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Language Policy and Russian-Titular Bilingualism in Post-Soviet Tatarstan

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Language Policy and Russian-Titular Bilingualism in Post-Soviet Tatarstan Language Policy and Russian-Titular Bilingualism in Post-Soviet Tatarstan Teresa Wigglesworth-Baker Thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the award of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Department of Russian and Slavonic Studies May 2015 1 This thesis is dedicated to the memory of my father Alan Wigglesworth 1944-2011 2 Acknowledgements This thesis has been the accumulation of seven years of research. Many people have helped and inspired me over this period of time and I would like to mention them here. My thanks first and foremost go to my supervisor Professor Neil Bermel whose comments and help have always been very much appreciated. I would also like to thank other members of staff in the Department of Russian and Slavonic Studies who have given me advice and help. I would like to thank CEELBAS (The Centre for East European and Language Based Area Studies) who kindly funded my Internship project in 2013, which contributed to this thesis. My thanks also include Guzel Iakhieva Guzelbaeva from the Faculty of Sociology, Kazan Federal (Volga region) University for her kind help in organising interviews for me in Kazan and in allowing me to give out my surveys to her students during her lectures. She has been a constant source of support during my research and I am very grateful to her for this. I would like to thank Tatiana Petrovna Troshchina and other members of teaching staff from the Faculty of Russian as a Foreign Language and the Faculty of Tatar Philology in Kazan Federal (Volga region) University who allowed me to distribute my surveys in their seminars and lectures to students. I am extremely grateful to members of staff from both faculties for marking the language tests in my surveys. In addition, I would like to mention how enjoyable it was to teach English to the members of staff in the Faculty of Russian as a Foreign Language during my fieldtrip in 2010 that I did in return for their help. I would like to thank everybody in Kazan who agreed to be interviewed for my research. I would like to thank all of my colleagues in the office in the Department of Russian and Slavonic Studies for their support as well as the support and encouragement from my work colleagues and friends. Finally my thanks go to my husband Simon who has supported me continually throughout this journey and thanks to my cats Tippy and Uma who helped me to relax (sometimes!). 3 Abstract This thesis examines language policy and Russian-titular bilingualism in the Republic of Tatarstan twenty years after the collapse of the Soviet Union. Tatarstan is an autonomous and multi-ethnic republic situated within the political framework of the Russian Federation and has its own language policy which was implemented in 1992. Both Russian and Tatar were declared to be of equal status in all spheres of language use. Additionally, as a result of an education policy implemented in 1998, Tatar language learning was made a compulsory subject in schools for all nationalities. These policies were part of Tatarstan’s nation-building processes (Sharafutdinova, 2003; Wertheim 2003 and Yemelianova, 2000). In particular this research aims to compare Tatar language use between the Russian and Tatar populations as a way to measure how successful the Tatar language policy as a nation-building process has been. According to Rodgers (2007) and Polese (2011), people’s attitudes show the extent to which they are participating in the reconstruction of nation-building and identity. Therefore, if Russians show that they are able to use written Tatar and that they use it in everyday situations without showing resistance, then the language policy could be deemed as successful. Empirical research was carried out during two field trips to Kazan in October 2010 and April-May 2013. The results of the study revealed that overall the language policy seems to have been successful amongst the Russian population, particularly in the sphere of education due to Tatar language being compulsory in schools. However, it does not seem to have changed attitudes towards the Tatar language. 4 Table of Contents Acknowledgements ............................................................................................... 3 Abstract ................................................................................................................. 4 Table of Contents .................................................................................................. 5 Introduction ......................................................................................................... 13 Chapter One - Language planning and policy ..................................................... 19 1.1 Definitions in context: top-down bottom-up, multilingualism, plurilingualism and bilingualism ........................................................................ 19 1.1.1 Top-down bottom-up .................................................................................. 19 1.1.2 Multilingualism, plurilingualism and bilingualism ..................................... 20 1.2 What is language planning? ...................................................................... 21 1.3 What is a language policy? ....................................................................... 22 1.3.1 Language Education Policies (LEPs) ......................................................... 25 1.3.4 Language Testing ....................................................................................... 25 1.4 Frameworks for Language Planning and Policy ....................................... 27 1.4.1 Domains of language use ............................................................................ 29 1.5 Motives of Language Planning and Policy ............................................... 29 1.5.1 Ideology ....................................................................................................... 30 1.5.2 Identity ........................................................................................................ 32 1.7 Studies ........................................................................................................... 33 1.8 Conclusion ................................................................................................. 35 Chapter Two - The Soviet Period: Identity Formation and Language Planning . 37 2.1 Background of Soviet Language Policy and the Nationalities Question ...... 38 2.1.1 Pre-Revolutionary period – evolution of territorial and linguistic composition of the Russian Empire ..................................................................... 38 2.2 Engineering attitudes and nationalities ......................................................... 39 2.2.1 Early Soviet Period 1920s – early 1930s .................................................... 39 2.2.2 Early 1930s and beyond .............................................................................. 41 2.3 Soviet Censuses ............................................................................................. 43 2.4 Soviet language policy .................................................................................. 46 2.4.1 Stage 1: Pluralistic Policy ........................................................................... 46 2.4.2 Stage 2: Bilingual policy ............................................................................. 51 2.4.3 Stage 3: Monolingual policies ..................................................................... 52 5 2.4.4 Summary of Soviet policies ....................................................................... 53 2.5 Education and Language Choice ................................................................... 54 2.5.1 Early Soviet period 1920s-early 1930s ....................................................... 54 2.5.2 Early 1930s – 1950s .................................................................................... 55 2.5.3 Language of instruction and curriculum subjects ....................................... 56 2.6 Bilingualism .................................................................................................. 57 2.6.1 Demographical influences on bilingualism ................................................ 58 2.6.2 Publishing .................................................................................................... 59 2.7 Ethnic Mobilization ....................................................................................... 60 2.8 Conclusion ..................................................................................................... 62 Chapter Three - The Post-Soviet Period ............................................................. 65 3.1 Definitions in the post-Soviet context: Nationalism, nation, ethnicity and nationality, nation-building, nationalizing states ............................................... 67 3.2 Russian and Titular Identity .......................................................................... 73 3.2.1 The Russian Identity ................................................................................... 73 3.2.2 Titular Identity ............................................................................................ 76 3.3 Studies into in-group out-group influences on post-Soviet identity ............. 79 3.4 Language Policy and Laws of the Russian Federation and the Republic of Tatarstan .............................................................................................................. 82 3.4.1 1991 Law on Languages of the Peoples of the RSFSR. ...........................
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