Century English Philosopher John Locke Developed Theories of Empiricism That Emphasized the Role of Human Experience in the Pursuit of Knowledge and Truth
Total Page:16
File Type:pdf, Size:1020Kb
John Locke In the 17th century English philosopher John Locke developed theories of empiricism that emphasized the role of human experience in the pursuit of knowledge and truth. Many of Locke’s political theories influenced the authors of the Constitution of the United States. Many of Locke’s political ideas, such as those relating to natural rights, property rights, the duty of the government to protect these rights, and the rule of the majority, were later embodied in the U.S. Constitution. Locke further held that revolution was not only a right but often an obligation, and he advocated a system of checks and balances in government. He also believed in religious freedom and in the separation of church and state Thomas Hobbes English political philosopher Thomas Hobbes is best known for his treatise Leviathan. Written during the mid-17th century amidst the tumult of the English Revolution, Leviathan outlines Hobbes’s theory of sovereignty, which states that only one person should have absolute (or all) power over all citizens. Jean Jacques Rousseau One of the most influential Enlightenment thinkers, French philosopher Jean Jacques Rousseau argued that individual freedom is more important than state institutions. His political writings helped inspire the French Revolution (1789-1799). He also wrote eloquently on education, arguing that children learn best by interacting freely with their environment. His thoughts on education anticipated 20th- century reforms in schooling. Oliver Cromwell A member of England’s Parliament and a dedicated Puritan, Oliver Cromwell led his forces to victory against King Charles’s army. Even though he had no military experience, Cromwell turned out to be a brilliant cavalry leader. The defeat and subsequent execution of the king left Cromwell as virtual dictator over England William & Mary II English opponents of James, unhappy with his autocratic rule and favoritism toward Roman Catholics, initiated the Glorious Revolution, forcing James into exile and giving the throne to Mary and William (who became king as William II). They were crowned as joint rulers of England in April 1689. Mary governed as regent while William was campaigning in Ireland (1690- 91) and on the Continent (1692-94), but for the most part she simply carried out policies formulated by her husband. William continued to rule alone after her death George Washington Washington, George (1732-1799), first president of the United States (1789-1797) and one of the most important leaders in the United States history. His role in gaining independence for the American colonies and later in unifying them under the new U.S. federal government cannot be overestimated. Laboring against great difficulties, he created the Continental Army, which fought and won the American Revolution (1775-1783), out of what was little more than an armed mob. After an eight-year struggle, his design for victory brought final defeat to the British at Yorktown, Virginia, and forced Great Britain to grant independence to its overseas possession. On April 30, 1789, 57-year old George Washington took the oath of office as the first president of the United States. After Washington took the oath on the portico at Federal Hall in New York City, thousands of citizens cheered and 13 cannons fired a salute. Inside, Washington delivered his inaugural address in the Senate Chambers. Excerpt recited by an actor. Maximilien Robespierre Maximilien Robespierre was one of the most controversial figures in the French Revolution. In the cause of fostering democracy, Robespierre helped bring about the Reign of Terror in which thousands were executed by the guillotine. He eventually met the same fate. Louis XVI Louis XVI of France was the grandson of King Louis XV and was married to Marie-Antoinette. Louis was considered a well-intentioned but weak king. A heavy tax burden and court extravagances led eventually to a popular revolt against him and paved the way for the French Revolution. Louis was guillotined by the revolutionary regime in 1793. Marie-Antoinette Marie-Antoinette was the queen of France who died on the guillotine in 1793 during the French Revolution. Her lavish life-style made her unpopular, but she paid no attention to her country’s financial crisis, refusing to make any concessions to hungry mobs who marched on the place in Versailles. Instead, she called out troops. Violence followed, and she and her husband, King Louis XVI, were imprisoned by revolutionaries and later executed. Napoleon Bonaparte Napoleon Bonaparte was the greatest military genius of the 19th century. He conquered most of Western Europe and Egypt for France, while instituting reforms in these new territories aimed at guaranteeing civil liberties and improving the quality of life. He crowned himself emperor of France in 1804 and introduced reforms intended to unify the revolution-fractured nation. Many of Napoleon’s reforms are still in effect today. Napoleon I (1769-1821), emperor of the French, who consolidated and institutionalized many reforms of the French Revolution. One of the greatest military commanders of all time, he conquered the larger pat of Europe and did much to modernize the nations he ruled. José de San Martin Argentine general José de San Martin helped lead South America to freedom from Spanish rule, during The Latin-American Revolution. San Martin is regarded as one of Argentina’s foremost heroes. Simon Bolivar Simon Bolivar helped win independence from Spain for Bolivia, Columbia, Ecuador, Peru, and Venezuela. Revered throughout South America, Bolivar earned the name The Liberator during the Latin American Revolution. Thomas Paine During the 1770s political philosopher and writer Thomas Paine agitated for American independence from Britain. One of the most eloquent figures of the period, Paine voiced American revolutionary sentiments with his 1776 pamphlet, Common Sense. In the popular and inspirational pamphlet, Paine asserted that Great Britain exploited the American colonies and contributed nothing to America’s well-being. He then returned to Europe and was a major voice for the French Revolution as well. Charles I Charles I was king of England from 1625 to 1649. Charles believed in the divine right of kings and did not feel accountable to Parliament. His behavior provoked the English Revolution, which was fought between the armies of the king and those of Parliament. Defeated and convinced of treason by Parliament, Charles was beheaded in January 1649. George III (George William Frederick; 4 was King of Great Britain and King of Ireland from 25 October 1760 until the union of these two countries on 1 January 1801, after which he was King of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland until his death. His life and reign, which were longer than those of any previous British monarch, were marked by a series of military conflicts. Early in his reign, Great Britain defeated France in the Seven Years' War, becoming the dominant European power in North America and India. However, many of its American colonies were soon lost in the American War of Independence. Further wars against revolutionary and Napoleonic France from 1793 concluded in the defeat of Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo in 1815. .