Index
Index
Pages and page ranges in bold type Air masses Anemometers in this index indicate major discussions classification of, 525–526, investigation of, 780–781, 780i of the topic. Pages and page ranges 526i, 622 use of, 529 followed by i indicate illustrations or definition of, 525 Angle of repose figures; those followed by t indicate investigation of, 522–524, definition of, 401 tables; and those followed by 523i, 524t and mass movement, 401, 401i g indicate graphs. movement of, 526 Animals, Deepwater Horizon spill and tornado formation, 552–553, casualties, 774–775 A 552i, 553i Antarctica Abrasion Air pollution climate change and, 666–667 definition of, 471 clouds and, 630 craton formation in, 871 glacial, 457–459 effects of, 943 ice sheets of, 454, 643–644, wind, 471 Air pressure 682–687, 683i–684i Absolute age, definition of, 927 See also Cyclones Antarctic Bottom Water, Absolute zero, definition of, 91 definition of, 529 characteristics of, 586, 596–597, Absorption, of radiation in in hurricanes, 562–563, 565 596t, 597g, 664–665, 665i atmosphere, 98–101 investigation of, 512–513, Antarctic Circumpolar Current Absorption spectrum, definition 513i, 560 characteristics of, 666–667 of, 92 measurement of, 529 investigation of, 661–663, Abyssal hills, definition of, 589 and wind formation, 513–514, 662i, 663i Abyssal plain, definition of, 589 514i, 516–520, 516i–520i Anthracite coal, formation and Acceleration, definition of, 46 Alabama, geologic maps of, 317i properties of, 301, 743–745 Accretion Alaska Anthropogenic effects See also Continental accretion glaciers of, 449 See also Climate change; Pollution; definition of, 58 petroleum production in, 759 Water supplies and uses in early Earth formation, Redoubt Volcano, 132 acid rain, 770–773, 770i 58–59, 886 Albedo carbon cycle and global warming, Acid rain characteristics of, 99–100 768–769, 768i, 769g damage from, 219, 770–772 definition of, 99 definition of, 769 definition of, 219 Algae, characteristics of, 983 mining and ecosystems, 807–808 formation of, 744, 846 Alluvial fans oil spills, 766t, 767g, 772–775, investigation of, 764–765, 765i characteristics of, 438 773i–775i Acids definition of, 438 Anticlines, definition of, 327, 353 definition of, 770 Alps, plate boundaries and, 180 Apalachicola River, drainage of, 391 pH and acid rain, 770–772, 770i Altitude, and air movement, 516 Aphelion, definition of, 657 Adaptation Aluminum, deposits of, 791i, Appalachian Mountains and evolution, 949 796, 847 and climate change, 667 and mass extinctions, 970–972 Alvarez, Luis, on Mesozoic mass coal deposits of, 745 Aerosols, characteristics of, 630 extinction, 972–973, 973i drainage from, 391 Africa, ancient rock of, 869–871 Amino acids, in chemosynthesis geology of, 192, 348, 348i, Age, geologic hypothesis, 894–895 873–875, 873i, 874i determination of, 924–929, 977 Ammonites, as index fossils, 338 AQUA satellite of rock in United States, 344i Amphiboles, in igneous rock, 288, Deepwater Horizon image, 775i Aggregates, definition of, 278 290–291, 291t mission description, 629 Agriculture Amphibolite, characteristics of, 306t Aquatic ecosystems, characteristics and climate change, 705, 709 Andesitic lava, characteristics of, 211, of, 961 growing season, 611, 615t 869, 888 Aqueducts, definition of, 818 water pollution by, 392, 836–849, Andes Mountains (Argentina), Aquicludes 836i–839i geology of, 176, 180 characteristics of, 817 water use, 828–830 definition of, 817
R39 EarthComm
EC_Natl_SE_Index.indd R39 7/15/11 1:45:55 PM EarthComm
Aquifers careers involving, 127, 265, 361, Australia and base flow, 422–423 503, 631, 717, 855, 985 ancient rock of, 869, 887 characteristics of, 817 and climate change, 702–705, 703i Shark Bay stromatolites, 906, 906i definition of, 423, 817 Coriolis effect on, 515, 515i, Avulsion, definition of, 425 Archean Eon, in geologic time scale, 516–520 Axial precession 922t, 925 definition of, 14 and climate, 657–659, 657i, Arctic National Wildlife Refuge, early Earth, 93, 886–888, 894, 658g, 708 in petroleum debate, 759 914–917, 915i, 917i, 976 definition of, 48, 658 Arêtes, definition of, 459 and hydrosphere, 508, 886–888 and seasons, 48, 48i, 657–659, Arid regions, characteristics of, interactions with other systems, 782–783 474–475, 474i–475i 508, 741–742, 883–888, Axial tilt (obliquity) Arizona 913–917, 980–981 and climate, 655–659, 655i, 657i, Glen Canyon Dam, 817i investigation of, 215–217, 216i, 708, 782–783 Meteor Crater, 3, 71 216t, 217i, 512–513, 513i, definition of, 48, 656 Ascension, measurement of, 26–27 670–672, 671g, 671t, 700– investigation of, 653–654, Asclepius, characteristics of, 72t, 73 701, 881–882, 909–912, 653i–654i Ash 910t, 911i–912i and seasons, 48, 48i, 655–659, from coal, 745 oxygen in, 886, 890, 914–917 655i, 657i, 782–783, 962 volcanic See Volcanic ash ozone in, 100–101, 100i, 916 Asteroid belt, definition of, 75 and paleoclimates, 643–646, B Asteroids 883–888 Background extinction, definition of, characteristics of, 75–77, 76t, 119 pressure and wind circulation, 971, 977 definition of, 38 513–514, 514i Bacteria investigation of, 71–73, 72t–73t remote sensing and, 629–630 comparison of, 898–899, 899i and mass exti,nctions 972–973, 973i science connections, 982 cyanobacteria, 898–899, 899i, near-Earth, 3, 49, 75–77, 76t solar radiation in, 98–101, 98i, 904–906, 904i, 906i, 915– orbits of, 49, 49i, 75–76, 76t, 79–80 100i, 101g, 102i, 103i, 917, 915i, 917i, 976 science connections, 124 673–674, 673i, 674i Banded iron formations Asthenosphere of Sun, 98 characteristics of, 914–917, characteristics of, 140, 140i volcanic activity and, 218–220, 915i–917i, 976 definition of, 140, 688 218i definition of, 914 in postglacial rebound, 688 Atmospheric circulation investigation of, 909–912, 910t, Astronomers, definition of, 12 air masses and movement, 911i–912i Astronomical unit (AU) 525–528, 526i–528i, 561, 564 Barberton Supergroup, characteristics calculations with, 10 air pressure and wind, 513–517, of, 870 definition of, 10, 12 514i–517i Barrier islands, definition of, 489 Astronomy and El Niño conditions, 605–607, Basal slip See also National Aeronautics and 606i definition of, 456 Space Administration (NASA); high-altitude winds, 518–520, and glacier movement, 456–457, Solar system; Universe 518i–520i 457i and electromagnetic spectrum, investigation of, 512–513, 513i, Basalt 86–87, 87t, 88–92 560 characteristics of, 156, 156i, 278, measurement in, 12–16, 24–27, Atomic structure 291, 291t 32–33, 35 models of, 359–360 definition of, 168 Atchafalaya River, and Mississippi of water, 375 in Earth’s early history, 868–871, flow, 425 Atoms 888 Atlantic Ocean, water masses of, and chemical structure, 279–280, flood, 876–877 596–597, 596t, 597g 280i and magnetic striping, 168–170, Atmosphere definition of, 279 168i See also Global winds structure of, 359–360, 359i–360i metamorphism of, 306t, 868 carbon cycle and, 768–769, AURA satellite, mission description, Basaltic lava, characteristics of, 877, 768i, 769g 629–630 888 carbon dioxide in, 673–677, Auroras Base flow, definition of, 423 673i–675i, 676g, 741–742, characteristics of, 102–103, 103i Base level, definition of, 696 884–888 definition of, 102
R40 EarthComm
EC_Natl_SE_Index.indd R40 7/15/11 1:45:55 PM Index
Basement and climate change, 702–705, 703i Canadian Shield, characteristics of, and continental accretion, 873 and geologic time dating, 924–926 347–348, 348i definition of, 873 interactions with other systems, Cape Cod (Massachusetts), glacial of North America, 867, 867i 741–742, 913–917, 980–981 origin of, 646, 695, 696i Bases investigation of, 700–701, Capture theory, of Moon formation, definition of, 770 966–969, 968i, 969i 60 pH and acid rain, 770–772, 770i mass extinctions and, 970–973, Carbon, properties of, 902 Basins (ocean), closed, 379 970i, 971i, 973i Carbonation, and gas volumes, 883 Batholiths, definition of, 179, 319 science connections, 982 Carbon cycle Bauxite, deposits of, 796 and volcanic activity, 210–212 characteristics of, 674–675, 675i Beaches, characteristics of, 488–489, Biostratigraphy definition of, 675, 768 489i definition of, 337 fossil fuels and, 768–769, 768i, Bed load, definition of, 435 principles of, 337–338 769g Bedrock Bituminous coal, formation and Carbon dioxide definition of, 299, 401 properties of, 301, 743–745 in carbon cycle, 674–675, 709, glacial action on, 457–459, Black body, definition of, 90 768–769, 768i, 769g 457i–459i Blackbody radiation, properties of, and climate change, 70, 219–220, and soil formation, 444 90–91 667, 673–677, 673i–675i, of United States, 342–346, Blueshift, characteristics of, 92 676g, 702–704, 709, 768– 344i, 345i Body fossils, definition of, 937 769, 768i, 769g Bergschrund, definition of, 459 Bohr, Niels, atomic model of, 360 in early Earth atmosphere, 886–888 Bering Strait, sea levels and land Boston (Massachusetts), topographic and global climate, 675–677, 676g bridge, 695, 709 map of, 699 investigation of, 670–672, 671g, Beta Pictoris, solar system formation Brazil, craton formation in, 871 671t in, 39 Breaking waves, characteristics of, 484 and paleoclimate study, 645 Bias Brightness, of stars, 106–109, 108g, and volcanic terup ions, 219–220, definition of, 937 109t 667, 884–885 in fossil record, 937 Brooks, definition of, 414 Carbonic acid, and acid rain, Big bang theory 771–772 definition of, 32 C Carbon monoxide, in early Earth principles and evidence of, Calcite atmosphere, 886 32–34, 34i in limestone, 300, 437 Carnivores, in ecosystem Bingham Canyon Copper Mine, properties of, 276t, 282i, 284 organization, 962–963 characteristics of, 805, 805i uses of, 277 Cascade Mountains (United States) Biodiversity and water hardness, 843 plate boundaries and, 180 definition of, 971 Calcium carbonate. See Calcite volcanic activity of, 143, 205i factors in, 715–716 Calderas Cascadia Subduction Zone, activity and mass extinctions, 971–972, characteristics of, 205, 205i of, 877–878, 877i, 878i 980–981 definition of, 205 Cassini-Huygens mission, mission Biogeochemical cycles California description, 87t carbon cycle, 674–675, 675i, Death Valley, 379, 391 Celestial coordinate system 768–769, 768i, 769g petroleum production in, 759 definition of, 25, 118 definition of, 675 seismic activity in, 145, 145i, measurement with, 24–27, 25i Biomass, as energy source, 729, 732 180, 250 Celestial equator Biomes water supply issues of, 817–818, definition of, 25 and climate, 960–963, 961i–963i 817i–818i measurement with, 24–27, 25i definition of, 961 California Current, characteristics of, investigation of, 957–960, Celestial pole, definition of, 27 576–577, 576i Celestial sphere 958i–959i Calving, definition of, 373, 455 Biosphere and coordinate system, 23, 24–27 Cambrian Period, in geologic time definition of, 24 biomes and climate, 960–963, scale, 922t, 926 961i–963i Cement, definition of, 755 Canada carbon base of, 902 Cementation, definition of, 302 craton formation in, 871 carbon cycle and, 768–769, 768i Cenozoic era Lake Superior stromatolites, careers involving, 127, 265, 361, evolution of life in, 922t, 925–926, 903, 903i 503, 631, 717, 855, 985 966–969 petroleum resources of, 745, 760 fossils from, 336–337, 968–969
R41 EarthComm
EC_Natl_SE_Index.indd R41 7/15/11 1:45:55 PM EarthComm
Ceres, characteristics of, 75 plate tectonics and, 665–667, exploration and mining, 745–746, Chadwick, J., on neutrons, 360 666i, 667i 745i–746i, 805–806 Chandra X-Ray Observatory, mission prediction difficulties, 72–74, 703i formation of, 301, 742–744, description, 87t remote sensing and, 629–630 742i–744i Chemical energy, and energy rock records of, 302 investigation of, 736–740, 737i, production, 853 science connections, 628, 714 738t, 739t Chemical sedimentary rock sunspot cycles and, 103 types and properties of, 744–745, characteristics of, 300–301, 352 weather versus, 617 745t, 846 definition of, 300 Climate change Coastal regions and coastlines Chemical weathering, and soil and biomes, 963 emergent and submergent, formation, 444, 983–984 carbon dioxide and, 70, 219–220, 490–491, 490i, 491i Chemosynthesis hypothesis 667, 673–677, 673i–675i, 676g, erosion and deposition at, definition of, 899 702–704, 709, 768– 769, 768i, 482–491, 482i–491i, 495 evidence for, 899–906 769g investigation of, 478–482, investigation of, 893–896, 894i, effects summary, 709 479i–481i 895i, 895t investigation of, 640–642, 641g, landforms, 487–491, 487i–491i Chemotrophs, development of, 899 641i, 670–672, 671g, 671t, oil spill effects on, 773–775, Chert, definition of, 914 682–685, 683i–684i, 700– 773i–775i Chesapeake Bay, formation of, 701, 966–968, 967t science connections, 500 339, 695 and mass extinctions, 972–973 sea-level changes, 490–491, 490i, Chicxulub Crater (Mexico), impact models and predictions, 702–705, 491i, 694–696, 695i–696i event, 72t, 73, 972–973, 973i 703i Cold fronts Chiron, characteristics of, 80 orbital parameters and, 655–659, characteristics of, 526–527, 527i Chlorine, as disinfectant, 842 655i, 657i, 658g definition of, 526 Chondrite, definition of, 80 paleoclimates and, 642–647, 644t, and thunderstorms, 538, 622 Chromosphere, definition of, 98 645g, 972 Color, in minerals, 283 Circulation. See Atmospheric science connections, 714 Colorado River circulation; Ocean circulation sea levels and, 686–688, drainage basin, 391i Cirques 686i–688i, 694–696, 695i–696i Glen Canyon Dam, 817i definition of, 458 volcanic activity and, 219–220, stream discharge of, 819 landforms of, 458–459, 459i 972 Columbia Basin (Plateau), formation Clastic sedimentary rock Climate proxies of, 877, 877i characteristics of, 300, 352 definition of, 643 Comas definition of, 300 and paleoclimate study, 643–647, of comets, 77i, 78 Clasts, definition of, 300 644i, 644t, 645g, 708 definition of, 47 Clay Closed systems Combustion, and energy production, characteristics of, 434–435, 434t definition of, 378 741–742 investigation of, 399–400, 399i surface water as, 378 Comets Claystone Clouds characteristics of, 77–78, 119 characteristics of, 300 along fronts, 526–528, 527i–528i definition of, 38 metamorphism of, 306t and climate change, 703, 704 in Earth’s development, 899 Cleavage formation and types, 378, 530, as ocean water source, 888 definition of, 282 530i orbits of, 47, 49, 79–80 in minerals, 280, 282–283, 282i remote sensing and, 630 science connections, 124 Climate CLOUDSAT satellite, mission Comet Swift-Tuttle, characteristics of, See also Climate change; Weather description, 630 72t, 73 and biomes, 960–963, 961i–963i Coacervates Communities definition of, 508, 617, 642 characteristics of, 900, 900i definition of, 977 Earth’s orbit and, 48, 48i, definition of, 900 and ecosystems, 960–961, 961i 655–659, 655i, 657i, 658g investigation of, 895–896, 895t Compaction, definition of, 302 factors affecting, 617–620, 708 Coal investigation of, 610–616, 611i, Composite cones (stratovolcanoes), acid rain and, 770–772 612t–615t, 640–642, 641g, definition of, 205 definition of, 742 641i, 957–960, 958i–959i Compression force as energy resource, 729–730, ocean circulation and, 664–667, definition of, 325 741–746, 742i–746i, 745t, 664i–666i and faulting, 326 757–758, 757g
R42 EarthComm
EC_Natl_SE_Index.indd R42 7/15/11 1:45:56 PM Index
Computer models, of climate change, growth by accretion, 178–179, Cosmic background radiation, 703–705 347–348, 348i, 869–871, definition of, 34 Conchoidal fractures, definition 873–878, 976 Cosmologists, definition of, 32 of, 283 investigation of, 864–867, Coves Condensation, in water cycle, 622 865i–867i characteristics of, 484–485, 485i Conduction predicted future locations, definition of, 484 and air movement, 513–514 194–195, 194i–195i Crater Lake (Oregon), characteristics by metals, 284 Contour intervals of, 205, 205i definition of, 513 definition of, 202 Craters, impact, 3, 60–61, 60i, 71, Cone of depression, definition of, 821 investigation of, 200–202, 201i 72t, 73, 205, 205i, 339, Conglomerate, characteristics of, 300 Contour lines 972–973, 973i Conservation, water, 818, 830, 830i definition of, 202 Cratons Conservation of matter, principle of, investigation of, 200–202, 201i in crustal evolution, 871 768 Contour plowing, definition of, 446 definition of, 871 Constellations Convection in North American development, definition of, 24, 118 and air masses, 514, 516–520, 873–878 measurement and, 24–27, 25i, 118 516i–520i, 525, 622 Creeks, definition of, 414 Construction, and earthquakes, 250 definition of, 525 Cretaceous Period, in geologic time Consumptive water, definition of, 829 thermal, 158–160, 160i scale, 922t, 926 Contact, definition of, 318 Convection cells Crosscutting relationships, in geologic record, 334, 353 Continental accretion characteristic s of and functions of, Crust definition of, 179, 347 514, 516–520, 516i–520i See also Continental crust; process of, 178–179, 347–348, investigation of, 584 Lithospheric plates; Oceanic 348i, 869–871, 873–878, 976 Convergence, and air movement, 525 crust; Plate tectonics Continentaa l ir masses, characteristics Convergent plate boundaries characteristics of, 139–140, 140i, of, 525–526, 526i characteristics of, 141 151, 167–170, 256, 590–591, Continental crust continental, 179–180, 179i 590i–591i, 798–799, 869– accretion and, 178–179, 869–871, definition of, 141 871, 888 873–878 investigation of, 163–166, definition of, 139 characteristics of, 139–140, 140i, 164i, 165i evolution of, 869–871, 870i, 871i, 151 oceanic, 175–176, 175i 886, 914–917 definition of, 139 Coordinate systems, measurement in, investigation of, 154–156, 155i, Continental Divide, characteristics of, 24–27 156i, 864–867, 865i–867i 391, 391i, 392 Copper and seafloor spreading, 142, deposits of, 791i, 797 Continental drift 167–170 mining of, 806 evidence for, 190–193, 191i–193i Cryosphere as native-element mineral, 278, investigation of, 185–188, 186i, careers involving, 127, 265, 361, 278i 187i, 661–663, 662i, 663i 503, 631, 717, 855, 985 Cordilleran range, geology of, 348 predicted locations, 194–195, and climate change, 702–705, 703i Core (Earth) 194i–195i interactions with other spheres, Wegener’s hypothesis, 189–191 See also Earth, interior structure of 980–981 Continental ice sheets, definition of, characteristics of, 139–140, 140i, investigation of, 700–701 643 158, 872 Crystals Continental margin, definition of, 588 definition of, 140 definition of, 277 Continental rift boundaries, magnetism of, 193, 872 growth shapes, 283, 283i movement along, 174 seismic activity and, 236–240, in igneous rock, 290, 290i Continental rise, definition of, 588 236i–240i, 239g investigation of, 274–276, 275i, Continental shelf Coriolis effect 276t definition of, 588 on air motion, 515, 515i, 516–520 Crystal structure, in minerals, and sea-level changes, 687 definition of, 515 279–280, 280i Continental shields, characteristics and hurricane development, 562 Cumulonimbus clouds, and and formation of, 869–871 and ocean currents, 595, 622 thunderstorms, 538–539, Continental slope, definition of, 588 Coriolis force, movement and, 595 538i–539i Continents Coronas, definition of, 98 Currents, ocean. See Ocean currents See also Continental drift; specific Correlation, definition of, 673 Cyanobacteria continent Corundum, properties of, 276t, 283 characteristics of, 904–906, 904i, 906i, 976
R43 EarthComm
EC_Natl_SE_Index.indd R43 7/15/11 1:45:56 PM EarthComm
definition of, 904 and metamorphism, 307, 310 and big bang theory, 32–33, and early Earth atmosphere, and North American geology, 32i–33i 915–917, 915i, 917i 348–349, 873–878 definition of, 32 investigation of, 898–899, 899i Deltas Doppler radar, 530, 553–554, 554i Cyclones characteristics of, 438–439, 439i investigation of, 30 See also Hurricanes definition of, 438 Doppler, Johann Christian, and definition of, 552 Democritus, on atomic structure, 359 Doppler effect, 553–554, 554i hurricanes as, 561 Density Doppler radar, characteristics of, investigation of, 557–560, and air circulation, 516 553–554, 554i 558t–560t definition of, 13, 157 Downbursts in tornado development, 552–553, of Earth layers, 9t, 157–160, characteristics of, 550–551, 552i 157i–160i 550i–551i, 551t tropical cyclones, 561–562, 561i and flow in rock, 756 investigation of, 549 Cytochrome c, characteristics of, 716 investigation of, 154–156, 155i, Downcutting 156i, 512–513, 513i by high-gradient streams, 414–415, D of seawater, 585–586, 623, 415i Dacitic lava, characteristics of, 211 664–665, 665i definition of, 414 Dams temperature and, 523, 525 Downstream fining, definition of, 437 and water control, 393–394, 394i and thermohaline circulation, Downwelling, definition of, 579 and water supply issues, 816–817, 664–665, 665i Drainage, stream. See Stream drainage 817i of water, 376 Drainage basins (watersheds) Dark energy, and universe expansion, Deposition characteristics of, 389–392, 35 by glaciers, 452–453 389i–391i, 494 Darwin, Charles, on evolution and by streams, 438–439, 438i, 439i definition of, 391, 540 natural selection, 950–951, 950i by wind, 472–473, 472i–473i early Earth, 887 coastal, 484–491, 484i–491i, 495 Daughter atoms flash flooding and, 540–541 definition of, 926 glacial, 460–461, 461i investigation of, 386–388, 387i in radioactive decay, 927, 927i investigation of, 465–468 Drainage divides Day, length changes in, 55t, 61, 63 in water cycle, 379 characteristics of, 391, 391i, 392 Dead ice moraines, definition of, 460 Desalination, definition of, 818 definition of, 392 Death Valley (California) Desert pavement, definition of, 470 Drake, Edwin, oil drilling by, 758 as closed basin, 379 Deserts Drilling drainage of, 391 characteristics of, 474–475, in exploration, 797 Declination, definition of, 26 474i–475i oil. See Petroleum (crude oil) Decomposers, in ecosystem investigation of, 957–960, Drip irrigation, definition of, 830 organization, 963 958i–959i Drizzle, characteristics of, 379 Decomposition Diamond, properties of, 281 Ductility, of metals, 284 definition of, 741 Differentiation, definition of, 59 Dunes, sand, characteristics of, and energy production, 741–742 Dikes, definition of, 319 472–473, 472i–473i Deep ocean circulation Disease, and sewage, 837–838 Dust characteristics of, 585–587, 587i Distributary systems hazards of, 630 geosphere features of, 588–592, characteristics of, 389–392, 390i 588i–592i definition of, 390 and paleoclimates, 645 temperature layers and, 592–594, Divergent plate boundaries Dust storms, hazards of, 630 593g characteristics of, 141, 167–170, wind forces on, 594–595 168i–170i E Deep-sea sediments, and definition of, 141 Early Carboniferous Period, carbon paleoclimates, 646 investigation of, 163–166, dioxide in, 676 Deepwater Horizon oil spill, history 164i, 165i Earth and effects of, 766t, 774–775, 774i, and rifting, 174, 174i See also Geosphere; Sun-Earth- 775i DNA, in early life, 901–902 Moon system Deflation hollow, definition of, 470 Doldrums (Intertropical Convergence characteristics of, 9t, 13–14, 13i, Deformation Zone), characteristics of, 516, 516i 14i, 37 definition of, 454 Dolomite, characteristics of, 300 density of components, 9t, folding and faulting, 325–328, Doppler effect 157–160, 157i–160i 870–871, 873–878 in astronomical studies, 39 formation of, 58–61, 118
R44 EarthComm
EC_Natl_SE_Index.indd R44 7/15/11 1:45:56 PM Index
geologic history of, 867–878, 868i, Eccentricity Electronic transmissions, space 870i–878i, 886–888, 976 and climate, 656–659, 708 weather and, 101–103 impact events and. See Impact definition of, 47, 656 Electrons events and orbits, 43–45, 46i, 118 in atomic structure, 359–360 insolation of, 782–783, 782i Eclipses definition of, 279 interior structure of, 139–140, characteristics of, 64, 64i Elements 140i, 157–160, 158i, 160i, definition of, 64 See also Minerals 235–242, 872, 980–981 Ecological succession, processes of, and atomic structure, 359 investigation of, 52–55, 54t, 55t, 983–984, 983i–984i definition of, 278 650–654, 651i–654i Ecosystems spectra of, 92 location of places on, 22–23, and biomes, 960–963, 961i–963i in stellar evolution, 114–115 24–27, 25i definition of, 961, 977 Elevation orbit of, 45–49, 46t, 49i, 118, 124, mining effects on, 807–808 definition of, 617 655–659, 655i, 657i, 658g Eddies, definition of, 435 effects on climate, 617–618 origin of life on. See Life on Earth Efficiency, of electricity generation, investigation of, 616 rotation of, 61, 63, 118, 124, 515, 854 El Niño 782–783 Elastic deformation characteristics and effects of, study of interior, 235–242 definition of, 226 604–607, 604i–606i, 607g, 623 thermal convection within, in earthquakes, 225–226 definition of, 604 158–160, 160i investigation of, 223–225, 224i investigation of, 599–603, 600t, tides and, 61–63 Elastic rebound 601i, 603g Earthquakes definition of, 226 science connections, 628 characteristics of, 73t, 144–145, in earthquakes, 223–225, 224i, Emergent coastlines 145i, 225–227, 226i, 227i, 257 225–226 characteristics of, 490–491, 490i definition of, 144 Electric energy, definition of, 729 definition of, 490 detection of, 230–232 Electric energy/power Emission spectrum, definition of, 92 distribution of, 144–145, 144i definition of, 729 Energy effects and hazards, 250–251, 250i See also Energy resources; specific intensity, 248–249, 248t–249t generation of, 729–732, 729i–732i, 733–734, 733i, 783–785, 785i, form of energy investigation of, 136–139, 138t, 854 forms and conversion of, 853–854 223–225, 224i, 225i, 230–232, 231i–232i, 245–247 investigation of, 726–728, 727t Energy budget magnitude, 252 Electricity of Earth, 98, 98i, 100 measurement of, 248–252, generation of, 729–732, 729i–732i, global warming and, 769 248t–249t 783–785, 785i, 854 Energy resources waves in, 225–227, 226i, 227i investigation of, 726–728, 727t, coal as, 741–746 Earthquake (seismic) waves 738–740, 738t, 739t environmental impacts of, 768– definition of, 144 water use in generation, 828, 828i, 775, 768i, 769g, 770i, 773i–775i and Earth’s interior, 235–242, 840 history of, 757, 757g 235i–240i, 239g, 878, 878i Electromagnetic force, properties of, investigation of, 726–728, 727t, investigation of, 223–225, 225i, 501–502, 502t 736–740, 737i, 738t, 739t, 230–232, 231i–232i Electromagnetic radiation 749–753, 751t, 752t, 753i, recording, 233–234, 233i–234i, definition of, 88 764–767, 765i, 766t, 767g, 239–240 and greenhouse effect, 673–674, 778–781, 779i–780i science connections, 262 673i, 674i petroleum and natural gas as, surface effects of, 250–252, 250i investigation of, 83–87, 84i, 754–760, 754i–760i, 757g types and characteristics of, 85t, 87t science connections, 852 226–227, 226i, 227i properties of, 87–88, 119 solar, 781–785, 782i–785i Earth systems and Sun, 97–103 types and uses, 729–732, biomes, 960–963 use in astronomy, 88–92, 119 729i–732i, 846 in coastal processes, 490–491 Electromagnetic spectrum Engineering Design Cycle Earth’s fluid spheres, 883–888 definition of, 87 for Earth documentary, 862–863, interactions, 508, 741–742, 883– investigation of, 83–87, 84i, 85t, 87t 932–933, 978–979 888, 913–917, 980–981 properties of, 85t, 87–88, 88i, 119, for geologic museum exhibit, summary of evolution, 980–981 673–674, 673i, 674i 314–315, 354–355 water cycle as, 382 uses in astronomy, 88–92, 119 for global climate change articles, 638–639, 680–681, 710–711
R45 EarthComm
EC_Natl_SE_Index.indd R45 7/15/11 1:45:56 PM EarthComm
for natural resources report, investigation of, 942–947, 944i, petroleum as, 754 724–725, 788–789, 848–849 945i, 945t, 946i–947i Feldspars for plate tectonics game, 134–135, principles of, 948–953, 948i–953i, in igneous rock, 276t, 281, 281i, 258–259 977 282–283, 282i, 288, 290–291, for radio show project, 6, 68–70, Evolutionary change 291t 120–121 definition of, 948 uses of, 277 for Summer Olympics Games principles of, 948–951, 948i–951i, Ferrel cells proposal, 368–369, 429, 977 characteristics of, 517, 517i 496–497 rates of, 951–953, 951i–953i definition of, 517 for weather/climate Web site, Exploration, for mineral resources, Fertilizers, pollution by, 837, 838–839 510–511, 570–571, 624–625 797–799, 797i–799i Finger Lakes (New York), glacial Environmental impacts Extinction origin of, 459 coal and acid rain, 770–772 background extinction, 971, 977 Finland, craton formation in, 871 fossil fuels and carbon cycle, definition of, 953 Fire, as earthquake hazard, 251 768–769, 768i, 769g investigation of, 966–969, 967t, First law of thermodynamics, investigation of, 764–767, 765i, 968i, 969i definition of, 768 766t, 767g mass extinctions, 76–77, 953 Fission (nuclear). See Nuclear fission of mining, 807–808 Extrasolar planets Fission theory, of Moon formation, oil spills, 766t, 767g, 772–775, characteristics of, 38–40 59 773i–775i definition of, 38 Fjords, definition of, 459 Eons science connections, 124 Flash floods characteristics of, 922t, 924–925 Extraterrestrial hypothesis, definition definition of, 540, 622 definition of, 924 of, 899, 976 investigation of, 534, 535i–536i, Epicenter Extrusive igneous rock 536–537 definition of, 145 characteristics of, 289–292, 290i, science connections, 628 location of, 145, 145i 291t, 292i, 319, 352 Flood basalts Epochs definition of, 289 characteristics of, 876–877 characteristics of, 922t, 926 Eye (hurricane) definition of, 876 definition of, 926 characteristics of, 562–563, 563i examples of, 876–877 Eras definition of, 562 Flooding characteristics of, 922t, 925–926 Eye wall, definition of, 563 See also Flash floods definition of, 925 Eyjafjallajökull (Iceland), eruption of, from hurricanes, 564, 567–568 geologic, 336–338 132, 260 investigation of, 536–537, 536i Ergs, definition of, 475 of low-gradient streams, 423–425, Erosion F 423i–425i by glaciers, 457–462, 457i–462i Faulting, process and effects, science connections, 628 by water, 395, 414, 420–422 325–328, 326i–327i Floodplains by wind, 468–471, 470i–471i Fault planes characteristics of, 420–425, 421i, coastal, 482–488, 482i–488i, 495 definition of, 226 423i–425i definition of, 289, 395 and earthquake movement, 226 definition of, 411, 414, 541 investigation of, 408–409, 409i, Faults Flood stages, definition of, 423 451–453, 453i, 465–468 characteristics of, 325–327, 353 Florida science connections, 500 definition of, 225, 308 geologic map of, 298i of soil, 446 and earthquake movement, hurricanes affecting, 565–566, Eruptions. See Volcanoes 225–227, 227i 565i Eurasian Plate, and suture zone, investigation of, 223–225, 224i Fluid spheres 179, 179i modeling of, 322–324, 323i–324i, evolution of Earth’s spheres, Europa, atmosphere of, 889 328 886–888, 976 Evaporation and regional metamorphism, 308 investigation of, 881–882 definition of, 378 science connections, 262 planetary and moons, 889–890 in water cycle, 378–382, 381i, transform, 180–181, 180i–181i Flux, definition of, 382 622, 840 Feedback loops Focus/foci Evapotranspiration, definition of, 474 in climate change, 703–704 definition of, 145 Evolution and epicenter, 145, 145i definition of, 949 definition of, 703 Fog, formation of, 378, 379i evidence for, 715–716 Feedstock extinction events and, 970–973 definition of, 754
R46 EarthComm
EC_Natl_SE_Index.indd R46 7/15/11 1:45:56 PM Index
Folding, process and effects, 325–328, desalination and, 818 of North America, 346–349, 326i–327i distribution in hydrosphere, 372t 346i–349i, 873–875, 873i, Folds pollution of, 836–840, 836i–840i 874i, 875–878 and continental drift, 189–190 use of, 828–830, 828i–830i principles of, 333–335 definition of, 189, 325 Friction, definition of, 226 Geologic maps folding process, 325–327, 353 Fronts definition of, 288, 352 modeling of, 322–324, 323i, 328 definition of, 525 investigation of, 297–298, 298i, Foliation, definition of, 310 and thunderstorms, 538–539 316–318, 317i, 322–324, 324i Food chains types and characteristics of, in mineral exploration, 797 acid rain and, 771 526–528, 527i–528i, 622 of United States, 298i, 317i, components of, 936–937 Fujita scale (F-scale), of tornado 342–346, 344i, 345i, 795i extinction events and, 970–972 intensity, 550–551, 551t Geologic processes, examples of, 333 oil spills and, 773–775 Fujita, T. Theodore, and tornado Geologic provinces Food webs, components of, 936–937 intensity, 550–551, 551t definition of, 867 Foraminifera, definition of, 646 Fundamental forces, 501–502, 502t investigation of, 864–867, Forces Fungi, characteristics of, 983 865i–867i Coriolis, 595 Fusion (nuclear). See Nuclear fusion Geologic time fundamental, 501–502, 502t definition of, 924 and rock deformation, 144, 225– G evolution and, 951–953, 951i–953i, 226, 310, 325–328, 326i, 327i, Galaxies 977 353 characteristics of, 118 investigation of, 919–923, 920i, Forests, investigation of, 957–960, definition of, 13 921t, 922t, 923t 958i–959i distances and, 13–16 radioactive decay dating, 926–929, 927g, 927i, 928i–929i Fossil fuels investigation of, 10–11 science connections, 982 and acid rain, 770–772 Galena, properties of, 276t, 281, using time scale, 924–926, 925i, and carbon cycle, 768–769, 281i, 282 977 768i, 769g Galveston (Texas), hurricane (1900), Geologic time scale and climate change, 674–677, 565 definition of, 924 675i, 768–769, 768i, 769g, 846 Ganges River (Bangladesh), delta of, definition of, 730 fossil record and, 939, 939t, 977 439i as energy source, 729–730 investigation of, 919–923, 920i, Gas, natural. See Natural gas oil spills, 772–775, 773i–775i 921t, 922t, 923t Gases Fossiliferous rock, definition of, 940 organization of, 922t, 924–926, in early Earth development, 93, Fossil pollen 972 886–888, 894 as climate proxy, 644, 644t Geologists, definition of, 139 investigation of, 881–882 investigation of, 640–642 Geophones, definition of, 798 in mantle rocks, 883–885, Fossils Geophysicists 883i–885i as continental drift evidence, definition of, 798 measurement of, 217 188–192 in mineral exploration, 798–799, volcanic. See Volcanic gases dating of, 336–339, 336t, 337t, 798i–799i Gas-giant planets 338i, 339i Georgia, geologic maps of, 317i characteristics of, 37 definition of, 188, 937 Geoscientists definition of, 37 evidence for evolution, 715–716, definition of, 139 Genetics, in evolution, 948–953 949–953, 949i–953i in mineral exploration, 797–799 Geochemists formation of, 936–940, 937i–938i, Geosphere 939t, 940i definition of, 798 beneath oceans, 588–592, and geologic time scale, 924–926, in mineral exploration, 798 588i–591i 924i, 925i, 951–953, 951i–953i Geologic history carbon cycle and, 768–769, 768i, investigation of, 934–936, 935i, dating with fossils, 336–339, 336t, 769g 936i 337t, 338i, 339i, 951–953 careers involving, 127, 265, 361, mass extinction records, 970–972 of geosphere, 867–878, 868i, 503, 631, 717, 855, 985 Freeze-thaw cycles 870i–878i, 976 and climate change, 702–705, 703i definition of, 404 interpretation of, 333–339, and early fluid spheres, 886–888 333i–339i, 336t and mass movement, 404 geologic history of, 867–878, 868i, investigation of, 919–923, 920i, Freezing, of water, 376–377 870i–878i, 976 921t, 922t, 923t Fresh water interactions with other spheres, major events of, 341t, 921t See also Groundwater; Surface water 980–981
R47 EarthComm
EC_Natl_SE_Index.indd R47 7/15/11 1:45:56 PM EarthComm
investigation of, 700–701, Global Positioning System (GPS) Graphite, formation and properties 864–867, 865i–867i definition of, 152 of, 743 magnetosphere and, 872 investigation of, 148–151, Grasslands, investigation of, 957–960, North American development, 149i, 150g 958i–959i 873–878, 873i–878i measurement with, 152 Gravel remote sensing of, 702 Global Seismographic Network characteristics of, 434–435, 434t science connections, 982 (GSN), measurement by, 230 from glacial melt, 461 Geothermal energy Global warming investigation of, 399–400, 399i characteristics of, 730, 732, 732i See also Climate change mining of, 806 definition of, 730 carbon cycle and, 768–769, in water treatment, 841 history of, 757 768i, 769g Gravimeters, definition of, 799 German Aerospace Center, GRACE investigation of, 700–701 Gravity gravity mission, 240–242 predictions and effects of, anomalies, 240–242, 240i–241i, Giant impact theory, of Moon 702–705, 703i 242g formation, 60–61 Global wind belts definition of, 13 Glacial intervals characteristics of, 516–518, in early Earth formation, 886–888 definition of, 643 516i–518i in formation of universe, 32, and Milankovitch cycles, 675–676, definition of, 515 36–37, 113 676g Global winds law of universal gravitation, 40, Glacial till, definition of, 460 characteristics of, 516–520, 118, 157–158, 501–502 Glaciation, and paleoclimate, 643– 516i–520i, 622 and mass movement, 401–404 647, 644i, 646i, 666–667, 666i formation of, 513–515, 514i, 515i and planetary motion, 57–58, 58i Glacier National Park (Montana), investigation of, 512–513, 513i properties of, 501–502, 502t, characteristics of, 618i Glucose, and energy production, 798–799 Glaciers 741–742 and tides, 61–63, 62i–63i See also Cryosphere Gneiss Gravity Recovery and Climate and climate change, 665–667, of Canadian S4hield, 3 7–348, Experiment (GRACE), mission 694–696, 709 348i, 870–871 descriptio n, 240–242 definition of, 454, 617 characteristics of, 306t, 310, The Great Lakes (United States) distribution in hydrosphere, 372t 310i, 870 glacial origin of, 459 erosion and deposition by, 457– GOES satellites, mission description, lake-effect snow of, 619–620 461, 457i–461i, 495 630 Great Rift Valley (Africa), formation formation of, 454–455, 455i Gold, as native-element mineral, 278, of, 174, 177 investigation of, 449–453, 450t, 278i Great Salt Lake (Utah), as closed 451i–453i, 682–685, 683i–684i Gondwanaland, history of, 191–192, basin, 379 landforms of, 457–462, 646–647, 191i, 876–877 Greenhouse effect 646i GRACE (Gravity Recovery and See also Climate change movement of, 456–459 Climate Experiment), mission human factors in, 702–703, river systems and, 462, 462i, description, 240–242 768–769, 768i, 769g 694–696 Gradients (stream) investigation of, 670–672, 671g, science connections, 500 characteristics of, 414–416, 414i, 671t sea levels and, 686–688, 415i, 420–422 process of, 673–676, 673i–674i, 686i–688i, 709 definition of, 414 709 Gliese 581c, extrasolar planet, 39 investigation of, 408–413, Greenhouse gases Global climate 409i–410i, 411t, 413t, characteristics of, 673–674, 674i See also Climate 418–420, 419i and climate change, 659, 702–705, and biodiversity, 715 Granite 703i, 709, 768–769, 768i, 769g definition of, 620, 642, 708 acid rain and, 772 definition of, 673, 769 history of, 642–643 of Canadian Shield, 347–348, Greenland investigation of, 661–663, 662i, 348i, 869 climate change and, 666–667 663i, 670–672, 671g, 671t characteristics of, 156, 156i, 278– craton formation in, 869, 871 ocean currents and, 664–667, 279, 279i, 290–291, 290i, 291t, ice sheets of, 454, 643–644, 664i–666i, 708 772 682–687, 683i–684i plate tectonics and, 665–667, 666i, metamorphism of, 306t, 868 rock age in, 928, 928i 667i, 708 quarrying of, 806 Greenstone science connections, 714 Granodiorite, characteristics of, characteristics of, 306t, 869–871 869–871 definition of, 869
R48 EarthComm
EC_Natl_SE_Index.indd R48 7/15/11 1:45:56 PM Index
Groundwater Hawaii, volcanic eruptions, 143–144, Himalayan Mountains definition of, 373, 380 143i, 211, 213–214 and climate change, 667 early Earth, 887–888 Hazards plate boundaries and, 179–180 investigation of, 811, 813–815, See also Anthropogenic effects Holmes, Arthur, on mantle 813i–814i, 833–836, 834i–835i of dust, 630 convection, 159–160 mining of, 821, 821i flooding, 423–425, 423i–425i, Horizontality, in geologic record, movement of, 372–375, 373i, 375i, 540–542 334, 353 380–381, 380i, 381i, 820–821, from earthquakes, 250–251, 250i Horns, definition of, 459 820i–821i from hurricanes, 565–568, Horse latitudes pollution of, 773, 775, 836–840, 565i–567i, 568g characteristics of, 516–517, 517i 836i–840i from volcanoes, 210–212, definition of, 516 and stream discharge, 422–423, 218–220, 218i Horsepower, definition of, 853 820, 820i lightning, 542–544 Hot spots as water supply source, 817–818, mining, 807–808 characteristics of, 177–178, 817i–818i, 819–821, 821i, 847 oil spills, 766t, 767g, 772–775, 178i, 885 Growing season, investigation of, 773i–775i definition of, 144 611, 615t of sewage, 837–838 gas release from, 885 Gulf Coast, hurricane damage, tornadoes and downbursts, 554 investigation of, 172–173, 172i 567–568, 567i toxic chemical, 839 Hubble-NICMOS Instrument, Gulf of Mexico Headlands mission description, 87t Deepwater Horizon oil spill, 766t, definition of, 484 Hubble Space Telescope, 774–775, 774i, 775i erosion of, 484–485, 485i characteristics of, 89–90, 90i drainage into, 390–392, 390i, 391i Headwaters, definition of, 414 Hudson River Gulf Stream, characteristics of, Headworks, definition of, 425 glacial alterations in, 462, 491i, 576–577, 576i Heat 687, 687i Guttenberg low velocity zone, and thermal convection, 158–160, sea-level changes and, 687, 687i, characteristics of, 239 160i 694 Gypsum waste heat pollution, 837, 840 Human effects on resources. See formation of, 300–301 Heat capacity Anthropogenic effects investigation of, 431–432, 431i, and climate, 619 Humidity, relative, 531 432i definition of, 377, 619, 664 uses of, 277, 772 Hurricane Katrina (2005), Heating, solar systems, 778–780, Gyres characteristics and damages of, 779i–780i, 783–784, 783i–784i, characteristics of, 623 562, 565–568, 565i–567i, 568g 846 definition of, 576 Hurricanes Heat transfer, ocean circulat ion and, characteristics of, 561–565, 561i, H 664–667, 664i–666i 563i, 563t, 623 Hadean Eon, Earth development in, Heimaey (Iceland), lava flow at, 211 classification of, 563, 563t 868, 886–888, 894, 903, 914–916, Helium, in early Earth atmosphere, definition of, 561 925, 976 886–888 development of, 562–563, 563i, 563t Hadley cells Hematite, in banded iron formations, distribution and frequency, characteristics of, 517, 517i 914 558t–560t definition of, 517 Herbivores, in ecosystem hazards and damages from, Hail, characteristics of, 379 organization, 962–963 565–568, 565i–567i, 568g Haiti, 2010 earthquake, 232 Hertzsprung, Ejnar, on star investigation of, 557–560, Half-life luminosity, 110–111 558t–560t in decay, 927–929, 927g Hertzsprung- Russell (HR) diagram, movement of, 564 definition of, 926 investigation of, 106–109, 108g, tracking of, 560t, 564, 565–566, Halite 109t 565i formation of, 301 HETE-2 High Energy Transient Huygens, Christiaan, on nature of properties of, 276t, 280i, 282–283, Explorer, mission description, 87t light, 87 282i High-gradient streams Hydroelectric power Halley’s comet, orbit of, 78, 78t characteristics of, 414–416, 415i, characteristics of, 731, 731i, Hardness (mineral) 416g, 494 846, 854 definition of, 280 investigation of, 408–413, definition of, 731 and Mohs scale, 280–281 409i–410i, 411t, 413t history of, 757, 757g
R49 EarthComm
EC_Natl_SE_Index.indd R49 7/15/11 1:45:56 PM EarthComm
Hydrogen definition of, 454 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate in early Earth atmosphere, and global climate, 665–667, Change (IPCC), role of, 679 886–888 666i, 709 Internal deformation, definition of, in formation of universe, 32, 34 investigation of, 682–685, 456 in gas-giant planets, 13 683i–684i International Astronomical Union in hydrocarbons, 768 and sea levels, 686–688, 686i–688i (IAU), on Ceres, 75 isotopes of, 645 Igneous rock Intertropical convergence zone and pH, 770–772, 770i See also Volcanoes (ITCZ) spectra of, 92, 92i characteristics of, 288–292, 334, characteristics of, 516, 516i in Sun’s reactions, 37, 97, 115, 125 352, 929 definition of, 516 in water, 375–377 chemical and mineral composition, Intrusive igneous rock Hydrogen bonds 288, 290–292, 291t characteristics of, 289–292, 290i, definition of, 376 classification of, 290–292, 290i, 291t, 319, 352 in water, 375–377 291t definition of, 289 Hydrologic cycle. See Water cycle definition of, 168, 288 Inverse-square law, definition of, 656 Hydrosphere formation of, 203, 288–289, Io, atmosphere of, 889 and atmosphere, 508, 886–888 289i, 352 Ionosphere carbon cycle and, 768–769, 768i investigation of, 286–288, 287i, characteristics of, 102–103 careers involving, 127, 265, 361, 330–332, 332i definition of, 102 503, 631, 717, 855, 985 rock units, 319 Ions and climate change, 702–705, 703i science connections, 358 definition of, 102, 279 early Earth, 887–888, 894, 903 Impact craters hydrogen, 770–772, 770i interactions with other systems, and Chesapeake Bay formation, IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on 508, 741–742, 883–888, 914– 339 Climate Change), role of, 679 917, 980–981 Chicxulub Crater (Mexico), 72t, Iridium, from impact events, 972 investigation of, 371–372, 700–701 73, 972–973, 973i Iron monitoring of, 629–630, 702 on Moon, 60–61, 60i banded iron formations, 914–917, volcanic activity and, 219–220 Impact events 915i–917i, 976 water distribution in, 372t characteristics of, 75–80, 78t, 79i, deposits of, 791i, 794, 796, 847, Hydrothermal activity, definition of, 972–973, 973i 912i 796 investigation of, 71–73, 72t–73t as Earth core component, 158, 872 Hydrothermal vents Inclination, definition of, 49 investigation of, 909–912, 910t, characteristics of, 176–177, 177i, Index fossils 911i–912i 914 definition of, 337 mining of, 806 definition of, 176 and geologic dating, 336–339 as native-element mineral, Hygrometer, use of, 531 Indian Ocean, cyclones, 561 278, 278i Indo-Australian Plate, and suture oxidation of, 913 I zone, 179, 179i in star cycle, 114–115 Ice Industry uses of, 277 glacial 454–462, See also Ice sheets and petroleum products, 754 Iron oxides, definition of, 913 investigation of, 370–372, pollution and, 836–837, 839–840 Irrigation. See Agriculture 450–453 Inertia, definition of, 58 Isotopes in lahars, 212 Infiltration, definition of, 373 definition of, 645 properties of, 376–377 Infrared radiation and paleoclimate study, 645 in water cycle, 372–373 definition of, 88 Ice cores, as climate proxy, 644–645 and solar radiation, 673–674, J Iceland 673i, 674i Jet streams Heimaey lava flow (1973), 211 Insolation characteristics of, 518–520, Laki eruption (1783), 211 definition of, 656, 782 518i–520i Surtsey island, 984 factors in, 782–783, 782i, 962 definition of, 518 volcanic activity in, 132, 142, 211 Intensity, of earthquakes, 248–249, Jupiter Ice sheets 248t–249t characteristics of, 9t, 13–14, 13i, characteristics of, 454–455, 454i, Interglacial intervals, definition of, 14i, 37, 889 644–646, 671–672, 671g 643 orbit of, 46t, 49i
R50 EarthComm
EC_Natl_SE_Index.indd R50 7/15/11 1:45:57 PM Index
K Landscape changes Law of universal gravitation Kaapvaal Craton, characteristics of, See also Mass movement definition of, 57 871 by water flow, 377–379, 393, and Earth’s density, 157–158 Kalapana (Hawaii), lave flows at, 395, 414 properties of, 40, 501–502 211, 211i glacial, 457–462, 686–688 Leeward side, definition of, 618 Kaolinite, United States deposits, 791i modeling with, 692–694, 693i Le Système International d’Unités. See Katrina (hurricane), characteristics sea levels and, 491, 491i, 686–688, SI system and damages of, 562, 565–568, 686i–688i, 694–696, 695i–696i, Levees 565i–567i, 568g 709 definition of, 425 Kepler, Johannes, laws of, 46–47 Landslides, as earthquake hazard, and flooding, 567 Kepler Mission, mission description, 251 Lichens, characteristics of, 983 42 Land use Life on Earth Kepler’s laws of planetary motion, and floodplains, 425 hypotheses for, 976 definitions of, 46–47 investigation of, 400 investigation of, 893–899, Kilauea volcano (Hawaii), lava flows mass movement and, 401–404, 894i–899i, 895t from, 211, 211i 401i–403i origin hypotheses, 899–902 Kinetic energy, and energy soil and, 446 stromatolite evidence, 903–906 production, 853–854 La Niña conditions, 607, 607g Light Knickpoint, definition of, 696 Lapilli, definition of, 218 and Doppler effect, 32–33, 39 Kola Peninsula (Russia), drilled hole Lateral continuity, in geologic record, investigation of, 83–85, 85t in, 235 334, 353 properties of, 87–88, 90–92 Krakatoa volcano, 1883 eruption, Lateral moraines, definition of, 461 scattering of, 98–99 133, 220 Latitude Lightning Kuiper belt definition of, 22, 25, 617 characteristics of, 542–544, characteristics of, 79–80, 79i effects on climate, 514–520, 617, 542i–543i, 543t, 622 definition of, 79 782–783, 961–962 definition of, 542 Kuroshio Current, characteristics of, and paleomagnetism, 193 science connections, 628 576–577, 576i Laurasia, and continental drift, Light-years 191–192, 191i calculations with, 11 L Laurentide ice sheet, characteristics definition of, 11, 13 Lagoons, definition of, 489 of, 686–688, 687i Lignite Lahars Lava formation of, 301 characteristics of, 212, 212i characteristics of, 202–205, 203t, formation and properties of, definition of, 212 211, 869, 877, 888 743–745 investigation of, 208–210, 209t in crustal evolution, 869–871 Limestone Lake Champlain (New York), glacial definition of, 141, 289 acid rain and, 772 origin of, 459 flows, 210–212, 210i–212i, characteristics of, 299–302, 876–877, 885 Lake-effect snow 299i–301i, 334, 352, 755–756, in seafloor spreading, 167–168, definition of, 619 772, 843 168i, 870 formation of, 619–620 formation of, 300 in volcanic rock formation, 289 Lakes fossils in, 940, 940i Lava flows glaciers and, 459 metamorphism of, 306t, 308 characteristics of, 210–211, 210i, lake-effect snow, 619–620 quarrying of, 806 211i, 213–214, 885 Laki volcano (Iceland), 1783 lava Liquefaction definition of, 210 flow, 211 definition of, 252 flood basalts, 876–877 Land bridges effects of, 252, 446 investigation of, 208–210, 209t Bering Strait, 79, 695 Liquids Lava tubes, definition of, 211 in contracting Earth theory, 189 See also Fluid spheres Law of conservation of matter, Landforms investigation of, 881–882 definition of, 768 beneath oceans, 588–592, in mantle rocks, 883–885, Laws 588i–591i 883i–885i See also specific law coastal, 487–491, 487i–491i Lithification Kepler’s as example, 47 glacial, 457–461, 457i–461i See also Sedimentary rock and theories, 40, 264 moving water and, 379, 438–439 definition of, 401 volcanic, 204–205, 204i, 205i Lithosere, definition of, 984
R51 EarthComm
EC_Natl_SE_Index.indd R51 7/15/11 1:45:57 PM EarthComm
Lithosphere Luster plotting data, 600–602 characteristics of, 140, 140i, definition of, 281 topographic. See Topographic 798–799 examples of, 281, 281i maps definition of, 140, 688 Marble in postglacial rebound, 688 M acid rain and, 772 subduction of, 175–176, 175i, M81 galaxy, characteristics of, 89 characteristics of, 306t, 772 869–871 Magma quarrying of, 806 Lithospheric plates composition and properties of, Mariana Trench, characteristics of, See also Subduction 202–205, 203t, 204i, 205i, 589 boundary types, 141, 167 210–211, 869–870, 888 Maritime air masses, characteristics convection and, 159–160, 160i definition of, 141, 288 of, 525–526, 526i definition of, 141, 290 and igneous rock formation, 289, Mars investigation of, 148–151, 149i, 289i, 319, 869 characteristics of, 9t, 13–14, 13i, 150g, 154–156, 156i, 163–166, in ore formation, 796 14i, 37, 889–890 164i, 165i, 172–173, 173i, 665 in volcanic eruptions, 141–142, orbit of, 46t, 47, 49i movement of, 144–145, 144i–145i, 144, 204–205, 883–885 Maryland, sea-level changes and, 694 151–152, 167–170, 168i–170i, Magnetic fields Mass 174–181, 239, 665–667 of Earth, 799, 872, 888, 976 definition of, 35 world map of, 142i, 166i and magnetic striping, 168–169 in formation of universe, 35–37 Little Ice Age, definition of, 643 of Sun, 101–102, 101g and gravity, 240–242 Load (glacier) Magnetic reversals in star life cycle, 112–113 definition of, 460 characteristics of, 872 Mass extinctions and deposition, 460–462, 462i and seafloor spreading, 168–169, causes of, 972–973, 973i Loam 168i characteristics of, 76–77, 953, characteristics of, 443 Magnetic striping, as plate tectonics 970–972, 977 definition of, 443 evidence, 191 definition of, 953 Location, investigation of, 21–23, Magnetism, of minerals, 284,9 79 investigation of, 966–969, 967t, 148–151, 149i, 150g Magnetite 968i, 969i Loess in banded iron formations, 914 Mass movement characteristics of, 477, 647 in magnetic striping, 168–169 definition of, 403 definition of, 646 and paleomagnetism, 193 examples of, 403 Loma Prieta earthquake (1989), properties of, 276t, 284 and slope, 401–404, 401i–403i liquefaction in, 252 Magnetometers, definition of, 799 Matter Long Island (New York), glacial Magnetosphere, development of, 872, conservation of, 768 origin of, 646, 695 976 definition of, 32 Longitude, definition of, 22, 25 Magnitude, of stars, 109–110 Matthews, D. H., on seafloor Longshore drift, definition of, 486 Main-sequence stars, definition of, spreading, 169 Louisiana, Hurricane Katrina and, 111 Mauna Loa volcano (Hawaii), lava 566–568, 566i–567i Malleability, of metals, 284 flows from, 213–214 Low-gradient streams Manganese Meander bends, definition of, 421 characteristics of, 420–425, deposits of, 794 Meandering streams 420i–425i, 494 uses of, 277 characteristics of, 420–422, investigation of, 418–420, 419i Mantle 421i, 422i Lowstand See also Earth, interior structure of definition of, 421 definition of, 686 characteristics of, 139–140, 140i Meander scars, definition of, 421 shorelines and, 686–687 definition of, 140 Measurement Luminosity gases and liquids in, 883–885, of earthquakes, 248–252, definition of, 110 883i–885i 248t–249t investigation of, 106–109, 108g, hot spots and, 177–178, 178i, 885 with Global Positioning System 109t investigation of, 881–882 (GPS), 152 and star classification, 110–111 seismic activity and, 236–240, in space, 12–16, 24–27 Lunar eclipses, definition of, 64 236i–240i, 239g using metric system, 74, 74t Lunar phases thermal convection in, 158–160 using SI system, 74, 74t investigation of, 52–55, 54t, 55t Maps in weather, 529–531 principles of, 56–57, 57i geologic. See Geologic maps and tides, 62–63, 62i in mineral exploration, 797
R52 EarthComm
EC_Natl_SE_Index.indd R52 7/15/11 1:45:57 PM Index
Mechanical energy, forms and properties of, 276t, 282, 306t, native-element, 278, 278i conversions, 853–854 310, 310i in oceans, 382, 794 Medial moraines, definition of, 461 Microbursts, definition of, 550 physical properties of, 280–284, Melting Mid-Atlantic Ridge, topography of, 280i–283i, 352, 799 glacial, 450–453, 454–462, 705 241–242, 590, 590i science connections, 358 of ice, 376–377 Middle East, oil reserves of, 773 uses of 277, See also specific investigation of, 370–372 Mid-latitude jet stream. See Polar mineral Meltwater, glacial, 458, 461–462, 705 jet stream water content of, 883–885 Mercury (planet) Mid-ocean ridge and water hardness, 843 characteristics of, 9t, 13–14, 13i, characteristics of, 590 Mining 14i, 37 definition of, 142 coal, 745–746, 746i orbit of, 46t, 47 maps of, 169–170, 590i of groundwater, 821 Mesocyclones and seafloor spreading, 167–170, investigation of, 803–804, 804i definition of, 552 168i–170i processes of, 279 in tornado development, 552–554, Milankovitch cycles types and concerns, 805–808, 552i, 554i and climate, 658–659, 658g, 805i–808i, 847 Mesozoic era 675–676, 708 water use in, 828–829, 828i climate during, 643 definition of, 658 Mississippi, Hurricane Katrina and, evolution of life in, 922t, 925–926, Milankovitch, Milutin, on climate 566–568, 566i–567i 966–969 change cycles, 658–659, 658g Mississippi River extinction event of, 970–973 Milky Way galaxy, characteristics of, drainage of, 390–392, 390i, fossils from, 336–337, 968–969 11, 14–15, 15i, 39i, 109–110 391i, 425 Metals, properties of, 284 Miller, Stanley, chemosynthesis glacial alterations in, 462 Metamorphic rock hypothesis, 894–895 stream data for, 411t classification of, 306t Millikan, Robert, on electrons, 360 Missouri River, glacial alterations in, definition of, 308 Mineral Management Service, on 462 in Earth evolution, 869–871 Hurricane Katrina, 567 Models formation of, 308–311, 309i–311i, Mineral resources of climate change, 219–220, 352, 868 exploration and mining, 797–799, 702–705, 703i investigation of, 305–307, 797i–799i, 805–808, 805i–808i of downbursts, 549 306t, 330–332, 332i, 910–912, formation and deposits of, 794– of evolutionary changes, 943–946, 911i–912i 797, 794i–797i, 846–847, 868 951–953, 951i–953i rock units, 320 geology of, 795–797, 795i–796i, of folds and faults, 323–324, 328 Meteor Crater (Arizona), 868 of fossil formation, 934–936, 935i, characteristics of, 3, 71 investigation of, 790–793, 936i Meteorites 791i–793i of fossil pollen sediments, 641–642 characteristics of, 80, 80i science connections, 852 of gas volume changes, 882 definition of, 80 in United States, 791i, 795–797 of geologic time scale, 920–921, in Earth’s development, 867–868, Minerals 921t 899 See also Mineral resources; Rock; of glaciers, 450–453, 684–685, and mass extinctions, 972–973, specific mineral 685i 973i characteristics of, 277–278, of lithospheric plate motion, Meteoroids, definition of, 80 279–280, 280i 163–166, 164i, 165i, 661–663 Meteors, definition of, 80 chemical composition/structure, of metamorphism, 307 Methane 279–280, 280i of mineral deposits, 791–793, in early atmosphere, 886–887 as continental drift evidence, 791i–793i, 803–804, 804i as greenhouse gas, 673–674, 673i, 186i, 190 of Moon and lunar phases, 674i, 702–704 definition of, 277, 352 53–54, 53i in natural gas, 754 distribution of, 791i, 794–797, in science, 56 Mexico, Yucatán Peninsula impact 912i of sedimentary rocks, 296 event, 972–973, 973i identification of, 275–276, 275i, Mexico City earthquake (1985), of sediments, 431–432, 431i, 432i 276t, 280–284, 280i–283i effects of, 250, 252 stream table, 408–409, 409i, investigation of, 274–276, 275i, Micas 418–419, 419i, 692–694, 693i 276t, 790–793, 791i–793i in igneous rock, 288, 290–291, of volcano, 200–202, 201i, 217, mining of, 279, 794–799 291t 219–220
R53 EarthComm
EC_Natl_SE_Index.indd R53 7/15/11 1:45:57 PM EarthComm
of water cycle, 372–375, 373i, 375i N Neutrons, in atomic structure, of water supply systems, 811–815, Nagaoka, H., atomic model of, 359–360 812i–814i, 833–836, 834i–835i 359, 359i Neutron stars, definition of, 113 Modified Mercalli scale, definition National Aeronautics and Space New Madrid Fault, tectonic activity of, 248 Administration (NASA) of, 177–178 Mohawk River, glacial alterations in, on asteroids, 3 New Orleans (Louisiana), Hurricane 462 AURA satellite, 521 Katrina flooding, 567 Moho (Mohorovicic) discontinuity, climate satellites, 629–630, Newton, Isaac characteristics of, 239 629i–630i laws of, 57–58, 118, 157–158, 502 Mohs scale GRACE gravity mission, on visible light, 87 definition of, 280 240–242 Newton’s laws of motion of mineral hardness, 280–281 TOPEX/Poseidon satellite, definition of, 58 Molecular clouds, definition of, 111 602–603 first law, 58 Molecules, polar, 375–377 Viking Lander, 890 and planetary motion, 57–58, 58i Mollusks, as index fossils, 338 National Oceanic and Atmospheric New York, sea levels and, 692, 694 Montana, Glacier National Park, 618i Administration (NOAA), GOES Nickpoint (knickpoint), definition of, Moon satellites, 630 696 See also Lunar phases National Weather Service (NWS) Nitrates atmosphere of, 889 tornado warning system, 553–554 investigation of, 834–835 formation of, 58–61, 59i–60i, 118 warning systems of, 630 pollution by, 837, 838 investigation of, 52–55, 54t, 55t Native-element minerals, definition Nitrogen orbit of, 56–57, 57i of, 278 in Earth’s atmosphere, 99, 628, Moons, planetary, 889–890 Natural gas 871, 887 fertilizer as pollutant, 837, 838 Moraines definition of, 754 oxides of, 673–674, 673i, 674i, definition of, 460 as energy resource, 729–730, 754– 702–704 in glacial landscapes, 460–461, 760, 754i–760i, 757, 757g in proteins, 92 460i, 461i investigation of, 749–753, 751t, in volcanic eruptions, 219, 884–885 Mosses, characteristics of, 984 752t, 753i Nitrogen oxides Moths, peppered, studies of, 943, nature and characteristics of, and acid rain, 771 948–949, 948i 754–756 as greenhouse gases, 673–674, Motion production and consumption, 751t, 673i, 674i, 702–704 definition of, 45 757–760, 757g, 758i–760i, 772 Noble gases, in early Earth Newton’s laws of, 58 reserves estimates, 759–760 atmosphere, 887 planetary, 45–49 Natural resources, soil as, 446 Nonconsumptive water, definition Mountains Natural selection of, 829 at plate boundaries, 180, 192 definition of, 951 principles of, 949, 951, 977 Nonrenewable resources and climate, 260, 618, 619i, definition of, 732 667, 962 Nazca Plate, subduction of, 175, 176 investigation of, 736–740, 737i, Neap tides, definition of, 63 flash flooding and, 540–541 738t, 739t Near-Earth Object Program, mission geologic history of, 348, 874–878 Normal faults, definition of, 326 description, 77 investigation of, 957–960, North America Nebula(e) 958i–959i air masses of, 526, 526i definition of, 35 science connections, 262 future location of, 194–195 planetary, 112–113, 113i valley glaciers, 454–455, 455i geologic history of, 346–349, and supernovae, 115 Mount Pelée, 1902 eruption, 208 346i–349i, 873–878, 873i, 874i Nebular theory Mount Saint Helens (Washington), ice sheets and climate change, definition of, 35 1980 eruption, 143, 209t, 215–217, 687–688, 687i–688i 218–219 principles of, 35–36 investigation of, 864–867, Mud, characteristics of, 434–435, Negative feedback, definition of, 703 865i–867i 434t Neptune science connections, 358 Mudstone characteristics of, 9t, 13–14, 13i, North American Cordillera, characteristics of, 300 14i, 37 development of, 875–878, metamorphism of, 306t orbit of, 46t 875i–878i and petroleum, 754–755 Neutral substances North American Plate, movement of, definition of, 770 242, 876 and pH, 770–772, 770i
R54 EarthComm
EC_Natl_SE_Index.indd R54 7/15/11 1:45:57 PM Index
North Atlantic Deep Water, Ocean currents Ohio River characteristics of, 586, 596–597, and climate, 664–667, 664i–666i, drainage of, 389–392, 389i, 391i 596t, 597g, 664–665, 665i 708 glacial alterations in, 462 Northern Hemisphere deep currents, 585–587, 587i Oil. See Petroleum (crude oil) climate change and, 666–667 definition of, 576 Oil shale, mining of, 806 Coriolis effect in, 515–517, investigation of, 572–575, Olivines, in igneous rock, 288, 515i–517i, 622 573i–575i, 573t, 599–603, 90–291, 291t seasons in, 655, 655i, 782–783 661–663, 662i, 663i Oort cloud North Pole, investigation of, salinity and density, 585 characteristics of, 79–80, 79i 682–685, 683i–684i surface currents, 576–579 definition of, 79 Nuclear energy, reactions and issues Oceanic crust Open-pit mining, characteristics of, of, 125–126 See also Plate boundaries; 805–806, 805i–806i Nuclear fission Continental crust Orbital parameters See also Radioactive decay characteristics of, 139–140, 140i, and climate, 655–659, 655i, 657i, characteristics of, 125–126 151, 167–170, 590–591, 658g, 708 definition of, 729 590i–591i, 869–871, 888 definition of, 656 in electricity generation, 730 definition of, 139 Orbital plane Nuclear fusion early Earth, 888, 914–917 definition of, 49 characteristics of, 97, 125–126 investigation of, 864–867, inclination and, 49 865i–867i definition of, 37, 729 Orbital precession, definition of, volcanic flow and, 141–142, 144, in star lives, 37, 111–115 48, 658 167–170, 168i, 590 Nuclear power plants Orbital variations, and climate, Oceanic trenches, characteristics of, characteristics of, 126, 729–730 655–659, 655i, 657i, 658g, 708 175–176, 175i, 589, 589i history of, 757, 757g Orbital velocity, 45–46, 46t Oceanographers, definition of, 585 Nucleic acids, in early life, 901–902 definition of, 46 Oceans Orbits O and banded iron formations, of asteroids and comets, 47, 49, 914–917 49i, 75–76, 76t, 79–80 Obliquity as carbon dioxide reservoirs, 677 Earth. See Earth, orbit of and climate, 655–659, 655i, 657i, characteristics of, 372t, 382, 585, eccentricity of, 43–45, 46i, 118 708, 782–783 914 investigation of, 43–45, 44i–45i, definition of, 656 circulation in. See Ocean 653–654, 653i–654i investigation of, 653–654, circulation planetary, 38i, 45–49 653i–654i currents. See Ocean currents precession of, 48, 658 and seasons, 48, 48i, 655–659, effects on climate, 619, 677 seasons and, 48, 48i, 655–659, 655i, 657i, 782–783, 962 as energy source, 729, 732 655i, 657i, 782–783 Observations, characteristics of, 156 formation of, 887–888 Ordovician Period, in geologic time Obsidian, formation of, 290 hurricanes and, 562–566 scale, 922t, 926 Occluded fronts investigation of, 478–482, Oregon, flood basalts of, 877, 877i characteristics of, 528, 528i 479i–481i, 572–575, 573i–575i, Ores definition of, 528 573t, 582–584, 584i, 599–603, See also Mining Ocean circulation 600t, 601i, 603g definition of, 279, 794 and climate, 664–667, 664i–666i, landforms of, 588–592, 588i–591i exploration for, 798–799, 705 mineral resources in, 794, 794i, 798i–799i and climate change, 705 914–917 formation of, 794–796, 794i, 795i deep circulation. See Deep ocean science connections, 714 Organic (carbon-based) molecules, circulation seawater characteristics, 585–586, definition of, 741 El Niño conditions, 604–607, 623, 664–665, 665i, 914 Organic sedimentary rock 604i–606i, 607g in water cycle, 378–380, 382 characteristics of, 301, 352 investigation of, 572–575, wave behavior. See Ocean waves definition of, 301 573i–575i, 582–584, 584i, Ocean waves Organisms 661–663, 662i, 663i actions on coastlines, 484–491, definition of, 977 surface circulation, 576–579, 484i–491i and ecosystems, 960–961, 961i 576i–578i, 623 wave properties, 482–484, Origin of life. See Life on Earth temperature layers and, 592–594, 483i–484i Orion Nebula, characteristics of, 36, 593g 36i, 112i wind forces on, 594–595
R55 EarthComm
EC_Natl_SE_Index.indd R55 7/15/11 1:45:57 PM EarthComm
Orogenic belts, definition of, 796 investigation of, 640–642, 641g, Petroleum (crude oil) Orogens, definition of, 869 641i, 966–968, 967t See also Coal; Natural gas Orographic processes, definition of, methods of investigation, 642–647, definition of, 754 525 644t, 645g, 708 as energy resource, 729–730, Outgassing science connections, 714 754–760, 754i–760i, 757g definition of, 886 Paleoclimatologists, definition of, 643 investigation of, 749–753, 751t, in early Earth development, Paleogene Period, in geologic time 752t, 753i, 764–767, 766t, 886–888, 976 scale, 922t, 926 767g Overburden Paleomagnetism nature and characteristics of, definition of, 807 definition of, 193 754–756, 846 in reclamation, 807–808 polarity dating, 872 oil spills, 766t, 767g, 772–775, Oxbow lakes, definition of, 422 Paleontologists, definition of, 937 773i–775i Oxidation Paleontology, evolution and, 715–716 production and consumption, 751t, and carbon cycle, 674–675 Paleozoic era 757–760, 757g, 758i–760i, 772 definition of, 741 fossils from, 336–337 recovery of, 754–755, 757–760 and energy production, 741–742 in geologic time scale, 922t, 925 reserves estimates, 759–760 investigation of, 909–912, 910t, mass extinction event, 971–972 uses of, 745 911i–912i Pangea Phanerozoic Eon, in geologic time in water treatment, 841–842 climate change and, 666–667 scale, 922t, 925, 926 Oxygen and continental drift, 190–192, Phosphorus, as pollutant, 837, in atmosphere, 886, 890, 914–917 190i–192i, 347, 347i, 876 838–839 and early life, 976 definition of, 347, 666 Photosphere, definition of, 98 in energy production, 741–742 investigation of, 185–188, Photosynthesis investigation of, 909–912, 910t, 186i, 187i and carbon cycle, 675, 768–769, 911i–912i Pangea Ultima, characteristics of, 768i, 769g in magma and lava, 202–203 195, 195i definition of, 675 and paleoclimates, 645–646, Parallax, definition of, 16, 118 and early Earth atmosphere, 914–917 Parent atoms 915–917 in water, 375–377 definition of, 926 and energy production, 741–742 Ozone in radioactive decay, 927, 927i Photovoltaic energy in atmosphere, 100–101, 100i, 916 Parsec (pc), definition of, 13 characteristics and uses, 784 definition of, 100 Particle size, of sediments, 434–437, definition of, 730 as disinfectant, 842 434t Phyllite, characteristics of, 306t Ozone layer Peak wavelength, definition of, 91 Physical features, and climate, monitoring of, 630 Peat 610–616, 611i, 612t–615t structure and function, 100–101, definition of, 742 Physical weathering 100i, 916 formation of, 301, 742–744, definition of, 288 742i–744i and soil formation, 444, 983–984 P Percent grade, definition of, 404 Physiographic regions, of United Pacific Northwest (United States), Percolation, of groundwater, 380–381 States, 345–346, 345i geology of, 875–878 Perihelion, definition of, 657 Phytoplankton, definition of, 970 Pacific Ocean Periods Pinatubo volcano (Philippines), 1991 El Niño conditions in, 604–607, characteristics of, 922t, 926 eruption, 218–219 604i–606i, 607g definition of, 926 Pioneer species, in succession, investigation of, 572–575, Permeability 983–984 573i–575i, 573t definition of, 380, 756 Plagioclase feldspar, properties of, 276t Ring of Fire volcanoes, 142–144, and groundwater movement, Planetary motion 142i, 143i 380–381 orbits, 45–49 subduction zones of, 175–176, 175i and petroleum formation, 755–756 and Sun-Earth-Moon system, tsunami monitoring in, 251, 255 Permian Period, mass extinction in, 57–58, 58i typhoons in, 561 971–972 Planetary nebulae, characteristics of, water masses of, 596–597, 596t, Peru, El Niño conditions and, 112–113, 113i 597g 604–607, 604i–606i, 607g Planetesimals, definition of, 36 Paleoclimates Peru Current, characteristics of, Planets definition of, 643, 708 576–577, 576i characteristics of, 9t, 13–14, 13i, 14i, 37–40, 37i, 889–890
R56 EarthComm
EC_Natl_SE_Index.indd R56 7/15/11 1:45:57 PM Index
definition of, 12 Pollen in metamorphism, 308–309, 309i distances and, 12–14, 13i, 14i as climate proxy, 644, 644t and rock melting, 883–885 extrasolar, 38–40, 118, 124 investigation of, 640–642 Prevailing westerlies motion of. See Planetary motion Pollution characteristics of, 517, 517i Plants. See Vegetation air, 73, 630, 943 definition of, 517 Plasma, definition of, 102 by fossil fuels, 730 Primary waves (P waves) Plate boundaries investigation of, 833–836, characteristics of, 226–227, definition of, 256 834i–835i 226i, 227i investigation of, 163–167, 164i, pollution drift, 521 definition of, 226 165i, 166i, 866, 866i types of, 836–840, 836i–840i investigation of, 230–232 tectonic activity at, 174–181, waste heat, 837, 840 recording of, 233–234, 234g 174i–181i water, 392, 836–840, 836i–840i, Principle of faunal succession types of, 167 847 definition of, 336 Plate tectonics Populations and geologic dating, 336–339 See also Lithospheric plates definition of, 977 Principles of geologic history, definition of, 141, 347, 665 and ecosystems, 960–961, 961i 333–334, 353, 715–716 and earthquake activity, 144–145 Pore spaces, and water movement, Proteins, in origin of life, 901–902 and global climate, 665–667, 666i, 380–381 Proterozoic Eon, in geologic time 667i, 708 Porosity scale, 922t, 925 investigation of, 136–139, 138t, definition of, 380, 755 Protoliths, definition of, 311 185–188, 186i, 187i, 661–663, and petroleum recovery, 755–756 Protons 662i, 663i Positive feedback, definition of, 703 in atomic structure, 359–360 and North American geology, Postglacial rebound definition of, 101 346–349, 346i–349i, 875–878 characteristics of, 688 Protoplanetary bodies, definition of, 36 predicted locations, 194–195, definition of, 688 Proxima Centauri, distances and, 194i–195i Potassium feldspar, propertie s of, 10–11 summary of features, 181, 256 276t Puerto Rico Trench, gravity anomaly in systems thinking, 260–261 Potential energy, and energy of, 242 theory of, 141–145, 158–160, production, 853–854 Push moraines, definition of, 460 160i, 188–192, 263–264 Power, and energy/work, 853–854 P waves. See Primary waves (P waves) Pleistocene Epoch Precambrian time, fossils from, Pycnocline climate during, 643 336–337 characteristics of, 592–593, 593g glacial activity in, 462, 686–688 Precession definition of, 592 Plucking and climate, 657–659, 657i, Pyrite, properties of, 276t, 281, definition of, 458 658g, 708 281i, 283 and glacial erosion, 458–459 definition of, 48, 656 Pyroclastic flows Polar air masses, characteristics of, and seasons, 48, 48i, 657–659, characteristics of, 204–205, 525–526, 526i 782–783 211–212, 212i Polar cells Precipitation definition of, 211 characteristics of, 517i, 518 along fronts, 527–528 hazards of, 218–219 definition of, 518 and climate change, 704–705 investigation of, 208–210, 209t Polar easterlies definition of, 300, 378 Pyroxenes, in igneous rock, 288, characteristics of, 517i, 518 mountains and, 618, 619i 290–291, 291t definition of, 518 in thunderstorms, 539–540 Polar front, definition of, 519 and tornado development, Q Polar jet stream 610–616, 611i, 613t–615t Qualitative observations, definition characteristics of, 519–520 in water cycle, 378–382, 380i, 381i of, 156 definition of, 519 Prediction Quantitative observations, definition Polar molecules of climate change, 702–705, 703i of, 156 definition of, 375 of hurricanes, 561 Quartz properties of, 375–377 issues of, 702–704, 703i in igneous rock, 288, 290–291, Polar regions of tornadoes, 553–554 291t and heat transfer, 516–520 Pressure properties of, 276t, 281, 281i, 283, investigation of, 957–960, air. See Air pressure 283i, 435 958i–959i investigation of, 881–882 Quartzite, characteristics of, 306t
R57 EarthComm
EC_Natl_SE_Index.indd R57 7/15/11 1:45:57 PM EarthComm
R Relative humidity flooding in, 425 Radar, Doppler, 530, 553–554, 554i definition of, 531 glacial alterations of, 462, 462i Radiation measurement of, 531 human interaction with, 392–395 cosmic background, 34 Relief, definition of, 202, 404 science connections, 500 definition of, 34 Remote sensing RNA, in early life, 901–902 effects of, 88 for climate data, 629–630, Rock electromagnetic. See 629i–630i, 702 See also Earthquakes; Rock units; Electromagnetic radiation and El Niño data, 602–603, 603i specific rock type solar. See Solar radiation Renewable resources banded iron formations, 914–917 Radioactive decay definition of, 731 characteristics of, 157–160, definition of, 927 as energy sources, 729, 732, 157i–160i, 278–279, 278i, 352 as heat source, 59, 158, 189–190 781–785 continental accretion. See Continental accretion investigation of, 923, 923t investigation of, 778–781, as continental drift evidence, of minerals, 284 779i–780i 190–193 properties of, 125–126 Reserves, petroleum, 759–760, 773 definition of, 278 rock dating by, 926–929, 927g, Reservoirs deformity and forces, 144, 225–226, 927i, 928i–929i definition of, 382, 755 310, 325–328, 326i, 327i, 353 Radio telescope petroleum, 754–755, 754i density of, 157–160, 157i–160i definition of, 89 in water cycle, 373 gases and liquids in, 883–885, uses in astronomy, 89 and water supply, 816–817, 883i–885i Rain 817i, 818 investigation of, 154–156, 156i, See also Flash floods; Rainfall Resonance, definition of, 250 Respiration 286–288, 287i, 295–298, 297t, acid. See Acid rain 298i, 305–307, 306t, 316–318, and carbon cycle, 768–769, and climate change, 704–705 317i, 330–332, 332i, 342–346, 768i, 769g early Earth, 887 344i, 345i, 864–867, 865i–867i, definition of, 741 formation of, 530 881–882, 909–912, 910t, and energy production, 741–742 in water cycle, 379–382, 381i 911i–912i, 923, 923t Reverse faults, definition of, 326 Rainfall radioactive dating, 926–929, 927g, Rhode Island, sea-level changes and, and climate change, 705 927i, 928i–929i 694 measurement of, 530 science connections, 358 Rhyolite in severe storms, 540–541, 564 in volcanic flows, 210–212 formation of, 290 Rainforests, investigation of, Rock units 957–960, 958i–959i metamorphism of, 306t characteristics of, 318–320, 319i, Rain shadow Rhyolitic lava, characteristics of, 211 353 characteristics of, 618, 619i Richter, Charles, on earthquake dating of, 333–339, 333i–335i, definition of, 618 magnitude, 252 336t–337t, 338i–339i Rebound Richter scale, definition of, 252 definition of, 318 in earthquakes. See Elastic rebound Rifting, process of, 174, 174i, 885 investigation of, 316–318, 317i, postglacial, 688, 688i Rifts, definition of, 174 330–332, 332i Recharge (groundwater) Rift valleys Rotation definition of, 817 definition of, 142, 174 of Earth, 61, 63, 124, 782–783 and groundwater depletion, 821 oceanic, 590–591, 590i of Moon, 56–57, 57i Redoubt Volcano (Alaska), eruption Right ascension (RA), definition of, 26 Runoff. See Surface runoff of, 132 Ring of Fire, volcanic activity of, Rupture Redshift, characteristics of, 92 142–144, 142i, 143i, 176 investigation of, 223–225, 224i Reflection, of solar energy, 98–100, Rivers rock, 225–226 98i definition of, 414 Russell, Henry Norris, on star Reforestation sea-level changes and, 694–696 luminosity, 110–111 and climate change, 677 water supply to, 819–820, Russia definition of, 677 819i–820i craton formation in, 871 Refraction, of seismic waves, 235–237 River systems Kola Peninsula, 235 Regelation, definition of, 454 See also Streams Tunguska impact event, 78 Regional metamorphism, definition components of, 389–392, Rusting, process of, 913 of, 308 389i–391i, 414, 494 Rutherford, Ernest, atomic model of, Relative age, definition of, 926 early Earth, 887 360, 360i
R58 EarthComm
EC_Natl_SE_Index.indd R58 7/15/11 1:45:58 PM Index
S vs. pseudoscience, 264 distribution of, 299, 795–796, 795i Safety. See Hazards Scrubbing, definition of, 772 early Earth, 869–871, 887 Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Intensity Seafloor spreading formation of, 300–302 Scale, characteristics of, 563, 563t and hydrothermal vents, 176–177, investigation of, 295–298, St. Lawrence River, transportation 177i 296i–298i, 297t, 330–332, 332i on, 393 investigation of, 163–167, 164i, rock units, 318–319 Salinity 165i science connections, 358 definition of, 585 theory of, 167–170, 168i–170i Sediments investigation of, 582–584, 584i Sea levels See also Coastal regions and and ocean density, 585–586, 623, and climate change, 705 coastlines 664–665, 665i coastlines and, 491, 491i deep-sea, 646 and thermohaline circulation, glaciers and, 686–688, 686i–688i, definition of, 299, 401 664–665, 665i 709 glacial, 646–647 Saltation investigation of, 682–685, and high-gradient streams, 414 definition of, 468 683i–685i, 692–694, 693i investigation of, 431–434, 431i, in erosion, 468–469, 469i and landscape changes, 491, 491i, 432i, 433i Salt water, distribution in 694–696, 695i–696i and low-gradient streams, 421–425 hydrosphere, 372t Seals (petroleum) and shoreline erosion, 486 San Andreas Fault (California) characteristics of, 756 size ranges, 434–435, 434t activity along, 145, 145i definition of, 755 stream transportation of, 435–439, characteristics of, 180 Seamounts 435i, 436g, 437i–439i Sand characteristics of, 591–592, wind deposition of, 472–473, characteristics of, 434–435, 434t 591i–592i 472i–473i in earthquakes, 252 definition of, 144 and wind erosion, 468–471, from glacial melt, 461 Seasons 470i–471i investigation of, 399–400, 399i and atmospheric circulation, 516 Seismic tomography mining of, 806 and climate change, 705, 708 characteristics of, 239–240, 240i in water treatment, 841 and flooding, 424 definition of, 240 Sand dunes investigation of, 650–654, Seismic waves. See Earthquake characteristics of, 472–473, 651i–654i (seismic) waves 472i–473i orbital effects on, 48, 48i, 655– Seismograms definition of, 472 659, 655i, 657i, 782–783 characteristics of, 233–234, Sandstone Sea stacks 233i–234i, 234g characteristics of, 156, 156i, 300 definition of, 487 definition of, 233 metamorphism of, 306t formation of, 487–488, 488i Seismologists petroleum and, 760 Seawater definition of, 225 quarrying of, 806 desalination of, 818 detection of earthquakes by, San Francisco Bay, glacial alterations salinity and density, 585–586, 623, 230–232 664–665, 665i to, 687 Seismology, in study of Earth’s Secondary recovery, definition of, 757 San Francisco earthquake (1906), fire interior, 235–242 Secondary waves (S waves) and, 251 Seismometers (seismographs) characteristics of, 226i, 227, 227i Satellites, climate data from, definition of, 233 definition of, 227 629–630, 629i–630i use of, 233–234, 233i–234i, 234g investigation of, 230–232 Saturated zone Severe weather recording of, 233–234, 234g definition of, 380 See also Tornadoes Sedimentary basins, definition of, 758 of groundwater system, 380–381, lightning, 543–544, 543t 380i, 381i Sedimentary rock in thunderstorms, 538–544 Saturn characteristics of, 299–302, Sewage, hazards of, 837–838 299i–301i, 334, 352, 755–756, characteristics of, 9t, 13–14, 13i, Shadow zones 887, 929 14i, 37, 889 characteristics of, 237–238, classification of, 297t, 302 orbit of, 46t 237i, 238i coal and petroleum formation, Scattering, in atmosphere, 98i, 99 definition of, 237 743–744, 744i, 754–757, 754i, Schist, characteristics of, 306t Shale 756i Scientific method characteristics of, 300 definition of, 299 steps and applicat ion of, 949 fossils in, 940
R59 EarthComm
EC_Natl_SE_Index.indd R59 7/15/11 1:45:58 PM EarthComm
investigation of, 431–432, 431i, Si ngle-celled life investigation of, 97, 97t 432i chemosynthesis hypothesis, Solar radiation metamorphism of, 306t 899–902 characteristics of, 97–101, 98i, and petroleum, 754–755, 760, 806 development of, 899–906 100i, 101g, 102i, 103i Shear force SIRTF. See Space Infrared Telescope dangers from, 88, 100–101, 100i definition of, 325 Facility (SIRTF) as energy source, 781–784, and faulting, 326 SI system, characteristics of, 74, 74t 782i–784i Shear strength SL9 Fragment Q, characteristics of, and global winds, 514, 514i definition of, 226 72t, 73 science connections, 124 and rock rupture, 225–226 Slate, characteristics of, 306t, 310 sunspots and solar flares, 101–103 Shields Sleet, characteristics of, 379 Solar system characteristics and formation of, Sling psychrometer, use of, 531 characteristics of, 109, 118 869–871 Slopes components of, 13–14, 118 definition of, 869 See also Gradients (stream) definition of, 12 Shield volcanoes investigation of, 398–400, 399i, distances in, 13–14 characteristics of, 204, 204i 408–413, 409i–410i, 411t, 413t formation of, 32–40, 37i, 58–61 definition of, 204 and mass movement, 401–404, investigation of, 29–31 Shorelines 401i–403i, 494 Solar telescopes, use in astronomy, See also Coastal regions and science connections, 500 90, 103 coastlines of weather fronts, 527 Solar wind investigation of, 478–482, Snow definition of, 78, 102 479i–481i, 692–694, 693i after volcanic eruptions, 215 effects of, 102–103, 102i, 103i sea-level changes and, 694–696, in glacier formation, 454–455, 709 and star mass, 112–113, 113i 695i–696i in lahars, 212 Solstices, characteristics of, 655, 655i Siberia, craton formation in, 871 lake-effect, 619–620 Source rocks, definition of, 754 Sierra Nevada Batholith, formation snowmelt and stream discharge, 424 South America of, 876 in water cycle, 372–373, 379 Andes Mountains, 176, 180 Sierra Nevada (United States), rain Snowfall, investigation of, 610–611, El Niño conditions and, 604–607, shadow effect of, 618 614t 604i, 606i, 607g Snow line, definition of, 455 future location of, 194–195 Silica Soil Ring of Fire and, 142i and banded iron formations, See also Mass movement South American Plate, 175–176 914–917 characteristics of, 373, 443–446, South American Plate, subduction of, definition of, 203 443i, 445i, 446i, 495 175–176 as health hazard, 808 classification of, 443, 443i Southern Hemisphere in magma and lava, 202–205, in earthquakes, 252, 446 climate change and, 666–667 203t, 210–211, 888 formation of, 444, 963, 983–984 Coriolis effect in, 515–517, Silicate minerals investigation of, 399–400, 399i, 515i–517i, 622 characteristics of, 202–203, 278, 441–442 seasons in, 655, 655i, 782–783 288, 290–292, 291t as natural resource, 446 Southern oscillation (El Niño), definition of, 289 Soil horizons characteristics of, 605–607, in igneous rock, 288–292 characteristics of, 445, 445i 606i, 607g Silicon definition of, 445 South Pole in magma and lava, 202–203, 288 Soil moisture, definition of, 373 See also Antarctica United States deposits, 791i Solar eclipses, definition of, 64 global climate and, 666 Sills, definition of, 319 Solar energy/power investigation of, 682–685, Silt characteristics of, 781–785, 683i–684i characteristics of, 434–435, 434t 782i–785i Space Ennvironme t Center, and space investigation of, 399–400, 399i as energy source, 729, 732, 757 weather, 102 Siltstone, characteristics of, 300, 744 investigation of, 778–780, Space exploration Silurian Period, in geologic time scale, 779i–780i science connections, 124 922t, 926 solar technologies, 783–784, selected missions summary, 87t Silver, as native-element mineral, 278, 783i–784i, 846 Space Infrared Telescope Facility 278i Solar flares (SIRTF), mission description, 87t Simultaneous formation theory, of characteristics of, 97t, 101–102, Space weather, characteristics of, Moon formation, 59–60 102i 102–103
R60 EarthComm
EC_Natl_SE_Index.indd R60 7/15/11 1:45:58 PM Index
Species Strata, definition of, 299 definition of, 167 in ecological succession, 983–984 Stratigraphy, definition of, 334 investigation of, 163–166, and evolution, 948–953, 977, Stratovolcanoes, characteristics of, 164i,165i, 172–173, 172i 980–981 205, 205i of oceanic lithosphere, 175–176, extinction of, 970–973, 970i, Streak, definition of, 282 175i, 869–871 971i, 973i Stream discharge volcanic activity with, 884–885, Specific gravity, definition of, 282 characteristics of, 415–416, 416g, 885i Spectrometer 422–424, 819–820, 819i–820i Subduction zones definition of, 87 definition of, 415, 819 continental accretion at, 178–179, use of, 84, 87 investigation of, 410–413, 411t, 869–870, 873–878 Spectroscopy 413t definition of, 174 definition of, 87 Stream drainage investigation of, 172–173, 172i use in astronomy, 88–92, 119 characteristics of, 389–392, volcanic activity at, 176 Spectrum/spectra 389i–391i, 415–416, 416g Submergent coastlines, definition of, See also Electromagnetic spectrum glacial effects on, 462 491 definition of, 91 investigation of, 386–388, 387i Subsidence uses in astronomy, 91–92 Streams definition of, 333, 688 Speed, definition of, 45 See also Stream discharge from groundwater removal, 817 Spindletop Oil Field, history of, 758 definition of, 414 Subtropical jet stream Spoil glacial action on, 462 characteristics of, 519–520 definition of, 805 high-gradient, 414–416, 415i, definition of, 520 in reclamation, 807–808 416g, 494 Succession Spring tides, definition of, 62 investigation of, 408–413, definition of, 335 Squall lines 409i–410i, 411t, 413t ecological, 983–984 definition of, 552 low-gradient, 420–425, 420i–425i, in rock units, 335, 336–339 in tornado development, 552, 552i 494 Suess, Eduard, contracting Earth Stages (river), definition of, 423 meandering, 420–422, 421i, 422i theory of, 188–189 Stars sediment flow in, 434–439, 435i, Sulfur dioxide classification of, 109–110, 110t, 119 436g, 437i–439i from fossil fuel combustion, 744, definition of, 13 and water cycle, 422–423 771–772 distances and, 13–16 Stream table, modeling with, 408– as volcanic gas, 219–220, 884–885 investigation of, 10–11, 106–109, 409, 409i, 418–419, 419i, 433– Sulfuric acid, in acid rain, 771–772 108g, 109t 434, 433i, 453, 692–694, 693i Sumatra-Andaman earthquake life cycles of, 110–115, 111i–113i, Striations (2004), 260 119 definition of, 457 Sun as solar systems, 39–40 glacial, 457–458, 458i See also Solar energy/power; spectroscopy of, 91–92, 91g, 91i, Strike-slip faults, definition of, 326 Solar radiation 92i, 119 Strip mining, characteristics of, 806 data collection from, 90, 103 Stationary fronts Stromatolites as energy source, 98–100, 98i, characteristics of, 528, 528i characteristics of, 903–906, 781–785, 782i–784i definition of, 528 903i–906i, 976 fusion and, 37, 114–115, 125 Steady-state theory, definition of, 34 definition of, 903 and greenhouse effect, 673–674, Stellar black holes, definition of, 113 investigation of, 896–899, 673i, 674i Stillstand, definition of, 456 896i–899i insolation and, 782–783, 782i, 962 Storms Strong force, properties of, 502 investigation of, 83–87, 95–97, 96t, See also Cyclones Structural geology 97t, 650–654, 651i–654i investigation of, 534–537, See also Deformation; Rock units structure and characteristics, 9t, 535i–536i, 547–549, 548t, 549t science connections, 358 97–103, 97i–98i, 101g, thunderstorms. See Thunderstorms summary of, 353 102i–103i, 119, 888 tornadoes. See Tornadoes Sub-bituminous coal, formation and sunspots and solar flares, 101–103 tropical, 559, 559t properties of, 743–745 and tides, 62–63, 62i Storm surges Subduction Sun-Earth-Moon system characteristics of, 565, 567–568, and continent formation, 178–179, eclipses, 64, 64i 568g, 623 869–870, 873–878 formation of, 58–61 definition of, 565 gravity and, 57–58, 58i
R61 EarthComm
EC_Natl_SE_Index.indd R61 7/15/11 1:45:58 PM EarthComm
investigation of, 52–55, 54t, 55t Swift-Tuttle (comet), characteristics definition of, 873 lunar phases, 56–57, 57i of, 72t, 73 TERRA satellite, mission description, tides in, 61–63, 62i–63i Synclines, definition of, 327, 353 629 Sunspots Systems Terrestrial ecosystems, characteristics characteristics of, 101, 101g See also Earth systems; Ecosystems of, 961 investigation of, 95–97, 96t, 97t Earth systems evolution, 980–981 Terrestrial planets Supercell thunderstorms and plate tectonics, 260–261 definition of, 37 definition of, 552 origin and characteristics of, and tornado development, 552 T 37, 889–890 Supercontinents Talc, properties of, 276t, 281 Texas definition of, 192 Tambora volcano (Indonesia), Galveston hurricane (1900), 565 Pangea, 190–192, 190i–192i, 876 1815 eruption, 215, 220 petroleum production in, 758–759 predicted, 194–195, 194i–195i Tar sands, as energy source, 760 wind energy production, 785 theory of, 190–192, 876 Tazlina Glacier (Alaska), length of, Theories, laws and, 40, 264 Supergiant stars, life cycle of, 112–113 449 Thermal convection Supergroups, definition of, 870 Telescopes definition of, 159 Supernova(e) definition of, 14 and plate tectonics, 158–160, 160i definition of, 113 types and uses, 89–92, 103, 119 Thermal energy in star life cycle, 113–114, 115 Tempel-Tuttle (comet), orbit of, 78t geothermal, 730, 732, 732i, 757 Superposition, in geologic record, Temperature and mechanical energy, 854 333i, 334, 353, 715–716, 926 and climate change, 642–646, Thermocline Surface creep 675–676, 702–705 characteristics of, 592–593, 593g definition of, 468 definition of, 529 definition of, 592 in erosion, 468–469, 469i density and, 523, 525 in Pacific Ocean, 605–607 Surface currents (ocean) effects on rock, 308–309, 309i, Thermodynamics, first law of, 768 characteristics of, 576–579, 325–326, 326i, 744, 868, 870 Thermohaline circulation 576i–578i El Niño effects, 604–607, characteristics of, 664–665, 665i investigation of, 572–575, 604i–606i, 607g definition of, 665 573i–575i, 573t, 599–603, investigation of, 106–109, 108g, Thermometers, characteristics of, 529 600t, 601i, 603i 109t, 154–156, 155i, 156i, Thomson, J. J., atomic model of, 359, Surface mining, characteristics of, 512–513, 513i, 522–524, 523i, 359i 805–806, 805i–806i 524t, 582–584, 584i, 599–603, Threshold velocity, definition of, 436 Surface runoff 600t, 601i, 603g, 610–616, Thrust faults, definition of, 326 definition of, 374, 379 611i, 612t, 640–642, 641g, Thunderstorms and water table, 820 641i, 881–882 characteristics of, 622 Surface water latitude and, 617 development of, 538–540, and groundwater, 819–820 measurement of, 529 538i–539i investigation of, 811–813, 812i, and ocean circulation, 585–586, flash flooding from, 540–542, 833–836, 834i–835i 592–594, 593g, 604–607, 540i, 541i pollution of, 836–840, 836i–840i 604i–606i, 607g investigation of, 534–537, as water supply source, 816–817, and star characteristics, 91, 535i–536i 816i, 817i, 847 110–112 lightning and, 542–544, 542i–544i, Surface waves (seismic) and volcanic flows, 210–212 543t characteristics of, 227, 227i and wind formation, 513–514, tornado development and, definition of, 227 514i, 516–520 552–554, 552i investigation of, 230–232 Tension force Tibetan Plateau, suture zone location, Surtsey island (Iceland), succession definition of, 325 179, 179i on, 984 and faulting, 326 Tides Suspended load, definition of, 435 Tephra, definition of, 218 and deep ocean circulation, 587 Suspension Terminal moraines, definition of, 460 definition of, 61 definition of, 468 Terminus (glacier) investigation of, 54–55, 54t, 55t in erosion, 468–469, 469i actions on land, 460–461 and storm surges, 565 Suture zones, definition of, 179 definition of, 456 in Sun-Earth-Moon system, 61–63, S waves. See Secondary waves (S Terracing, definition of, 446 62i–63i, 118 waves) Terranes Time. See Geologic time and continental accretion, 873–878
R62 EarthComm
EC_Natl_SE_Index.indd R62 7/15/11 1:45:58 PM Index
Tin, deposits of, 791i, 796, 797 Tributary systems and mass movement, 401–404, Titan, atmosphere of, 887, 889 characteristics of, 389–392 401i–403i Tools, definition of, 457 definition of, 389 Underground mining, characteristics TOPEX/Poseidon satellite, data from, Trilobites, as index fossils, 338, 924i of, 807 602–603 TRMM satellite, mission description, United States Topographic maps 630 acid rain in, 765i, 771–772 definition of, 202 Tropical air masses, characteristics of, climate data, 611i, 612t–615t features of, 202 525–526, 526i coal production and consumption, investigation of, 200–202, 201i, Tropical cyclones 738t, 739t, 745 536–537, 536i See also Hurricanes electricity generation in, 393, 727t, slope and, 404 characteristics of, 561–562 733–734, 733i, 745 stream features, 386–388, 387i, definition of, 561 geologic history of, 346–349, 410–413 Tropical depressions, definition of, 346i–349i, 873–878, 873i, 874i Tornadoes 561 geologic maps of, 298i, 342–346, characteristics of, 550–551, Tropical Prediction Center, storm 344i, 345i 550i–551i, 551t, 623 classification, 561 hurricane patterns, 558t–560t development of, 552–554, Tropical rainforests, investigation of, lightning deaths and injuries, 543t 552i–554i 957–960, 958i–959i mineral deposits of, 790–791, frequency and distribution, Tropical storms 791i, 797 548–549, 548t, 549t definition of, 561 petroleum production and investigation of, 547–549, investigation of, 559, 559t consumption, 751t 548t, 549t Tropospheric Emission Spectrometer, physiographic regions of, 345–346 safety tips, 554 use of, 521 science connections, 358 Trace fossils, definition of, 937 Trunk streams thunderstorm patterns, 535i Trade winds characteristics of, 389–392, 390i tornadoes in, 548–549, 548t, 549t, characteristics of, 517, 517i, 623 definition of, 390 551 definition of, 517 Tsunamis volcanic activity of, 143, 205i and hurricanes, 564 characteristics of, 251, 260 United States Geological Survey Transform boundaries definition of, 251 crystal study by, 884 characteristics of, 141, 180–181, monitoring of, 251, 255 and earthquakes, 230 180i–181i Tundra, investigation of, 957–960, Universe definition of, 141 958i–959i definition of, 16 investigation of, 166–167, 166i Tunguska (Russia), 1908 impact distances in, 12–16 Transform faults event, 78 formation of, 32–40, 35i, 118 characteristics of, 180–181, Turbines investigation of, 29–31 180i–181i definition of, 730 size and scale of, 9–11, 12–16 science connections, 262 in electricity generation, 730–732, Unsaturated zone, of groundwater Transpiration 785, 854 system, 380–381, 380i, 381i definition of, 374, 381 Turbulence, definition of, 435 Uplift, definition of, 333 evapotranspiration, 474 TVS (tornado vortex signature), on Upwelling in water cycle, 381–382 radar, 554, 554i definition of, 578 Transposition, definition of, 310 Typhoons, hurricanes as, 561 effects of, 578–579 Travel-time curves, for earthquakes, and El Niño conditions, 604, 234, 234g U 606, 623 Tree rings Ultraviolet (UV) radiation Ural Mountains, as ancient collision investigation of, 640–641, dangers from, 88, 100–101, 100i zone, 192 641g, 641i definition of, 88 Uranium in paleoclimate study, 647 in star life cycle, 112 decay of, 125–126, 284, 928 Trenches Unconfined aquifers, definition of, in electricity generation, 730 definition of, 176 817 Uranus Mariana Trench, 589 Unconformities characteristics of, 9t, 13–14, 13i, oceanic, 175–176, 175i, 242, characteristics of, 335 14i, 37 589, 589i definition of, 335 orbit of, 46t Triassic Period, mass extinction in, Unconsolidated material Urban areas 971–972 definition of, 401 in climate change, 702 flash flooding in, 541
R63 EarthComm
EC_Natl_SE_Index.indd R63 7/15/11 1:45:58 PM EarthComm
Urban heat-island effect, definition Volcanic ash heating and cooling of, 619 of, 702 definition of, 218 hydroelectric power, 393, 729, 731 Urey, Harold, chemosynthesis hazards from, 218–220, 218i investigation of, 370–372, 582– hypothesis, 894–895 investigation of, 215–217, 216i, 584, 811–815, 812i–814i, Utah 216t, 217i 825–827, 827t, 833–836, Bingham Canyon Copper Mine, in pyroclastic flows, 211–212, 834i–835i 805, 805i 212i, 218–219 in lahars, 212 petroleum resources of, 760 science connections, 262 and landforms, 379, 438–439 Volcanic bomb, definition of, 218 in mantle, 883–885 V Volcanic gases pH of, 770–772, 770i Valley glaciers characteristics and hazards, 218– pollution of, 392, 836–840, characteristics of, 454–455, 455i 220, 218i, 674, 883–885 836i–840i definition of, 454 investigation of, 215–217, 216i, properties of, 375–377, 375i, 376i, Valleys 216t, 217i 770–772 rift. See Rift valleys outgassing, 886–888 and solar heating, 778–780, 779i, of streams, 414–415, 420–422 science connections, 262 783–784, 783i valley glaciers, 454–455, 455i Volcanic rock. See Igneous rock use and access, 828–830, Vega, solar system formation in, Volcanoes 828i–830i 39–40 ash from. See Volcanic ash volcanic gas origin, 219 Vegetation and climate change, 219–220, 667 water cycle. See Water cycle biome distribution, 958i–959i, definition of, 141 water treatment, 840–843, 961–963 distribution of, 141–144, 142i, 143i 840i–843i and coal formation, 742–744, formation of, 141–142, 144 Water budget, definition of, 819, 847 743i–744i gases from. See Volcanic gases Water cycle fossilization of, 937–939 hazards from, 210–212, 210i–212i, See also River systems and mass movement, 404 218–220, 218i definition of, 378 photosynthesis and, 675, 768–769, hot spots, 177–178, 178i, 885 glaciation in, 686 768i, 769g ice, 889 investigation of, 372–375, 372t, and soil formation, 444 investigation of, 136–139, 138t, 373i, 375i and wind erosion, 470 200–202, 201i, 208–210, 209t, models of, 372–375, 373i, 375i Velocity 215–217, 216i, 216t, 217i processes and components of, 373, definition of, 46 Krakatoa eruption, 133 378–382, 380i, 381i, 494, 622 and seismic waves, 235–236, summary of features, 256–257 streams and, 422–425 878, 878i topography and landforms of, volcanoes and, 219–220 and stream flow, 435–436 202–205, 203t, 204i–205i weather and, 531 and wind erosion, 466–467 undersea formation, 167–168, 168i Water masses Venus of Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, characteristics of, 9t, 13–14, 13i, W 596–597, 596t, 597g 14i, 37, 889–890 Walker circulation definition of, 585 orbit of, 46t characteristics of, 605–606, 606i ocean circulation and, 585–587, Vernal equinox, definition of, 26 definition of, 605 587i Very Large Baseline Array (VLBA) Warm fronts Watersheds. See Drainage basins telescope, characteristics of, 89 characteristics of, 527, 527i Water supplies and uses Viking Lander, Mars imaging, 890i definition of, 527 investigation of, 811–815, Vine, F. J., on seafloor spreading, 169 Washington state 812i–814i, 825–827, 827t Virginia, terranes of, 873, 873i flood basalts of, 877, 877i pollution of, 392, 836–840, Viscosity Mt. St. Helens eruption, 143 836i–840i definition of, 203 temperate forests of, 963i science connections, 852 and volcanic eruptions, 203–205, Waste, as energy source, 729, 732 sources and issues of, 816–821, 203t, 204i, 205i, 210–212 Water 816i–821i, 847 Visible spectrum, definition of, 88 See also Water cycle; Water vapor types of use, 828–829, 828i–829i Volcanic arcs conservation of, 818, 830, 830i water conservation, 818, 830, 830i characteristics of, 176, 869 distribution in hydrosphere, 372t water treatment, 840–843, investigation of, 172–173, 172i glacial, 458, 461–462 840i–843i groundwater. See Groundwater
R64 EarthComm
EC_Natl_SE_Index.indd R64 7/15/11 1:45:58 PM Index
Water table Weathering Wood, as energy source, 729, 732, See also Groundwater chemical, 444, 983–984 757, 757g characteristics of, 380–381, and climate change, 667, 675, 703 Work, and energy, 853–854 380i, 381i in early Earth rock cycle, 872, 914, definition of, 380, 820 917 X lowering of, 820–821, 821i physical, 288, 444, 983–984 Xeriscaping, definition of, 830 Water treatment, processes of, and soil formation, 444, 445i, X-ray telescope 840–843, 840i–843i 983–984 definition of, 89 Water vapor Wegener, Alfred, on continental drift, uses in astronomy, 87t, 89 definition of, 528 189–191, 189i–191i as greenhouse gas, 673–674, Wells Y 673i, 674i investigation of, 813–815, Year, length of, 55t in mantle, 883–885 813i–814i, 833–836, 834i–835i Year Without a Summer, and and volcanic eruptions, 219–220, for water supply, 817, 821, 821i Tambora eruption, 215 883–885 Wilson cycle, of supercontinents, 192 Yellowstone National Park (U.S.A.) in water cycle, 378–379, 381–382, Wind energy/power hot spot at, 177–178, 178i 531 characteristics of, 785, 785i, 846, volcanic ash from, 218 Watts, definition of, 853 854 Yucatán Peninsula (Mexico), Wavelength investigation of, 778, 780–781, Chicxulub Crater, 72t, 73, definition of, 32 780i 972–973, 973i and electromagnetic spectrum, Wind(s) 87–92, 88i, 91g, 91i, 92i See also Atmosphere Z use in astronomy, 32–33, 35 and arid environments, 474–475, Zircon, characteristics of, 869, 928, Waves 474i–475i 928i characteristics of, 482–483, 483i definition of, 513 Zone of ablation, definition of, 455 Doppler effect and, 32–33 deposition by, 472–473, 473i Zone of accumulation, definition of, investigation of, 223–225, 224i, and El Niño conditions, 605–607, 455 225i, 478–482, 479i–481i 606i, 607g ocean. See Ocean waves as energy source. See Wind and wind stress, 594–595 energy/power Weak force, properties of, 502 erosion by, 468–471, 469i–471i, Weather 495 See also Air masses global. See Global winds and air mass movement, 525–526, high-altitude, 518–520, 518i–520i 526i in hurricanes, 561, 563, 565–568, climate versus, 617 565i, 568g data collection, 524, 524t, investigation of, 465–468, 467t, 629–630 512–513, 513i, 574–575, 574i, definition of, 508, 529 575i Earth’s orbit and, 48, 48i measurement of, 529 elements of, 524t, 529–531, pressure and, 513–514, 514i 529i–531i science connections, 500 fronts, 519, 526–528, 527i–528i and volcanic eruptions, 218 investigation of, 522–524, 523i, Wind shear, definition of, 550 524t, 610–616, 611i, 612t–615t Wind stress science connections, 628 definition of, 594 sunspot activity and, 103 and ocean surface, 594–595 water cycle in, 531 Windward side, definition of, 618
R65 EarthComm
EC_Natl_SE_Index.indd R65 7/15/11 1:45:58 PM EarthComm
Photo Credits
Nature of Science NS1 James McEntee; NS2 AGI/Laura Middaugh-Rios; NS3 (left) iStockphoto.com/mrloz; (right) iStockphoto.com/lisegagne; NS4 wikimedia; NS5 iStockphoto.com/Baloncici; NS6 (left) wikimedia; (right) flickr.com/spullara; NS7–NS9 NASA; NS10 PhotoDisc; NS11 (bottom left) wikimedia/Bernhard; (bottom right) wikimedia/Justin Hobson; NS12 (top) © 2007 Nancy Nehring. All rights reserved; (bottom right) © Mark Hughes - Fotolia.com
Chapter 1 1 PhotoDisc; 2 NASA; 3 123RF.com/Derrick Neill; 7 PhotoDisc; 10 NASA; 15 (Figure 3) NASA; 20 NASA and the Hubble Heritage Tea4 m; 2 wikimedia; 26 NASA/Shay Stephens; 27 iStockphoto.com/bpalmer; 30 NASA; 34 NOAA; 36 (Figure 5) NASA and European Space Agency, A. Dupree and Ronald Gilliand; (Figure 6) NASA and the Hubble Heritage Team; 37 Digital Vision Royalty Free Images: Astronomy and Space; 39–40, 42 NASA; 47, 55 PhotoDisc; 59 Digital Stock Corporation Royalty Free Images: Space Exploration; 60 Digital Vision Royalty Free Images: Astronomy and Space; 66 wikimedia/Samuel Wantman; 67 PhotoDisc; 73 USGS; 75 NASA and National Space Science Data Center; 77 Digital Stock Corporation Royalty Free Images: Space Exploration; 80 NASA; 82 PhotoDisc; 86 iStockphoto.com/domin_domin; 89 Dave Westpfahl, New Mexico Tech University, and Dave Finely, National Radio Astronomy Observatory; 90 NASA; 94 PhotoDisc; 99 Digital Stock Corporation Royalty Free Images: Background From Nature; 100 NASA Goddard Space Flight Center; 102 Digital Stock Corporation Royalty Free Images: Space Exploration; 103 PhotoDisc; 107 dreamstime.com/Monte Comeau; 110 Susan Tereby, Extrasolar Research Group, NASA, and National Space Science Data Center; 112 (Figure 3) Hui Yang, University of Illinois and NASA; (Figure 4) European Southern Observatory; 113 (Figures 5A and 5C) European Southern Observatory; (Figure 5B) Pat Harrington at University of Maryland (Figure 6) Jeff Hester and Paul Scowen, Arizona State University, NASA, and National Space Science Data Center; 115, 117 NASA; 122 NASA; 124 (top to bottom) bigstockphoto.com/EllenHenneke; Corbis/Marty Snyderman; NOAA’s Space Weather Prediction Center; iStockphoto.com/nico_blue; NASA; 125 NASA; 126 (top) Tomas Bunk; (bottom) iStockphoto.com/Peter Zigich; 130 NASA
Chapter 2 132–133 National Archives and Records Administration; 135 Copyright © Krafft/Explorer/Photo Researchers, Inc; 141 (left) iS tockphoto.com/JulienGrondin; (right) NOAA; 143 NASA; 145 wikimedia/Ian Kluft; 147 wikimedia; 151 iStockphoto.com/ HKPNC; 152 USGS; 156 (sandstone, basalt) Richard Busch; (granite) Doug Sherman, Geo File Photography; 157 wikimedia/ PRHaney; 159 iStockphoto.com/AWEvans; 162 iStockphoto.com/buchwerkstatt_com; 177 NOAA; 178 Jim Peaco, National Park Service; 182 PhotoDisc; 184 P. Rona, NOAA, OAR/National Undersea Research Program (NURP); 189 flickr.com/l0b0; 196 Copyright © Krafft/Explorer/Photo Researchers, Inc.; 197 NASA; 204 (Figure 1) Jim D. Griggs USGS HVO;r (Figu e 2) Gary Smith; 205 (Figures 3 and 4) University of Colorado; (Figure 5) Gary Smith; 210 USGS; 211 Jim D. Griggs USGS HVO. 1989, 1990; 212 (Figure 4) Department of Natural Resources, State of Washington; 217 USGS; 221 fotolia.com/oni; 229 courtesy Veritas DGC, Inc.; 232 flickr.com/United Nations Development Programme; 233 Bruce Molina; 235 iStockphoto .com/cheyennezj; 241 NASA; 244 Peter Borman; 246 iStockphoto.com/kickers; 247 flickr.com/newbeat photo; 250 iStockphoto .com/Xieyouding; 251 iStockphoto.com/McCaig; 255 USGS; 260 (top) wikimedia/Hugo; (bottom) NASA; 261 wikimedia/ Roman Gridin/Claas; 262 (top to bottom) NASA; flickr.com/jeromematthew; USGS; flickr.com/nickandmel2006; PhotoDisc; 263 NASA; 264 fotolia.com/Sven Meyer
Chapter 3 270 Copyright © 2006 m cohen; 271 wikimedia/Watstinwoods; 273 wikimedia/Watstinwoods; 275 (A, D, G, I–L) Richard Busch; (B, F) Doug Sherman, Geo File Photography; (C) USGS; (E) wikimedia/Parent Géry; (G) wikimedia/Beatrice Murch; (H) wikimedia/Rob Lavinsky; 277 wikimedia/DaBler; 278 (Figure 2) Richard Busch; (Figure 3) Doug Sherman, Geo File Photography; 279 Doug Sherman, Geo File Photography; 281–283 Doug Sherman, Geo File Photography; 285, 287 Richard Busch; 288 PhotoDisc; 290 Royalty Free Images, Dynamic Graphics-Rocks, Marble, Granite; 292–293 Richard Busch; 294 (top left) AGI Photo CD; (top right) National Park Service; (bottom) Susan Gibian, 2004; 296 Richard Busch; 297 flickr.com/ Jason Riedy; 298 USGS; 299–300 Bruce Molina; 301 Robert McMahon; 303 PhotoDisc; 304 (top) Richard Busch; (bottom) PhotoDisc; 306 Richard Busch; 307 John Karachewski; 309 Bruce Molina; 310 John Karachewski; 311 Richard Busch; 312 Richard Busch; 313 PhotoDisc; 316–317 American Association of Petroleum Geologists and USGS; 31F 9 ( igure 1) Bruce Molina; (Figure 2) Basil Tikoff; 323 Caitlin Callahan; 326 AGI Photo CD; 327 (Figure 3) Michael Smith; (Figure 4a) Maryland Geological Survey; (Figure 4b) Hannah Thomas; 320 (top) Michelle Markley; (bottom) John Karachewski; 333 AGI Photo CD; 334 (Figure 2) AGI Photo CD; (Figure 3) Michelle Markley; 335 (Figure 4a) John Karachewski; (Figure 4b) Bruce Molina; 344 Philip B. King and Helen M. Beikman, 1974; 346 PhotoDisc; 348 (Figure 2) Geological Survey of Canada, Natural Resources Canada; (Figure 3) wikimedia/Ken Thomas; 349 PhotoDisc; 350 iStockphoto.com/lubilub; 351 wikimedia/Ken Thomas; 356 (left) wikimedia/Curtis Clark; (right) wikimedia/Marc Shandro; 358 (bottom four listed top to bottom) flickr.com/Andrew Ciscel; flickr.com/Kevin Walsh; iStockphoto.com/JulienGrondin; fotolia.com/Low Aik Leng
R66 EarthComm
EC_Natl_SE_Index.indd R66 7/15/11 1:45:58 PM Photo Credits
Chapter 4 365 wikimedia/Jeff Cremer; 367 (bottom) iStockphoto.com/abooyeung; (background) iStockphoto.com/Cheryl Casey; 368 (left) fotolia.com/Robert Ulph; (right) PhotoDisc; 369 fotolia.com; 376 Jon Brack/National Science Foundation; 377 wikimedia/Andreas Tille; 379 PhotoDisc; 382 wikimedia/Pseudopanax; 383 wikimedia/Wing-Chi Poon; 385 U.S. government; 387 (left) USGS; (right) PhotoDisc; 388 PhotoDisc; 390 (Figure 2) AGI Photo CD; (Figure 3) NASA; 392–395 PhotoDisc; 396 USGS; 401 PhotoDisc; 402 flickr.com/icelight; 403 R.L. Schuster, USGS; 405 wikimedia/Nigel Rossiter (Totnes Solutions); 407 FEMA; 409 Caitlin Callahan; 410 USGS; 411 Culbertson Museum, Culbertson, MT; 412 Upper Midwest Environmental Science Center, USGS; 414 Adobe Image Library, Water Everywhere; 416 USGS; 417 City of Austin, Texas; 419 Caitlin Callahan; 420, 422 PhotoDisc; 423 wikimedia/Phillip Capper; 424 Vern Whitten Photography, Fargo, North Dakota; 425, 427 PhotoDisc; 431 wikimedia/Sean O’Flaherty; 433 Caitlin Callahan; 437 PhotoDisc; 438–439 NASA; 442 istockphoto.com/ DawnPoland; 444–445 PhotoDisc; 446 Historic National Weather Service, NOAA, and U.S. Public Health Service; 448 City of Austin, Texas; 454 wikimedia/Lyubomir Ivanov; 455 wikimedia/Dirk Beyer; 456–457 Copyright © Bruce Molnia, Terra Photographics; 458 (Figure 7) wikimedia/Walter Siegmund; (Figure 8) wikimedia/Poschi; 459 NASA; 460–461 Copyright © Bruce Molnia, Terra Photographics; 464 iStockphoto.com/michaelofiachra; 466 wikimedia/Ragesoss; 467 wikimedia/Leaflet; 470 (Figure 2) Copyright © Larry Fellows; (Figure 3) Copyright © Bruce Molnia, Terra Photographics; 471 (Figure 4) wikipedia/Hamish2k; (Figure 5) NASA; 472 wikimedia/Thomas Schoch; 473 (Figure 8) wikimedia/Ikiwaner; (Figure 9) Copyright © Marli Miller, University of Oregon; 474 (left) wikimedia/stan; (right) Copyright © Bruce Molnia, Terra Photographics; 475 NASA; 476 wikimedia/Espresso Addict; 477 wikimedia/Jim Gordon; 482 NASA; 485 wikimedia/Paul Lee; 487 (Figure 7) wikimedia/Alex Sheppard; (Figure 8) wikimedia/Jim Champion; 488 (Figure 9) Copyright © Bruce Molnia, Terra Photographics; (Figure 10) wikimedia/Antonov14; 489 (Figure 11) wikimedia/Mathieu Allory; (Figure 12) NASA; 490 (Figure 13) Copyright © Michael Collier; (Figure 14) Courtesy National Park Service; 492 (left) Copyright © Michael Collier; (right) Marli Miller, University of Oregon ; 498 (top) Zacharie Grossen; (bottom) NASA; 500 (top to bottom) wikimedia/ Eeekster; wikimedia/Ginko100; USGS; flickr.com/Geoff Livingston; NASA; 501 USGS; 502 iStockphoto.com/archives and iStockphoto.com/Lucato
Chapter 5 507 flickr.com/Pierre-Olivier Carles and iStockphoto.com/michealofiachra; 508–509 Copyright © 2005 by Rimas Zilinskas. All rights reserved; 509 bigstockphoto.com/Judy Lyon; 511, 521 NASA; 529 (left) flickr.com/Paul Englefield; (right) flickr.com/Badrinath M; 531 flickr.com/Sally Hunter; 532 Digital Stock Royalty Free Images CD; 533 wikimedia/Walter Siegmund; 538–539 Digital Stock Royalty Free Images CD; 541 PhotoDisc; 542–543 Digital Stock Royalty Free Images CD; 544 PhotoDisc; 546 Digital Stock Royalty Free Images CD; 551 PhotoDisc; 552 Digital Stock Royalty Free Images CD; 556 iStockphoto.com/clintspencer; 559 FEMA/Jocelyn Augustino; 561 NASA; 566 NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center Scientific Visualization Studio; 567 (Figure 8) NOAA; (Figure 9) FEMA/Andrea Booher; (Figure 10) NOAA; 573 Jim White and Curt Ebbesmeyer, BeachCombers Alert!; 581 PhotoDisc; 586 NOAA/Rear Admiral Harley D. Nygren; 589, 590 NOAA; 591 P. Rona, NOAA, OAR/National Undersea Research Program (NURP); 592 NOAA; 594 NOAA, Dr. Robert Embley; 598 NOAA; 603 from “Rise and Fall of the ’97–’98 El Niño as Tracked by TOPEX/POESEIDON.” NASA/JPL, CNES; 605 Jorge Tapia; 609 fotolia.com/Alexandre Quillet; 618 Bruce Molina; 619 Doug Sherman; 620 flickr.com/Nicholas_T; 626 (top) wikimedia/Jason Auch; (bottom) wikimedia/Rolf van Melis; 628 (top to bottom) iStockphoto.com/doug4537; wikimedia/ Adrian Michael; flickr.com/andybullock77; NASA; NOAA; 629 NASA; 630 (top) NASA/Mark Schoeberl; (bottom) U.S. Navy photo by Mass Communication Specialist 3rd Class Kenneth R. Hendrix; 634 iStockphoto.com/MvH
Chapter 6 635 USGS; 636–637 PhotoDisc; 637 (top) iStockphoto.com/acilo; (bottom) iStockphoto.com/David Parsons; 639 Copyright © 2005 Joseph F. Nickischer; 641 courtesy of Laboratory of Tree Ring Research, University of Tennessee; 644 National Science Foundation; 646 Bruce Molina; 649 flickr.com/John Moonjazz; 664 courtesy of Walter Smith, NASA, and David Sandwell, Scripps Institution of Oceanography; 666 Mark Twickler, Institute for the Study of Earth, Oceans, and Space, University of New Hampshire; 667 Barbara Zahm; 669 Bruce Molina; 677 Doug Sherman, Geo File Photography; 679 PhotoDisc; 683–684 images by Paul Morin, Richard Peltier; 686 PhotoDisc; 687 iStockphoto.com/Amriphoto; 689 wikimedia/L. Chang; 691 Rachael and Zachary Bernstein; 694 PhotoDisc; 696 NASA/Dave Pape; 697 flickr.com/InAweofGod’sCreation; 699 USGS; 704 Bruce Molina; 705 Michael Smith; 707 (top) Stockphoto.com/sharply_done; 712 (top) wikimedia/Arnoldius; (bottom) NASA; 714 (middle three listed top to bottom) wikimedia/Lamba; National Science Foundation; wikimedia/ Bruno de Giusti; 716 iStockphoto.com/GlobalP
R67 EarthComm
EC_Natl_SE_Index.indd R67 7/15/11 1:45:58 PM EarthComm
Chapter 7 721 PhotoDisc; 722 iStockphoto.com/kawisign; 723 Comstock Images; 725 wikimedia/Isofoton.es; 728 It’s About Time/ Matthew Buco; 729 Digital Stock Royalty Free Images; 731–732 Bureau of Economic Geology, source: Energy Information Agency; 735 wikimedia/Dani 7C3; 737 (photos) Doug Sherman, Geo File Photography; (map) Bureau of Economic Geology, source: Energy Information Agency; 741 Digital Vision Royalty Free Images; 746 Peter Warwick, USGS; 753 Bureau of Economic Geology at the University of Texas at Austin; 755 flickr.com/Napalm filled tires (Jason); 756i D gital Vision Royalty Free Images; 758 flickr.com/Wyoming: Upper Green River Valley; 759 flickr.com/Michael “Mike” L. Baird bairdphotos .com; 760 U.S. DOE; 761 U.S. Navy/Andrew M. Meyers; 763 wikimedia/Walter Siegmund; 771 Doug Sherman, Geo File Photography; 773 (Figure 5) NOAA; (Figure 6) Alaska.gov; 774 (left) NASA; (right) U.S. Coast Gaurd; 775 NASA; 784 flickr .com/www.solardave.com/; 785 (Figure 4) PhotoDisc; (Figure 5) Bureau of Economic Geology at the University of Texas at Austin; 793 wikimedia/Johann H. Addicks; 794 (Figure 1) flickr.com/lucianvenutian; (Figure 2) Doug Sherman, Geo File Photography; 795 USGS; 796 ASARCO; 797 USGS; 798 (Figure 6) Burmar Technical Corporation; (Figure 7) George Springston, Vermont Geological Survey; 799 Michelle Markley; 802 Atlantic-Richfield Company (ARCO); 805 wikimedia/ Spencer Musick; 806 (Figure 2) Peter Warwick, USGS; (Figure 3) iStockphoto.com/lubilub; 807 ASARCO; 808 Gold Institute; 810 Mark Snyder Photography; 816 (Figure 1) flickr.com/Pam Broviak; (Figure 2) flickr.com/Natalie Lucier; 817 (Figure 3) wikimedia/PRA; (Figure 4) USGS; 818 California Department of Water Resources; 819 PhotoDisc; 827 iStockphoto.com/ mustafa deliormanli; 829 (Figure 2) Doug Sherman, Geo File Photography; (Figure 3) PhotoDisc; (Figure 4) Martin Muller; 830 (Figure 5) California Department of Water Resources; (Figure 6) South Florida Water Management District; 832 PhotoDisc; 836–838 California Department of Water Resources; 839 (Figure 4) Maureen Keller, Bigelow Laboratory for Ocean Sciences; (Figure 5) California Department of Water Resources; 840 California Department of Water Resources; 841 Bruce Molnia; 843 iStockphoto.com/chimmy; 850 wikimedia/Stan Shebs; 852 (top to bottom) flickr.com/wackybadger; flickr .com/fairlightworks; wikimedia/Samuel.north; Danielle Buchat-Friedman; flickr.com/egan snow; 853 iStockphoto/seanami; 854 (top) wikimedia/Marcus Wong; (bottom) PhotoDisc; 856 U.S. Air Force/Nadine Y. Barclay; 858 wikimedia/Stefan Kühn
Chapter 8 859–860 NASA; 861 wikimedia/Michael Ströck; 863 NASA; 865–866 USGS; 868 (Figure 1) AGI; (Figure 2) Richard Busch; 872 AGI; 879 NASA; 880 wikimedia/Rob Lavinsky/iRocks.com; 882 AGI; 883 iphot1.com/TaniFin; 884 (Figure 2) NASA; (Figure 3) USGS; 885 (Figure 5) USGS; 887 AGI; 889–890, 892 NASA; 895 Jonathan Frazier; 896 NASA; 897 Fossilmall .com; 898 Bill Schopf; 899 (left) Ralf Wagner (Dusseldorf), Mark Schneegurt (Wichita State University), and Cyanosite (www-cyanosite.bio.purdue.edu); (right) Isao Inouye (University of Tsukuba), Mark Schneegurt (Wichita State University), and Cyanosite (www-cyanosite.bio.purdue.edu); 900 (left) Jonathan Frazier; (right) wikimedia/Spencer Diamond; 901 (Figure 3) Photodisc; 903 John and Ann Mahan; 904 (Figure 5) EPA; (Figure 6) wikimedia/Christian Fischer; 906 (Figure 8) Beatriz Ribeiro da Luz, USGS; (Figure 9) flickr.com/robertpaulyoung; 908 NASA; 911 (top) Robert Buchwaldt; (middle left) Glen Archer/Australian Outback Mining Pty. Ltd.; (middle right) wikimedia/Woudloper; (bottom left) wikimedia/Wilson44691; (bottom right) Sarah Hanson; 913 flickr.com/tanakawho; 920 (left) Fahad Sulehria/novacelestia.com; (middle) Jessica Whiteside, Brown University; (right) NASA; 924 (Figure 1) flickr.com/fridgeirsson; (Figure 2, left) Carles Salom, salomart .com (Figure 2, right) iStockphoto.com/ScottOrr; 928 (Figure 6) flickr.com/dsearls; (Figure 7) wikimedia/Rob Lavinsky/ iRocks.com; 929 (Figure 8) flickr.com/iluvcocacola; (Figure 9) wikimedia/High Contrast; (Figure 10) flickr.com/Shandchem; 931 wikimedia/Woudloper; 937 (Figure 2) Doug Sherman, Geo File Photography; (Figure 3) Bruce Molnia; 938, 940 Doug Sherman, Geo File Photography; 948 wikimedia/Martinowksy; 949 flickr.com/amandabhslater; 950 (Figure 3) flickr.com/Ryan Somma; (Figure 4, left) flickr.com/Derek Keats; (Figure 4, middle) flick.com/alh1; (Figure 4, right) flickr.com/Michael R Perry; 952 (Figure 7) flickr.com/sybarite48; 954 wikimedia/Steve Childs; 955 wikimedia/Woudloper; 956 wikimedia/Wilson44691; 958 (tundra) PhotoDisc; (desert) Digital Vision Royalty Free Images: North American Landscapes; (chaparral and mountain zones) PhotoDisc; (grassland and taiga) Bruce Molnia; (tropical rainforest and temperate evergreen forest) Doug Sherman, Geo File Photography; 959 (temperate deciduous forest) Doug Sherman, Geo File Photography; (polar ice) Mark Twickler, Institute for the Study of Earth, Oceans and Space, University of New Hampshire; 961 PhotoDisc; 962 Digital Vision Royalty Free Images: American Highlights; 963 (Figure 4) Doug Sherman, Geo File Photography; (Figure 5) PhotoDisc; 964 PhotoDisc; 965 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Library; 968 (top) Cody Arenz, Nebraska Wesleyan University; (bottom) Bill Forbes, Biology Department, Indiana University of Pennsylvania; 969 (top left) Florida Museum of Natural History; (top right and bottom left) courtesy of Smithsonian Institution; (bottom right) University of California Museum of Paleontology; 970 Doug Sherman, Geo File Photography; 971 courtesy of Smithsonian Institution; 973 courtesy of Geological Survey of Canada; 975 Donald Davis; 980 (top) wikimedia/Serge Ouachée; (bottom) wikimedia/Joxerra Aihartza; 982 (top to bottom) wikmedia/Navicore; USGS; wikimedia/Whpq; wikimedia/Kristian Peters; wikimedia/JoJan; 983 wikimedia/Forest & Kim Starr; 984 (top) NOAA; (bottom) © ARCTIC IMAGES/Alamy; 987 wikimedia/OldakQuill; 988 wikimedia/André Karwath
R68 EarthComm
EC_Natl_SE_Index.indd R68 7/15/11 1:45:59 PM Publlishing Team
®
333 North Bedford Road, Mount Kisco, NY 10549 Phone (914) 273-2233 Fax (914) 206-6444 www.IAT.com
Publishing Team Co-Presidents Tom Laster and Laurie Kreindler
Director of Creative Director Production/Studio Product Development John Nordland Manager Barbara Zahm, Ph.D. Dana Turner Assistant Art Director Layout Artist Project Development Editor Mauricio Gonzalez MaryBeth Schulze Ruta Demery Creative Artwork Assistant Layout Artists Project Manager Tomas Bunk Andy Brown Matthew Buco Equipment Kit Developers Patrick McCarthy Editors Dana Turner Kleber Santos Matthew Buco Henry Garcia Videographer Jillian McKiernan Jason Harris Indexer Assistant Editors Caryn Sobel Illustrators Michael Axon Sean Campbell Translators Daniel Wolff Marie Killoran Carmen Cruz-Quñones Cora Roman Quality Control Editor Carmencita Estrada-Carráu MaryBeth Schulze Alexander Mari Jason Skinner
Writer Prepress Jean Pennycook Marie Killoran MaryBeth Schulze
R69 EarthComm