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Home , Emperor of the French, July Revolution, Napoleon, Napoleon III

FRANCE The : 1792-1804 The : I 1804-1814 ( of the French and of ) Restored Bourbon line Louis XVIII 1814-1824 ( count a Louis XVII 1793-1795, and date the reign of Louis XVIII from 1795) X 1824-1830

July Revolution of 1830, caused by the and students, overthrew . The revolution gave the to the Duke of Orleans, descendant of Louis XIII Orleans line Louis-Philippe 1830-1848 (the ―citizen king‖) 1845 Irish Potato crop disease and European drought…food prices skyrocket…food riots…businesses crash…people wanted government reform throughout . Low wage working class didn’t like Louis-Philippe… strict prohibited workers from striking and most could not vote because of the property requirement. summed up atmosphere by saying, ―I believe that we are at this moment sleeping on a volcano.‖ People tired of corrupt officials and wanted socialism (public ownership of factories, bankers, and businesses) Feb. 22, 1848, mobs riot streets of , Louis-Philippe leaves in disguise to . The Second Republic: 1848-1852 Govt of committee of 10….split between ideas of political liberty and social reform The Second Empire Napoleon III 1852-1870 () Dec. 1848, Louis Napoleon elected pres. of … huge margin of victory… The Third Republic 1870-1940 Regime 1940-1944 Provisional Government 1944-1946 The Fourth Republic 1946-1958 The Fifth Republic 1958-

Louis Napoleon Bonaparte – Napoleon III Born 1808, was the nephew of Nap.I. His father was king of at time of his birth. Tries to overthrow govt of Louis Philippe…. Lands in prison for life…. Escapes simply by walking straight out, dressed as a stonemason (1846). When he eventually comes back, 1848, he is ultimately elected to 4-year term as president. Can’t get Assembly to change laws to let him serve more than one 4-year term… In 1850 Assembly rescinds universal male … takes away a third of public vote… the poorest and most socialist… many socialist reforms… Napoleon poses as friend of people…launches coup d’etat on the anniversary of Austerlitz (Dec. 2, 1851). On Dec. 2, 1805, Nap I defeated Austria and Russian forces. Reinstated universal male suffrage… elected to 10-year term Next year, he proclaimed himself emperor and remembered Napoleon’s I son, who died in 1832/6?, and named himself Napoleon III. Dissolves Assembly…first time since 1815 no parliamentary rep in France.

[See image of Napoleon III in – Harper’s Weekly] This unsigned Harper’s Weekly cartoon parodies the imperial design of Napoleon III in Mexico, as he mimics the previous expansionist quest of Napoleon I. In 1854, a coalition of Mexican liberals overthrew their country’s dictator, General Antonio de Santa Ana, to establish a republic. In 1857, disputes over a new led to a civil and the establishment of rival governments. In 1859, the formally recognized the liberal administration of Benito Juárez as the legitimate government of Mexico. American president James Buchanan sanctioned shipments of war materiel to the Juárez military, as well as the participation of American mercenaries in the republican cause. France, , and Great Britain, however, favored the conservative regime in Mexico. In late December 1860, the liberal forces defeated the conservatives, and a triumphant Juárez reclaimed Mexico City on January 1, 1861.

Mexican conservatives then allied with French emperor Napoleon III, who desired to incorporate Mediterranean states and former Spanish and Portuguese colonies in the Americas into a French-led federation (giving rise to the concept of a ). The United States Civil War provided an opportunity for Napoleon III to intervene in Mexico, and the new republic’s large foreign debt supplied the excuse. When the Juárez government suspended its debt payments in 1861, Spain, France, and Britain sent an expeditionary force to demand redress. Quarrels between the three European powers prompted Spain and Britain to withdraw, but Napoleon III reinforced French troops and dispatched them to the Mexican capital.

When this cartoon appeared, French and Mexican were in the midst of a war. The image of Napoleon III crossing Mexico (he was never actually there) is based on a famous of the French emperor’s uncle, Napoleon Bonaparte: Napoleon Crossing the Saint Bernard (1800-1801) by Jacques-Louis David. In the winter of 1800, Napoleon Bonaparte and 40,000 French troops crossed the Great Saint Bernard Pass, one of the highest Alpine passages between and Italy, to surprise and defeat Austrian troops in . The ploy’s daring and danger were captured in David’s romanticized portrait of a windswept Napoleon Bonaparte heroically astride his rearing white steed. By contrast, this "Modern Historical Picture" presents a languid Napoleon III atop a frightened mule, with the emperor oblivious to either the human skulls he tramples or the deadly chasm before him.

The cartoonist, though, underestimated the chances of (at least initial) success for the French intervention. In June 10, 1863, French troops occupied Mexico City, and from there secured most of the central region of the country. In early 1864, Napoleon III established a puppet regime in Mexico under Maximilian, the archduke of Austria. By 1865, the French had forced Juárez and his men to the Mexican-U.S. border.

The monetary and human cost of the intervention, however, aroused opposition within France. Also, with the end of the in April 1865, the United States government turned its attention to the situation. In May, General led 50,000 American soldiers to face down French troops across the Mexican border. On the diplomatic front, Secretary of State William Seward intensified pressure for a French . Realizing the futility of the Mexican morass, Napoleon III agreed in February 1866 to remove his troops, a task completed in March 1867. President Juárez reestablished Republican government in Mexico, and had Maximilian executed

Italy Unlike revolutions in France and , and ill-fated Polish insurrection, popular stirrings in Italian states... beginning with movements in and the Dutchy of Modena, started as protests against inefficient and corrupt rule.

Several uprisings have comic quality to them: rebels in literally locked Duchess Marie-Louise out of the city by shutting the gates until an Austrian arrived in March 1831 to let her back in and restore her to power. Several cities in central Italy proclaim from by creating ―United Provinces of Italy‖

Insurgents against Austrian rule in several towns within Papal States unrealistically counted on help from French armies (believing that they still had mission to free oppressed peoples of Europe). With Austrian troops coming from North... volunteer army marched toward , defeat ’s army... but then take more cities and 3 weeks after United Provinces created, it surrendered back to Papal States.

Mazzini – saw nation as almost mystical religious quality... one of first to suggest states of Europe might evolve into a loose federation of democratic states. Need to defeat Austria – FIRST STEP Young Italy – had to be under 40 to join – he bragged ―Italy in revolution would be strong enough to defeat three Austrias.‖ Jailed and expelled from one country to the next, he launched several futile insurrections 1834-36 and again in 1844

As these attempts failed and brought repression... many looked to liberal Kingdom of - – Italy’s strongest state, to effect national unification.

•King Charles Albert (r. 1831-1849) – met some liberal demands, starts bicameral – selected from small minority of adult males, eases press censorship, established civilian guard

Meanwhile – March 18, 1848 – 10,000 march on – want Austrian to give in to liberal demands... armed with medieval pikes they drive out the Austrians (defeat Radetzky)... establish provisional republican govt.

POPE – 1848 – challenge authority of Pope in Papal States. Pope’s army prevails but he does appoint more liberal leaders to govt (because he feared insurrection). New govt applied new tax on Church property. Then, one of govt leaders assassinated in Nov. 1848. Crowds in streets – demand declaration of war against Austria. Pius appoints more liberals to govt and calls for new elections... then, flees in disguise to . Once there, he called for overthrow of his own govt that he had appointed ―under duress‖ (he claimed).

Radicals win in Rome – confiscate Church property, turned buildings into apartments for poor people, proclaimed ... Pope then excommunicates some officials from Church... Republic, in turn, abolishes Inquisition, proclaims freedom of press, and secularization of university education. Mazzini then joins govt in Rome.

Unification: several competing ideas on how to accomplish 1. Mazzini – centralized, democratic republic…universal suffrage…too radical and crushed by Austria 2. Gioberti – Catholic priest – wanted the pope to act as president of federation of Italian states 3. Sardinia-Piedmont – liberal constitution 1848 Cavour – Sardinian govt rep. Cavour seeks to get northern Italy unified w/ Sardinia and its king, Victor Emmanuel Need to get Austria out of and Venetia… can’t do it by themselves… need ally… and he goes w/ Napoleon III. Napoleon goes with it… they defeat Austrians… get Lombardy (1859)…then Napoleon has second thoughts and stops there. , not wanting France to get too powerful with new gains in Italy and the defeat of Austria, mobilizes troops on the . This is one of the factors that brings Nap to the decision to stop and make separate peace with Austria. Cavour resigns. Central Italian states go w/ Sardinia in 1860… Cavour returns and works out deal w/ Napoleon… France gets and . Garibaldi – popular leader from the Kingdom of Two Sicilies… amazing life: sentenced to death, escaped to South America, helps Uruguay in revolution against Argentina, kids almost starve in jungle, milks his own goats, anyway… he rallies victories in south… major liberal reforms… Cavour capitulates…they work out deal… Victor Emmanuel, king of Sardinia, (along with his liberal parliamentary constitution govt) rule over a unified Italy.

Victor Emmanuel II was ―by grace of God and the will of the nation.‖ Venetia added in 1866 as a prize for Italian aid to Prussia in a war against Austria, and Rome annexed in 1870 after the withdrawal of French troops in the Franco-Prussian war of 1870 (French troops there to protect pope and his rule… goes way back). Italy made a nation by the long high-minded apostolate of Mazzini, the audacity of Garibaldi, the cold policy of Cavour, by war and insurrection, by armed violence endorsed by popular vote. Vote only given to about 600,000 out of 20 million at first. Not until 1913 was the suffrage broadened.

Germany Pronounced individualism to be Western, it skipped lightly over individual liberty, it tended by glorify group loyalties, collectivist principles, and the state…made great to-do about History which Hegel (and Marx) illustrate how much power, almost independent of humans, it has. History ordains, requires, necessitates, condemns, justifies, and/or excuses. What happened in Italy with the extermination of the old governments (except Piedmont) could never happen in . Between 1850-70 the output of coal and iron increased 6-fold. Prussia – the smallest and most precarious of the great powers… Ruined by Napoleon… it had risen again. Since 1815, population in Prussia went from 11 to 18 million… but size of army the same If they simply applied the existing policies of the army would double in size, but it would require more money to operate. Prussia, after 1850, had a parliament… dominated by men of wealth… but some were liberals who wanted parliament to have control over policies…. They didn’t like professional armies and considered the Prussian Junkers (from whom the were required) to be their main rivals in the state. Parliament refused funding… king, in 1862, appoints new chief minister, .

Bismarck As minister president he had to deal with liberal Prussian parliament… for four years, 1862-66 he tried.. parliament refused to add these new taxes (for military), government collected them anyway, people paid them because it was the orderly thing to do, collectors represent public authority.

There was a belief that the king and ministers were wiser than the elected deputies and officials…

Army enlarged, reorganized, retrained, and reequipped. Bismarck declared that the boundaries of Prussia set in 1815 were unsound…. And Prussia must be prepared to seize favorable opportunities… ―Not by speeches and majority votes are the great questions of the day decided—that was the great error of 1848 and 1849—but by .‖

Austria always a little on the outside when it comes to German unification… The was established gradually after 1818 (officially set in 1834) to stimulate trade and increase revenues of states… they had greatly reduced tariffs (almost like today’s ―free trade‖ concept).. but Austria had highly protected economy/industry so they didn’t want to join… tried to get southern German states out… but it was good for business…so Austria left out of it How to get Austria out of the north? Opportunity: … Danish king, in 1863, wanted Schleswig (part Dane and part German) and to look to Denmark for future… and away from German states… The voted to bring all-out war against Danes and annex all of Denmark. Bismarck didn’t want to support or strengthen existing German confederation… he wanted a Prussian opportunity. So he disguises plan by entering deal w/ Austria in 1864. Prussia and Austria together defeat Danes by sending armies to the north… Schleswig – Prussia… Holstein – Austria Bismarck pretended to settle many disputes which quickly arose in this region… rights of passage, internal , etc… actually he allowed disputes to ripen!! Bismarck takes opportunity to attack Austria… Austria-Prussian War of 1866 lasted only 7-weeks Bismarck didn’t want to get huge alliance against Prussia… He lucks out… Britain in non-intervention mode on the continent… okay with them because Bismarck earlier supported Tsar Alex II’s repression of Polish uprising in 1863… France: Napoleon III was given vague promise of land along Rhine, so he was tamed… Italy: given the idea of perhaps gaining Venetia if they stayed put and didn’t get involved. Bismarck’s gamble pays off and they defeat Austrians. Bismarck pretends to let democracy determine fate in Schleswig and Holstein… claims that the current diet of German confed has no authority up there… accuses Austria of aggression… sends Prussian troops into Holstein… and goes to not only Austria, but most of the German states. awesome -- used railroads to mass troops, needle guns-which fired 5 rounds a minute, defeat Austria in . Austria given great terms after defeat… no reparations, no loss of land (except Venetia goes to Italy), just get out of the north Prussia joins 21 other German states and forms North German Confederation… Austria, , , Wurttemberg, and Hesse-Darmstadt… not inside this org. New constitution, king of Prussia is head of new North German Confed… he becomes president, Bismarck becomes chancellor, … bicameral parliament (like U.S.)….upper house members are appointed by each state (like ) and lower house elected by universal male suffrage… the Reichstag.

Bismarck once defended the old order: conservative, authoritarian govt… but soon saw that may actually work within this same structure and accept conservative leadership (rather than try to construct liberal institutions). For the German people, he was right.

Franco-Prussian War, 1870 False issue: whether or not a distant relative of Napoleon III and Wilhelm I (of Prussia) should become king of Spain. Small southern German states not convinced that North was the answer… They would soon gravitate to one orbit or another: Austrian, Prussian, or even French… Bismarck knew this so he acted fast…

Meanwhile, strong criticism for Nap III’s foreign policy… especially regarding Mexico… Nap wanted to set up French satellite empire in Mexico with Austrian archduke Maximilian as figurehead emperor… this during a time when US looked likely to collapse during the Civil War…. US didn’t collapse… French forces weak in Mexico… US resented French presence in Mexico, capture Maximilian and shot him. Further, Italy united during Nap’s time and now shared a border with France…

Meanwhile, revolution in Spain sent the queen into … and a Spanish provisional govt invited Leopold of the Hohenzollern family to be the constitutional king of Spain. Offer is refused 3 times…. Offer scares the French… Bismarck deviously asks Spanish to make the offer once more… French get word on July 2, 1870, that Leopold accepts… French sent ambassador, Benedetti, to Wilhelm I to change his mind… they meet at bathing resort of Ems. Wilhelm announces that Leopold will NOT accept… French think they got their way… Bismarck disappointed… French get cocky and send Benedetti to Ems to inform Wilhelm that he issue a statement that at no future time will a Hohenzollern accept an offer of the Spanish -- July 12 King Wilhelm politely refuses… and telegraphs full report of conversation to Bismarck… This became the ―‖.. and Bismarck had his red to wave before the Gallic bull… Bismarck condenses the dispatch so that it could be easily published in the papers… But he so condensed it, that contextually, it appears as if the conversation was short, curt and abrupt… Prussians felt as if their king had been insulted… French felt as if their ambassador had been snubbed…

On July 19th, Napoleon declares war (even though Spanish question already settled) Bismarck laid the groundwork beautifully… He isolated France, politically…. England convinced that France in the wrong… Mexico illustrated their ambitious side to create French American empire… wanted Rome back – and wanted French troops out of there! Russians wanted opportunity to dump the clause in 1856 which forbade them the use of naval vessels in Sea ( provision) By Sept 2, French defeated at Sedan… Napoleon captured… Sept 4, French declare Third Republic… Prussians take Paris… they wont capitulate… four month ….

Versailles, on the outskirts of Paris, is the stage…. Bismarck on Jan. 18th, 1871…has Wilhelm proclaimed the (hereditary)… Paris gives up 10 days later. During the siege many and dogs in Paris ―disappeared‖… and even zoo animals were eaten, including two elephants that had been admired by children for generations.

Bismarck insists new govt of France pay indemnity of 5 billion gold francs and cede - to Germany. Although most Alsatians spoke German (and French)… most considered themselves French… are furious and never forget..

The new peace treaty of (which spelled out terms) on , 1871 reverses Peace of and even that of Westphalia.

Bismarck, who had gone against laws in collecting taxes earlier for military, was given reprieve by German parliament which passed laws ex post facto… had withered away before nationalism.

Germany, and many other European nations, begin to introduce more protectionist policies… especially regarding economics… tariffs, etc…. throughout 1880’s and 90’s. Bismarck pushes through legislation that gives social security, pensions, ―worker’s comp‖ to working class… this staves off socialism movements – keeps them at distance and keeps workers invested in current system. Bismarck also got a passed that outlawed Marxist Social Democratic party.

Wilhelm II (r. 1888-1918) the new emperor was idealistic… and didn’t like Bismarck’s strong handedness in all affairs. He fires Bismarck and allows Social Democrats to exist in Germany (Bismarck had pushed through a law outlawing them…).

No matter, the German Social Democratic party will shortly become the largest party in the Reichstag…However, they were considerably more patriotic in Germany than in other places where they were more .

France after the war Conservative and monarchists go to the polls and elect many reps to National Assembly… these folks were mainly in countryside… When it was clear how much France would give up to Germany many in Paris erupted in chaos… and the was established. Paris Commune was condemned by National Assembly which, under the leadership of , ordered the army to get control…. 20,000 died.

Monarchist in Assembly had majority! But, couldn’t agree who should be king… Bourbon candidate would only rule under the ―white‖ flag of his ancestors – NO WAY!

Although stressful at times, France holds in together under this government. As President Thiers said, this was ―the government which divides us least.‖

Gradually, by 1879 the republicans had a majority and rid themselves of Thiers who was often autocratic in style.