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The Formation of Chinese Conceptions Regarding Christianity: a Reinterpretation Based on the Anti- Opium Movement of the Nineteenth Century

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THE FORMATION OF CHINESE CONCEPTIONS REGARDING CHRISTIANITY: A REINTERPRETATION BASED ON THE ANTI- OPIUM MOVEMENT OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY By YANZONG SU (SELENA) 苏艳宗 A Thesis Submitted to the University of Birmingham for the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Theology and Religion School of Philosophy, Theology and Religion College of Arts and Law University of Birmingham December 2016 University of Birmingham Research Archive e-theses repository This unpublished thesis/dissertation is copyright of the author and/or third parties. The intellectual property rights of the author or third parties in respect of this work are as defined by The Copyright Designs and Patents Act 1988 or as modified by any successor legislation. Any use made of information contained in this thesis/dissertation must be in accordance with that legislation and must be properly acknowledged. Further distribution or reproduction in any format is prohibited without the permission of the copyright holder. ABSTRACT This thesis is to build bridges between the West and China for a better understanding of the recent history of Christianity in China. Regarding western Christians, we have to take into account the two Opium Wars and the following historical events. Because they had a significant negative impact on Chinese conceptions of Christianity, and knowledge of these events is vital to a better understanding of why Christianity was and is closely linked to imperialism in Chinese thoughts. It offers us insights into why some Chinese people are not anti-religious but anti-Christian, and why the Chinese government is anti-religious but particularly anti-Christian. Regarding Chinese people in mainland China, acknowledgement should be given to the contribution of missionaries and the positive impact of Christianity on Chinese society, especially regarding the anti-opium movement of the nineteenth century, which have remained until today overlooked, either intentionally or not. However, this thesis is only a step toward a more complete project, as additional work and further research are still required to develop a fuller and better understanding in order to build bridges between the West and China; understandably, this is a complex task. DEDICATION For God, the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit. For the Chinese Church who have inspired this project. For those people who have helped me to be where I am now ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS There are many people who have assisted me in completing my research but I would, first of all, like to give a huge thanks to God who had opened many doors and made possible the seemingly impossible, so I could be where I am today. A big thanks to the Department of Theology and Religion at the University of Birmingham for providing the Amphlett Scholarship, so I could fully concentrate on the research and finish the PhD program. There are a number of individuals at the university whose advice and assistance was invaluable to my research. Firstly, a big thanks to my first supervisor Professor Edmond Tang who supervised my MA dissertation and the first year of my PhD before his retirement. Because of his knowledge about Prostestant and Catholic Christianity in China, he was able to make me confident about the originality of my research. A big thanks to the accomplished scholar and historian Professor Allan Anderson who took me as his student, and supervised me over these years. I appreciate his advice, suggestions, and encouragement, as he led and guided me through my PhD journey. A big thanks to Professor Hugh McLeod from the School of History and Cultures for his advice and ideas for the thesis, and also comments after reading it. A big thanks to those people who read versions of my thesis and their comments: Milan Novick, June Lebret, John Lanchbury, and Miriam Banting. A big thanks to Paul Fogg who is a native speaker and did his postgraduate in English literature at our university. Since English is not my first language, it is always challenging to express my thoughts and ideas in English. As a very good friend, whose help with proofreading was invaluable and very much appreciated. A big thanks to Bill and LaVonne Boyer, June Lebret, Dr. Paul and Eveline Lewis. Without their help, I would not be able to pursue higher education. A big thanks to Rev. Allan Lit and Constant Lit for giving me my first opportunity to train overseas. I really appreciate their financial support and prayers over these years, which made this busy period of research more enjoyable. A big thanks to Nelson Edman Graham and Christina K. Graham for their ministry through East Gates Ministries International. I am really blessed by Christina’s love, passion, and devotion to God and the Chinese Christians, and she is an inspiration in my life. A big thanks to my parents who value education very much. Even though they are not perfect, and do not have much, they have always done their best to provide me the best. TABLE OF CONTENTS INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................... 1 1. Motivation and Objectives ............................................................................................ 1 2. Methodological Considerations ................................................................................... 7 3. Thesis Structure .......................................................................................................... 19 4. Literature Survey ........................................................................................................ 22 5. Significance and Scope of the Research .................................................................... 29 PART ONE: THE FORMATION OF CHINESE CONCEPTIONS REGARDING CHRISTIANITY ................................................................................. 33 Chapter 1: The Fourth Entrance of Christianity into China during the Opium Wars ................................................................................................................... 33 1.1. The First Opium War (1839-1842) and the Unequal Treaties ............................... 36 1.2. The Second Opium War (1856-1860) and the Treaties of Tianjin and Beijing .... 41 1.3. The Impact of Opium on Chinese Society .............................................................. 45 Chapter 2: Historical Events Impacting on Chinese Conceptions of Christianity after the Opium Wars ................................................................................................... 55 2.1. The Taiping Heavenly Kingdom.............................................................................. 57 2.1.1. Hong Xiuquan, the founder of the Taiping ............................................................ 57 2.1.2. Hong’s Belief and the Establishment of the Taiping .............................................. 59 2.1.3. Missionary Attitudes and the Taiping’s Failure ..................................................... 61 2.2. The Religious Cases (Jiao’an) in the late Qing Dynasty ....................................... 63 2.2.1. Restoring Confiscated Properties .......................................................................... 64 2.2.2. Attacking Confucianism ......................................................................................... 67 2.2.3. Harbouring Believers and Intervention in Litigations .......................................... 68 2.2.4. Rumours and Libellous Posters ............................................................................. 69 2.3. The Boxer Uprising ................................................................................................. 71 2.3.1. The Origin of the Uprising .................................................................................... 72 2.3.2. The Development of the Uprising .......................................................................... 73 2.3.3. The End of the Uprising......................................................................................... 77 2.3.4. The Impact of the Uprising .................................................................................... 78 2.4. The Anti-Christian Movement in the 1920s............................................................ 80 2.4.1. The First Phase of the Movement .......................................................................... 81 2.4.2. The Second Phase of the Movement ...................................................................... 83 2.4.3. The Third Phase of the Movement ......................................................................... 84 2.4.4. The Effect of the Movement ................................................................................... 86 2.5. Vatican Decisions during the 1930s to 1950s ......................................................... 88 2.5.1. A Brief History of the Relations between the Vatican and China .......................... 88 2.5.2. Vatican Decisions during the Second Sino-Japanese War .................................... 90 2.5.3. The Changes of the CPC’s Religious Policy .......................................................... 92 2.5.4. Vatican Decisions during the Civil War ................................................................. 94 Chapter 3: Contemporary Chinese Perspectives regarding the Interrelationship between Christianity, Missionary and Imperialism .................................................. 98 3.1. The Chinese Churches’ Perspectives .....................................................................
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