from diseases such as measles, whooping cough and influenza. The fact that they were often poorly fed just made matters worse.

Finally, of the two government bodies dealing with Native Americans, the War Department was much more hostile than the Indian Bureau. Most senior officers – Sherman, Sheridan, Custer and Chivington – were extremely prejudiced against Indians.

Even after the 1851 Treaty, the Plains Indians came under increasing pressure to give up parts of their lands they had been granted, to make room for settlers who continued to pour onto the Plains in great numbers. The increasing pressure from white settlers on the Great Plains led to more and more violent incidents. Initially, because of the Civil War, these tensions did not develop

into serious warfare. However, even before the Civil War was over in 1865, the “War for the Great Plains” had begun.

The earlier removals, and the later policy of smaller and smaller reservations, were very demoralising. Added to the poor conditions and the problems on reservations, alcoholism, depression and even suicide among the Indians – especially among young males – became increasingly common.

How were the Native Americans affected by the reservation policy?

For a society based on hunting Through a series of laws the government Reservations led to and war, the life of a farmer reduced the size of the reservations starvation. They were on dependent on government given to the Indians and split up tribes areas of farm land which hand-outs was demoralising. and bands. Efforts were made to remove were very poor quality, There was no way for a warrior the power of chiefs in the way that sometimes in unhealthy to gain or maintain status. supplies were distributed and disputes places and were on land There was no buffalo meat for settled. The influence of the chiefs which the white settlers food, no buffalo hides for tipis, declined, because the reservations were didn’t want. For many of clothing, and so on, and no run by agents. the Indians the conditions chance to increase their wealth were bad. Some tribes had by stealing horses. no traditions of farming at The management of reservations was the all. This made it very responsibility of the Bureau of Indian difficult for the Indians to In some cases the Indians Affairs. It appointed agents who ran feed themselves. When were so badly treated by each reservation from an Agency located crops failed the Plains dishonest Indian agents. on the reservation. These men were often Indians had to be supplied Housing monies were stolen, corrupt and cheated the tribes to make with food from the food rations were inadequate themselves wealthy. government. and medical treatment was not available. People were The Code of Religious Offences Many of the Plains tribes punished for offences without destroyed the Native American depended on the buffalo for trial and individuals were religion, Feasts, dances and ceremonies, survival. Several tribes sometimes murdered. such as the Sun Dance, were banned. followed the buffalo Disarmed, without their The power of the medicine man was migration. The Indians ate horses, poorly fed and undermined. There was little need for buffalo meat, used its hide sometimes suffering from young men to seek visions to give them for clothing and shelter. diseases such as measles, power in war and in the buffalo hunt. Sinews were used as influenza and whooping cough, This spiritual “gap” was then filled by bowstrings and bones were the Indians were unable to used as tools and weapons. resist. the arrival of Christian missionaries. Buffalo fat was used as grease, hoofs used to make glue, and even buffalo dung The reservations showed no understanding of the Plains Indians cultural was used for fuel. The values. Treaties about the reservations were agreed with Chiefs, but chiefs Indians being confined in often had no authority to make bands or brotherhoods stay on the reservations meant that they reservation. Reservations were sometimes a long way from the tribe’s sacred 32 could not follow the buffalo places and traditional enemies were sometimes placed in the same and maintain this traditional reservation. way of living.

• Make a spider diagram of the main problems faced by Native Americans on the reservations. • Using your diagram, explain why many Indians disliked living on reservations.

In what ways were the lives of Native Americans affected by the development of

reservations? 8 marks Reservations led to a Placing the Native Americans onto reservations reduced conflict. Violence dependency on government between the two groups had increased in the mid-nineteenth century as handouts. They were on areas settlers moved west across America. Most white Americans believed there was of farm land which were very no way to live in peace and harmony with Native Americans, whom they poor quality, sometimes in regarded as “backwards” and “primitive” and so they were placed onto unhealthy places and were on reservations. Although life on the reservations was hard, the Fort Laramie land which the white settlers Treaty was followed by a period of peace. Between 1840 and 1860, over didn’t want. For many of the 250,000 travellers followed the California and Oregon Trails, fewer than 400 Indians the conditions were were killed. Of these, 90 per cent were killed west of South Pass – not on the bad. Some tribes had no Great Plains showing a reduction in violence between the two groups. traditions of farming at all. This made it very difficult for the Indians to feed themselves. The management of Placing the Native Americans onto When crops failed the Plains reservations was the reservations opened up land on the Indians had to be supplied with responsibility of the Great Plains for settlement. The food from the government. For Bureau of Indian Affairs. Indian reservation system was

a society based on hunting and It appointed agents who created to keep Native Americans off of lands that White Americans war, the life of a farmer ran each reservation from dependent on government hand- an Agency located on the wished to settle on. Many outs was demoralising. There reservation. These men Californians believed that it was was no way for a warrior to gain were often corrupt and their God given duty to spread and or maintain status. There was cheated the tribes to civilise the continent of America no buffalo meat for food, no make themselves wealthy. and that if the Indians “interfered buffalo hides for tipis, clothing, In some cases the Indians with progress they should be pushed aside.” The American government and so on, and no chance to were so badly treated by increase their wealth by therefore created the reservation The reservations showed no understanding of dishonest Indian agents. stealing horses. system in 1851 to provide land to the Plains Indians cultural values. Treaties Housing monies were Native Americans and keep them about the reservations were agreed with stolen, food rations were off of the lands that White- Chiefs, but chiefs often had no authority to inadequate and medical Americans wanted. Over ninety make bands or brotherhoods stay on the treatment was not million acres of tribal lands reservation. Reservations were sometimes a available. People were belonging to Native American tribes long way from the tribe’s sacred places and punished for offences such as the Cherokee, Chickasaw, traditional enemies were sometimes placed in without trial and Choctaw, Creek, and Seminole were the same reservation. The Code of Religious individuals were sometimes murdered. Disarmed, sold off to white Americans. Offences destroyed the Native American religion, Feasts, dances and ceremonies, such without their horses, as the Sun Dance, were banned. The power of poorly fed and sometimes suffering from diseases the medicine man was undermined. There was Key: little need for young men to seek visions to such as measles, influenza give them power in war and in the buffalo and whooping cough, the Impact on the Native Indians were unable to Americans hunt. This spiritual “gap” was then filled by 33 resist. the arrival of Christian missionaries. Impact on the White

Americans 1. Explain how the development of reservations was positive for white Americans. .------

------

2. Explain how the development of reservations was negative for Native Americans ------

. Give TWO examples of accidents How did the Californian Gold Give TWO examples of how the migrants could have going west. Rush impact on the Native buffalo was used by the Native American population? Explain Americans

Give TWO examples of how the What was the Timer Culture Why did building the railway Tipi was able to adapt to the Act? make cheap land available to difficult climate on the Great Homesteaders? Plains.

What was the Desert Land Act? How did government policies How did the railway increase promote the idea of Manifest settlement on the Great Plains? Destiny?

Sand Creek Massacre

1. When gold was discovered at Pike’s Peak in 1858, white American miners and other settlers poured onto the lands of the Cheyenne and Arapaho in Colorado. In 1861, the US government forced the tribes onto a small reservation. The Indians failed to produce enough food on the small area of poor land and the government agents refused to give more supplies to the Indians, accusing them of being lazy. 2. By 1864, many Cheyenne warriors were forced to hunt outside the reservation to feed their families. Some warriors, known as “dog soldiers” began to carry out attacks on wagon trains in order to steal food – at first the travellers were left unharmed. But soon the attacks escalated, and mining camps, railway surveyors and mail coaches were also attacked – inevitably, several white Americans were killed in these attacks. 3. President Lincoln granted the Governor of Colorado permission to raise an army of volunteers to fight the “Indian threat” for a limited period of 100 days. However, shortly after the Volunteers were formed, Chief Black Kettle and his tribe came to a nearby army fort to discuss peace. By September, the volunteers had seen no action at all and the clock was ticking on their 100 days. Following their agreement with the army, Black Kettle and the southern Cheyenne came into Fort Lyon. When they arrived they were told the fort could not support them and were sent to make camp at Sand Creek instead. It seemed that the Cheyenne wanted pace, but the Governor was not happy. 4. On 13 November, a white settler was killed by a young Cheyenne warrior. Chivington and his men set out for Sand Creek and revenge. On 29 November as Chivington’s troops rode down on Black Kettle’s camp. The Indian warriors had left the camp to hunt buffalo leaving mostly women, children and the elderly in the camp, they screamed and ran for cover. Black Kettle, sure of his peace agreement with the whites, stood in the centre of camp. He was flying a white flag and an American flag above his tipi and calling for his followers not to be afraid. It was soon clear that he was wrong. By mid-morning, 105 Cheyenne women and children lay dead. Scalps and genitalia were cut from the corpses and became trophies or hat decorations for some soldiers.

What was discovered at Pike’s Peake in 1858?

Why did the Indians struggle on the reservations the US government forced them onto in 1861?

Why were many Cheyenne warriors forced to hunt outside the reservation?

What did the dog soldiers do and how did this escalate tension?

What did President Lincoln grant the Governor of Colorado?

Why did Black Kettle go to Fort Lyon?

What was Black Kettle told by those at Fort Lyon?

th What happened on the 13 November?

How did Chivington respond?

Who was at Sand Creek when Chivington and his men arrived?

How did Black Kettle respond when Chivington and his35 men arrived at the camp?

What was the outcome of the Sand Creek massacre? Sand Creek stor y board

Use the eight main events of the Sand Creek Massacre to create a storyboard of the massacre, to help you learn and understand the main events.

1. At daybreak on 29 November 1864, a force of about 1,000 men, led by Colonel John Chivington, attacked a Cheyenne village at Sand Creek.

2. The Indian warriors had left the camp to hunt buffalo leaving mostly women, children and the elderly in the camp.

3. Cheyenne chief, Black Kettle was flying a white flag and an American flag above his tipi. He believed that after a meeting at Fort Lyon, a peace treaty was in effect.

4. Some of the Indian warriors, known as the Dog Soldiers, did not agree with the

peace treaty agreed by Black Kettle. They were not camped at Sand Creek and they had continued to attack the white settlers.

5. Chivington’s men killed over 150 men, women and children and mutilated their bodies. They returned to Denver with scalps and other trophies and were greeted as heroes.

6. A government inquiry that heard evidence from survivors stated that Chivington had

“deliberately planned the terrible massacre”.

7. However, he could not be punished as he had left the army.

8. The Arapaho and Cheyenne retaliated. They attacked settlements and stage coaches

and stopped all travel.

Questions 1-3 on your exam paper are interpretation questions.

Interpretation A Interpretation B:

The Indians at Sand Creek had moved away The Indians at Sand Creek were friendly from the protection of Fort Lyon and were and under the protection of Fort Lyon. raiding wagon trains, stealing livestock, However, Chivington had been planning this robbing mail coaches and killing white attack for weeks. He and his men were to people. When that “robbers’ den” was be disbanded and, being in politics, their cleaned out on that glorious day, the idea was to win votes by striking one soldiers found scalps of white people, stolen terrible blow at the ‘red rebels’. mail, and women and children's clothing. It’s Chivington’s troops were the worst sort of not surprising that the soldiers acted as frontier whites as they were not they did when they found evidence of such disciplined and their officers had no barbaric behaviour. What Chivington did at control over them. They were united only Sand Creek saved Colorado. by their eagerness to kill Indians.

George Bent in a letter to the historian William Byers in a letter to the New George Hyde, which was sent between York Tribune, an East coast newspaper, 1905 and 1918. Bent was born in 1843. in February 1880.Byers was the editor He had a Cheyenne Indian mother and a of the Rocky Mountain News, a white father who ran the local trading newspaper in the mining town of Denver, post at Sand Creek. In 1864 he was Colorado, at the time of the Sand Creek staying with his mother’s relatives at attack in 1864. Sand Creek.

Read the interpretations above and answer the following questions:

1. What does interpretation A say about the attack on the Indian camp at Sand Creek?------

------37

Read the interpretations above and answer the following questions:

2. What does interpretation A suggest about the attack on the Indian camp at Sand Creek? ------

------3. What does interpretation B say about the attack on the Indian camp at Sand Creek?------

------4. What does this suggest about the attack on the Indian camp at Sand Creek?------

------5. What does the provenance of interpretation A say?------

------6. Why would the provenance of interpretation A influence what the interpretation says about the attack on the Indian camp at Sand Creek ?------38 ------

Read the interpretations above and answer the following questions:

1. What does the provenance of interpretation B say?------

------2. Why would the provenance of interpretation B influence what the interpretation says about the attack on the Indian camp at Sand Creek?------

------3. What does interpretation A say about the attack on the Indian camp at Sand Creek, that you know is convincing (accurate)?------4. How do these quotes from the interpretation match up with what you know about the attack on the Indian camp at Sand Creek? ------

------

Read the interpretations above and answer the following questions:

5. What does interpretation B say about the attack on the Indian camp at Sand Creek , that you know is convincing (accurate)?------

------6. How do these quotes from the interpretation match up with what you know about the attack on the Indian camp at Sand Creek?------

------

Find fix the 10 errors People travelled east because they wanted a good life in California, Problems between Indians and the government increased they were in search of infertile soil or they wanted a good climate. after 1879 because after the Californian gold rush, the They moved east because they were tenant farmers who were tired number of whites going through Indian territory of renting land, they were workers who had hit hard times, they were decreased greatly. The Indians began to feel as though a Mormon escaping religious persecution or because the west of they were being invaded and sometimes attacked miners America was over crowded. and wagon trains. The government started to send soldiers to protect travellers, and this increased fear and suspicion. Weather on the trail west was bad. Great thunderstorms took their In the Treaty of Fort Laramie, 1851 it was agreed that toll on the travellers. Half a dozen people were killed by lightning the white Americans would move on to smaller areas of strikes, many others were injured by hailstones the size of apples. land. They were given a promise that no Indians would Pouring rains were difficult because there was no shelter on the open enter these areas. In return, the Indians agreed to stop plain and the covered wagons eventually leaked. attacking the travellers. By 1954, the US government began to demand more land from the The reservations encouraged the Native American white Americans. As early as 1854, Indian land was “opened up” by culture. Native American children on the reservations the US government for white settlers. Increasingly the Plains Indians were often taken away to attend boarding schools to felt cheated and betrayed. remove their culture. Important religious practices like the sun dance were also banned, and the Dawes Act broke up the reservations into small family plots of land. The nomadic way of life of the Indians was destroyed, and the importance of the band and cultural traditions were lost. 40

Red Cloud’s War and the Fetterman massacre

Red Cloud, leader of the Sioux, was angered by the 1851 Treaty being broken and this made the Sioux more determined to resist. Soon, travellers on the Bozeman Trail were being attacked. Sioux attacks on travellers continued until 1866 when, with the Civil War over, the government tried to solve the problem. Its first step was to open peace talks with the Sioux leader, Red Cloud. However, at the same time the government ordered the US army to begin work on a chain of forts along the trail. This was clearly in breach of the 1851 treaty. Red Cloud broke off the peace talks in disgust and attacked. Red Cloud said he would not make peace until the soldiers left the land given to the Sioux. Two other important war leaders supported him – the younger Sitting Bull and Crazy Horse.

By the winter of 1866 the soldiers were under siege in their forts. The Sioux were not strong enough to capture the forts, which were equipped with artillery. Instead they attacked any soldiers sent out to cut timber for building and they made several attempts to lure troops into an ambush. The fort commander Colonel Carrington adopted a cautious approach to fighting the Sioux, while some of his officers wanted to follow a more aggressive approach. Among these was Captain William Fetterman.

Then on 21 December 1866, a detachment of soldiers were sent, under Captain William Fettermann, to protect woodcutters building Fort Philip Kearney. A Sioux war party lured them into an ambush, coordinated by Crazy Horse. Fetterman and about 80 of the soldiers were killed and their bodies mutilated. However, more than 200 Sioux were killed in the fighting – a result of the superior weaponry of the US troops. The Sioux – with some northern Arapaho bands as allies – under Red Cloud’s leadership, now aged war against the forces of the US government. Red Cloud even managed to get the various bands to continue fighting during the winter months.

The US government then decided to negotiates with Red Cloud. So, in the spring of 1867, the US government agreed to withdraw the army from the area, and to abandon the three forts. Although it seemed as if Red Cloud had won, the army was both humiliated and angry, and was determined to deal with the Sioux once and for all.

The fighting continued while more formal negotiations began. Then, in November 1868, Red Cloud agreed to a revision of the earlier 1851 agreement in a second Treaty of Fort Laramie. In return for an end to the fighting, the Sioux were granted the whole of South Dakota west of the Missouri River. This Great Sioux Reservation was to include the Bighorn Mountains and the Black Hills of Dakota – lands which were sacred to the Sioux. The US government said that no white settlers would be allowed to enter these lands and also agreed to stop further work on the Bozeman Trail: by then, an alternative route to the Montana gold-mining areas had been opened. It seemed that after two years of warfare, Red Cloud had won a great victory. The defeat was a great humiliation for the government. For some politicians, Red Cloud’s War was a sure sign that a tougher policy against the Indians was needed. From 1868, control of the Indian conflict was handed over to Generals Sheridan and Sherman. Sherman was very clear about his view on the conflict when he stated that he would “use all the powers confided in him to end these Indians ……..”

Read the information above and answer the following questions:

1. What did Black Kettle and the Cheyenne do after the Sand Creek Massacre?------2. . Why did the discovery of gold in 1862 lead to serious problems? ------

3. Why was Red Cloud angered? ------4. How did the government try to deal with the Lakota Sioux after the civil war? ------

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------42 ------

Read the information above and answer the following questions:

5. Why did Red cloud break off peace talks?------6. How did the Lakota Sioux attack the soldiers?------st 7. What happened on the 21 December 1866? ------

------

8. Who waged war against the US government? How did the US government respond? ------

------

9. In return for an end to the fighting what were the Sioux given? ------

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------43 ------

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Read the information above and answer the following questions:

10. 9. How did Red Clouds war change the attitude of the US government towards the Indians?------

Create a picture summary Red Cloud’s War and the Fetterman

massacre:

Events Order.

After the Sand Creek Massacre, Black Kettle moved his Southern Cheyenne to safer lands. However, some of his band fled northwards to the lands belonging to the Lakota Sioux. With them they brought tales of violence and mutilation which fuelled an already tense situation. A Sioux war party lured them into an ambush, coordinated by Crazy Horse. Fetterman and about 80 of the soldiers were killed and their bodies mutilated. However, more than 200 Sioux were killed in the fighting – a result of the superior weaponry of the US troops. Although it seemed as if Red Cloud had won, the army was both humiliated and angry, and was determined to deal with the Sioux once and for all. In 1862, gold was discovered in the Rocky Mountains in Montana. the US government wanted to develop the area economically, while many miners were anxious to rush there – and the government made no attempt to stop them. The US government then decided to negotiate with Red Cloud. So, in the spring of 1867, the US government agreed to withdraw the army from the area, and to abandon the three forts. The government tried to solve the problem of the Sioux attacking travellers. Its first step was to open peace talks with the Sioux leader, Red Cloud. The Sioux had several successes during 1866. Then on 21 December 1866, a detachment of soldiers were sent, under Captain William Fetterman, to protect woodcutters building Fort Philip Kearney By the winter of 1866 the soldiers were under siege in their forts. The Sioux were not strong enough to capture the forts, which were equipped with artillery. Instead they attacked any soldiers sent out to cut timber for building, the wood train, and they made several attempts to lure troops into ambush. Soon, travellers on the Bozeman Trail were being attacked by the Sioux. Sioux attacks on travellers continued until 1866 when, with the Civil War over, the government tried to solve the problem. Red Cloud broke off the peace talks in disgust and attacked. Red Cloud said he would not make peace until the soldiers left the land given to the Sioux. Two other important war leaders supported him – the younger Sitting Bull and Crazy Horse. The Sioux – with some northern Arapaho bands as allies – under Red Cloud’s leadership, now waged war against the forces of the US government. Red Cloud even managed to get the various bands to continue fighting during the winter months However, at the same time as the peace talks, the government ordered the US army to begin work on a chain of forts along the trail. This was clearly in breach of the 1851 treaty.

A gold miner called John Bozeman established a new trail which broke off north-west from the Oregon Trail to go directly to Montana. This new trail passed right through the hunting grounds promised to the Sioux in 1851. Red Cloud was angered by the 1851 Treaty being broken.

Questions 1-3 on your exam paper are interpretation questions.

Interpretation A Interpretation B

Although he had no experience of Four years of fighting in the Civil War shaped fighting Indians, Fetterman criticised Fetterman into an experienced and well- the US army’s defensive tactics at respected military officer before he was sent Fort Kearney and expressed hatred to Fort Kearney on May 11, 1866. Fetterman for the Indians. Fetterman boasted: was very efficient and examined many maps “With eighty men I could ride through and read everything he could about the west the entire Sioux nation.” We will never while collecting men, equipment and supplies. know what went through Fetterman’s During his first few days at his new job mind as he pulled rank to allow himself Fetterman was told to attempt a few offensive to ride out that day, but it is highly tactics on the Indians, but after a few weeks, likely that the reason he rode out of once he had been involved in a number of the fort was because he was foolishly deadly attacks, he said, “This Indian war, requires the utmost caution.” desperate for glory.

Frances C. Fetterman, in her book: My Army US historian, Shannon Smith Calitri from Life and the Fort Phil Kearney Massacre. First her article “Give Me Eighty Men”: The published in 1871 the aims of the book were to Events of the Fetterman Massacre, recount the author’s adventures as an army published in 2004. When researching this wife on the Great Plains, but also to set the event, she used accounts from the army record straight on her husband’s involvement in that were recorded after the event. the Fetterman fight.

Read the interpretations above and answer the following questions:

1. What does interpretation A say about the Fetterman Massacre?------

Read the interpretations above and answer the following questions:

2. What does interpretation A suggest about the Fetterman Massacre? ------3. What does interpretation B say about the Fetterman Massacre?------7. What does this suggest about the Fetterman Massacre?------8. What does the provenance of interpretation A say?------9. Why would the provenance of interpretation A influence what the interpretation says about the Fetterman Massacre?------47 ------

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Read the interpretations above and answer the following questions:

7. What does the provenance of interpretation B say?------8. Why would the provenance of interpretation B influence what the interpretation says about the Fetterman Massacre?------9. What does interpretation A say about the Fetterman Massacre, that you know is convincing (accurate)?------10. How do these quotes from the interpretation match up with what you know about the Fetterman Massacre? ------

Read the interpretations above and answer the following questions:

11. What does interpretation B say about the Fetterman Massacre , that you know is convincing (accurate)?------12. How do these quotes from the interpretation match up with what you know about the Fetterman Massacre?------

Colour code the information below to show which statements apply to the Plains Indians and which apply to the white Americans Accepted the Plains for what they were and Believed that the land was for everyone a didn’t adapted their lifestyle accordingly by living in see it as something that could be bought and sold.

tipis and being nomadic They thought others ruined the land.

Women did most of the work in the village or Demanded a settled, farming way of life. They camp while the men hunted and fought. Men were believed God had given them land to cultivate. head of the family, women owned the tipi and its contents which gave them status. The person in control was the chief, he would Tribes were usually split into bands, and each have earned loyalty over the years by band had a chief and a council of elders. demonstrating courage and generosity- this gave influence over the tribe. Saw alternative ways of living as inferior and Wanted to own, farm and exploit the land. uncivilized- they wanted to farm and settle the Great Plains..

The Plains Indians White Americans 49

Build a revision wall!

What were the main events during What were the consequences of Red Clouds What were the

Red Clouds War? War on the Indians? consequences of Red Clouds War on the white Americans?

What happened during the Sand What were the consequences of the Sand What caused the fighting on Creek Massacre of 1864? Creek Massacre of 1864? the lands of the Lakota Sioux after the Sand Creek Massacre?

Why were the reservations negative Why were the reservations positive for What caused the Sand Creek for the Plains Indians? the white Americans? Massacre of 1864?

How did white Americans originally Why were White Americans increasingly What was the Treaty of Fort view the Great Plains? crossing the Great Plains in the 1840’s Laramie and why was it signed in and early 1850’s? 1851?

The Resolution of the ‘Indian Problem’ after 1865

In 1868 the government decided to follow a Small Reservation Policy that put tribes into smaller areas of land away from settlers. Here they would be taught by white Americans to become farmers and live as white people did. This is called assimilation. It was hoped this would minimise the conflict.

New treaties such as the Medicine Lodge and the Second Fort Laramie Treaty were agreed. This treaty saw the Sioux tribe moved to a reservation in the Black Hills. No non-Indian settlers were to ever be allowed to enter this land.

The policy did not lead to peace. Native Americans did not want to assimilate and many went on to follow younger, more militant leaders such as Crazy Horse and Sitting Bull. White settlers continued to move onto Indian land and the government always supported the non-Indians.

The resolution of the “Indian problem” after 1865

The Battle of the Little Big Horn, 1876

The years 1876-77 were a huge turning point in the American West because of the Great Sioux War, which contained the Battle of the Little Big Horn. In this battle, the combined forces of the Sioux nation defeated the US army which led to the shocked US government changing their policy towards the Indians – civilise and become US citizens or die!

Causes of the Great Sioux War

In 1874 an expedition of the Seventh Cavalry, led by George Armstrong Custer, discovered gold in the Black Hills. This expedition broke the Fort Laramie Treaty of 1868. Once news broke miners flooded into the Black Hills. The army was unable, and the government was unwilling, to stop them. The Sioux were outraged. The Black Hills were sacred. So the Sioux attacked the miners.

The government then tried to buy the Black Hills from the Sioux. Their offer of 6 million dollars was rejected because the Sioux believed that no one could own the land. Relations between the government and the Sioux were now very poor. In December 1875 the government went further. They ordered all the Sioux onto the reservation. Several thousand Sioux, who lived in the Powder River area and were led by Sitting Bull and Crazy Horse, refused to live on the reservation. However, even if they had wanted to obey this order, in winter they could not have travelled through the snow. In February 1876 the US army was ordered to attack any Sioux who had not returned to the reservation. General Sheridan devised a plan. Three separate columns led by General Crook, Colonel Gibbon and General Terry accompanied by Colonel Custer would trap the Sioux. But the plan had TWO key weaknesses: There was no effective communication between the columns and there was no serious attempt to find out Indian numbers. The army believed there were 800 warriors. In fact there were about 2000.

1. The campaign went well to begin with. However, on 17th June it began to go wrong. General Crook’s column was halted for a coffee break on the Rosebud Creek. While the officers were playing a game of whist, Crazy Horse led a full frontal attack with about 1500 warriors. By the end of the day Crook had lost 28 men killed and 63 wounded, and had fired 25,000 rounds of ammunition. He retreated southwards towards Fort Fetterman. Meanwhile, Crazy Horse took his forces to join Sitting Bull on the Little Bighorn. 36 men were killed and 63 were wounded. These were horribly high casualties for the Sioux. 2. Four days later Gibbon and Terry join forces on the Yellowstone River. General Terry again divided his forces. This time the infantry was to march along the Yellowstone towards the Little Bighorn. Custer was ordered to follow the Indian trail found by Major Reno- which was, in the south. He was offered 180 extra men from the Second Cavalry and Gatling Guns but refused them. Custer rode south but deliberately disobeyed orders. Instead of circling the Wolf Mountains he rode straight across them. By marching through the night and driving his men and horses hard he succeeded in arriving at the Little Bighorn a day early. The Indians camped there were not expecting an attack. But his men and their horses were exhausted. On the afternoon of 25th June Custer reached the camp of Sitting Bull and Crazy Horse on the Little Bighorn. Despite the warnings of his scouts he decided to attack. Custer may have been afraid the Indians would escape. He wanted a glorious victory. He supposedly said, “The largest Indian camp on the North American continent is ahead and I'm going to attack it.” 3. Having taken the decision to attack, Custer then split his forces. He sent Major Reno with 125 men to attack the southern end of the Indian camp. Captain Benteen with 125 men was 52

sent to the south. Custer himself took 260 men further north to cross the river to attack the Indian camp. Major Reno’s attack was stopped by the Sioux and he retreated across the river, where he took up a defensive position. Reno was then joined by Benteen and his men. For the rest of the day they were surrounded and suffered many casualties. They had received an order from Custer to support him but did not do so. 4. In the enquiry which took place after the battle, they argued that they were unable to follow Custer’s last order because they were under attack from so many Indians. What happened to Custer and his men is not clear as there were no survivors from his force. The evidence pieced together from archaeological excavations and the oral accounts of Indians indicates that Custer failed to cross the river. He turned back and made for higher ground but was overwhelmed by Crazy Horse’s attack. Without the support of Reno and Benteen his force was totally outnumbered. Some of Custer’s men may have panicked and tried to surrender or run away. Others fought to the end. The only survivor was Curley, a Crow Indian Scout, who disguised himself as a Sioux Warrior.

Consequences: The Indians won the battle however this is known as a pyrrhic victory. This means that although the outcome in the short term was a success for the Indians in the long term it was a defeat. This was because the US government policy towards the Indians became much harsher. They were no longer seen as people to negotiate with. After the Battle of Little Bighorn the Indians split back into their bands. They were hunted by the US army and one by one the bands gave in and returned to the reservations. In May 1877 Crazy Horse and his followers rode into a reservation and surrendered. Sitting Bull, and a small number of followers manged to escape to Canada. The armed resistance of the Indians was over. The US Government took the Black Hills and another 40 million acres of Indian land. 53

Question: Find evidence from the text to answer the following questions : th 1. How did events unfold on the 17 June?

2. How did Custer disobey orders?

3. What happened during the Battle of Little Big Horn?

4. What did the enquiry, set up to investigate the Battle of Little Big Horn, conclude happened to Custer?

Questions 1-3 on your exam paper are interpretation questions.

Interpretation A: To the President Washington, July 8, 1876

There have been certain wild and hostile bands of Sioux Indians in Dakota and Montana. I refer to Chief Sitting Bull’s tribe and other tribes of the Sioux Nation. These Indians continue to roam at pleasure, attacking scattered settlements, stealing horses and cattle, and murdering peaceful settlers and travellers. The present military operations are not against the Sioux Nation at all, but against certain hostile parts of it that defy the government. No part of these operations are on or near the Sioux reservation. The accidental discovery of gold on the western border of the Sioux reservation, and the settlement of our people there, have not caused this war. The young Indian warriors love war, and frequently leave the reservation to go on the hunt, or warpath. The object of these military operations was in the interest of the peaceful people of the Sioux Nation, and not one of these peaceful Indians have been bothered by the military authorities. Very respectfully, J.D. Cameron, Secretary of War.

The President of the USA asked the Secretary of War, J.D. Cameron, for a report of the military actions leading up to the Battle of Little Bighorn.

Interpretation B:

In spring 1875, Colonel Custer promised peace and moved the Cheyenne to a reservation. When gold was discovered white people came and the Indians were moved again. My brothers and I left for the open plains where our band of Cheyenne was attacked again by white soldiers in the

winter of 1875. We were forced to seek help from a tribe of Sioux Indians. After several days we joined Chief Sitting Bull and decided to travel and hunt together as one strong group. As conditions on the reservations became worse, more and more Indians joined our group. Six

tribes lived peacefully for several months, hunting buffalo, curing the meat for the winter months and tanning buffalo hides. In the summer of 1876 we set up camp near Little Bighorn River. Soldiers were spotted by some hunters to the south of the camp. Some young men went off to fight them and when they returned the next day they carried the bodies of several dead warriors with them. The chiefs then decided the group should move to the mouth of the river. On the first day of camp the peace was shattered when two boys ran into camp warning of soldiers. Then shooting could be heard. Women and children went to hide in the bushes, some women carried away tipis and their belongings, others just ran with their children. Old men helped young men put on their war paint and dress. War ponies were brought into camp from the herds and the warriors mounted them and galloped away.

Kate Bighead, a Cheyenne Indian, told this story to Dr. Thomas Marquis in 1922. Dr Marquis 55 was a doctor and historian of the Battle of Little Bighorn in the 1920s. He interviewed and photographed Cheyenne Indians. Read the interpretations above and answer the following questions:

1. What does interpretation A say about who was responsible for the Battle of Little Bighorn?------

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2. What does interpretation A suggest about who was responsible for the Battle of Little Bighorn? ------

------3. What does interpretation B say about who was responsible for the Battle of Little Bighorn? --

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------. 4. What does this suggest about who was responsible for the Battle of Little Bighorn?------

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Read the interpretations above and answer the following questions:

5. What does the provenance of interpretation A say?------

------6. Why would the provenance of interpretation A influence what the interpretation says about who was responsible for the Battle of Little Bighorn ?------

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------7. What does the provenance of interpretation B say?------

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------8. Why would the provenance of interpretation B influence what the interpretation says about who was responsible for the Battle of Little Bighorn?------

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------57 ------Read the interpretations above and answer the following questions:

9. What does interpretation A say about who was responsible for the Battle of Little Bighorn, that you know is convincing (accurate)?------

------10. How do these quotes from the interpretation match up with what you know about who was

responsible for the Battle of Little Bighorn? ------

------11. What does interpretation B say about who was responsible for the Battle of Little Bighorn,

that you know is convincing (accurate)?------

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------12. How do these quotes from the interpretation match up with what you know about who was responsible for the Battle of Little Bighorn?------

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Reservations and the destruction of the Native American Culture

Destruction of the buffalo With the armed resistance over the destruction of the buffalo herds began. By 1882 an estimated 5000 hunters and skinners were at work, hunting the buffalo for their hides. The rail companies also put on special ‘hunting trains’ to bring people to the Plains to shoot the buffalo for sport. In addition to this the barbed wire fences of the homesteaders prevented the migration of the buffalo. The buffalo were also shot to provide meat for the railway workers. By 1883 the Northern herds had been destroyed.

Why were the Buffalo exterminated?

Destruction of the Indian way of life With the Indians now on the reservations and the buffalo herds destroyed the government began to follow a policy of destroying all aspects of traditional Indian way of life and tribal structure. The reservations were used to force the Indians to live like farmers. A government agent said that the aim was to ‘break up the tribal structure and make white men out of the Indians’.

 Laws were passed that forced the Sioux to sell the Black Hills and Bighorn Mountains and the government took another 40 million acres of Indian land.  The Indians were divided over different reservations to prevent them uniting together or joining other tribes to fight the US army. For example, one tribe was moved 2000 miles from their homeland.

 The Indians were put under military rule and banned from leaving the reservations which meant they could not hunt. Weapons and horses were also taken. This destroyed the economic foundation of their society. There was no buffalo meat for food, no hides for tipis or clothing and the other numerous ways the buffalo had been used. The Indians could also no longer fight in any great numbers against the army  The Indians were encouraged to grow crops to survive. However, the harsh conditions meant the crops often failed so the Indians were forced to rely on government beef rations to survive.  The rations were at first distributed via the chief to distribute. Later this was changed, and heads of the family were encouraged to collect their own rations. This reduced the power of the chief and weakened the tribal structure.  The Indians were encouraged to live in houses – some continued to live in tipis but this gradually died out as no buffalo skins.  Indians were forced to convert to Christianity. Ceremonies and dances such as Sun Dance were banned (could be arrested).  Children were taken from their parents and sent to boarding schools where they were prepared for life ‘in the white mans’ world’. They were not allowed to speak their own language. They lived under military conditions and were taught that Indian beliefs were outdated and history lessons explained how the Indians had killed and attacked the white farmers. They also had to select non-Indian names. By 187 2000 children were in 117 boarding schools and 2500 in day schools. If parents resisted their children being sent to school their rations were stopped.

The Dawes General Allotment Act 1887: This allowed the communal land held by the Indians to be broken up into individual plots. This was intended to completely destroy the power of the chiefs and the tribal structure and encourage the Indians live individually. It would also free up land for the settlers to purchase.

Under the act the Indians were offered 160 acres of land and full US citizenship. In return the Indians had to give up the right to hold land as a tribe. This meant the Indians lost millions of acres of land they had owned as a group when they swapped it for their 160 acres. This land was then sold to white settlers. In one day 1, 920, 0000 acres of land was sold to settlers. By 1900 two thirds of the land the Indians had in 1877 had been taken. In 1890 the government declared there was no longer an Indian Frontier separating the whites and Indian land. The government now had control of all the land in the USA

By the 1880s American Government attitude to the Indians had changed as the government decided that Indians were still living like ‘tribes’ on the reservations and were not ‘white enough’. They wanted to destroy the power of the chief and force the Indians to live like white farmers. They therefore introduced the Dawes Act in 1887

In what ways were the lives of Americans affected by the actions of the US

government?

Government policies meant that children The American government created the reservation system

were taken from their Native American in 1851 to provide land to Native Americans and keep them parents and sent to boarding school. The off of the lands that White-Americans wanted. These Sioux were unable to prevent their children policies opened up over ninety million acres of tribal lands

being taken, or their rations would be belonging to Native American tribes such as the Cherokee, stopped until they gave in. The children Chickasaw, Choctaw, Creek, and Seminole to white lived under military conditions and were Americans. Placing the Native Americans onto reservations

taught to have no respect for their reduced conflict between white Americans and Native traditional way of life. There they were to Americans as white Americans were no longer walking be prepared for life in “the white man’s through Native American lands.

world”. Children in the schools were not allowed to speak their own language and The federal government publicised passed a series of were punished if they did. They lived under acts to make settlement on the Great Plains more military conditions and were taught to have attractive. The Homestead Act (1862), allowed anyone no respect for their traditional way of life. who had not taken up arms against the United States in By 1887, 2020 Indian children were in the the American Civil War to claim 160 acres of public land 117 boarding schools and 2500 in the 110- for free, provided that they lived on and farmed it for day schools. five years. The Timber Culture Act 1873, gave settlers a further 160 acres of free land, provided that they planted 40 acres of it with trees over a period of several

The Code of Religious Offences years. Finally the Desert Land Act (1877), gave settlers destroyed the Native American religion, the right to claim another 640 acres of land for $1 an Feasts, dances and ceremonies, such as acre as long as they irrigated the land for three years. the Sun Dance, were banned. The power of the medicine man was undermined. There was little need for young men to The government also used the seek visions to give them power in war army to push the Indians onto Government policy affected the white and in the buffalo hunt. This spiritual smaller reservations making “gap” was then filled by the arrival of more land available for the Americans because it

Christian missionaries. White Americans. led many to spread westward across the continent of America and to settle in the In 1885 the government took west and on the Great Government policies moved control of all legal matters. the Indians onto the land the Plains. . Indians had lost any power to White Americans did not want judge and punish members of

and off the land they did their bands. want.

Key:

Impact on the Native Americans 63 Impact on the White Americans

Which of the following was the most important reason for destroying the Plains Indians way of life after 1877: Government policy The actions of the white settlers?

By the mid-1870s the Indians were virtually Some government measures broke up tribal structures and prisoners on their reservations, and for many groupings and deliberately attacked the Indian way of life. conditions were bad. The reservations were Through a series of laws the government reduced the size of usually on land that the settlers did not want, the reservations given to the Indians and split up tribes and such as farm land of very poor quality, bands. Efforts were made to remove the power of chiefs in the sometimes in unhealthy places. This made it way that supplies were distributed and disputes settled. The very difficult for the Indians to feed influence of the chiefs declined, because the reservations were themselves, and this in turn made them run by agents. dependent on government handouts of food. For a society based on hunting and war, the

life of a farmer dependent on government The Code of Religious Offences destroyed the Native American handouts was demoralising. There was no way religion, Feasts, dances and ceremonies, such as the Sun Dance, for a warrior to gain or maintain status. There were banned. The power of the medicine man was undermined. was no buffalo meat for food, no buffalo hides There was little need for young men to seek visions to give them for tipis, clothing, and so on, and no chance to power in war and in the buffalo hunt. This spiritual “gap” was increase their wealth by stealing horses. then filled by the arrival of Christian missionaries.

One of the main reasons why the The white Americans destruction of the buffalo also helped to destroy the Indian way of life was destroyed was Plains Indians way of life after 1877. This is because the buffalo were due to the development of hunted to almost extinction; their numbers fell from an estimated 13 million homesteading. This is because the in 1840 to around 200 in 1885. Settlement on the edge of the Great Plains, Homesteaders were settling on land the construction of the railroads across the Great Plains, the destruction

which was once occupied by the of the buffalo’s natural habitat and the introduction of new diseases all contributed. To begin with, buffalo were hunted for food and sport. Hunting Indians. Before the homesteaders first arrived at the Great Plains, the increased when the railroads reached the Great Plains. Special excursion land had been used for buffalo trains were run so that people could go out and shoot buffalo for sport. pasture and was part of what the Buffalo hunters were employed to keep the workers on the supplied with Indians considered to be not only fresh meat. their home but also hunting land.

Once the homesteaders became Children were taken from their parents and sent to boarding school. The accustomed to the living conditions of Sioux were unable to prevent their children being taken, or their rations the Plains, fights began to break out would be stopped until they gave in. The children lived under military between them and the Indians. Which conditions and were taught to have no respect for their traditional way of in effect cut down the Plains Indians life. There they were to be prepared for life in “the white man’s world”.

land and lost their chance of One boarding school founder defined his aim as to “Kill the Indian in him regaining it back to the way it used and save the man”. Children in the schools were not allowed to speak their to be. The Indians were unable to own language and were punished if they did. They lived under military maintain their traditional way of life. conditions and w ere taught to have no respect for their traditional way of White settlers further depleted life. By 1887, 2020 Indian children were in the 117 boarding schools and natural resources like farmland, 2500 in the 110-day schools. water, and game, especially buffalo that were hunted nearly to extinction 64 for their hides. The actions of white settlers

Government policy

The Ghost Dance and the Battle of Wounded Knee

By the 1890s, Indians on reservations were facing an increasingly bad situation – their rations were cut, the crops failed due to a drought in 1890 and they felt despair at the loss of their lands and way of life. One Indian response the situation was the Ghost Dance.

This religious dance and ceremony started because a Sioux Indian claimed to have had a dream. He said that the Great Spirit had told him that the Indians needed to remain peaceful and regularly perform a ritual circle dance called the Ghost Dance. If they followed these instructions, then the buffalo would return to the Plains; the white settlers would be buried under 9 metres of soil and Indian ancestors would rise from the dead. This gave the Indians hope and the Ghost Dance swept through the reservations. The Indians also believed that if they wore special painted Ghost shirts they would be protected from bullets

The white Americans living close to the reservations became increasingly concerned as the movement spread quickly from reservation to reservation. A rumour even spread that Sitting Bull was planning to join the Ghost Dancers. One Indian agent wrote to the government saying ‘We need protection and we need it now. Indians are dancing in the snow and are wild and crazy’. In response, President Harrison ordered the army into the reservations to arrest the Ghost Dancers. On 15th December 1890 reservation police tried to arrest Sitting Bull, as they mistakenly believed he was planning to lead the Ghost Dancers into a rebellion. Forty policemen burst into the chief’s cabin and although Sitting Bull was willing to surrender his followers tried to prevent the arrest and Sitting Bull and some of his followers were killed

After the killing of Sitting Bull, the remaining Ghost Dancers tried to escape to safety. Chief Bigfoot led 350 people south to join the Indians at the Pine Ridge Reservation and find a solution to this tense situation.

The army was fearful of their intentions and on December 29th 1890 the 7th Cavalry, led by Col Forsyth, met up with the Indians where they were camping at Wounded Creek. Forsyth demanded the Ghost Dancers surrender their weapons. The Indians were herded together and surrounded by soldiers armed with rifles. There were also 4 canons placed on the hilltop above them. Big Foot told the army scouts that they would surrender without resistance.

What happened next is unclear. Some stories say that a small group of Indians began to perform the Ghost Dance, others do not mention this. We do know that a shot rang out, although it is unclear from which side. There is a story that a deaf Indian refused to give up his gun and the weapon accidentally went off, but this cannot be verified.

What is known is that the situation turned violent as the 7th Cavalry opened fire. Because many of the Indians had already given up their weapons, they were left defenceless and many

were shot and killed in the first few moments, among them Big Foot. Some women and children attempted to flee the scene and sought protection in a nearby ravine, but the canons fired on their position. When the smoke cleared, a journalist noted that the group of children who had been playing minutes before now lay dead. It is estimated that 150 Indians were killed (some historians put this number at twice as high), nearly half of them women and children. The cavalry lost 25 men.

After Wounded Knee there was great criticism of the army’s action as so many children were killed. A journalist said it was one of the worst things he had witnessed. The army initially attempted to portray the destruction at Wounded Knee as a battle, but later investigations and eyewitness accounts clearly established the event as a massacre. There was no significant armed resistance, because of the weapons confiscation, and the U.S. Army significantly outnumbered the Indians present

Questions 1-3 on your exam paper are interpretation questions.

Interpretation A Interpretation B During the fall of 1890, the Ghost Dance That these Indians had some just spread through the Sioux villages of the complaints … is probably true; but the

Dakota reservations, revitalizing the Sioux tribes are naturally warlike and Indians and bringing fear to the whites. turbulent, and their warriors were excited Sitting Bull was killed in an attempt to by their medicine men and chiefs, who arrest him. When Chief Big Foot heard of preached the coming of an Indian messiah Sitting Bull's death, he led his people who was to give them power to destroy south to seek protection at the Pine Ridge their enemies. In view of the alarm that

Reservation. The army intercepted the prevailed among the white settlers and band and brought them to make a camp at the fatal consequences that would have the edge of the Wounded Knee. The next resulted from an Indian incursion, I morning the sound of a shot pierced the placed at the disposal of General Miles all early morning gloom. Within seconds such forces as he required. He gave Indian braves scurried to retrieve their thorough protection to the settlers and discarded rifles and troopers fired volley brought the hostiles into subjection with after volley into the Sioux camp. the least possible loss of life.

Black Elk, a young Sioux warrior who was Adapted from President Harrison’s annual present at Wounded Knee in 1890, message, delivered December 9, 1891, in describes the tragedy at Wounded Knee in which he describes the Wounded Knee this excerpt from his autobiography, Massacre and the progress of the “Black Elk Speaks.” program to decrease Native American land

acreage.

Read the interpretations above and answer the following questions:

1. What does interpretation A say about the Wounded Knee Massacre?------

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------67

Read the interpretations above and answer the following questions:

2. What does interpretation A suggest about the Wounded Knee Massacre? ------3. What does interpretation B say about the Wounded Knee Massacre?------10. What does this suggest about the Wounded Knee Massacre?------11. What does the provenance of interpretation A say?------12. Why would the provenance of interpretation A influence what the interpretation says about the Wounded Knee Massacre?------68 ------

Read the interpretations above and answer the following questions: 13. What does interpretation B say about the Wounded Knee Massacre, that you know is convincing (accurate)?------14. How do these quotes from the interpretation match up with what you know about the Wounded Knee Massacre?------

4) Describe two problems / differences / solutions (4 marks) 5 mins

Structure:

Write TWO paragraphs. They should include the following: One problem that ……faced was…….. This was a problem because………. Another problem that …….faced was…….. This was a problem because……..

Advice: Make sure that you read the question carefully. If there is a date in the question then link your answer into it. Support your answer with detailed own knowledge to prove how/why it answers the question.

Possible questions:

 Describe 2 government solutions to the Indian problem.

 Describe 2 problems the Indians faced as a result of government policies.  Describe 2 problems the railroad posed to the Plains Indians.  Describe 2 problems the white settlers caused the Indians.

 Describe 2 problems the homesteaders faced when they moved onto the Great Plains.

 Describe 2 solutions that the homesteaders used to help them survive life on the Great Plains.  Describe 2 ways the Dawes Act contributed to Indian society.

 Describe 2 ways the US government destroyed the Plains Indians way of life.  Describe two problems the Native Americans faced on the reservations.

5) In what ways were………… affected by ………..(8 marks) 10 mins

Structure:

One way lives were affected was……This was because…….(give detailed knowledge with full examples). As a result lives were affected because (summarise HOW

LIVES CHANGED)

Advice:

Write at least TWO paragraphs The focus must be on explaining WHY …….. were affected not just describing how.

Remember you can usually split your paragraphs into positive for the white Americans and negative for the Native Americans.

You only have time to focus closely on the question so don’t mention anything irrelevant.

Possible questions:

 In what ways were the lives of the Indians affected by the arrival of the white settlers on the Great Plains?  In what ways were the lives of Americans affected by the coming of the railways to the West?  In what ways were the lives of Americans affected by the opening up of the west?  In what ways were the lives of Americans affected by government policy?  In what ways were government policy affected by the Indian Wars between the years 1862 - 67?  In what ways were the lives of Americans affected by the development of the reservations?

6) Which of the following was the most important reason why………..(Two different reasons will be given in bullet points) (12 marks) 15 mins

Structure: One important reason why ………. For example………

………was a second reason for ………..This was because…….. In conclusion …….was the most important reason. This was because………….

Advice:

Write about each bullet point in separate paragraphs.

Include detailed facts that are clearly relevant to helping you answer the question.

The focus must be on explaining why.

At the end of your answer, make a clear judgement – use the word “whereas” to show you are analysing the different factors. Don’t just write everything you know about each bullet point. Only include the details that are relevant and always focus on how those details answer the question.

Possible questions:

 Which of the following was the most important reason why the homesteaders moved West after 1860 (or people moved onto the Plains after 1860)  Government Acts  Railroads

 Which of the following was the most important reason for increasing tension between US citizens and Native Americans between 1830 and 1860:  Government policy  Increasing settlement in the West?

 Which of the following was the most important reason for destroying the Plains Indians way of life after 1877:  Government policy  The actions of the white settlers?

 Which of the following were the more72 important cause of the American Civil War  Political  Social and economic consequences? 2018 paper

American West Possible Questions

Interpretations

 Sand Creek Massacre  Fetterman’s Trap  Battle of the Little Big Horn  Opinions of Custer  Battle of Wounded Knee  Negotiators and Exterminators  Mountain Meadow Massacre  Manifest Destiny  American Civil War  Different views on the government’s policy of relocating Native Americans.

Question 4

 Describe TWO ways that the geography of America made it difficult to travel from the East to the West.  Describe TWO problems of crossing the Great Plains.  Describe TWO problems faced by miners during 1849.  Describe TWO problems faced by the Mormons when they settled in Salt Lake.  Describe TWO solutions that helped the Mormons settle in the Salt Lake.  Describe TWO solutions that helped the Mormons cross the Oregon Trail.  Describe TWO problems the Indians faced on the Plains.  Describe TWO solutions that the Indians had for helping them to survive on the Plains  Describe TWO ways the buffalo was important to the lives of the Indians.  Describe TWO features of Indian culture and religion.  Describe TWO features of Indian warfare.  Describe TWO government solutions to the Indian problem.

 Describe TWO problems the Indians faced as a result of government policies.  Describe TWO problems the railroad posed to the Plains Indians.  Describe TWO problems the white settlers caused the Indians.  Describe TWO differences between northern and southern states in the 1840s.  Describe TWO ways the Civil War damaged the southern economy.  Describe TWO problems the homesteaders faced when they moved onto the Great Plains.  Describe TWO solutions that the homesteaders used to help them survive life on the Great Plains.  Describe TWO ways the Dawes Act contributed to Indian society.

Question 5

 In what ways were the lives of the Indians affected by the arrival of the white settlers on the Great Plains?  In what ways were the lives of Americans affected by the coming of the railways to the West?  In what ways were the lives of Black Americans affected by the Civil War?  In what ways were the lives of Black American affected by the election of Lincoln?  In what ways were the lives of African Americans affected by the end of the Reconstruction Era?  In what ways were government policy affected by the Indian Wars between the years 1862 - 67?

Question 6

 Which of the following was the more important reason why white Americans travelled across the Great Plains in the 1840s and 1850s: • Religion • Economic opportunity?

 Which of the following were the more important consequences of the American Civil War for those living in the Southern states: • Political consequences • Social and economic consequences?

 Which of the following was the most important reason why the homesteaders moved West:  Economic  Government?

 Which of the following was the most important reason for destroying the Plains Indians way of life after 1877:  Government policy  The actions of the white settlers?