CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
Local Non-Government Organizations (NGOs) are one of the important institutions for local development. They are playing significant role directly and indirectly in the development of local communities since long time back. These organizations work as catalyst for pooling resources both human and natural in a collective manner in order to fulfill local needs of local communities. The process of local development cannot accelerate without giving due attention to the viable local organizations.
Rural development concerns basically with improving quality of life of the rural people. This implies the involvement of rural poor in the development process and requires participation of local people in decision-making process and implementation of decisions. The productivity and self-reliance of rural region can only be increased when the mobilization of local energies and use of local resources are made. It requires the organization of local people (United Nations Development Program [UNDP], 1979). In essence, rural development is a strategy designed to improve the economic and social life of the rural poor. It involves the flow of benefits of development to the poorest among those who seek a livelihood in rural areas. The poorest group may include small/peasant farmers, tenants and landless people (World Bank, 1975). In this regard, rural development is basically concerned with improving quality of life of the mass of the subsistence population residing in rural areas and making the process of their development self sustaining and self reliance (Lele, 1975). This goal, however, cannot be achieved without mobilizing the local resources, involving local people in overall development processes and institutionalizing the local people’s organizations. Therefore, development in the present context is perceived as a process by which the members of a society can increase their personal as well as institutional capacity to mobilize and manage local resources in order to produce sustainable and justly distributed benefits.
1 In developing world, the development paradigms have been changed one after another since the 1950s. The development strategy in the 1950s witnessed growth as natural and therefore, more or less inevitable process. Growth was seen mainly as a function of investment and large-scale industry. Harrod-Domar's model of capital-output ratio, Rostow's notion of 'leading sector', Hirschman's 'unbalanced growth' and Lewis's insistence on 'unlimited supplies of labour' and the importance of capital accumulation in the modern sector of the economy, for instance, provided theoretical explanation on urban industrial development (Economic and Social Commission on Asia and Pacific [ESCAP], 1979). The assumption inherent in these models was that huge investment in industrial sector promotes economic growth in rural areas and the overall benefits would then trickle down to the bottom layers of the society. However, these could not succeed largely as expected because accelerated per capita income alone in absolute term could not minimize the gap between poor and rich. In the 1970's, the rural development strategy shifted towards 'basic needs' or 'redistribution with growth' approach, which put emphasis on greater equity in benefit distribution of the national development efforts. As a result, the governments of the developing nations adopted this approach within national plans to raise the access of majority of poor people for the basic services. The provision of basic services however, remained a difficult task in those nations, mainly due to the lack of appropriate mechanism to absorb the given services and capacity to mobilize available resources efficiently. In addition, most of these countries misinterpreted the basic needs approach as a supply driven static programme and thus largely excusing themselves from the responsibility of generating additional employment and income-earning, on the one hand and from the responsibility of devolving authority for people's empowerment on the other (Nepal South Asia Centre [NSAC], 1998). The strategy designed for rural development in the early 1980s was "integrated rural development" programs advocated by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), which emphasized a system approach to rural development planning. The program also greatly suffered from the lack of grass root people's own organization to absorb the services provided from the government structure, among many other problems.
Failure of state led development efforts informed by top-down, modernization or technology transfer paradigms together with market oriented models led the whole
2 development discourse to a shift in new direction. Almost five decades of “development efforts” have driven the beneficiary communities towards even more dependency.
Primarily the 'basic needs' or 'redistribution with growth' found to have highlighted the need for decentralized planning and administration instead of centralization. However, decentralization was perceived in terms of top-down transfer of authority within a governmental framework. The idea behind decentralization is that moving decision making closer to people will lead to better public decisions that reflect local priorities. It is only possible to involve community members in local development that have devolved authority, resources and decision making at spatial (areal) unit. In addition, they exert influence on government decision-making and gain collective bargaining power through their networks, association and federation (World Bank, 2002). The new development approach i.e. participatory decentralization thus has emerged in the last two decades particularly with the initiation of international agencies such as World Bank.
Since the 1990s onwards, principle development strategy of most of the development agencies has been participatory through local organization building. Since then, these local organizations have been focusing the target groups who are to be benefited from the development. The development through local organization assumes that the efforts, resourcefulness, self-discipline and latent management skills of the rural poor can be mobilized and organized through their own organization (Uphoff, Esman & Krishna, 2001). This strategy greatly emphasizes on the rural people and their participation in every stage of planning processes and believes the designation of development programs from below rather than top, and by the people rather than for the people. For this reason, effective organization of the rural people at the local level needs to be promoted and strengthened to enhance the rural development activities. It can also put pressure on organizations to respond to locally identified priority needs, and solve local problems collectively through local resource mobilization and participation.
In Nepal, planned development efforts began since the 1950s. Then after series of plans and development measures have been undertaken to develop the rural areas and raise the living condition of the rural people. Those plans and policies initiated to
3 institutionalize the local community through people's participation materialised only since the beginning of the 1980's.
Especially after the demolition of Panchayati political system in 1990, the policy of institutional pluralism was introduced and then NGOs have become as a main partner of development (Gurung, 1998) in the sense that these can complement to or substitute for or compete with local government bodies.
1.2 Statement of the Problems
Past development experiences in Asian developing countries including Nepal indicate an inadequate institutional framework as the major weakness on the effective implementation of rural development programmes (Jha, 1987). Reviewing the past development initiatives their outcomes, national planers and policy makers as well as concerned international agencies were motivated to seek out alternative or complementary development approaches capable of enhancing the quality of life of the vast majority of rural poor. Such growing realization pushed development practitioner towards participatory development through local organization building, which enable rural people to pool their resources for positive development actions, and embark upon a process of local people’s participation in benefit sharing, resource mobilization and awareness building. Moreover, these organizations make possible to use local indigenous knowledge and technology depending upon mutual trust and cooperation for the betterment of their life.
Rural development is the most challenging task for the development planners in Nepal where almost 86 percent of the total population reside. Since the 1950's as stated above the country has been focusing on development of rural areas through periodic plans. But the achievements of the efforts have been quite unsatisfactory. Majority of the rural people still live in absolute poverty. Even the minimum basic needs such as food, clothes, shelter, health, education and safe drinking water have not been adequate. Poverty, unemployment, food shortage, low level of infrastructure and services, social exclusiveness, feudal thinking and low coverage of institutional mechanism are some of the major problems of rural Nepal (Dias, 1985).
4 However, the rural people of Nepal have been adopting development efforts for centuries through self- help and community efforts throughout the country. Large networks of trails, elaborated irrigation schemes, drinking water systems, etc. have been built and maintained by them without any external support. The most interesting matter is the system of raising necessary resources to operate and maintain these facilities (Pradhan, 1982). The rural people have learned to have a livelihood with co- operation and mutual trust, which have been most important social capital. The ideas and technologies they adapted either individually or collectively for sustaining their livelihood exist till now.
To date, there have been few studies at local level that analyze the specific structure and function of the local organizations in terms of resource use and capacity building. The issue still requires the clarification of their appropriate structure, role and importance for rural development to determine how they can be used for the benefit of the majority of rural people. Their possible contributions to the planning processes including benefit sharing and resource mobilization at the local level, their impact on the development of the rural areas, their functioning as enabling rural people to increase claim-making capabilities and to put pressure on organizations to solve local problems through collective voices are not realized yet. The present study, therefore, seeks to depict the structure and function of Non Government Local Organizations (NGLOs) involved in local development activities and factors related to their success or failure. In this context, following research questions have been raised:
What is the development pattern of Local Organizations (LOs) in Nepal in general and in Palpa in particular?
What is the relationship between organizational features of Non Government Local Organizations (NGLOs) and activities for local development?
How much various NGLOs have made contributions to local development in terms of human, economic and social perspective?
What are the problems and potentials of NGLOs in the context of local development?
5 1.3 Objectives of the Study
The main objective of this research is to analyze the contributions of NGLOs to the growth and development of rural Nepal. In consonance with the main objective, the specific objectives of the study are;
to analyze the development pattern of local organizations in Nepal in general and in Palpa in particular,
to explore the organizational features of NGLOs,
to assess the contributions of NGLOs to local development in terms of human, economic and social aspects in the study area, and
to analyze the problems and potentials of NGLOs in local development.
1.4 Assumptions of the Study
The following assumptions have been formulated to gain the basic understanding of the relationships between structure, contributions of NGLOs and their problems and prospects in the context of local development.
Development occurs differentially at different locations in an area.
Road as one of the infrastructure plays role to impact on development.
Local organizations as an agent plays role in development within the local area.
Local development organizations vary in type depending on the locally available resources, besides other factors such as size of population and their type and capacity, etc.
Success of local development activities largely depends upon how efficiently the NGLOs utilize the available physical, human and financial resources.
NGLOs provide suitable forum for local people to influence decision making on their behalf through their common voice.
6 1.5 Significance of the Study
The study attempts to explore the relationships between organizational features of NGLOs and its contribution to rural development in western hill region of Nepal. It also makes endeavor at understanding the strategies of cooperation of local people for local resource mobilization. The available literature suggests that there has been no such studies conducted so far in the area in question and it would be a unique literature of this kind particularly in the context of hill region. This in-depth study helps to explore and understand the existing scenario of hill region in relation to problems and prospects of NGLOs.
The use of the concept of organizational features in the contexts of NGLOs is a unique character of the present study. Although the study of organizational features and its contribution to local development requires a multi-disciplinary expertise, it has been simplified here in order to make it feasible for a single researcher to accomplish within a limited time and resource. Hence, it may prove useful for other studies of this kind. Further, the selection and use of indicators of organizational features and their contribution may be helpful in doing such efforts in other parts to understand organizational features and rural development activities.
This study carried out in areas of specific geographical and socio-economic settings may help to predict probable scenario in other similar hill region of the country.
Lastly, the methodology used in the study to handle different types of data and information collected from various sources, using different methods as well as tools is considered to be strength in exploring, establishing, understanding and explaining the real situation.
1.6 Limitations of the Study
The study has the following limitations:
The study is limited to study the organizational features of NGLOs and their contribution to rural development in the study area i.e. a hill
7 district of Nepal. Therefore, organizational strategies adopted by other parts of Nepal may not be similar with that of Palpa district.
The study has used only certain feasible indicators to examine the features and contribution of NGLOs based on particular organization types. The indicators have been developed in relation to the characteristics of NGLOs and their types prevailing in Palpa district. Therefore, indicators used in the context of the features and types of NGLOs adopted in the present study may not be equally applicable to other spatial and organizational contexts. In the same way, the results and generalizations made in this study may not equally applicable for other geographical, social and organizational settings.
1.7 Organization of the Study
The study has been organized in three broad sections: the first part includes the problem and background of the study area followed by analysis and synthesis. The first section covers three chapters. Chapter I highlights the research issues and the problem formulated for study. It also includes the objectives, assumptions, significance as well as limitations of the study.
Chapter II covers the review of literatures related to the four research issues. The Ist section deals with the development strategies and planning approaches. The IInd section deals with the characteristics and models of local organizations. The IIIrd section deals with the local development models adopted in Nepal and the IVth section deals with the conceptual framework.
Chapter III discusses the methodology used for the work. It also deals with the generation and analysis of data.
The background of the study area, which provides a glimpse of the natural as well as socio- economic characteristics of the western hill (Palpa) is presented in Chapter IV.
The second part of the study, that is analysis, is in fact the core part of the work. It comprises three chapters (Chapter IV - VII). The central purpose of Chapter V, is to cover the first
8 objectives of the study; development pattern of local organizations in Nepal in general and in Palpa in particular.
Chapter VI attempts to examine the organizational features of NGLOs in the study area, which deals about origin, registration, organization building processes, purposes, membership size, organizational rules, decision making processes, etc.
The core issue of the thesis is in Chapter VII. An attempt has been made here to deal about contribution of NGLOs in local development particularly in the hill region in Nepal. Based on a specific methodology, indicators are calculated categorically for capacity building such as, decision making process, degree of participation, information, knowledge and transparency, accountability, leadership and trust and solidarity. Also a composite index of capacity building in relation to overall scenario of the NGLOs has been discussed in the chapter.
Chapter VIII deals about problems and prospects of NGLOs in local development particularly in the study region. In this regard, this chapter attempts to analyze problems in program formulation, implementation, monitoring and evaluation and potentials of study region.
The work is synthesized in Chapter IX, which covers summary and conclusions of the work along with certain workable recommendations for further research.
9 CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW
This chapter provides a general understanding of conceptual framework and theoretical concepts and issues related to the research on NGLOs. The review of literature is divided into five sections. The Ist section deals with the development strategies and planning approaches. The IInd section deals with the structure and models of local organizations. The IIIrd section deals with the local development models adopted in Nepal. The IVth section deals with the conceptual framework.
2.1 Development Strategies and Planning Approaches 2.1.1 Rural Development Strategies
Several strategies have been developed to deal with development issue in rural region in the world particularly since the early 1950s. As the developing countries are complex in resource, culture and physical features, not a single development strategy will be able to address their development issues. Hence, various development strategies related to rural development are relevant to discuss here.
Modernization and the Idea of “Trickle-Down”
Since 1950s, both development planners and most Third World leaders have regarded modernization as identical with development. Modernization theory summarizes modern transformation of social life. This theory not only stresses the process of change, but also the responses to that change. It also looks at internal dynamics referring to social and cultural structure and the adaptation of new technologies (http://www.wikipedia.org). Modernization theories are macro-concepts with universal orientation intellectually derived from the analysis of social change of Weber and Durkheim. In addition to social structure and the evolution of societies Durkheim developed the concept of functionalism which stresses the interdependence of the institutions of a society and their interaction in
10 maintaining cultural and social unity (http://www.wikipedia.org). This is especially true of those schools of thought, which see a change of values as an essential precondition for economic and social development. The degree of modernization has been analyzed, e.g., in terms of the level of industrialization or the self-sustaining capacity of societies. Developed in a phase of prevalent positivist thinking, modernization theory seemed to guarantee automatic economic growth for the developing countries.
Development was understood as being dependent on the transformation of ‘traditional’ or ‘primitive’ values into ‘modern’ ones. The most basic common understanding of the process of modernization is that the transformation of ‘traditional’ societies to ‘modern’ societies is a uni-linear development. Developing countries in the Third World should therefore follow the stages of development as they were given by the so-called developed countries.
Above all, it was the model of industrial development worked out by Rostow, which was applied to development strategies for Third World countries. Rostow developed his scheme from an analysis of the industrial revolution in Britain:
“it is possible to identify all societies, in their economic dimensions, as lying within one of five categories; the traditional society, the preconditions for take-off, take-off, the drive to maturity, and the age of high mass-consumption” (Rostow, 1971 as cited in Bongartz, 1992 : 3).
In accordance with the periods of national development plans, the government of developing countries announced in which year the ‘take-off’ stage would be achieved. In most developing countries, however the ‘take-off phase could not be reached, as forecast in their national development plans.
Modernization theorists rightly worked out the importance of values and attitudes for processes of socio-economic change. However, it is misleading to believe that traditional values and traditional economies only have to be replaced by so-called modern values and modern economies to achieve development. On the contrary, critics of the modernization approach hold that traditional values and attitudes might even accelerate development in specific socio-economic contexts.
Modernization strategists concentrated on industrialization in urban centers on building centralized institutions. These were subsequently to facilitate structural changes for the modernization of society, and also on increasing productivity in the agricultural sector by 11 means of transferring high technology and ‘modern’ know-how. Subsequently, some of the benefits of these efforts toward development were to ‘trickle down’ to those people, who were not the direct target group of development projects. As a by-product of the establishment of modern entrepreneurship, rural employment opportunities were supposed to be created. But the planners and theorists widely neglected the development potential of rural areas and also the role the poor rural population could play in national development (Bongartz, 1992).
Such a technocratic understanding of development could not provide opportunity for the participation of self-help organizations of the rural population. The modernization strategies for Third World development did not produce many successes. Inappropriate technology and unfavorable social and political conditions were identified by critics as main obstacles to process of modernization.
Community Development
Community development is an action that helps people to recognize and develop their ability and potential and organize themselves to respond to problems and needs which they share (http://www.scdc.org.uk). Unlike the modernization theorists, the protagonists of the community development approach attached importance to the development potential of the rural communities. Rural communities were seen as “natural units of organization” and the participation of all members of a community was to be fostered (‘total approach’). According to the United Nations, the strategy of community development implies that the activities and efforts of the population have to be combined with governmental development projects and programs in order to improve the economic, social, and cultural living conditions of the people. Two main factors would, then, be most important and would have to be combined, viz., the participation of the people and the provision of technical and other services on the part of the government (United Nations, 1971).
The supporters of the community development model emphasize lack of knowledge (or ignorance) which is regarded as the major problem of the rural population. Therefore, they gave much attention to education and training within the community in order to mobilize the rural population with respect to development activities.
12 The central features of the community development approach can be summarized as follows:
Establishment of a coordination team at the local level;
Training and assignment of local community development workers as so- called change agents;
Regular contact and dialogue between the community development team and the villagers;
Formation of local groups at the village level.
Though participation of local communities received high priority, the situation actually did not change much in the direction of a more just and equitable development. Experiences similar to those derived from the modernization approaches were to be repeated again. Again it was the local elites who benefited most from development programs. The poorer section of the communities again had almost no access to the inputs of the programs and projects. And once again national bureaucracies failed to consider particular and specific local conditions in the planning and decision-making of community development efforts. They applied standardized methods and procedures instead (Bongartz, 1992).
These community development programs seemed to be benefiting mainly the dominating groups of the village population, often actively supported by the community development workers who, themselves, belonged to the better-off strata of the rural population. To clarify the typical effects of community development strategy, Long said that the community development policy tended to “reinforce existing economic differentiation” (Long, 1977 as cited in Bongartz, 1992 : 6).
Actually, the community development approach did not provide much support to self- help activities at the village level. Decisions were still made in the centralized planning apparatus. The bulk of the input provided to the villages was absorbed by the better-off sections of the rural communities. Existing power structures were accepted and not much was done to set up local self-help organizations of the poor. Therefore, in terms of poverty alleviation or problems, not much progress could be achieved. No doubt, in many developing countries agricultural production increased immensely, rural areas were covered with healthcare-centers, and remarkable progress was visible
13 in the rural literacy rates among the rural population. The expected ‘trickle-down’ effects of these ‘top-down’ development programs failed to appear. Thus, based on the realization of the previous development strategies were inadequate to achieve the goals formulated in community development approaches, which concentrated on aspects such as poverty and inequality (Bongartz, 1992).
As the alternative to the earlier strategies, new development strategies such as, the ‘community participation’ and the ‘basic needs’ approach were initiated since the 1970s. The basic essence of these two strategies is discussed in the following sections.
Community Participation
One new development strategy which emerged from criticism of the community development approach was ‘community participation’ approach. It was mainly the United Nations and its affiliated organizations’ strategy that pushed the participation during the second development decade during the seventies. It did adopt some of the principles inherent in the community development approach, but tried to avoid its ‘bureaucratic administration’ and its ‘superimposed direction’. The basic assumption underlying the community participation approach is that
“participation … strengthens the capacities of individuals and communities to mobilize and help themselves. In this way, dependence on the state is minimized and ordinary people rediscover their potential for cooperation and mutual endeavour" (Midgley, 1986 as cited in Bongartz, 1992 : 7).
Although the proponents of community participation approach vehemently criticized the conventional community development approach, calling it too bureaucratic and paternalistic, they are, in fact, hardly less paternalistic themselves. A number of questions emerge from the community participation approach which, up to now, have not been answered satisfactorily: first of all, who and what kind of community should participate; and if the idealistic character of a non-existent homogeneous community- where all members of the community are more or less equal- is recognized, which parties of the said community should participate in what programs? It is especially the non-governmental organizations, which constitute a majority of the proponents of this approach, that have to seriously consider how local self-reliance can be achieved with the state having monopolized development programmes in most developing countries.
14 In the eighties, community participation approach was anticipated to fail due to its romanticist and populist view of rural communities. Analysis of the structure and dynamics of rural communities, would have led to a more realistic appraisal of the appropriate methods and strategies for promotion into rural participation.
Basic Needs Approach
Another development strategy of the seventies was ‘basic needs’ approach, which put emphasis on greater equity in benefit distribution of the national development efforts. In the promotion of basic needs approaches to development at the 1976, World Employment Conference of the International Labour Organization (ILO) recognized the importance of stressing the requirements of the poorest groups of people by increasing their productivity and incomes.
The key issues of this concept were again the call for popular participation, decentralization of planning and administration, and self-reliance at the local level. To achieve these goals, “popular organizations at the grass-roots level had to be established and promoted, so that “the effective mobilization and efficient use of local resources for development purposes” can be ensured (Bongartz, 1992).
However, as with all the previous development strategies, problems appeared again when the general principles of the approach were to be translated into plans for local action. Although the basic needs approach provided some useful indicators for development planning, it still remained uncertain on how developing countries can provide the planning apparatus needed to make the model for national development. Also in highly differentiated rural communities identification of ‘basic needs’ itself is not free from conflict. For instance, the question arises as whose basic needs should be met first? And in the case of the poor, should it be done by redistributing the wealth of the better off, or by means of state intervention? The provision of basic services remained a difficult task in developing countries mainly due to the lack of service receiving mechanism and capacity of mobilization of available resources efficiently at the grass root.
Since the 1980s, the development strategies have focused on self-help idea reformulated as a synthesis of the above mentioned development strategies comprising the central aspects of certain other new (and old) concepts such as ‘development from below’, social education, ‘target group-oriented development’, ‘appropriate technology’, or the ‘small-is-beautiful’
15 school of thinking, etc. These strategies dealt with so-called target groups instead of communities.
Self–help Groups
The development theorists who followed self-help organizations as a basic development strategy recognized that it is not the peasants who are the hindrance to efficient development activities. It is the existing socio-economic conditions with distribution of resources and power that are seen as the main determining factors for rural poverty. What matters now is to strengthen the underprivileged poor in the rural communities by promoting their self-help organizations. The new strategy concentrates on the poorer sections of society, instead of providing all parts of the rural communities with services. Central planning and decision-making has to be replaced by efforts at the local level, which should remain as independent as possible from government influences.
Self-help means when individuals or groups act at a political, social or cultural level on their own initiatives as an effort to meet their individual and common needs to ensure their continual survival or enhance their conditions and thus acquire a greater measure of independence or self-reliance. Self-help comprises of more than target group making a financial or labour contribution. It implies the step from passivity to activity. Therefore, a self-help group can be defined as a group of individuals who experience a common problem, who share their personal knowledge to help one another to cope with their situation; and who simultaneously help and are helped. In addition, the group emphasizes face to face interaction (Hasenfeld & Gidron, 1993).
Self-help groups are, generally, considered as desirable because they:
. Encourage local populations to carry out certain tasks jointly, which can be more rationally performed by a group than by individuals;
. Are easily accessible as channel for project inputs (credit, supplies, extension services);
. Become focal points for job-opportunities, local investments and further development activities;
. Motivate local populations to participate actively in achieving project activities;
16 . Reduce project supervision burden of national agencies; (Kirsh et.al., 1980 as cited in Bongartz, 1992 : 10).
Most of the development specialists of the self-help school hold participation of the local population as the main factor in their development strategy, although they agree that the rural poor themselves cannot achieve much without external support and assistance since their resources, material and immaterial, are too limited and have to be complemented by the necessary support from outside. Over the last few years the self-help approach has been utilized by a growing number of projects and programs. However, with more experience with the practical implementation of the self-help concept, criticisms dealing with various aspects of the self-help approach have also been emerged.
“Many current calls for involvement of the rural poor are little more than wishful thinking, inadequately informed by past experience as to the investment in institutional innovation required to give reality to an important idea” (Korten, 1980).
However, it seems very often that only better-off group among the target populations are really able to benefit from inputs provided by the project. Participation, seen as the major indicator of a successful development strategy and as the central aspect of the self-help concept, often seems to mean getting people to do what outsiders think is good for them.
Non-government organizations (NGOs), both funding or sponsor agencies in the Western countries and self-help promotion institutions in the development countries, which are engaged in development work in the Third World, are the main proponents of the self-help approach. Due to their relatively limited resources, many of them cannot directly affect any structural change on a large scale. They, therefore, concentrate on the promotion of small-scale self-help activities.
Participatory Development
Since the 1990s, the development strategies have shifted towards participatory development. Since the term ‘Participatory’ refers to the active participation of the target group(s) in the planning process, participatory planning predominantly means a method for establishing and developing all self-help activities, including economic activities beneficial to the poor and also feasible in a given economic, social, political, technical, and cultural
17 environment. The output of such planning should be a well-defined plan of action and operation.
In the 1990s, development strategy moved away from the macroeconomic explanation of Keynes or Harrod and Domar to emphasize the micro foundations of development issues. Development planners and policymakers are becoming more concerned with micro-level decisions realizing their crucial role in local development (World Bank, 2004). It has focused target groups-the rural poor, who are to be benefited from the development. This strategy greatly emphasizes the rural people, on their participation in every stages of planning processes and believes the designation of development programs from the below rather than top and by the people rather than for the people. For this reason, effective organization of the rural people at the local level gets needed to be promoted and strengthened to enhance the rural development activities and to put pressure on organizations to respond to locally identified priority needs, and to solve local problems collectively through local resource mobilization and participation.
2.1.2 Development Planning Approaches
Basically there are two types of planning process –centralization and decentralization. In both processes local development is included but the implementation of development activities and decision- making takes place in different manners.
Centralized Planning Model
In centralized planning, decisions are taken from the top and implementation is hoped from the below. Though, few government sponsored community organizations and political institutions at lower levels are created to mobilize people to satisfy their needs, they remain unable to identify their priorities practically due to the lack of active involvement of local people in planning process. In centralized planning, the task of formulating, adopting, executing and supervising a plan is entrusted to a high power central institution. People's participation is sought only in implementation stage but not in decision-making stage. Local resource potentials and needs are not given due emphasis at the time of plan formulation. The centralized planning is highly top-down approach and dictates for infrastructure and service location planning and implementation (Pradhan, 2003)
18 Decentralized Planning Model
The shift in development strategy in 1970s from 'growth' to 'redistribution with growth' highlighted the need for decentralized planning and administration. There was a renewed interest in decentralization and fresh thinking about including local people in planning and development (Siedentopf, 1987). However, decentralization was perceived in terms of top- down transfer of authority within a governmental framework. The experiences have demonstrated that decentralization only through delegating central government power to the base level government units can not improve the overall situation of rural people. It needs devolution of power from central government to local people. The decision-making relating to community needs should stay with the community.
Decentralization in decision-making to sub-national levels is the nucleus of a multilevel planning system. It is a process that involves the linking and integration of national planning at various levels or stages, such as national with sectoral and sub-sectoral planning. It always involves the integration of spatial planning like central with sub-national planning which may include more than one stage e.g. regions/states/provinces, districts and villages. The plans and programs at various stages and in different sectors are interlinked and coordinated to achieve specific objectives at local, regional and national levels. Local level planning and regional planning can become its integrated parts and are important instruments of multilevel planning if the plans are co-ordinate and integrated to achieve stated goals at various levels (FAO, 1985).
Nepal seems to have passed through four phases, the first one in the sixties with the implementation of the local Administration Act of 1966 and the second one during the late seventies with the implementation of the Integrated Panchayat Development Design in 1978 and the third one decentralization Act of 1982 and is now entering into phase fourth with the implementation of the Local Self Governance Act, 1999.
Participatory decentralization has been emerged as a new development approach since the last decade particularly with the initiation of international agencies such as World Bank. The new approach suggests increased peoples participation in all development planning process beginning from preparation of strategies to decision-making. Participation of local people in all steps of decision-making process for development planning of the activities creates in them a feeling of “ownership” of the development
19 activities (Pradhan, 2003). This approach shift has mainly focuses on bottom-up approach or on the reversal of top-down decision-making process. The bottom-up approach in planning is a true “basic needs policy” at local level.
The participatory approach believes that setting up people's organization would be the most effective weapon in the hands of the rural people. Local people through their organization bound together by their perception of common needs and work systematically to achieve development needs. This approach, of course, is quite contrary to the traditional view of 'decentralization', which was perceived in terms of top-down transfer of government authority. The approach believes that 'decentralization' more effectively occurred when people at the grass root become conscious enough to organize themselves, to fulfill their development needs, and succeed in mobilizing their own resources and effectively extracting supplementary resources from outside. In a sense it amounts to turning around the traditional view of ‘decentralization’, which was perceived in terms of top-down transfer of authority within a governmental framework (Shams, 1987). However, for institutionalization of the participatory decentralization process at the lowest level, it is necessary to promote local organizations as an integral part of local development.
2.1.3 Works Relating to Rural Development
Local organization as a necessary condition for accelerated rural development, and such organizations must be seen in terms of system of institutions performing various functions in the rural sector of a particular country. Local organizations act as intermediaries between rural residents and both public sector and private sector, which relies more on voluntary mechanism, people's needs and values. Esman and Uphoff (1984) further identified the contribution of local organization in rural development in areas of three Es–Efficiency, Equity and Empowerment. They have provided the theoretical basis on rural local organizations and critically examined the Marxists, liberationist and technocratic approaches to deal contemporary perspective. The study has broadly classified local organizations in three groups: (i) Local Development Associations (LDAs) (ii) Cooperatives (COPs) and (iii) Interest Associations (IAs). Despite this, the study has done analysis of local organization variables in terms of environmental (socio–economic), structural, functional, participation, performance and exogenous. They identified variables of organizational structure, such as size, linkage, initiatives, rules and regulations. This study is based on both quantitative and qualitative
20 analysis aiming to investigate tasks, performance and environment, structures, innovations and vulnerabilities of local organization. This study is based on case studies of altogether 144 local organizations to all parts of the Third World including broad sub–groups mentioned above. The protocols for coding cases and case summaries of some organizations are given. The concepts inherent in his study provide a good deal of stimulation and positive analysis for this research concerning the structure and contribution of local organizations in rural development (Esman and Uphoff, 1984).
Khan's study (1978) has focused deepening poverty as the real crisis in rural development and justifies as an inevitable consequence of past development planning and processes, to avoid institutional and structural reforms including agrarian reforms, and to concentrate narrowly on production. He welcomed present tendency to focus discussion on 'target groups i.e. the rural poor. It emphasizes that rural development should be primarily for the poor and criticized that development increasingly be by the poor. He has further stressed that in a stratified society, where the local power structure has definitely an elitist bias, it is difficult to involve people in participatory development without building viable, countervailing people's own organizations. He has suggested that a delicate balance between supervision from the top and participation from below can be obtained through the use of intermediaries between government and the people drawn from the community group itself and remaining accountable to the community organization. For this, such organizations must be built on a clear recognition that there are conflicts of interest within village society, and that these need to be openly aired and addressed. The concepts provided by this study provide positive impact for this research concerning the role of non- government local organizations in rural development.
Narayan (1995) has focused that properly designed community based program can be highly effective in managing natural resources, providing basic infrastructure or ensuring primary social services. For this, it requires understanding of local needs, strengths of existing social organization, outweigh the costs, capacity, leadership, knowledge and skills and enforcement of rules and regulations. Successful community based development is determined by a variety of factors. These include appropriate strategies for encouraging participation, the existence of viable community groups, the appropriate technology both to the projects and community needs, effective agency outreach strategies, client responsive
21 agencies, and enabling policies. He has identified the following major characteristics of local groups:
(i) The group addresses a felt need and a common interest,
(ii) The benefits to the group of working together outweigh the costs, (iii) The group is embedded in the local social organization,
(iv) The group has the necessary capacity, leadership, knowledge, and skills, and
(v) The group owns and enforces its rules and regulations. Undoubtedly this study has direct implication towards community-based development, which is usually impossible without viable local organizations based on local needs and aspiration. For this reason, it is highly valuable to present study.
Quality of life of the population largely depends on resource endowment (land, water, forest, etc) and the manner in which these resources are allocated and utilized by people- either individually or collectively. Organizations are rational instrument achieving goals without which collective and organized action cannot take place and prosper. Organizations help to bind, obligate or otherwise link one person to another to pursuit of a common purpose (Fellizar, 1994).
The strengths and weaknesses of institutions as well as behavioral factors play a significant role in determining the nature and pace of the development process. Dominance of a project bound or loan related activities, relative inexperience of expatriate and local staff to conduct in-depth assessment of institutional issues, lack of flexibility, etc. are mentioned as the major constraints on institution building. For strengthening institution building efforts in the future he suggests that human resource management, viable institutional structure, clear vision and strong political will, help of external aid agencies, etc. are inevitable (Narayanasuwami, 1991).
People-centered development places substantial value on local initiative and diversity and thus favors self-organizing systems developed around human scale organizational units and self-reliant communities. Local self-reliance as a development strategy involves giving first priority to the creation of conditions that enable the people of an area better to meet their own needs using local resources under local control (Korten, 1984).
22 Social mobilization helps to empower and build self-confidence to release their potential energy to improve socio-economic conditions of the poor. Through social mobilization we can help poor to help themselves. The organization of the poor helps them to cut down overheads, achieve economies of scale and so many other things which individually they are not able to do (Khan, 1999).
Jeffrey (1993) has identified current and foreseeable trend toward a diminished role of the state in most economic activities including rural development activities, offers new opportunities for local organizations and institutions (LOIs). At the same time, many of the problems and shortcomings to which state and their activities have been vulnerable are also potentially applicable to local organizations and institutions. To be successful in themselves as well as in fostering rural economic development, rural local organizations and institutions and their activities must be carefully designed and appropriately integrated with markets, other LOIs and the state.
Ostrom (1990 as cited in Haley, 2004, P.193-194) has written the classic work analyzing the autonomous development of institutions for collective action. The cornerstone of her thesis is that people who live and work closely together learn trust and reciprocity, and this social capital is a primary resource for creating institutions to solve joint problems. Factors that foster this development include small numbers of people in a social setting with similar interests, leadership, and a low enough discount rate. She also emphasizes the incremental, self-transforming nature of institutional change, the importance of information and transaction costs, and the role of external political regime. She identifies eight design principles governing the durability and effectiveness of local institutions. They are:
1) Clear boundaries and membership: who has rights to share the benefits must be clearly defined.
2) Congruent rules: the rules for providing and appropriating benefits must fit the conditions.
3) Collective choice arenas: most individuals affected by the rules can participate in modifying the rules.
4) Monitoring: compliance with the rules is audited, and free riding is limited.
5) Graduated sanctions: compliance is enforced with appropriate sanctions.
6) Conflict resolution mechanisms: all parties have ready access to arenas to resolve conflicts.
23 7) Recognized rights to organize: the rights of locals to devise their own institutions are not challenged by external governmental authorities.
8) Nested units: appropriation, provision, monitoring, enforcement, conflict resolution, and governance activities are organized in multiple layers of nested institutions
Out of these, principle 4 and 5 are less important to the present study, the other six are quite relevant and will serve to organize analysis later.
Miner's group system emphasizes five component role requirements. They are:
1) Social interaction, supported by a desire to interact with others.
2) Group acceptance, supported by a desire to belong to a group.
3) Positive peer relations, supported by a desire to maintain good relations with group members.
4) Cooperation, supported by a desire to work with other in a collaborative fashion; and
5) Democracy, supported by a desire to participate in democratic decision- making processes (Miner,1979 as cited in Wilderom & Miner, 1991 : 367).
Chambers (1988) has pointed out that states have relied on a centralized approach to resource management while ignoring self-help incentives to local people. Poorly adapted services have resulted in deteriorating structures and systems that have not been sustainable over time.
An equitable sharing of benefits of development by the poor is possible only when there is equitable participation by them in the process of development. By doing so, people can influence the decisions at the higher levels through their joint efforts and common voice. This may be termed as ‘bottom up’ approach to rural development (Mishra, Sharma and Sharma, 1984).
FAO (1985) has emphasized people’s willingness and capacities to participate are essential factors in determining the effectiveness of public participation in any situation. People’s willingness to participate will depend on whether they have the capacity to undertake the task, whether they consider that such participation will benefit them. 24 People’s participation can be a potent way of ensuring the flow of the benefits to the target groups. Experience has shown that development interventions from the externally assisted projects fail to sustain the required level of development activity once support or inputs are diminished or withdrawn by the funding agencies. People’s participation is regarded as an essential prerequisite for the continuity of the activities. The involvement of local people and the utilization of local resources generate a sense of ownership over the development interventions among the people. This sense of ownership is essential for the sustainability of the interventions even after external funds cease to flow (Kumar, 2002).
Agrawal (2001) has identified following typology of participation:
Form/ level of participation Characteristic features
Nominal participation Membership in the group
Passive participation Being informed of decisions ex post facto; or attending meeting and listening on decision- making without speaking up
Consultative participation Being asked an opinion in specific matters without guarantee of influencing decisions
Activity-specific participation Being asked to (or volunteering to) undertake specific tasks
Active participation Expressing opinions, whether or not solicited, or taking initiatives of other sorts
Interactive (empowering) Participation Having voice and influence in the groups decisions
2.2 Characteristics and Models of Local Organizations
2.2.1 Characteristics of Local Organizations
‘Organization’ is a grouping of two or more people for a specific activity of its own group to serve their community. The group formed may have its own rules and regulations either written or unwritten as a framework for the group activities. The group may be registered
25 according to law to retain formal status or exist as an informal group. In other words, organization refers to the rational coordination of activities by a group of individuals with the aim of achieving some common purpose (Esman and Uphoff, 1984). In this regard, organization is a structure of roles. If an organization acquires special status and legitimacy satisfying people's needs and for meeting their normative expectations over time, we can say that an organization has become institutionalized (Uphoff, 1986).
'Local Organization' is defined as locally based membership organization, which act on behalf of and is accountable to their membership and which is involved in development activities (Esman & Uphoff, 1984). As far as the participation of the rural people in local organizations is concerned, two main structures of local organizations clearly emerge: standard (government sponsored) and participatory (locally initiated) local organizations (FAO, 1979).
Standard local organizations usually have the following characteristics:
They are founded and sponsored by outside and mostly government agency, with a top-down approach to development for the people rather than a bottom-up approach. The idea is that benefit will trickle down from above.
They are more formal and official.
Their set-up often is inspiring by alien concepts, principles and policies frequently imported from abroad.
They are mostly elite-oriented and/or dominated with the result that the elite benefits more than others.
Participatory local organizations usually share the following characteristics:
Participatory local organizations cover only those groupings that are not organized or managed by the state. They are started by the people themselves and not by a government or other outside agencies.
These organizations cover a wide range of formal and informal networks and organizations including Non- government Local Organizations (NGLOs- mostly informal) Non-governmental Organizations (NGOs-mostly formal) and 'Community-Based Organizations' (CBOs-mostly informal), which work in close cooperation with local people and are important vehicles facilitating the local development.
26 They are more flexible in objectives and in set-up.
Their leaders and their members are mainly the poor who reach decisions in face to face relationships.
Their activities are related to the day-to-day situation and needs of the rural people.
The leadership of participatory organization is selected and continued as per contribution and capacity of the members instead of imposition.
They are formed and controlled by their members to a large extent and through these organizations development activities are performed by the members themselves.
These organizations distinguish them from organs of the state and also from more purely social and cultural association.
There are mainly two types of organization–formal and informal. Formal organizations have positive outcomes mainly in two fields compared to informal: i) a formal structure of community participation increased villagers involvement in local programming and, ii) less formal organizations such as those based on traditional norms and power structure will be unable to conduct modern development tasks. However, informal modes of organizations involve local people to fulfill their daily needs and solve their local problems at local level without depending on others (Esman & Uphoff, 1984). There are mainly two types of NGLOs- informal/ indigenous or formal/modern. Informal or indigenous organizations are as old as the community themselves. They have been functioning as delivering social and developmental activities since a long time but have not retained any legal status to date. Contrary to it, the organizations that have been maintaining registration with different Governmental Line Agencies (GLA) retain formal status. These formal and informal LOs beyond the government can be categorized into three groups (Uphoff, 1986): Membership Organizations (MOs), Cooperatives (CO-OPs) and Service Organizations (SOs).
The first type, Membership Organizations (MOs) include local self –help associations whose members may seek to handle; (i) multiple tasks, e.g. local development associations or village development committees, (ii) specific tasks, e.g. water users' groups, forest users' groups etc. (iii) needs of members who have some particular
27 characteristic or interest in common, e.g. mother's clubs, caste associations, women groups etc.
The second type, Cooperatives, is extremely varied and has many subtypes. The defining characteristic of cooperatives is the pooling of resources by members. The resources involved may be capital (savings societies or rotating credit associations), labor (rotating work groups i.e. Parma), land (production cooperatives), purchasing power (consumer co-ops), or products (marketing co-ops). The delimiting criterion between business enterprises and co-operatives is that the former undertake production directly for individual benefits while the latter do not undertake production directly, at least as their main activity and promote production and income of their members including equality and member participation (Dale, 2002).
The third type of NGLO is Service Organizations (SOs) which include those organizations formed primarily to help persons other than members though members may benefit from them. Examples are religious or charitable associations, service clubs, Red Cross Societies, Human Right Associations etc.
2.2.2 Models of Local Organizations
This section deals with following organization models:
The classical Bureaucracy Model offered by Max Weber regarding characteristics of organizational structure can be summarized as follows:
A fixed division of labour;
A clearly defined hierarchy of offices, each with its own sphere of competence;
Candidates for offices are selected on the basis of technical qualifications and are appointed rather than elected;
Officials are remunerated by fixed salaries paid in money;
The office is the primary occupation of the office holder and constitutes a career;
28 Promotion is granted according to seniority or achievement and is dependent upon the judgment of superiors;
Official work is to be separated from ownership of the means of administration; and
A set of general rules governing the performance of offices; strict discipline and control in the conduct of the office is expected (Parsons, 1947, Scott, 1992 as cited in Hatch & Cunliffe, 2006 : 102-103).
Weber's theory offered a new way of understanding authority as well, representing a break from the traditional justifications for decision making. Prior to Weber, people tended to rely on traditional and charismatic sources for authority. The primary criticism of bureaucratic theory is that it functions better as an idea than it does in the real world. In practice, this form of organization has proved to be extremely inefficient and inflexible, if not inappropriate in this era of employee empowerment and continuous change (Vibert, 2004).
Marxist approach regard the non- socialist state as an instrument of the ruling class and the function of such a state is to exploit the producing classes, including the rural periphery. Dominant rural elites are associated with the state, who still represent traditional landholding families but who increasingly are being supplanted by middle peasants. In this view, neither the state nor the rural elites are willing to tolerate local organizations of the marginalized rural people that might act autonomously on behalf of their members. These local organizations will either be co-opted and neutralized or suppressed because the state will not deal with independent local organizations. The rural poor can achieve redress only by revolutionary peasants and workers movements (Feder, 1971, Petras & Porte, 1971, Beckford, 1972, Griffin, 1976 as cited in Esman and Uphoff, 1984 : 541). The system is seen as closed to more moderate gradualist activity because meaningful reforms are not acceptable to the state. Thus, it is not possible for organizations of the rural poor to achieve any significant progress within the prevailing system.
The attitudes of non-socialist state toward rural development and rural associations are not necessarily predetermined or fixed, so long as local organizations do not
29 threaten to upset the existing system. Within the political framework of any regime, there may be opportunities for local organizations to function, to serve the social and economic interests of their members, to make claims on government, and even to be encouraged and patronized by government or by factions of the regime which for different reasons may advocate or be sympathetic to a bottom- up element in rural development. Where the opportunity to organize exists rural publics can enhance their individual interests and collective well- being in various ways by taking advantage of these opportunities (Esman and Uphoff, 1984).
The Rational Model regards organization as a rationally conceived instrument or means to the realization of group goals. It assumes that decisions are made on the basis of a rational survey of the situation and well received knowledge with an orientation to a legal framework. Basically, the model is ‘mechanical’ with explicit focus on legal structures or ‘blueprinted’ patterns which can be inspected and rationally manipulated with a view to realize the group goals. Individual organizational elements can be subjected to successful and planned modification, and the organization as a whole can be brought into conformity with explicitly held plans and goals. This model is widely used by managers in analyzing issues of organizational design (Singh, 1999).
The Natural–system Model regards the organization as a ‘natural whole’ or system, which is oriented to the realization of group goals. Its elements are seen as interdependent and emergent institutions, which can be understood only in relation to the diverse needs of the total system. The organization continues to strive to survive, and to maintain its equilibrium even after its goals have been attained, and thus it becomes an end in itself with its distinct needs which have to be satisfied. Changes in organizational patterns are considered as the results of cumulative, unplanned, adaptive responses to threats to the equilibrium of the system as a whole. The organization is seen as growing organically, with a natural history of its own which is modifiable only at great cost, if at all (Singh, 1999).
Buckley (1967) has criticized the mechanical rational model and the biological natural–system model and has offered an alternative as system theory, which he feels is more consistent with the observed functioning of organizational systems. He points
30 out that those organizations are more like ‘socio-cultural systems’ than either mechanical or biological systems (Buckley, 1967 as cited in Singh, 1999 : 265).
The main premise of system theory is that no living system (neither an organism nor an organization) can survive in isolation. There is always a dynamic interaction with the external environment and the 'give and take' relationship results in strong interdependencies. In other words, it is an open system (Katz and Kahn 1969 as cited in Padaki & Vaz, 2003 : 45). The emerging image of a system is that of a group of entities that are interdependent in their functions as they strive to accomplish common goal. When individuals combine with other individuals to form pairs, small groups, large groups, groups of groups and even larger and more complex groupings, the behaviour of the larger body as a whole acquires its own characteristics, and cannot be extrapolated from the behaviours of the component body (Padaki and Vaz, 2003)
Socio–technical Model views the organization as a system interacting with its environment – a system in which behaviour is influenced by human, technological, social and organizational inputs. All these variables are interdependent, so that a change in one influences the others.
In this model, the organization is seen as an open system, exchanging resources with its environment in the form of an input–conversion–output process. The enterprise takes in raw materials, energy and manpower, and converts them into output of goods and services. In this model, the organization is viewed as consisting of a ‘formal organization’ and an ‘informal organization’, and both these components are expected to be as congruent as possible. The major strength of this model is in its systematic treatment of the complex realities of organizational life, thereby allowing us to identify the diverse causes of behaviour in organizations. The model is very useful for thinking about division of work and organization ‘fit’ to primary tasks. Its limitation is that it is difficult to use as a design tool without practice and formal training (Lorsch & Lawrence, 1972 as cited in Singh, 1999 : 267).
The Participative Model was derived from the work of behavioral scientists. According to the proponents of this model, the individual in the organization is engaged in a multidimensional process of development. Within this dynamic
31 developmental process, the individual is seen as moving through the process of maturity. As he matures, individual’s needs, goals and desires tend to move in a specific direction.
According to participative theorists, the overall objective of the organization is to achieve a satisfactory integration between the needs and desires of the members of the organization, and the persons functionally related to it. It is assumed that the organization can make full use of the potential capacities of its members, only when each member in the organization participates in the overall organizational effort. Further, it is required that these organization members have a high degree of group loyalty, effective skills and goals of high performance.
The organizations that perform best, according to this model, are those, which motivate the individual to cooperate, not compete. In achieving this cooperation, the group leader is accountable, and must accept final responsibility for the performance of the group performance (Singh, 1999).
The ability of an organization to satisfy and adapt to its environment determines its success or failure, in terms of accomplishment of the ‘primary task’ for which it is built.
The Theory of Collective Activity is a basic behavioural proposition of public-goods interaction and emphasizes that an individual 'cannot be relied upon to make a voluntary contribution' when the benefits to be gained are largely independent of his own contribution (Musgrave 1959 as cited in Bolnick, 1976 : 138). The key ingredient in this 'free-rider', recipe is non-exclusion, so that economic units can enjoy some of the benefits of certain activities without having to pay for them. This applies whether, exclusion is technically impossible (as with mosquito-abatement projects), impractical (as community street improvement) or simply unutilized (bridges, schools, or health centers for example). Under these circumstances the marginal benefit from an individual's own contribution may be negligible; weighing this against the cost of a contribution, individual rationality often dictates non-cooperation, even when the full benefits enjoyed by the individual would be relatively large (Bolnick, 1976).
32 As group size grows, the expected marginal impact of an individual's contribution will tend to diminish, enhancing the strength of the free-rider dilemma. In addition, social influence which can act as a 'selective incentives' to motivate cooperative behaviour is usually considered to be an inverse function of group size: "In general, social pressure and social incentive operate only in groups of smaller size, in groups so small that the members' can have face to face contact with one another. In any large group, everyone cannot possibly know everyone else. Accordingly there is no presumption that social incentives will lead individuals to obtain a collective good" (Olson, 1965).
When dealing with development issue, Social Capital Theory advocates the local organization as a social capital. The three traditional types of capital (natural, physical and human) can only partially explain the process of development. Another important aspect is the way in which actors interact and organize themselves to generate development. The missing link is social capital (World Bank, 2000). Social capital is the rules, norms, obligations, reciprocity, and trust embedded in social relations, social structures, and society's institutions arrangements which enable its members to achieve their individual and community objectives (Narayan, 1997). This broad definition of social capital includes both social capital at the micro-institutional level and the rules and regulations governing economic interactions in the market place. Social capital differs from human capital in that it is relational, embedded in social structure, and has public good characteristics.
The notion of social capital has entered the development dictionary more rapidly than it has been possible to arrive at a consensus on a precise definition of the concept. In its earlier formulations, the concept emerged as a part of a theory of agency referring to those qualities of social structure and networks that are critical resources for human action. For Coleman (1988, 1990), social capital is "defined by its function. It is a variety of different entities with two elements in common: they all consist of some aspect of social structures, and they all facilitate certain actions of actors-whether persons or corporate actors – within the structure" (Coleman, 1988, 1990 as cited in Bebbington & Perreault, 1999 : 397-398).
The contemporary implications of geography of social capital stocks for economic development and political change were made particularly apparent in Putnam's (1993) study of civic traditions, democracy and regional development in Italy. Putnam suggested that the critical factor line explaining regional differences in government effectiveness and economic performance was to be found in corresponding regional differences in social structures, 33 organization and networks. In areas where social structures are more "vertical" and based on authority relations and patron-client arrangements developed in order to deal with contexts the level of trust are low, the citizen capacity for collective action is low, and access to and control over state and market are far weaker. Conversely, in areas where social relationships are more 'horizontal' (based on trust and shared values), participation in social organizations far higher, and different social networks more likely to overlap, crossing the boundaries between different institutions and social groups (i.e. areas with higher stocks of social capital), state and market are more likely to be hold accountable by civil society (and vice versa) and less resources are used incurring transaction costs. He concluded that those regions whose regional governments and economies were more efficient, effective and inclusive were indeed characterized by such horizontal relations that both favoured and fostered greater networks of civic engagement and levels of organization in civil society (Bebbington & Perreault, 1999).
Putnam's (1995) article titled "Bowling alone: America's declining social capital', he discusses the importance of group interaction in leisure club activities and town meetings for maintaining healthy community ethos and promoting democratic governance. According to Putnam, dense networks of organized reciprocity and civic solidarity resulting from community interaction constitute a basis for developing grassroots democracy and effective governance among a citizenry. Drawing an analogy with notions of human capital as enhancing individual productivity, he defined "social capital" as "features of social organization such as networks, norms and social trust that facilitate coordination and cooperation for mutual benefit" (Putnam 1995 as cited in Yamanaka, 2007 : 412).
There is close relationship between local organizations and social capital. The special nature of local organizations is that they provide a bon's for collective action, which includes building consensus about problems and needed solutions, seeking and disseminating information about these, coordinating action, designating rights and responsibilities as well as ensuring accountability (Cernea, 1993 & Uphoff, 1992 as cited in Ashby, Knapp & Ravnborg, 1998 : 120). There are many types of local organizations e.g. labour exchange group, farmer's group, women group, youth group, forest users group, cooperatives and so on. The presence of such organization, and the degree to which participation in them is widespread among the local inhabitants of a rural village, is important because the social dynamics of cooperation on which local organization for rural development often depends
34 are fundamentally driven by the extent to which the people involved trust one another and are therefore able to predict how other users are likely to behave. This interpersonal trust is generated and sustained by repeated face-to-face participation in small groups, and the more people interact in this way, the greater the level of trust and cooperation that is possible (Glance & Huberman, 1994 as cited in Ashby, Knapp & Ravnborg, 1998 : 120).
In these circumstances, social capital can be described as "the capacity of the community to act together to improve their quality of life."
Gandhian Model of rural development is a self reliant model, which constitutes self- sufficiency and decentralization as major principles for rural development. The thought of Mohan Karam Das Chand Gandhi provides an integrated picture to rural development. Gandhi’s view on rural development can be summarized as bellow:
1) In rural areas, the major problem is unemployment, particularly underemployment. Therefore, he gave top most priority to agriculture. Gandhi also recognized the importance of allied agricultural activities and wanted to give confidence to the rural people so that they themselves would take up the task of rural development based on self-help.
2) Gandhi emphasized that total development of an area should be the primary objective of any development. More increase in production and equitable distribution may not solve the problem. Emphasis should be laid on total development of the village. Gandhi named this program as “Samagra Sewa". By 'Samagra Sewa' Gandhi hoped that agriculture, animal husbandry, Khadi and village industries and several other activities connected with rural development would go together to form on integrated development program.
3) Gandhi took the village as the base of development. Gandhi said the self- governance of the village community as the basis for democracy. For Gandhi, it was the empowerment of women, the poor and the untouchables, and overcoming poverty and ignorance as a precondition for tackling higher political goals with prospects of success (Jakobeit and Bauer, 2002)
4) Gandhi preferred household/cottage industry or a small owner cultivator but desired to extend it to cooperative form of organization. He believed in voluntary effort and voluntary action.
35 5) Gandhi never accepted the concept of ‘economic man’ who was always in the selfish pursuit of economic benefit. According to him, the economy should take an integrated view of man and his surroundings (natural and social) and attempt for fuller development of personality of an individual (Jakobeit and Bauer, 2002).
We can conclude that some ideas given by Gandhi are still relevant to rural development, though some need modification and some are just out of date. Some of Gandhi’s ideas like independent economy, self-governance institution, cooperative organizations, etc. can be adopted in several spheres of rural development. The cooperatives are still as relevant as they were in Gandhi’s days. The role of appropriate education cannot be overemphasized even in the present context.
However, the Gandhian model can be considered as improved version of Dibyopadesh of king Prithivi Narayan Shah, who before Gandhi provided the basic guidelines for independent economy of the country using local materials and preserving local cottage industries and minerals.
2.2.3 Works on Local Organizations
Curtis (1991) has pointed out that there exists a large area of human organization and activity beyond government through which people collectively advance their wealth and well-being. He has focused on social organization sharing two characteristics– common benefits and participation. In his opinion, through beyond government organization the value produced is shared either amongst the participants or more widely in the community. He has opined that people take part in an organization for picking the fruit of development and for achieving benefits, which are impossible by acting alone. He has identified organization as an opportunity which consists of sharing formula, legitimacy, rights and entitlements, institutionalization, purpose and motivation. He has further noted that such organization helps to harmonize individual interests and common benefit.
There are five activity areas for local institutional development. They are natural resource management, rural infrastructure, human resource development, agricultural development, and non–agricultural enterprises. Uphoff (1986) has further categorized the levels of decision–making and activity and included group level, community level and locality level as
36 the delineation of local levels. In his opinion sub–district level, district level, regional level, national level and international level and household level and individual level no longer deal with what should be described as local. He has identified six categories of local institutions- Local Administration (LA), Local Government (LG), Membership Organizations (MOs), Cooperatives (COPs), Service Organizations (SOs) and Private Business (PBs). He has opined that institutions at any level involve group efforts and they conduct some kind of 'collective action' in which the interests, resources, ideas and ideas of many persons are brought together. Institutions serve as channels for collective action- that are reinforced by diffused benefits, legitimation and shared expectations. He has recommended learning process approach as the most effective strategy for strengthening local institutional development. This classification of areas for local institutional development and levels of decisions as well as comparative advantage of different kinds of local organizations provides a broad framework for present study (Uphoff, 1986).
There are several potentialities of community–based organizations and local–level initiatives, either on their own or when motivated by a catalytic agent from outside in organizing themselves under local leadership; in identifying their specific development needs in formulating development plans to meet those needs and mobilizing available resources, in collectively deciding to implement them and in bargaining and liaising with relevant government agencies. Shams (1991) identified primarily five organizational variables such as motivating factors, group characteristics, leadership, program thrusts and management style. The study concludes that local–level initiatives for development can be explored through community based efforts. In this context, participatory development processes leads to more efficient development, by minimizing wastage, by optimally allocating resources to meet local needs and by complementing government's own efforts for rural development (Shams, 1991). Though this study does not directly address the problem of Nepal, the issues raised by this study are equally important to our study in the context of rural development through non-government local organizations.
Institution building model consists of a number of elements, some relating primarily to variable within the organization and others relating it to the environment. Uphoff (1971) has identified leadership, doctrine, program, resources and internal structures as the institutional variables', which can alter and make more favorable its relationship with elements in its environment. Likewise, transactions between the institution and its
37 environment are classified as linkages such as enabling linkages, functional linkages, normative linkages and diffused linkages. The same model emphasizes tangible and intangible resources such as economic resources, information, authority, status, legitimacy, force, etc. which play vital role in transformation of an organization into an institution. Furthermore, the model describes environment as encompassing diverse individuals and groups with differing interests and resource endowments and pleads that it is not necessary to be benefited everybody in the environment and therefore supportive of the emergent institution. In practice, there remain enough sectors (e.g. governmental or public sectors and non–governmental or private sectors) of the environment linked favorably to the organization that it can survive and perform its intended functions. The model discussed in this paper can be applicable to the present study with minor modification (Uphoff, 1971).
Fernandea (1987) has traced the development of non-governmental organizations or voluntary agencies in South Asia, specifically India, Bangladesh, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka. Differences in the nature of collaboration between government and voluntary agencies in the five countries are discussed. Finally, the various types of donor organizations are enumerated. Positive factors in donor and voluntary agencies partnerships are cited as; long experience working together, reliance on a mixed group of supporters, participation by the people as well as the partner organizations in planning and implementation, and a satisfactory funding arrangements.
The relationships between non-governmental organizations are conditioned by the contexts in which the groups operate and interact, the institutional frameworks, and the activities they undertake. Three types of relationship between NGDO (Non-Government Development Organizations) are identified: NGDO as recipient, NGDO as intermediary, NGDO as one of three equal partners in the development cooperation process (Padron, 1987).
The evolution of NGOs shows that the perspectives of NGOs widened from charity and welfare to development, and to sustainable development and empowerment. NGOs need to play a dynamic role in the context of liberalization policies, improved credibility and legitimacy for NGOs, etc., and viable strategy for NGOs makes them responsive to people's need (Rajasekhar, 2000).
Jayalakshmi and Rahim (1996) have attempted to focus on the existing gaps between governmental purpose and administrative performance at the cutting-edge level i.e.
38 interaction between the clientele/citizens and the lower level functionaries. The key concern is to analyze the qualitative dimension i.e. public satisfaction vis-à-vis rural development programmes in a democratic set-up. The article draws conclusion that the role of Non- Government Organizations and voluntary organizations can be accelerated in the field of rural development as some of them have been able to achieve fairly good results as facilitators/catalysts in organizing and motivating the rural poor to articulate their needs.
Many factors that drive the broader geographies of NGO intervention consider how they relate to the uneven geographies of poverty and livelihood produced under contemporary process of capitalist expansion and contraction. Explanations of NGO presence and absence must necessarily be historicized and contextualized and particular attention should be paid to the influences of the politics and political economy of aid and development, the geographies of social institutions, the transitional networks in which these institutions are often embedded. This study closes by drawing out implications for geographical research on NGOs, as well as for efforts to theorize the relationship between intentional development interventions and immanent processes of political economic change, and unevenness (Bebbington, 2004).
Freeny (1993 as cited in Haley, 2004 : 193) has formulated the theory of demand and supply for institutional innovation. Demand for new institutions arises when agents realize there are more gains that could be captured under different institutional arrangements. In both rent seeking and shifting the distribution of benefits move away from others and toward oneself and opportunities to increase production through innovation or efficiency gains come into play. Supply depends on the capability and willingness of the political order to provide new arrangements, considering factors such as the constitutional order governing the development of new institutions; the starting point and raw materials for fashioning alternatives, including existing institutional arrangements, knowledge and skills, and cultural resources; the cost of design and expected cost of implementation; and the expected benefits to dominant political elites.
Government agents have little expertise in and information about local resources or actions and inadequate enforcement power, or at least much less than the local population does. Local appropriators will tend to have a higher capacity to observe other group members' actions and have access to various social networks and reciprocal relationships to develop and enforce rules (Tang, 1994). 39 Institutions provide a structured bargaining forum that reduces the costs of coordination compared to what they would be in an institution-free world. Transaction costs can be reduced by instituting a decision rule for the adoption of regulation by consensus; by establishing rules that are simpler and thus less costly to design and enforce (North, 1990).
Local organizations (LOs) facilitate such social goals as democratization and empowerment because they provide an organized forum for the expression of peoples', common interests. Strong LOs also increase "organizational density,"which in turn increase other types of voluntary local organizations. As individual gains experience with cooperation, they build trust among themselves, which makes it easier to achieve cooperation in other spheres of activity. The effects of such social capital, while difficult to measure, are nonetheless a significant benefit (Cerenea, 1993).
Bardhan (1993) has identified that local cooperative institutions have been successful in water management in some cases, but there are numerous cases of failure. He has taken the relevant lessons from the theoretical literature on cooperation in game theory, both in economics and evolutionary biology.
2.3 Local Development Models Adopted in Nepal
2.3.1 Planned Efforts
In Nepal, rural development programs come into existence even before the initiation of the first five year plan. For example, Tribhuvan Village Development Programm was introduced in 1952 with assistance of the United States of America and India.
The First Plan (1956-61) placed great emphasis on the Village Development Programme because it was hoped that through this programme the nation will prosper with rapid improvement in the economic condition of the majority of the population. The programme was divided into three levels (i) minimum level called “Nucleus Development”, (ii) Middle level called “Dehat Development, and (iii) Intensive level called “Village Development” (NPC, 1956).
The Second Plan (1962-65) provided the role of rural development to the new political institution called Village Panchayat at village level with the aspiration that village development programme will accelerate with technical support of the government. Besides,
40 Rapti Valley Multipurpose Project and settlement program was initiated in 1965. The main purpose of the project was to convert the forest areas into cultivable land for the immigrants from the hills of the county (NPC, 1962).
The Third Plan (1965-70) incorporated a separate Panchayat programme to a full- fledged sector, distinct from the public sector and the private sector to accelerate local development (NPC, 1965).
The Fourth Plan (1970-75) introduced regional planning approach for the first time. Growth Axis and Growth Centre development became the two facets of the planning structure. Besides, two projects called Jiri Multipurpose Development Project and Remote Area Projects were started. Despite some of these initiatives, the Fourth Plan did de- emphasize the local development Programme and moved more towards the sectoral programmes (Pradhan, 1985).
The Fifth Plan (1975-80) was a ‘turning point’ in the development process of Nepal. Physical infrastructure, which dominated the earlier plans was de- emphasized for the first time receiving agricultural sector and social sector first and second priority respectively in financial allocation. This plan put emphasis on three aspects: Integrated Rural Development Programmes (IRDP), Special Group Programmes and New District Plan. The objectives of IRDPs were to increase production, to create and strengthen basic infrastructure for local development, to develop and strengthen social services, to generate employment, to enhance institutional capability for sustained rural development, to raise living standard of the poor etc. Small Area Development Program (SADP), Hill Area Development Program (HADP) and Integrated Panchayat Development Design (IPDD) were also initiated in this plan (NPC, 1975).
The Sixth Plan (1980-85) emphasized on an integrated model of rural development and giving a higher priority to IRD programs. This plan incorporated a target group oriented development approach largely considering the aspect of popular participation in decision making and meeting the basic needs of the rural areas in the overall development programs of the district (APROSC, 1981). The plan sought to institutionalize the existing participation of the people through local leadership. Emphasis on an integrated model of rural development was another characteristic of the plan (ICIMOD, 1985). The Decentralization
41 Act (1982) and the Decentralization by Laws (1984) were the noticeable works from the side of government to reach to the people.
The Seventh Plan (1985-90) gave high priority to the basic needs program supposing to fulfill the basic minimum needs such as food, clothing, housing, education and public security and to raise the economic condition of the poor (NPC,1985).
The Eighth Plan (1992-97) was formulated and implemented aiming to attain sustainable economic growth, to alleviate poverty and to minimize regional disparities. Economic policies based on competitive liberal market oriented economy were adopted to achieve these objectives. In Eighth Plan, large share of development expenditure were divested to the rural areas with the objective of making the village a focal point for development. In the Eighth Plan, government strongly believed that the pace of development can be achieved and accelerated only with the active involvement of people in the development process. Women Development Program and Community Development Program were initiated and implemented during this plan period (NPC, 1992).
The Ninth Plan (1997-2002) incorporated the single objective of reducing poverty. Agriculture was taken as a lead sector in the national economy to reduce poverty through high and sustainable development of agriculture sector. Rural Infrastructure Development Program was conducted in 35 districts and Community Forest Program was launched in 382 ha land (NPC, 1997).
The Tenth Plan (2002-2007) has included its objective of developing NGOs and civil society as partners towards poverty alleviation and achieving high–sustainable development by encouraging people's mobilization in areas like health, education, environment conservation, community development and areas like child, women, disabled, elderly people and awareness programs for downtrodden communities and other target groups. For this it has taken strategies of involving NGOs, civil society as partners for social and economic development and simplification of co- ordination, monitoring and evaluation process. In addition to this, it has made provisions of code of conduct for responsiveness and transparency of NGOs, making the auditing process result – oriented classifying them on the basis of capacity and working areas and preparing data regarding NGOs. The same plan has mentioned programs of forming a committee to bring clarity on Organization Act, Social Welfare Act and other related Acts by reviewing them. Likewise, interaction with concerned
42 agencies, coordination between the programs between geographical and sectoral areas for maximum utilization of the resources, institutional development of monitoring and evaluation process and opting for one–window system to bring minimum standard and accessibility in works are other important programs mentioned in the Tenth Plan for involving NGOs in development activities. Recognizing the importance of ensuring effective delivery of services in the current tenth plan (2002-2007) the government has adopted an innovative approach in greater involvement of the private sector (NGOs and CBOs) to promote actively in a variety of activities in these areas, both to supplement existing publicly managed activities and also to increase the outreach and effectiveness of these programs (NPC, 2003). So, one of the primary goals in the concept of organization building for rural development should be to support the local beyond the government organizations.
The current Three Years Interim Plan (2007/8-2009/10) has adopted a strategy to encourage private sector, civil society including NGOs, Community Organizations and making partnership in development and make refinement of law, policies and programs and their implementation. Simultaneously, it has focused on decentralization, institutional strengthening, capacity building, etc. The plan has undertaken major policies such as integrating community savings through cooperatives which make environment to invest in productive sectors, devolution of power to the local level to conduct local development and take NGOs as development means and partner (NPC, 2007).
Until now, rural development programme in Nepal designed to improve the living conditions of rural people have been area specific. Beneficiaries of rural development program are mostly the already privileged segments of the population. This leads to the conclusion that preferential programmes especially designed to help disadvantaged groups should be carefully considered and address to the particular needs of that group (Pyakuryal, 1982).
2.3.2 Current-Legal Status of Local Organizations
Current legal status of local organization is discussed briefly particularly on the basis various Acts and Rules.
43 Status (Features) Weaknesses
1. Organization Registration Act (1977) No focused legal provision about At least seven members required for transparency in the matter of financial registration. resources. No financial obligation for member. Difficult to renewal unless supervision is done under the social welfare External internal resources can be council. Supervision is carried based tapped. on production of documents but it is Registration is coordinated under the often weak. supervision of the chief district officer. Can work throughout the country. Financial record keeping system and requires annual audit. Property of the organization can be seized by the government if the organization discontinues and collapses. 2. Social Welfare Act (1992) Lack of foresightness. Co-ordinates all the organizations. Lack of transparency. Form Social Welfare Council (SWC) Delay in working procedure. SWC carryout necessary work for Unnecessary control. achieving the goals set by this act. Unscientific formation of SWC Board. SWC has authority to raise and operate Only these persons are placed in the fund for social work Board from various organizations. SWC help the government in making Even then, all are nominated by the policies that help to coordinate the government. activities of the organizations effectively It helps organizations to coordinate, Inspect, supervise and evaluate their work performance. 3. Forest Act (1993) They are generally discouraged from Assign more responsibility to local user participating in decision making. communities. Some indigenous peoples’ customary District forest office (DFO) directly rights to forest and community hands over management of forest to resources are not formally registered. user groups that meet the requirement. Hence, they have been taken over by CFUGs. The CFU Gs prepare constitutions according to an established format and Through the regulation specially 33% an operational plan and register them female participation on CFUF with DFO. executive committees is found but there is not specially other DFO has the authority to dissolves marginalized groups inclusion. groups.
44 4. The Irrigation Act and Rules (1999) and The relevant policy does not maintain Water Resource Act (1992) provision for mandatory representation of disadvantaged Irrigation Water User Association grouped on water users Association (IWUA) is registered with the district (WUA) executive committees. water committee. Long, frustrating formal procedure of Right to resolve conflicts by users dispute resolution. themselves. District irrigation office (DIO) is entrusted to look after completed case. 5. Decentralization Act 1982 Lack of implementation as hoped Formulation of development plans by Financial dependency local body Hold of central government in Village, town and district body decision making responsible for development plan Narrow thinking of bureaucracy implementations Financial provision for local body Provision relating to audit 6. Local Self Government Act (LSGA)-1999 The LSGA does not mention Encourages establishment of user participation of women in users groups (UGs) for management of local groups which are registered under resources. this act. Assigns local development activities No full financial rights to local through User Committees (UCs), and institutions. local NGOs. Many other acts such as water The Act (LGA) has envisaged devolution resources Act (1992), forest Act of power and functions beyond the DDC (1992), etc. are inconsistent with the level or to the grassroots. Local Self-Governance Act(1999). 7. The cooperative Act (1991) No specific provision for women’s Minimum 25 members required for representations. registration. Decisions regarding involvement of Funds are collected through share Dalits and other are influenced by capital, membership fee, monthly powerful castes. saving, revolving fund, grants and Poor people cannot contribute even donation. for monthly saving. Profits are distributed equally among the members. Once five co-operatives are registered, a district cooperative association is organized, affiliated with the District Cooperative Board.
45 2.3.3 Rural Development Models
The empirical models related to the local development are dealt here.
Tribhuvan Village Development Model (TVDP)
The first systematic and deliberate effort at rural development was introduced in 1952 even before the initiation of the first five years plan with assistance of the United States of America and India. It was firstly implemented at Tribhuvan Gram Vikas with the aspiration of fulfilling every aspect of the village community needs such as education, input supply for agriculture, drinking water, preventive health services, agricultural extension, cottage industry and cooperative development (Baral and Koirala, 1989).
The First Five Year Plan (1956–61) put a significant emphasis on this programme and undertook the programme implementation strategy through a three – tiered village development approach (NPC, 1956). The programme was divided into three levels (a) the minimum level called “Nucleus Development”, (b) the middle level called “Dehat Development” (c) the intensive level called “Village Development”. The first level included the improvement of existing local infrastructure and facilities like schools, playgrounds, wells, roads, etc. The second level included the provision of improvement in seeds and fertilizer, horticulture and livestock development and social services like primary school, first aid kits, drinking water, etc. The third level included soil survey, propagation of scientific farming techniques, extension of health and maternal services, veterinary services, cottage industries, cooperatives, etc. (ICIMOD, 1985).
For the implementation of the programme, the country was divided into 150 blocks, each block covering 200 villages with 10,000 to 13,000 families. The first category programme was to be implemented in all the 150 blocks from the very beginning of the plan, the second category in 32 blocks and the third category in 16 blocks. Thus during the First Plan period (1956–1961) one-third of the country was provisioned to be covered by the second category programme and one-tenth by the third category programme.
46 Some efforts were also made to institutionalize the rural development activities. A new Ministry of planning and Development at the center and District Development Board at the district level are some examples of this. Besides, there was a Block Advisory Committee including village development officers with technical assistants at the block level to guide and help in the planning and implementation of its programms. Under the Blocks were the ‘Mandals; the grassroot organizations run by Village Development Workers (Baral and Koraila, 1989).
Panchayat Development Programme (PDP)
The Tribhuvan Village Development Programme (TVDP) was abandoned and replaced by a Panchayet Development Programme (PDP) after the inception of Partyless Panchayat System in 1960. With the inception of the partyless Panchayat System, the rural development programme received a new and different direction. Following this change, village panchayats were set up in the rural areas covering approximately a population of two thousand each, and town panchayats in a limited number of urban areas. The existing 35 administrative districts were phased out and 75 administrative districts consisting village and town panchayats were created.
In line with the above changes, Village Development Workers (VDWs) were renamed as Panchayat Development Workers (PDWs) and the Block Development Officer as Panchayat Development Officer (PDO). At the central level a Ministry of Panchayat was created and under it the erstwhile Village Developmetn Department was put, renaming it as Department of Panchayat Development. The PDWs were required to work with the village panchayats and to help them in plan formulation and programme implementation (Baral and Koirala, 1989).
District Administration Plan (DAP)
The District Administration Plan (DAP) was introduced in Nepal in 1974 with the objective of channelizing the activities of the line ministries and departments in an integrated way through a new unified administrative structure created at the district level integrating the District Panchayat, the CDO’s office and the district development offices of His Majesty’s Government.
47 For the first time, a provision was made to formulate an annual district development plan integrating all the sectoral plans of the line agencies through various district level sectoral coordination committees, which was to be passed by the District Panchayat and District Assembly. The CDO was made the chief executive officer of the District Panchayat and the coordinator of all the district development programmers.
The DAP was thus initiated to attain the following objectives:
To develop a unified administrative structure in the district.
To enhance the role of local Panchayats in the administrative and development process in the district, and
To ensure the formulation of development plans based on local needs.
DAP implementation experiences revealed that the above-mentioned objectives could not be achieved in their entirety. The phasing, schedules and regulations as spelled out in the DAP were never fully followed by either the district or the center. The top- down approach in programme planning remained as before. The annual development plans prepared in the districts turned out to be just shopping lists designed to attract as much resources as possible (Ojha, 1987).
Remote Area Development Programme (RADP)
This programme was designed for the northern areas of Nepal mainly with political consideration in 1969. Latter, a special committee known as Remote Area Development Committee (RADC) was created to implement the programme. On the basis of measurement of the degree of remoteness, VDCs in 18 remote districts were categorized into non-remote, remote and very remote. The development programmes of RADC were implemented in the latter into two categories (Remote Area Development Committee [RADC], 1990 as cited in Shrestha, 2006 : 100). Currently, RADC covers 25 districts designed for SADP.
Despite implementation of the SADP along with Remote Area Programme, RADC programmes remain peripheral, and larger expenditures of sectoral ministries have not been adequate to meet the requirements of the area. As a result, this programme has minimal economic impact in terms of area development (Shrestha, 2006).
48 Regional Intensive Development Programme (RIDP)
This program, originally called SFDP, was designed to implement the Regional Development strategy conceived in the Fourth Plan. Twenty small areas were located along the four ‘Growth Axes’ with potentialities for growth. It was planned to concentrate investment in these ‘Growth Centers’ in order to achieve full economies of scale and encourage agglomeration economies”, with their spread effects thus distorting the very basis of the strategy. With this fundamental revision in its concept and the multi-sectoral package (agriculture, forestry, cottage industry, health, education, cooperatives, etc.), the program became just another version of integrated rural development on a district basis. Resource constraints came in the way of expansion of the program as stipulated in the plan; it has, therefore, been limited to the districts where the program had been started. This program is directed by a high level committee, headed by the Minister of Home and Panchayat, and is implemented in accordance with the District Administration Plan (DAP) (NPC, 1970).
Integrated Rural Development Projects (IRDP)
The Fifth Five Years Plan (1975–80) included a new concept in rural development in the country, adopting the Integrated Rural Development (IRD) approach. Poor coordination and disintegration between interrelated programmers regarding the rural development were the main causes behind this. This approach desired to give priority towards productive sectors instead of infrastructure building, which was duly emphasized in the past rural development models. In essence, Integrated Rural Development is a long–term process involving an interaction of social, political and cultural factors (Pradhan 1982). More precisely, the central themes of this approach are: (i) involvement of the people in the development process; (ii) basic needs orientation in project components; and (iii) planning with reference to intra–regional, inter–personal differences and inter – regional disparities (NPC, 1975).
The growing interests in the Integrated Rural Development (IRD) approach is a result of obstacles impeding the pace of development caused by un-coordinated and disintegrated programs by different agencies of the government designed to solve the interrelated problems confronting the rural population (Ojha & Adhikari, 1982 as cited in Ojha, 1987 : 126). Integrated rural development is a long -term process
49 involving an interaction of economic, social, political and cultural factors (Pradhan, 1982). Besides, due to extreme emphasis of the previous plans on infrastructure buildings, productive sectors were given less priority, which was further aggravating the existing problems of poverty and unemployment or underemployment. These and other similar problems inherent in the past rural development efforts created positive attitude towards IRD approach.
The IRDPs in Nepal aim at: (i) increasing the efficiency of various productive sectors with the main emphasis on agriculture and related activities; (ii) bringing equity in sharing the fruits of development; (iii) fulfilling the basic minimum needs of the people; (iv) providing opportunities for gainful employment on a sustained basis; (v) ensuring people’s participation in all the aspects of the development programme; (vi) maintaining ecological balance in the project region; (vii) ensuring a self – sustained type of development process through the development of rural institutions; and (viii) maintaining the cultural heritage of the social environment (Baral & Koirala, 1989). More precisely, the central concerns of these integrated projects are: (i) involvement of the people in the development process; (ii) basic need orientation in project components; and (iii) planning with reference to intra-regional, inter-personal differences and inter-regional disparities (NPC, 1975).
In rural planning where the main problem is to provide efficient organization of economic and service function for the community, these concepts take great value. The identification and deliberation of rural communities not only fits in well with the concept of integrated area planning but also provides a strategy for the distribution of services and amenities in a situation of scarce resources (Pradhan, 2003).
Nepal has adopted IRD Approach since the middle of the seventies during fifth Five Years Plan, which incorporated five Integrated Rural Development Programmers (IRDPs):
Rasuwa/Nuwakot IRDP, Sagarnatha IRDP, Mahakali IRDP, Koshi Hill Area Rural Development Project, and Integrated Hill Development Project. During the Sixth Five Years Plan (1980–85) there more IRDPs such as Rapti IRDP, Karnali-Bheri IRDP and Dhading District development were included while in Seven Five Years. Plan (1985–90) two more IRDPs–Seti Zone and Mechi Zone IRDPs were added. Gulmi, Arghakhanchi and Palpa districts development projects were also included in this plan simultaneously 50 The IRD approach launched in various parts of the country is indeed producing encouraging results in fulfilling the basic needs of the rural people. The Sixth Plan incorporated a target group oriented development approach largely considering the aspect of popular participation in decision making and meeting the basic needs of the rural areas in the overall development program of the district (APROSC, 1981). The plan sought to institutionalize the existing participation of the people through local leadership. Emphasis on an integrated model of rural development was another characteristic of the plan (ICIMOD, 1985). However, lack of coordination between the sectors, problem of getting qualified technical manpower, over–expectation of the local people, people’s participation mostly in project implementation not in project design and benefit sharing, fixation of priorities and setting of project targets while formulating the district plan have been mostly guided by the project document which have been limiting the ‘bottom up’ process of planning, etc. have created difficulties for the success of this approach as expected and visualized. There was little impact on the improvement of the quality of life of the rural population.
Basic Needs Approach
Basic needs are those that must be satisfied in order to sustain normal life. Basically, it contains three elements: (i) adequate food, shelter and clothing, (ii) safe and clean drinking water, sanitation, public transport and communication, health and educational facilities, and (iii) the participation of people in fulfilling those basic needs from decision–making, implementation and evaluation to sharing the benefits (Carino, 1983 as cited in Adhikari, 1987 : 65). However, the definition of basic needs depend on what the target groups of a country urgently need for a satisfactory life.
In order to break the vicious circle of poverty that has surrounded the lower, end of the socioeconomic scale in the country, His Majesty’s Government made provisions for the fulfillment of basic needs in the Sixth Five Years Plan (1980–85). However, its practical importance is not diminishing today. Similarly, the Government’s Basic Needs Program (1985) underlined the need to involve NGOs and Private sector in reaching basic need targets.
In order to fulfill basic needs of the local people various development offices and units have been established in different districts. Large share of the government
51 expenditure and foreign assistance have been invested to fulfill the basic needs. But these efforts could not change the situations satisfactorily without establishing the proper delivery mechanism and receiving mechanism. We can't hope the success of basic needs programmers implemented by the government. Likewise, the access of basic services will remain a difficult task for a developing country like Nepal, unless the locally available resources are adequately mobilized. If development programmes utilizing local resources both physical and human available in the country are implemented employment opportunities and incomes will grow and rural people will become able to fulfill their basic needs. Massive participation of local people can be enhanced only when they are included in each programme from project formulation to operation, evaluation and maintenance (Adhikari, 1987). Local organizations such as user group can ensure involvement of the local people at rural development activities, and only through, these organizations they can work collectively and can best fulfill their basic needs.
Service Center Planning
The Decentralization Act 1982, and Decentralization By-laws 1984, provided for the creation of one service center in each of the nine ilakas in the district which act as the basic staging point for the provision of all government services in the district. In other words, the service center was the lowest body of His Majesty’s Government to provide necessary physical and technical assistance to the development work of all VPs within each illaka of the District Panchayat. Field level offices of different ministries in the district were expected to converge in a service center.
There are several techniques of local level development planning among which the service center planning approach is one of the most important tools. Here the term ‘service centre’ means a concentration of socio-economic activities and infrastructure in specific locations in a given geographical space. The role of the service center is to attract activities of the type, which can be functionally integrated, while at the same time diffusing activities through a chain of subsidiary centers (Gurung & Roy, 1987).
In addition to these models, the government of Nepal has also adopted other models such as Jiri Multi- Purposes Development Project, Hill Transport Development Project, Integrated Panchayat Development Design, Food for Work, etc.
52 2.3.4 Induced Community Based Programs in Nepal
The major induced community based programs in Nepal are discussed below.
Small Farmer’s Development Program (SFDP)/Small Farmer’s Cooperative Limited (SFCL)
Small Farmer's Development Program (SFDP) has been a showcase model of poverty alleviation program of ADBN and HMG- Nepal for the last three decades. Recently, the Small Farmer's Cooperative Limited (SFCL), an offshoot of SFDP, has become a new showcase model of induced self-help program of ADBN and GTZ (Bhattachan, 1997). SFDP was first implemented in Nepal by agriculture Development Bank of Nepal (ADBN) in 1975 aiming to:
i) develop local self- reliance by developing leadership and managerial abilities among SFs themselves;
ii) feduce the operating costs of the programme by a participatory mechanism;
iii) eliminate the bureaucratic barriers between the delivery agencies and small farmers towards an effective and efficient delivery mechanism to cater to the needs of the rural poor;
iv) expand and increase the scope of activities, area coverage and participation of beneficiaries in a cost time effective manner; and;
v) develop SF organization to play the role of financial intermediary between the ADBN and small farmers.
The standard operational process of SFDP includes project site selection, recruitment and training of Group Organizers (GOs), identification of small farmers, benchmark survey, and group formation and orientation. Steps taken in the organization of SFDP are as follows:
Selection of the project area based on a survey; priority is given to those Village Development Committees (VDC) where banking facility is not available;
53 Identification of small farmers based on (a) agricultural land holding criterion (a family holding 10 ropanies or 0.5 hectares of land in the hills; 15 kattha or 0.5 hectare of land in the Terai (previously it used to be 20 ropanies or 1 hectare in the hills; 4 bighas or 2.7 hectares in the Tarai; and (b) income criterion of annual per capita income, Rs. 2,500 or less.
Group Formation of 5 to 15 members with monthly meetings and with joint responsibility in all group activities.
Bhattachan and Mishra 1994 (as cited in Bhattachan, 1997 : 123 ) have pointed out serious structural problems, including increasing bureaucratization and highly limited collective responsibility and collective liability of small farmer's groups.
Institutional Development at the Grassroots for Poverty Alleviation (UNDP’s Model)
The UNDP implemented, by now a much publicized model, a program for institutional development at the grassroots for poverty alleviation (RAS/94/500 Program), in two Village Development Committees (VDCs), namely Arjunchaupari and Shri Krishna Gandaki, in Syanja district in Western Nepal in October 1994. The twin objectives of the program, as stated by UNDP (1995) are “rapid scaling up of poverty alleviation efforts” and “improved participatory planning”. The program consists of two packages: conceptual and program. The conceptual packages comprise organization development, capital generation, and skill enhancement. Similarly, the program package comprises investment in organization, such as grant for productive/physical infrastructure and seed capital credit facility to village organizations (UNDP, 1995). The program process has three components called “dialogues”: awareness generation, planning, and resource mobilization (UNDP, 1995). The main program strategy consists of the formation of village/community organizations at the settlement level, reduce external dependence, forge linkage with development agencies (UNDP, 1995).
The lesson learned include the effectiveness of such programs in terms of fast expansion in the settlements, bottom up planning, fast accumulation of capital at the grassroots level, promotion of self-reliance, reduction of interest rates in local money lending, and gainful use of local resources. However the success of the program has
54 been based on a huge grant amount and running the program by hiring too many highly expensive professionals, which is difficult to replicate nationwide (UNDP, 1995).
Swabalamban (GTZ & IIDS Model)
Swabalamban program as a rural development by the poor for the poor was designed and implemented by Integrated Development Systems (IDS) in November 1982. The programme was implemented in 1985 in Jhadewa Village Panchayat in Palpa district with the financial support of the Swiss Association for Technical Assistance (SATA) from 1985. The main objectives of the program were to “consolidate productive assets of the poor in agriculture” and to engage them in “off- farm economic activities” (Sharma et. al., 1994, Stiller et al., 1993 as cited in Bhattachan, 1997 : 126 ). By the end of the eighties, Swabalamban program was implemented in Palpa and Lamjung with support from Helvetas and in Dhading and Gorkha with support from GTZ. Later, the Swabalamban program in Palpa was run by the Rural Self- reliance Development Center (RSDC) and in Lamjung it was run by Institute of Integrated Development Systems (IIDS).
Income Generation Groups (IGG) and Motivators are the backbone of the Swabalamban programme. Each IGG comprises 15 to 50 member households and the members elect their leaders, including president and secretary. A monthly meeting of each IGG is held on a pre-fixed day. The members meet for about two hours to discuss and make decisions concerning loans, savings, repayment, community development activities, and other issues raised in the meeting. The motivator of the VDC participates in the meeting and provides necessary help and support, including writing on minute books.
Farmer-Managed Irrigation System (FMIS)
Farmer-managed irrigation systems have been very popular mainly in the hills. Often, an irrigation system demands an organization to perform works such as construction, maintenance, and management of the system, including water allocation, distribution, maintenance, conflict management and extension, improvement, and resource mobilization. Small-scale irrigation systems are usually characterized by informality whereas large-scale systems that demand more labor are characterized by formal rules
55 and regulations. User group members revolve around the same canal. Most farmer- managed irrigation organizations form a committee in small ones and tiers of committees in large ones with regular meetings. Decisions are duly recorded in minute books. Committee members and leaders are elected by the members (Bhattachan, 1997).
Production Credit for Rural Women (PCRW)
Production Credit for Rural Women (PCRW) is a showcase poverty alleviation project of UNICEF implemented by the Ministry of Panchayat and Local Development (MPLD), now the Ministry of Local Development (MLD), in 1982, in cooperation with three Nepalese Banks, namely, Nepal Rastra Bank, Rastriya Banijya Bank, and Nepal Bank Limited. UNICEF (nd, as cited in Bhattachan, 1997 : 128) has stated that the Production Credit for Rural Women Project brings together the extension network and community development expertise of the Ministry of Panchayat and Local Development with the credit resources and financial management expertise of the commercial banks to establish a group formation and input delivery mechanism in support of income generation projects for village women. The broader goals of PCRW program are to increase rural women’s access to services not only to credit but also to education, health care, agricultural extension, etc, and through group formation, to increase their involvement in community level decision making and the local political process. The project objectives are to: integrate rural women into the market economy, develop small scale production enterprises, establish self-reliant groups of village women, develop a delivery system, and develop the capacity of the Ministry of Local Development (UNICEF, nd, as cited in Bhattachan, 1997 : 128-129).
Cooperatives
In Nepal, the policy of cooperatives was adopted in 1953. In Rapti Valley Development Project cooperatives were supported as a part of the program with the establishment of 13 cooperatives in 1956. In 1961, cooperative development fund was created and the Sajha cooperative center was established. Later cooperatives for transportation, medical stores, and consumer stores were formed. In 1963, a Cooperative Bank was established and later it was merged into Agricultural
56 Development Bank (ADB/N). Different types of cooperatives: multi-purpose, credit and Sajha (cooperatives) were created. In 1969, the management of cooperatives was handed over to the ADB/N.
In 1976, the most ambitious co-operative movement was launched under political umbrella in a period of party less political system. At the first stage, 30 districts were covered with the establishment of co-operative society in each Village Panchayat. Agricultural inputs, seeds and credit were supplied. Taking a sharp turning in government decision, the management of the cooperatives was given back to the Cooperative Department in 1978. As the cooperatives were empowered to supply credit and the agricultural inputs, without supervision and staff of co-operatives misused the capital more than NRs. 24 million and did not repay the borrowings of the Agricultural Development Bank amounting to about NRs. 1 billion.
Cooperatives were managed by their own boards whose members were mostly local politicians and board members themselves were loan defaulters and as a consequence other borrowers also did not bother for repayment. It was very much government directed system and remained as ‘standard’ organization and ordinary members did not have the feeling of belongingness.
Community Forestry
Until about a decade ago, the possible desertification of Nepal was a major concern in the country. It was the forests, which bore the brunt of the corrupt practices of national politics and forest bureaucracy helped their accelerated depletion. But the induction of user management of community forests in 1989 based on the Decentralization Act of 1982 brought about a significant turnaround in the condition of forests at least in hill of Nepal.
Under user-based management, the government forest officials were mandated to organize the FUGs of the direct users of an identified patch of forest. Once the FUG is formed, they were assisted to draft the charter called the Constitution of the user groups and operational procedures called the Operation and Management Plans.
The latter provides all the details of the local forest to be handed over to the FUGs: kinds and number of trees, wild life, other forest properties method such as including
57 regular harvesting and replanting, etc. For all practical purposes, the Operation and Management Plan and the Constitution constitute the database or data profile of the FUG. The forestry regularly organizes training and review sessions for the FUGs to build their capacities. This change has fundamentally and effectively and effectively redefined the role of the forest officials: they no longer act as the lords of forests but as catalysts to empower and enable the FUGs.
Most FUGs have forest guards paid by themselves. But most often, the users too take turns to patrol themselves. The FUGs manage their forest through a set of rules custom-tailored to their own specific situations and needs. Forests are trimmed only during a certain number of days in a year; users pay for the firewood at a rate fixed by themselves; transgressors are fined; villagers reporting transgressions are paid an incentive
2.3.5 Works Relating to Local Organizations and Rural Development in Nepal 2.3.5.1 Studies on Rural Development
It needs viable institutional forms that involve all people at all stages in preserving and adding to the communities' wealth and in sharing its benefits. Only then local level institutions can be the medium for saving and investments and emerge as self– reliant and self–confident communities that are capable of managing their own affairs over time. The main cause of forest depletion all over the country is the failure in evolving institutional forms in promoting the preservation and expansion of collective wealth as a basis for individual prosperity. For the preservation and additions to local resources, Lohani (1978) has focused that the responsibility must squarely fall on the people themselves. The findings of the study is that capable local institutions provide base for people's participation in terms of implementing and enforcing collective decisions as well as the sharing of the benefits.
Poudyal (2004) has attempted to examine the causes of the failures of the rural development in the country and suggests re-designing of the rural development through an organization of the poor as a group or class of the poor.
58 Shrestha (2005) has discussed the concept of people's participation, its scope, and importance, need of organizations for participation, and method to increase participation. She also explores the status of people's participation in Nepal. She (2007) has discussed the significance of NGO-led development approach, role of NGO/INGOs, stages of NGO, shortcomings of NGO-led development strategy, development of NGOs in Nepal and constraints and weakness of NGOs in Nepal. The same author (2008) has highlighted the issues of sustainable community development, the relationship between poverty and sustainable development, and the trends and strategy of sustainable community both globally and in the Nepalese context. She has examined existing community development practices and weakness of present community development programs in the country. She has also focused salient features of community development, issues and challenges, present status of community development programs, achievements and impacts and its supportive factors of getting success.
Nepal (2007) has been made attempt to analyze the concept and principles of cooperatives, and the cooperatives movement in Nepal, their importance in rural development and problems and prospects. The findings of the article is that by virtue of having volunteer groups of people, with motives of people oriented self-help and meeting basic needs of the communities through collective action, cooperatives are an essential organization for rural development in Nepal.
People-oriented development paradigm depends upon three key measures: education, decision-making power and skills to help them to manage their affairs by themselves. These demands not the classical model of planning for the people but new model of planning with the people for which NGO involvement in the development process remain inevitable (Maskay, 1992). In addition to this, the policy parameters for a viable role for NGOs are also discussed in this study under the major subheading on complementary role for NGOs, institutionalization of NGO role, networking, sustainability of NGO interventions, development of grass root organizations, mobilization of resources. The various models proposed in this study can be taken as the resource for present study at the time of analysis and policy recommendation
Jnawali (2004) has discussed sound governance and local leadership, investment in people, tapping local resources, attracting trade and investment, and attacking poverty through productivity are the better strategies for rural development. Agriculture improvement, good 59 framework for integrated development and institutional aspects are suggested as the major elements to be considered in the development of rural Nepal.
Sharma (2004) has noted that development planning should focus on the fulfillment of the minimum needs of the people as a means to an end i.e. the end being the improvement in the quality of life. He analyzed that Nepal has adopted bottom-up local development scheme as the major strategy for accelerating the process of national development for poverty alleviation and improvement of the living standard of the people.
Bajracharya (2004) has identified that the development efforts of last half century has only yielded sharper divisions between the urban and rural areas with actual deterioration in the latter in many cases. She has suggested that this can be overcome by empowering people and adopting decentralization and devolution strategies along with ensuring larger investments to the rural sector, commercializing agriculture, introducing and expanding income generating activities, etc. and more importantly linking all these activities with the market.
The study conducted by Maharjan and Joshi (2008) have analyzed the execution and outcome of community based institutions according to different social characteristics in two development regions, i.e. Lalitpur from central Development Region and Dadeldhura from Far Western Development Region. The study concludes that government introduced community based institutions following decentralization policies and they are performing quite well as perceived by most of the people in the community in this study. For this reason, people's participation and independency in program/policy formulated of such institutions and their transparency have been enhanced.
2.3.5.2 Studies on Local Organizations
There is great utility of indigenous cooperatives in rural development particularly in agriculture sector. Local people – based organization can solve the problems of both individual and common with collective endeavor. There are many indigenous local cooperatives functioning since the long date back viz. Nogar (agricultural field work cooperatives) among the ethnic Gurung, Parma (labour exchange cooperatives) common among both caste and ethnic farmers, Dhikur (rotating credit associations) mostly among the ethnic Thakali, Bhotia and Gurung and Guthi (temple and land
60 tenure associations) common among the ethnic Newars. In planning and implementing modern cooperative institutions, the indigenous systems of cooperatives should be best understood because they are based on local values. There is vital role of indigenous local organizations in rural development without which it is impossible to understand the extent of collective work among different ethnic groups of Nepal (Messerschmidt, 1992).
Of the users groups study regarding the local development activities Rai (1987) has mentioned that the target groups of any development activities are people. He further stressed that more self–reliant local development activities immensely needs people's participation and mobilization of local resources, which is possible only through forming user groups at the grass root level. The study is similar to this study in terms of evaluating the role of users groups in mobilizing local resources and conducting rural development.
All organizations outside the government, such as private banks, schools, hospitals, etc. are not non-governmental organizations. Pokharel (2002) has noted that any organization to be called NGO must have four basic characteristics. They are development oriented, non- political, democratic in character and non -profit making.
The historical context, present status and their classification of NGOs by sectos and geographic regions has been traced by Simkhada (1992). He has also analyzed the registration process and funds transfer policy of government towards NGOs. He has further analyzed NGO's institutional base as the major constraints in NGO growth and development and focused that the lateral growth and expansion in programs and areas of operation demand an equal attention towards building the vertical supportive institutional framework for both improved absorptive capacity and enhancement of public accountability. INGO could greatly assist in the capacity building of local grass roots NGOs. He concludes that NGO can play vital role in social mobilization and popular participation however; it demands meaningful GO–NGO–IO collaboration for improved development performance.
Attempt has been made by Gurung (1992) to provide general picture of sectoral involvement and regional pattern with physiographic and rural–urban differences of both NGOs and INGOs and mentioned the scope of NGOs in Nepal in the context of eighth plan (1992–97) to achieve the plan's said objectives–sustainable economic growth, poverty alleviation and rural development and regional balance. For this, he recommends the involvement of NGOs
61 in need, some reorientation from the current pattern, e.g. urban bias of local NGOs and accessible area orientation of INGOs. He has proposed the agenda for NGOs by identifying the constraints e.g. limited size and scope, lack of financial and technical resources, lack of autonomy, lack of collaboration between government and NGOs and even among the indigenous NGOs and providing actions necessary for facilitating NGOs involvement in development e.g. recognition of diversity of NGOs, classification according to their objective, full autonomy, simplified rules and regulations monitoring and evaluation etc. The findings provide some insights to present study particularly in analyzing the sectoral involvement of NGOs in rural development, however, it is silent regarding the informal community-based organizations.
To establish the link between self-help women groups and rural development by conducting case study of self-help women group of two VDCs i.e. Pipaldanda and Humin of Palpa district, Nepal (2008) concludes that the self-help women groups have increased women's access to credit and resources, helped to build awareness increased the level of confidence and enhanced levels of participation and have contributed to poverty reduction.
Integrated Development System (IDS) provides three major categories of non-government institutions (NGIs) e.g. socio-cultural, community services and economic. Participatory observation, Interview and case study methods were adopted for this study. The study has identified about 150 non-government institutions (NGls) in 21 sample districts, covering eastern, central, western and mid-western development region. Of this, 13 institutions were examined in detail as illustrative cases and remaining 137 are listed with minimum information necessary to identify them in future. The areas of involvement of these institutions are afforestation, community development, income generation (irrigation, credit, labour exchange), infrastructure building (road, bridge), socio–cultural and social sectors (education, health, water supply) (IDS, 1985). The classification of structural dimensions, areas of involvement and issues for consideration for the future obviously provides valuable guidelines for present study. Despite this, the case study method for surveying local institutions make similarity, to some extent, to present study however, the aim and study area differ greatly.
The study conducted by Kansakar, Kayastha and Acharya (1999) aims to review and understand various activities undertaken in rural development by the Ministry of Local Development and determine the trend in the allocation of local development funds to the 62 NGOs and to various sectors including rural development by DDCs and VDCs. It has further identified major issues of local NGOs regarding DDCs and VDCs, development fund allocation, transparency, participation in local level planning and design of funds flow from the center to the local level, and capacity and extent of participation in local development. They have suggested several recommendations: (i) the NGOs and INGOs working at the local level should emphasize activities directly or indirectly; (ii) NGOs should direct their development efforts to skill and entrepreneurship development so that there could be multiplier effect on the community; (iii) HMG must increase project implementation capability by training the concerned manpower in the government; (iv) Ministry of Local Development should distribute funds to the NGOs under definite criteria and the approval of such funds must be made transparent by publishing the concerned DDCs and VDCs and (v) Registration of the NGOs as well as co–coordinating, monitoring and evaluating activities should be given to the concerned District Development Office for largely because DDC is related with the development activities in the district, it has to coordinate the activities of the NGOs too with the overall development activities of the district.
Small sub-user groups of homogeneous households with shared interests should be established to incorporate the different needs of various users in to the operational plans. Likewise, institutional development of user group is necessary for supporting poverty reduction (Terakawa, 2008).
The study conducted by Paudel and Thapa (2001) have signified local organizations that work in close cooperation with farmers are vehicles facilitating the local development. They have stressed that due to the flexible structures of Non-governmental organizations (NGLOs) can contribute to development. The primary objective of this study is to bridge knowledge gap between government organizations (GOs), NGOs and local groups/user groups by analyzing strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats (SWOT) of local organizations associated with land management. This study has obtained information through organizational and household surveys, observation, key informants survey and group discussion and draws findings that user groups are potentially most important to facilitate suitable land use and management. However, it needs immediate attention towards strong managerial and technical capabilities for effective action.
The study conducted by Joshi, Jali and Hamid (1997) have discussed some relevant theoretical underpinnings and pose questions concerning the effects of three types of 63 structural elements of organizations such as mode of formalness, decision-making structure and size of organization. Likewise, this study describes recent efforts in Nepal to organize forest user groups and effect of organizational structure on participation and performance. The study concludes that forest user groups, as local organizations at the community level, could act as vehicles for forest development; and their effectiveness can be enhanced by making them more ideal in terms of structural elements. In addition to these, user groups empower local people, whereby every member would have some say and thus enhance participation. They pointed out that there are two opposing school of thought regarding decision-making structure. One school of thought advocates that local organizations need strong executive leadership to deal decisively with their environment while the other school of thought relies more on maximum consensus and widespread participation of individuals in decision making. Although the more democratic approach in decision making process is assembly involvement but this depends on degree of issues. Generally, if a decision is important for their organization a non- participative decision-making process would be appropriate for the subordinates in terms of their work, a more participative process would be appropriate. The core of the decision making structure in local organizations, is not only the decisions but also its consequences for the organization. More specifically, the consequences of decision making determine organizations effectiveness, which in turn affects the interest of its members to participate.
2.4 Conceptual Framework Development simply refers to raising the level of quality of life of the people by means of providing access to facilities and infrastructure for increasing production and distribution of the products. For the latter, organization is the institution that is being involved in making available of those facilities. Local organizations, which are formed to serve people locally, are widespread across different parts of the country. They are crucial for local people as they serve local needs for which people do not require to visit to larger centers, which are usually far away from their place.
For present purpose, the term 'local organization' covers only those groupings that are not organized by the state. These organizations cover a wide range of formal and informal networks, which work in close cooperation with local people. In this context,
64 Non-Government Local Organization (NGLO) is defined as locally organized groups that run on collective basis, independently from the government.
The already reviewed literatures are not adequate to explain specific analysis regarding the organizational features and contribution of non- government local organization to rural development particularly in Nepal. For example, Uphoff (1971) identified leadership, doctrine, programme, resources and internal structures as the institutional variables, Esman and Uphoff (1984) identified variables of organizational structure, such as size, linkage, initiatives, rules and regulations, Curtis (1991) identified general factors that contribute mutual cooperation to obtain the fruit of development and Shams (1991) identified five organizational variables, such as motivating factor, group characteristics, leadership, programme thrust and management styles. Similarly. the study carried out by Integrated Development System (1985) identified only three types of non government institutions, Maskey (1992) noted NGOs involvement in development process of Nepal, Gurung (1992) highlighted the sectoral involvement of NGOs, Rai (1987) noted self reliant local development activities by users group, and Messermidt (1992) emphasized the contribution of indigeneous cooperatives in rural development.
Under such circumstances, the present research holds enough significance as it covers issues of organizational structure of NGLOs and its contributions to rural development. Due to the fact of possessing distinct geographical and socio- economic characteristics consisting diverse ethnic communities and their inherent socio-cultural systems and distinct resource endowment and needs, generalization from the studies so far undertaken to date are hard to make in order to represent the overall situation. It is also evident that most of the existing studies have focused on the development of rural region in the context of government delivery system. But the role of resource potentials of the rural area and strong receiving mechanism outside the government at local level cannot be over looked in the context of rural development which is perhaps a neglected aspect of the previous studies. Simultaneously, present study hs attempted to fill the gap of the previous studeies about the importance of location on NGLOs and done comprehensive studies on multiple types of NGLOs.
The major concern of present study is to examine the NGLOs that are viable for local development. This signifies that a viable NGLO in a local context may not be
65 considered significantly viable in another place. Thus, the replication of successful NGLOs in one context to develop successful NGLOs in another place for local development depends largely on suitable organizational features and capacity to pull resources. The NGLOs having best organizational features and adequate resoruces can perform different types of local development activities which can be taken into account for appropriate NGLOs adaptation to differing environments.
66 Figure 2.1: Conceptual Framework on Rural Development through NGLOs
Based on the synthesis of literature review, the conceptual framework of this study is presented in Figure 1. The conceptual framework for the study comprises three sets of components: organizational features, resources and activities (roles/functions).
The feature of an organization is composed of its formalness, objectives, composition and size, initiatives, decision making process, etc. These components have directly or indirectly influenced the processes of resource generation. Similarly, the organizational feature also impacts role and function of the organization and conducts different kinds of local development activities mobilizing internal resources to fulfill people's need. In this regard, the nature of role and function adopted by a local organization is influenced by internal and external resources. In addition, there are
67 two way relationships between resources and roles and functions of organization. It is because when the resources are mobilized they become augmenting. The nature of utilization and management of local resources and attraction of external resources is significantly determined by the processes that are adopted by an organization.
Finally, this framework assesses rural development activities in different fronts. First, through an organizational mechanism people including poor can organize them and get alternative sources of support to meet their needs without depending on the rich and the powerful. Secondly, this approach suggests that organization mechanism and programs related to improving access to resources are fundamental to fulfill basic needs of people in the rural areas. Third, through organization dynamics they can strengthen the local people, providing them the voice and capacity to make credible demands and bargaining on government and others who control the resource. Fourth, organized groups satisfy people's needs for social interaction, status, recognition and respect. Fifth, the idea of group dynamic is based on pooling member’s own resources (i.e. physical, human and financial). And sixth, chances of getting access to resources are much better when poor are organized into groups and function through them. It is because the sum of the efforts of group members is far greater than the sum of the individual efforts of people working alone.
68 CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY
3.1 Selection of the Study Area
Palpa district has been taken as the study area for seeking the impact of NGLOs on rural development. Palpa district is located (270 34' - 270 54' N and 830 15' - 840 22' E) in the western hill region of Nepal (Figure 3.1). The district covers an area of 1,463.74 sq. km (PDDP, 2002). It possesses sixty-five Village Development Committees (VDCs) and one Municipality i.e. Tansen. The district is bordered by Tanahun and Nawalparasi districts in the east, Gulmi and Arghakhanchi in the west, Rupandehi and Nawalparasi in the south and Syangja in the North. There is a Siddartha highway that runs through the middle of the district from south to north and there are several district and feeder roads. The north-south length of former road is 60 km and the east–west length of the latter is 120 Km (DDC, 2000). The rationale behind selecting this district was as follows:
The district represents unique social-cultural characteristics of hilly region of Nepal.
The district represents diverse resource potentialities.
The people of the district are traditionally involved in rural development through their own local organizations.
The people who reside in this district have long experiences of working with Non- government local organizations.
Existence of sufficient number of different types of NGLOs that can more or less represent the nature of NGLOs in the country.
Residents of the district are receptive to the research and the researcher.
69 Figure 3.1: Loction of Palpa District
70 3.2 Sources of Data
This study has been based basically on primary data collected from different sources. However, secondary data have also been used in the research. The detail procedures are presented in the subsequent sections.
3.2.1 Secondary Source
Related publications and reports were collected and consulted for acquiring supporting information. Information required to analyze the land use, topography and climate and others are obtained through different maps. Another important source of secondary data is Population Census 2001 to obtain information regarding population, agriculture, and industries, education, health and communication. Different Plan documents, Acts (i.e. Decentralization Act, Self Governance Act, Social Welfare Act etc.) and other policies related to NGLOs published by the government are used as invaluable sources for this study.
These data have been used to explain the relationship among key variables/factors obtained from primary sources. The historical account of local organizations development at local and governmental level in Nepal in general and in Palpa district in particular are assessed based upon the information available from various Government Offices, NGOs and INGOs.
3.2.2 Primary Source
The primary sources of data are the main basis of this study. Due to lack of exhaustive data on NGLOs and their relation to rural development, the bulk of data necessary for this study was obtained from extensive field survey. The field survey methods used observation, interview, Focus Group Discussion and Key Informants Survey. The tools and techniques used in those methods were observation diary, questionnaire and checklists.
71 3.3 Methods of Primary Data Collection
Five methods of primary data collection, namely, observation, organizational survey, Focus Group Discussions (FGDs), Key Informant Survey (KIS) and Case Study were carried out1. Prior to carrying out these five survey methods, a reconnaissance survey was accomplished to make the researcher familiarize with the field situation.
3.3.1 Sampling Designs
Palpa district has a total number of 978 NGLOs, which are distributed throughout the district. Since the Palpa district is quite elongated east-west and consists of hills and valleys, stratified sampling method was used to represent the samples from all corners of the district. For this, the following procedural steps were used:
Step 1 Gathering lists of NGLOs
The lists of NGLOs by types and locations were gathered from the sources of Government Line Agencies and NGOs at the district headquarter, Tansen.
Step 2 Division of district in quadrants
A district map showing municipality and Village Development Committees (VDCs), topography, drainage, settlement location, roads, etc. was acquired. To represent the local organizations dispersedly located across different parts of the district, quadrant approach has been adopted. Accordingly, the district has been divided into four quadrants or sectors taking roads. In Palpa, there are two major roads; one north-south Siddhartha highway which is the main road that runs from south to north through almost central part of the district and divides the district in two parts-east and west. The second one is district road that runs from east to west connecting major settlements and intersects the Siddartha Highway nearly at the middle of the district and divides the district in two parts-north and south (Figure 3.2). This was used just to select organizations representing the quadrants and the number and type of organizations therein. Each quadrant is numbered as 1, 2, 3 and 4, which comprise total number of VDCs/municipality of 20, 11, 23 and 12 respectively.
1 Prior to the field survey, some preparations were made. These included the preparation of all questionnaire tools, procedural steps for field survey and checklists for Focus Group Discussion (FGDs) Key Informant Survey (KIS) and Case Studies. Other field survey materials such as toposheets, camera, field notes, etc. were made ready. 72 Step 3 Sample size determinations
A total of 170 (17.38 percent) NGLOs from all types were selected by using the formula. However, at least one from each type was selected if the number of particular types of organizations was not zero. Thus, the percentage of sample size determined by the sample formula was not the same for all four quadrants. The sample size of the NGLOs has been computed from sample size determination formula (Daniel and Terrel, 1995). The formula is:
L z 2 ( N S ) 2 h 1 h h n L N 2 d 2 z 2 N S 2 h1 h h
The number of total organizations of NGLO was 978. The spatial distribution of sample NGLOs in Palpa district is presented in Figure 3.3.
Table 3.1 Distribution of NGLOs by Quadrants and Types
QUADRANT All Total
1 2 3 4
Types Total Sample Total Sample Total Sample Total Sample Total Sample
CFUG 91 13 66 6 97 14 170 41 424 74
WCG 69 9 18 2 56 8 36 9 179 28
WCDG 7 1 11 1 19 3 9 2 46 7
VPG 5 1 1 1 3 1 5 1 14 4
CPG 26 4 13 1 14 2 23 6 76 13
GPG 39 5 9 1 40 6 64 16 152 28
COPs 43 6 6 1 9 1 20 5 78 13
IWUG 4 1 3 1 0 0 2 1 9 3
Total(N)* 284 40 127 14 238 35 329 81 978 170
73 Source: Respected Line Agencies in Palpa, 2005
Figure 3.2: Quadrant Map, Palpa District
74 Step 4 Randomly selection of the proportionate size of organization
Each NGLOs was assigned identification number (I.D.) or code number. Once the size for each type of NGLO for each quadrant (strata) was proportionately allocated by using following formula:
N h Sn n h L n N S h 1 h n
The random table was used to select the desired number of sample size. The selected NGLOs (I.D.) with their name, location and address were recorded and then visited to them for data collection. The detail of sample selection is included in the Appendix I and the list of sampled NGLOs by quadrant and group is given in Appendix II.
75 Figure 3.3: Spatial Distribution of Sample NGLOs, Palpa District
76 3.3.2 Organizational Survey
For organizational survey, structured questionnaire with mixed questions (both open and close ended) was administered to each selected sample organization2. The executive members of the sample organizations were given first priority for interview. In absence of executive members, the general members of the organization were interviewed, hoping that the former had more handful and authentic information than the latter. As the members happened to be involved in more than one organization within their village, care was taken for not to repeat the same respondent twice.
In case of the selected organization not available during the survey such as, disappeared, dismantled, location shifted sample with replacement method was applied. For the replacement, the immediate organization of the same type in the list was selected to avoid the prejudice while selecting the replacing organization.
One of the main concerns of this study is to examine the organizational features of NGLOs. In order to fulfill this objective, it was necessary to conduct organizational survey of the sample organization. For this, a set of semi-structured questionnaire was administered to obtain information on structural variables such as, origin, registration, purpose, group composition and size, linkage, meetings, initiatives, rules, decision-making processes, etc (Appendix III). The questionnaire had also acquired data on the contribution of NGLOs to local development based on certain variables, such as resources mobilization, capital formation, capacity building in terms of decision making process, information, knowledge and transparency, accountability, leadership and trust and solidarity; need identification, program formulation, participation, information sharing and conflict management for the transparency of the research with the respondent organization. A brief introduction about the purpose of the research was given before starting to acquire information from the respondents.
3.3.3 Observation
The observation method was used to gather information on behaviour and attitude of local people towards NGLOs. Information regarding the behaviour of leadership towards general members at general assembly was observed. Participation in discussion particularly at
2 In order to interview with the sample organization the location of the selected organizations were first identified, and then interviews with the respondent member of the same organization were carried out. 77 meetings by women and disadvantaged poor was also observed. During the field work, detailed events of organizations were maintained. Observation diary was used for recording all the events which become valuable source of information at the stage of analyzing field data.
3.3.4 Focus Group Discussions
The group discussion was used to collect triangulation of information. Altogether, 16 Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) were conducted including four from each quadrant. Each group was formed consisting of five individuals from member of local organizations. A FGD guideline was prepared to conduct discussion in a consistent way (Appendix IV). At the time of group formation, attempt was made to ensure the representation of different castes, ethnic groups, sex and Dalit as far as possible (Appendix V).
Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) were conducted to gather information on the views and perception of the people associated with any local organizations regarding local organizations and their roles, process, importance, impacts, problems and prospects in a group through participatory approach. The FGDs acquired data and information regarding Strength, Weakness, Opportunity and Threats (SWOT) about NGLOs. For the purpose of SWOT analysis different pieces of paper of different colors were given to the participants. For example white for strength, yellow for weakness, green stand for opportunity and red for threat. The FGD surveys were conducted in the places where the sample organizations were located.
The researcher remained as a facilitator and therefore researcher was neither active nor passive while conducting the focus group discussion. All the issues regarding NGLOs were noted down in the note book. During the whole discussions, the researcher remained neutral so that the participants could express their views in free manner. The researcher however, encouraged the poor participants to raise their voice in the discussion. Also efforts were made for the people of the lower social strata in order to raise their voice effectively by giving examples of the sector in which they were not satisfied with the programs and policies as well as activities of the local organizations.
78 3.3.5 Key Informant Survey
Prior to carryout KIS, key informants were identified in terms of contributions towards local development, the information on which was obtained through discussion with the local people. Twenty key informants were interviewed using the check list (Appendix VI). The key informants selected for this survey included social workers, representative of local donor agencies, personnel working in the Government Line Agencies, and academia (Appendix VII). The KIS was conducted to obtain the information regarding the contribution of NGLOs to local development and their problems and prospects. In addition, information regarding Strength, Weakness, Opportunity and Threat (SWOT) of the NGLOs and policy measures to improve the local organizations was also obtained using KIS method.
The information from the key informant has worked as an intermediary and the reality when the institutions responded much ambitiously and local people hardly accept those responses of NGLOs. Those key informants represents equally from the four quadrants. The KIS was fruitful to find out general development activities of NGLOs within the village and learnt about their strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats. This survey remained to be useful to cross-examine the responses obtained from the organizational survey. In addition to KIS, informal discussions were also made with the local people, who were much active and interested to share their views, but they did not fall in other sample surveys considered in this study. The information provided by them was also used in the analysis in relevant context. 3.3.6 Case Study
The case study has been adopted in this study for furnishing detailed information of some organizations about their successful work. The case study analysis has also been verified with the information obtained from the organizational survey, FGD and KIS. Based on the organizational survey, three distinct local organizations including irrigation, women saving and credit and community forest user group were selected for detailed study (Appendix VIII). The checklist for case study included organization structure such as function, formalization, linkage, initiatives, social composition and decision-making process. Cooperation and co-ordination with the government and the non-government bodies, system of accounting, performance evaluation and reporting system were also sought to investigate through case study.
79 Figure 3.4: Schematic Diagram of the Research Methodology
80 3.4 Data Processing
The processing of the collected data has been performed by using computer and manual method. In the first step, the data and information obtained from the field survey were carefully edited for any missing, unclear, and incomplete responses. The organizational survey data collected through the questionnaires were coded and entered into computer by using the SPSS and the Microsoft Excel. Upon completion of data processing, different tables were created and used in the textual context as required. The data and information obtained from the secondary sources were also used in the text where relevant.
3.5 Methods of Analysis
The methods employed for the analysis of the collected data and information is mainly qualitative. Both exploratory and explanatory types were used while analyzing the data and information. The former has dealt with the general description of Palpa district as a whole while the latter dealt with all field survey data. The following methods of analysis have been used in this study:
3.5.1 District Data Analysis
The information about organizations at the district level and it's profile included elevation, climate, land use, area and production of crops, population and settlement, NGLOs and service facilities. The data related to cropping patterns and production of crops has been computed largely. The population analysis has been based on the data obtained from various documents on population, which included growth, distribution, education status, sex-composition. Apart from these, information on NGOs and NGLOs located in Palpa district has been analyzed in terms of their types, number and location. Resource potential analysis of Palpa district has been based on suitability and capability assessments. Factors related to topography, climate, soil types, irrigation facilities and service facilities have been considered and linked to description of local organizations.
81 3.5.2 Organizational Data Analysis
The unit of analysis is 'organization' and therefore, all analysis of the survey data is entirely based on sample organizations. Thus, the recipients of the service delivery or impact of organization is out of scope for discussion. The organizational data obtained from field survey has been analyzed in terms of organizational features, contribution and problems and prospects. The analysis of organizational features has been based on the data obtained from field survey on organization, which included purpose, membership size, social composition, linkage, initiatives, process of decision making and rules and regulations. The analysis of contribution of NGLOs included capital formation, resource mobilization, capacity building, participation and conflict resolution. Analysis of problems and prospects of NGLOs has also been based on the data obtained from field survey.
3.5.3 Statistical Tools and Indices
Quantitative methods such as, index, descriptive statistics, ratios, thematic maps have also been used in the text wherever feasible. Various tables and graphs have been used to extract meaningful information for interpretation. Their use and explanations is made in the text where they appear.
3.5.4 SWOT Analysis for Organization
The analysis of state of the organization has been performed with the help of SWOT3 analysis. Information obtained from FGD and KIS was used for this analysis. This analysis has been used to understand the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats of the
3 The Organization Building (OB) methodology's main self-assessment method has a descriptive name: SWOT (S= Strengths, W= Weaknesses, O= Opportunities and T= Threats). The SWOT analysis looks at the internal strengths and weaknesses and external opportunities in its environment, and the threats, both real and potential. The strengths of an organization will be those of its features which meet the needs of its beneficiaries while, weaknesses suggest the need for internal improvement as they directly affect the organizational health. They demand the particular attention of all those involved in the organization building process. Likewise, opportunities mainly result from changes in the environment while threats indicate potential future negative influence, which also provide new ways to sustain. Thus, SWOT has both an internal focus, on the organizations internal strengths and weaknesses, and an external focus, on the opportunities and threats coming from its environment. The internal focus is on the organization and its work areas and its interactions with its partner. The external includes the partner groups from outside. To differentiate between strengths and opportunities, or between weaknesses and threats we will need to be more determined in choosing between that which is internal and that which is external. 82 organization. This also provided basis for policy formulation for the development and management of NGLOs.
3.5.5 Venn Diagram
Venn diagram has been used to examine organizational relationships. In this method, circles of various sizes have been used to represent organizations. The bigger the circle, the more important is the organization. The distance between circles is being used to show the degree of influence or linkage between organizations. Overlapping circles indicate interactions and the extent of overlap can indicate the level of interaction. This exercise has been done with both general members as well as members of the executive committee of a CFUG of Bagchaur village at the same time.
3.5.6 Spider Diagram
Spider Diagram has been used to analyze the status of organizational capacity building. It is also referred to as Web Diagram. In this research it has been used to show the relative performance of NGLOs on a range of dimensions, such as, decision-making, degree of participation, information, knowledge and transparency, accountability, leadership quality and trust and solidarity. The detail of the summary matrix of methodology is given in Appendix IX.
83 CHAPTER IV PROFILE OF THE STUDY AREA
This chapter attempts to describe the pattern of resource availability and their utilization in study region. This is sought in order to understand the relationship between local organizations and resource availability in the region. It is well conceived that resources themselves are not ends in thenselves -they are just means to achieve ends. Development of any region of a nation depends upon the properly utilized available resources in that particular region, for this physical, economic and social settings have to be together as complementary to one another. Hence, human behavior, quality and institutions/organizations determine development of particular region under given settings.
4.1 Physical Settings
The physical setting of Palpa district includes location and boundaries, climate, forest, drainage system, land, soil, etc. The information for the geographical aspects is described mostly based on the information acquired by maps.
4.1.1 Location
Palpa district is situated in the southern part of western Development Region of the country. This district is surrounded by Syangja, Tanahun and Gulmi in north, Rupandehi and Nawalparasi in south, Nawalparasi in east and Arghakhanchi in west (figure 4.1). Total area of this district is approximately 1463.74 sq.km (Participatory District Development Programme [PDDP], 2002).
4.1.2 Climate
According to the physical features, the climate of Palpa can be divided into two broad types: tropical and sub-tropical. Tropical climate is basically found in river basin and valleys. The summer, here are hot with temperature exceeding 1000F and the winters are cool and pleasant with the mean temperature at 540F. Likewise, sub-tropical climate is found in the hills of the district. Here, summers are cool and pleasant with a maximum temperature of
84 about 900F and winters are cold, the mean temperature is 500F with occasional frost. The average rainfall in Palpa is about 1903 mm. About 80 percent rainfall occurs in summer (District Agriculture Development Office [DADO], 2002).
4.1.3 Drainage System
Palpa district has high potentiality of water resource because the perennial rivers like Kaligandaki, Tinau, Nisdi, Kurung Khola, Arunkhola, Dovan Khola, Angahakhola, etc. flow through this district and have made the district enriched in agricultural production and power resources in the region. Kaligandaki 'A' Hydropower Project is running at the boundary between Yamgha VDC of Palpa and the Krishna Gandaki VDC of Syanja district. Likewise, the Tinau river together with its tributaries is important in providing irrigation facility in the Madi valley while Nisdi Khola has provided canal irrigation in the Rampur Phant. Both lie in the east of Tansen. Argali Phant is irrigated by the Raj Kulo provided by the Kurung Khola. The drainage map of the study area is presented in Figure 4.1.
85 Figure 4.1: Drainage System, Palpa District
86 The common characteristic of the rivers is that during the monsoon rainfall they often get flooded and deposit huge amount of sands and other fine particles over their banks. Particularly, the rivers in the valley area have markedly influenced its upper physiography almost eliminating the original quaternary basin deposits underneath. In the dry season, their water level is unusually low. As most rivers flow throughout the year, they could prove useful to small-scale irrigation schemes, if their water is dammed. Besides river water source, there are other water sources such as ground water and springs in the district. Regarding ground water resource, there are few tube wells as well as few privately dug wells in the low land valley which supply small – scale drinking water and irrigation. Spring sources are used primarily for domestic purpose. This particular aspect is very significant to explain the location of many villages near to the source of water in the hill ridges.
4.1.4 Forest Resources
The forest covers about 44 percent of district area and the shrub land shares about 11percent (Table 4.1). The largest forest type is hardwood which is confined to valleys. It represents about 33 percent of the total district area.
Table 4.1: Forest Resources
Types Area (sq. km) Percent
Coniferous Forest 20.39 1.39
Hardwood Forest (Broad leaf forest) 476.88 32.57
Mixed Forest (coniferous and Hardwood) 37.78 2.58
Protected Forests 105.88 7.23
Forest Sub Total 640.93 43.78
Shrubland 159.09 10.87
Grassland 76.64 5.24
Grand total 875.76 69.89
87 Source: PDDP, 2002
The forest types as shown in table 4.1 are due to climatic variation. Along the Kali Gandaki river, there are found tree species like Acacia catechu (Khair), the hill type Shorea robusta (Sal) and Salmalia malabarica (Simal). On the higher ridges conifer species are found. Between these two vegetation zones are the vegetation types dominated by broad leaf trees, such as Schima wallichii (Chilaune) and Castonopsis indica (Katus). Other common associates of this vegetation are Dendrocalamus (Bans) of various species, Rhododendron arboreum (Gurans). Much of the low-lying forests has already been cleared for terrace cultivation. In the middle part of the hills, where slopes are gentle and relatively easy access, the demand on the forest to supply pasture, fodder, fuel wood and timber is high because of high population density. As a result, much of the original forest has already been encroached to a larger extent and only the secondary growth trees have remained left. However, the initiation of community forestry has provided some hopes to local people to protect and use their forest resources for their own benefit and ecological maintenance.
Table 4.2: Household by type of Cooking Fuel Use
Types of Energy Household Percent Firewood 31279 62.6 Kerosene 11287 22.6 LP Gas 5273 10.6 Biogas 1304 2.6 Other 173 0.3 Not Identified 625 1.3 Total 49942 100.0
Source: CBS (2002)
Nearly 63 percent of the total households use firewood as a cooking fuel in the district. Out of which, approximately 43.44 percent households are using community forests, and 25.96 percent households are using private forests as a source of firewood for their daily consumption. To collect firewood in the district 30.19 percent households have to walk less than an hour, 26.71 percent households have access to firewood within 1-2 hours walking distance, 17.4 percent households are within 2-3
88 hours walking distance and remaining households have walk more than 3 hours to fulfill their firewood need ( PDDP, 2002). Likewise, Kerosene is another vital source of energy after firewood (22.6 percent) followed by Liquefied Petroleum (LP) Gas (10.6 percent) and 2.6 percent biogas (Table 4.2).
4.1.5 Land Resources
Land is a principal resource upon which man conducts his all the socio-economic and techno cultural activities. As of Land Resource Mapping Project (LRMP) map, approximately 43.78 percent land areas is forests in Palpa district, 39.98 percent is cultivated land. Of this, 7.94 percent (116.22 sq. Km) is cultivation in Tars, Alluvial fans and Lower foot 0.57 percent (8.32 sq. km) is level Terraces in Hillislope Cultivations, 31.09 percent (455.03 sq. km.) is Sloping Terraces in Hillslope cultivations and 0.38 percent (5.63 Sq. km) is valley floor cultivation. Altogether, there is 39.98 percent cultivated land in total (PDDP, 2002). The land use pattern of the study area is presented in Figure 4.2. In reference to this, 'Land Capability' is another most important factor which shows the spatial areas capable for agricultural and forestry purposes by its degree of land characteristics, such as slope, soil depth, etc. About 7 percent land of the district is good for cultivation while over 51 percent is good for forest (Table 4.3).
Table 4.3: Land Capability
Class Description Area (sq. Percent km) I Slopes <10, deep, suitable for agriculture 23.28 1.59 II Slopes 1–50 deep soil well drained, suitable for 73.37 5.01 agriculture III Slopes 5–300. 50–100 cm deep soils, well drained 402.42 27.49 terracing is mandatory for agriculture use IV Slopes >300. 20 cm deep soil, suitable for forestry, 750.24 51.27 such as fuel wood V Slopes <300, >20 cm deep soil, alpine, river terraces 1.36 0.09 VI Slopes 40–500 <20 cm deep soil, fragile and extreme 195.62 13.36 erosion hazard. VII River bed area 17.45 1.19 Total 11463.74 100.00
Source: PDDP, 2002 89 The study area lies in both low land and highland with different types of rock structures, climate and vegetation. Thus, the soil found in its various parts can be grouped mainly into three types–alluvial soil, sandy boulder soil and residual soil.
The principal areas of alluvial soil suitable for agricultural activities in the district are associated with the river basins and valleys. The alluvial soil is further divided into two sub- divisions as old alluvial called bangar and new alluvial known as khadar. The former is found away from river course, is less matured and is less fertile while the latter is subject to annual flooding, gets renewed every year and is relatively more fertile. Sandy boulder soil not suitable for agricultural activities is popularly known as gravelly soil, which is highly coarse and porous. Due to high coarseness surface water quickly percolates and disappears. But it is highly conductive to the growth of forests.
Residual soil is found in the hill areas of the district. It is not suitable to cultivate paddy, wheat, etc. but it is good for maize, millets, beans, peas, potatoes, fruits and so on. Thus, the hill areas are largely suitable for horticulture development.
90 Figure 4.2 : Land Use, Palpa District
91 4.2 Social Settings
The analysis of existing condition of social setting in the study area is undertaken in order to make understanding of their availability and utilization of human resources, road network and its accessibility, health services, education services, communication services, water energy and financial services, etc.
4.2.1 Demographic Features
According to population 2001 census, the population of Palpa district is 268,558 accounting for 125068 male and 143490 female. The population was 214,442 and 236,313 in 1981 and 1991 respectively. There was a remarkable increase in the population within those decades. The annual population growth for Palpa district is 1.3 percent. This indicates that the population in the district will further increase. Taking the base year 2001, the projected population of the district will be increased to 318,028 by 2011 and 370,712 by 2021 (CBS, 2005).
Population distribution and density is affected by both the geographical factors as well as socio-economic factors. The population in the study area is sparsely distributed. Though it contains low population compared to other neighbour Tarai districts, we cannot overlook the growing absolute number in each year. Likewise, as per information provided by CBS, the population density has increased from 172.11 persons per sq. km. in 1991 to 195.60 persons per sq. km. in 2001. This density is fairly high compared to national average i.e. 157 persons per sq. km.
The age and sex pyramid shows that the highest population age group is 10–14 years (14.8 percent) followed by 5 – 9 years population (14.5 percent) and 0-4 years (12.4 percent) respectively. Hence, the age structure of this district indicates the probability of high population growth in future largely because the youth population (0-14 age groups) constitutes more than forty percent. The dependency load in this district is about 49.5 percent (0-14 + 60 and above age group) which can be considered as inactive population. The dependency ratio therefore, is about 2.5:2.5, which indicates that two and half person add to output/income in each five person and remaining two and half depend on them (Figure 4.3).
92 Figure 4.3: Age and Sex Pyramid, 2001, Palpa District
Source: CBS, 2002
Caste and ethnic composition is a parameter which helps to determine the social cohesion and the organizational basis in a society. A major caste and ethnic group plays a dominant role in organizing and decision making in the community. This is a general statement, although it may not always be true. Out of total population 268558, more than half are Magar followed by Brahmin (19.3 percent) and Chhetri (8.0 percent) respectively. Among
93 the schedule castes, Kami is in majority followed by other different castes and ethnic groups (Figure 4.4).
Figure 4.4: Population by Caste/Ethnicity
Source: CBS, 2002 Table 4.4: Family Size by Household
Family size No. of Household Percent Less than 3 6585 13.2 3 to 4 13586 27.2 5 to 6 15745 31.5 7 to 8 8610 17.2 9 and Above 5416 10.8 Total 49942 100.0
Source: CBS (2002) Family size of the household is one of the most basic determinants of socio-economic status of an individual or of a family. As per data provided by CBS, Branch office, Palpa, the average size of family in the district is about 5.38 which is a little lower than the national average of 5.5. Table 4.4 obviously indicates the fact that the
94 household having 5 to 6 members in a family is high (31.5 percent) and the size of family varies from less than three members to more than nine members.
4.2.2 Education and Health
In every community, education is one of the fundamental forces to the social restructuring. The degree of education in a community indicates the standard of living. It is also an instrument of change. Table 4.5 gives a clear picture of the literary status of the people in the study region. Of the total population of six years and above age group, about 65 percent population is literate who can both read and write. The male literacy is overwhelmingly high compared to female. Likewise, 29.0 percent population is found illiterate who neither can read nor can write and the situation of female illiteracy is lower in comparison to male.
Table 4.5: Literary Status (6 years of age and above)
Status Male Percent Female Percent Total Percent
Cannot read and write 18655 18.3 45078 37.8 63733 28.9
Can read only 6021 6 6597 5.5 12618 5.7
Can read and write 76648 75.3 66639 55.9 143287 64.8
Not Stated 433 0.4 923 0.8 1356 0.6
Total 101757 100.0 119237 100.0 220994 100.0
Source: CBS (2002)
About 66 percent of the total population having 6 years and above age is literate in this district comprising 76.2 percent male and 57.8 percent female. There are altogether 558 educational institutions having Primary schools 361, Lower Secondary schools 89, Secondary Schools 79, Higher Secondary 21, technical institutions 4 and Campus 4 (1 Government Campus and 3 Private Campus).
There are altogether 76 health institutions in the district. Out of total health institutions, 43 are sub- health posts, 9 health posts, 3 primary Health care centers, 7 Ayurvedic centers and 4 Hospitals. There are only 22 doctors and each of them have to serve 12207 population.
95 4.2.3 Settlement
As per information collected by District Development Committee (DDC) in 2000/2001, altogether 1351 settlements were noted. Among them, 95 settlements were located within Tansen Municipality. The settlements in Palpa district are mostly scattered in the western and south belt of the district. Most of the settlements of the districts are concentrated along the terraces of Kaligandaki River and other major river valleys such as Tinau, Nisdi etc. In the southern part, basically in the Mahabharat and Chure range, the settlements are sparsely distributed.
4.3 Economic Settings
So far as economic settings is concerned, economic resources, economic activities related to the major production in Palpa district are undertaken. It is divided into two groups, such as farm and non-farm. The farm includes agriculture and livestock activities and the non-farm comprises activities associated with off farm, commercial, small –scale industries and mining.
4.3.1 Farm Activities i) Farm Land and Farm Population
Agriculture is the predominant activity in Palpa district, in which out of total engaged population nearly 77.0 percent (40 percent male and 37 percent female) are involved (PDDP, 2002). In agriculture, the total area of 36,567 hectares of farmland, accounting for nearly 39.98 percent of the total land area are brought under cultivation and of these, wetland (khet) constitutes about one-third and the remaining two-thirds fall under dryland (bari). The distribution of farmland among the landholding farmers is much skewed. The fact is that small farmers with farmland 1 hectares and below constitute 64 percent of the total landholding. Table 4.6 is an indicator of the fact that in Palpa district there is high involvement of children in agriculture though they perform other activities also. Out of the total farm population, the people of 10 to 44 years of age hold majority. There is no significant variation in farm activity between male and female.
96 Table 4.6: Farm Population by Age and Sex
Farm Population Age Group Male Percent Female Percent Total Percent Under 10 years 29656 23.0 28869 22.3 58525 22.5 10 – 14 years 19027 15.0 17558 13.5 36585 14.1 15 – 24 years 26612 20.0 27977 21.6 54589 21.0 25 – 34 years 17059 13.0 16508 12.7 33567 12.9 35 – 44 years 13227 10.0 14513 11.2 27740 10.7 45 – 54 years 10629 8.1 11075 8.5 21704 8.3 55 – 64 years 8241 6.3 7480 5.8 15721 6.0 65 years and above 6141 4.7 5669 4.4 11810 4.5 Total 130592 100.0 129649 100 260241 100
Source: CBS, 2004 ii) Cropping Patterns
Different types of crops are cultivated in the district according to variations in topography and climate. The major food grains are paddy, maize, wheat and millet. In upper terraces, considerable proportion of farm land is used for ginger and buckwheat. A variety of pulses are grown in the district. Mustard is an important cash crop. It's oil is used for cooking purposes. Different varieties of vegetables are grown particularly in gentle slopes and irrigated areas. It has played great role for providing income generating opportunities. Thus, there is marked variation in cropping patterns both by season and farmland type. The variation in distribution of temperature and moisture causes seasonal cropping pattern. Thus, paddy and millet are grown during summer season while maize is grown in two seasons: winter and summer. A variety of beans are also grown in summer season. For instance, in lowland areas, the soils and the water availability are considered good for growing paddy as the major crop, followed by wheat and so they can be successfully fitted into a double-crop sequence while those in hill areas allow growing maize as a major crop, followed by millet and other dry crops.
On the whole, maize is, by far, the most important crop in terms of cultivated area and production followed by paddy and wheat (Table 4.7). The cereal grains including paddy,
97 maize, wheat and millet dominate the cropped area and production. While oilseeds, potato and sugarcane, which are considered cash crops are less significant in terms of cropped area and production.
Table 4.7: Area and Production of Major Crops
Area in Hectares Production in Mt. ton Major Crops (2003/2004) (2003/2004)
Food Crops
Paddy 9399 20475
Maize 20562 38807
Millet 2433 2408
Wheat 5970 12803
Barley 227 222
Cash Crops
Oilseed 750 618
Potato 680 7752
Sugarcane 65 936
Source: CBS (2002) iii) Agriculture System
Agriculture is characterized by intensive subsistence farming. In the lowland area it is more intensive taking into consideration the factors of use of fertilizers, irrigation, labour and contouring of farmland. The practice of contour farming along the hill slopes can be said as the best farmland management both in terms of intensity of production and protection of soil erosion. However, such type of practice has got less importance in the district.
Though the man- land ratio is very low (0.14 ha./person), the productivity per unit of farmland is satisfactory, since the same piece of farmland is used for multiple crops and inter-cropping within a year. In the former cropping, rice is followed by wheat and maize or potato in the lowland, and maize is followed by millet or oilseeds or 98 potato in the upland while in the latter, maize or millet are grown simultaneously on the same field within a same growing period. The practice of intercropping of maize and millet particularly in the upland helps to prevent the top soils from washing away by splash rains during rainy season. The root of the millet crop helps to bind loose and fragile soil together so that maize crops can stand firmly on the sloping hill fields. iv) Livestock Raising
Livestock is another important component of the farming system particularly in hilly region of the district. Here, livestock raising lies as an indispensable to the farming system and hence both farming are practiced as an integrated farming system. By this system farmers are able to manage farmland ecology. Both cow and buffalo are raised for soil preparation, milk and manure. Some fields remain fallow in dry winter season which allow fields to regenerate their soil fertility. A huge proportion of livestock fodder comes from crop- residues and green fodder from the farm fields. Farmers get various products such as milk, meat, egg, ghee and wool by raising livestock for household use as well as for an additional income.
4.3.2 Non Farm Activities
The non-farm activities in Palpa district fall in two main categories. The first category is the farm based nonfarm activities. There are dual characteristics of farm based economy of the region, which comprises farm households engaging in farm-based nom-farm activities, besides agriculture. Agriculture sector alone cannot engage farm families all the year round, mainly the small and marginal farmers are found engaged in other activities during off-farm season. As a result, there occurs a large segment of petty non-farm activities. Farm-based nonfarm activities include grains milling, oil pressing, mat and basket making, dairy products, pottery, masonry, carpentry, handloom, gold and silver making, wood carving, metal works, farm tools making, wine producing, fuel wood and coal selling, fishing and so on. Except grain mills, which are widely scattered throughout the region, many of these activities are traditionally related to specific communities. Particularly the Newar communities of Tansen city have long been known for their traditional handicraft industries. Karuwa industry is one among others. Kumal community makes pottery of mud for their livelihood. Likewise, Magar community make their living by making local wine and working as masonry and carpentry, some schedule castes in the village produce traditional farm tool for the farmers and so on.
99 The second category includes non-farm activities of small scale commercial activities, industries, government services and others. Most of the Newar settlements in Palpa district are located in Tansen town and rural market center and many of their family members are engaged in a sort of commercial activities. However, some other castes are also following these activities at present. In the hill area commercial activities are few and scattered. Palpa district as a whole contains 509 small and cottage industries (this figure is based on registration up to 2062 Ashad), 24 large industries (with 10 and more employees). Many of the small and cottage and large industries are located in tansen. Textiles particularly Dhaka industry, utensils, dairy, handicrafts are prominent industries in the district. The district is prosperous for tourist industry. Particularly the Tansen city is well known for its historical arts and crafts, temples and shrines.
4.4 Infrastructure and Facilities
The present condition of infrastructure and facilities in the district are discussed under the following headings:
4.4.1 Road Network and its Accessibility
The major motorable road networks are noted from south to north part of the district. There are gravelled and earthen road mostly concentrated on the northern part of the district. Siddhartha highway passes from south (Chidiya Khola) to north (Ramdi). The total length of roads (seasonal and permanent) in this district is about 297 km of which only about 109.7 km roads are black topped (Siddhartha Highway 59.7 km + Tansen – Bartung Link Road 4 km + Tansen City Road 6 km + Tansen – Ridi road 36 km + Palpa Urban Road 10 km), 17 km is graveled and remaining is earthen (Table 4.8).
100 Table 4.8: Road Network, Palpa
SN Name of the Road/Type Black Topped Gravelled Earthen Total 1. Chidiya Khola-Banstari 27.4 27.4 2. Banstari – Bartung 5.3 5.3 3. Bartung-Ramdi (Kaligandaki) 27.0 27.0 4. Bartung – Tansen 4.0 4.0 5. Tansen – Ridi 36.0 36.0 6. Palpa District Road - 5.0 108.3 113.3 7. Aryabhanjyang-Gaidakot - 4.0 30.0 34.0 (feeder road/ national) 8. Palpa Urban Road 10.0 8.0 32.0 50.0 Total 109.7 17.0 170.3 297.0
Source: Department of Roads, 2004 with simple modification in the field.
4.4.2 Irrigation Facilities
Agriculture in the district is dominated by rain-fed cultivation. Hence the level of agricultural production is highly dependent on the nature of monsoon rain. Only 8750 hectares (3875 hectares perennial and 4875 hectares seasonal) of land, constituting about 25 percent of the cultivated land is irrigated. Most of the irrigation facilities are concentrated in the lowland areas. In the hill area, the irrigation water is provided mainly through the traditional pyne system. However, since all the streams have their origins from the rain -fed springs or seepage in the hills, their water level becomes too low to provide water through pynes particularly during dry-winter season and occurs seasonal irrigation system. In the study region, some irrigation projects have been providing irrigation facilities particularly in the lowland areas. In addition to these, sprinkle irrigation, drip irrigation and pond irrigation are now becoming popular in the district particularly in the high land where the access to water is highly difficult.
4.4.3 Communication Services
The district comprises district post office – 1, illaka post office- 13 and additional post office - 52. There are telephone services in 20 VDCs and one municipality. Up to Ashad 2062 about
101 1750 telephone line and 210 mobile lines are distributed. There are four FM radios and two newspapers (Weekly) and one daily newspaper.
4.5 Problems in the Study Area
In the problem analysis of study area variables related to road, drinking water, market, health and education, agriservices, electricity, education and others ( irrigation water, communication, employment, etc.) shown in table 4.9 are identified by the respondents of organization as well as by participants of FGDs. Undoubtedly road and drinking water are the most demanding factor which comprises utmost high priority (composite weight 79.41 and 59.41 respectively) but its meaning differs from place to place. The places where there are already graveled road, they demanded to improve the existing road condition in terms of widening, maintenance or metaled whereas for other places where to make the existing seasonal roads as all weather or to construct new ones.
Table 4.9: Problems in the Study Area
Composite Problem (Demand) F P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 weight
Road 166 47.65 15.06 14.47 1.65 0.59 79.41%
Drinking Water 139 20.00 30.12 5.29 1.88 2.12 59.41%
Market 53 5.88 6.12 2.47 1.41 2.00 17.88%
Health and Education 153 8.82 11.76 19.06 12.94 0.47 53.06%
Agri-services 133 4.71 8.00 14.82 13.41 1.06 42.00%
Electricity 94 9.41 5.18 2.47 2.82 5.65 25.53%
Education 91 2.35 3.29 0.71 3.76 7.29 17.41%
Others 21 1.18 0.47 0.71 2.12 0.82 5.29%
Total 850 100.00 80.00 60.00 40.00 20.00 300.00%
Mean value of composite index is 37.5
P = Priority, F = Frequency
Source: Field Survey, 2005
102 The types of problem in the study area can be grouped into two types: ‘hard infrastructure’ and ‘soft infrastructure’. Road, electricity and market fall under ‘hard infrastructure’ whereas drinking water, health, education and agricultural services falls under ‘soft infrastructure’. The former is fundamental to develop rural areas whereas the latter is needed for overall community development. The category ‘others’ includes irrigation water, communication, employment, etc. If the mean value (mean=37.5) of composite index is taken as basis, four infrastructure such as road, drinking water, health and agriservices are above the mean and therefore most important. Just below the mean value lie electricity. It does not mean however other factors listed in the table are not essential. Thus, by this method, the priority order of the infrastructure to be developed in the study region is conspicuous.
4.6 Prospects of Development in the Study Area
The second important component is to identify areas of development potential in the district. The potential sectors reported by the respondents of organizational survey and FGDs are grouped into five broad categories such as: (1) Agriculture (2) Livestock and poultry (3) Mining and quarrying (4) Cottage industry (forest industry) (5) Forest (herbs) development, and (6) Tourism.
The priority ranking method puts agriculture at the topmost potential development in the region (composite weight 75.1). There is area specific potential of agricultural development for instance commercial vegetable farming in the low land valley and river basins whereas beans, mustard, cardamom and fruits farming in the hill regions. Undoubtedly, the hill region possesses the most suitable area for livestock and poultry, the second most potential sector for development. Poultry farming is the demand of the settlements located in the fringe of urban and market centre. Cottage industry based on forest is the next potential development of the hill region followed by herbs development. Beautiful sceneries, historical places and diverse ethnic groups and their cultures have given the study region potential from the tourism point of view (Table 4.10).
103 Table 4.10: Area of Development Potential in the Study Area
Priority Prospects of Development Frequency Composite First Second Third weight
1. Agriculture 163 61.2 7.1 6.9 75.1
2. Livestock and poultry 152 20.0 32.9 1.2 54.1
3. Stone quarrying 23 1.8 1.8 2.7 6.3
4. Forest based cottage industry 126 12.4 1.2 19.8 33.3
5. Forest (Herbs) development 31 3.5 5.6 1.2 10.3
6. Tourism 15 1.2 1.5 1.6 4.2
Total 510 100.0 50.0 33.3 183.3
Mean value of composite index is 30.55
Source: Field Survey, 2005
104 CHAPTER V
DEVELOPMENT PATTERN OF LOCAL ORGANIZATIONS
In order to have a better understanding of the development pattern of local organizations in Nepal and Palpa district, this chapter begins with a brief account of the historical development of local organizations in Nepal with particular emphasis on Palpa district.
5.1 A Brief History of Local Organizations in Nepal
Civil Society Organization is a voluntary and democratic groupings of human beings based on social trust and cooperation aiming at achieving equality (of control and opportunity) and equity (of distribution) and mutual help for the promotion of their common interests. It directly serves its member’s interests and needs but does not earn profit for itself at their cost. Civil society is a web of peoples organizations: people's movements, associations, citizen groups, consumer groups, small producers association, cooperatives, women organizations, cultural organizations, non- governmental organizations, etc. The Civil Society (people's organizations) mobilizes the resources voluntarily through participatory process to solve the socio-economic and political problems of the people. The historical development of Civil Society Organisations in Nepal can be grouped into four chronological order: (i) before Rana Rule, (ii) Rana Rule, (iii) Panchayat Period and (iv) Democracy Period.
5.1.1 Local Organizations Before Rana Rule (Lichhavi Era to 1845 A.D.)
The existence of Civil Society has a long history in Nepal. Nepal being a multi-ethnic and multi-cultural nation has various traditional and cultural associations or people's groups all over the country. Of these, some prominent traditional organizations are as follows:
105 (i) Parma
Parma is a group labor exchange co-operatives common among both caste and ethnic farmers. Labor exchange group is known as Parma in Brahmin/Chhetri/Magar communities and as Nogar in the Gurung communities of western Nepal. In order to solve labor problems during peak season of the farming cycle viz. planting, harvesting and weeding periods such kind of cooperative effort can play significant role by exchanging similar tasks as well as equal amounts of time. In Parma, farmers pool together their resources including tools and implements and undertake cultivation with mutual help. A farmer secures the help of other farmers for sowing and transportation and in return renders similar help to other farmers (Shrestha, 1967 as cited in Messerschmidt, 1992, p. 95). Although it does not exhibit formal organization, there exists a capable initiator who coordinates every activity of his/her sphere (IDS, 1985). Informal discussions among neighbouring enable them to adjust the farming schedules so as to reduce the possibility of conflicting dates (Miller, 1990).
Among the ethnic Limbus of eastern Nepal, Parma (pareli) labour exchange is preferred to conduct over cash transactions. Exchange is strictly reciprocal and each household keeps an accurate account of what has been received and what is owed. Repayment however, is often delayed both from spring to autumn and planting to harvest (Caplan, 1970 as cited in Messerschmidt, 1992, p. 95).
The Gurungs of western Nepal have long practiced reciprocal labour exchange in agriculture, including Parma and their own more elaborate form called Nogar which, typically involves and organizes young men and women in agricultural field work.
Nogar is an arrangement, which is organizationally more demanding than individual exchange. Within the system an agreed program of work must be followed and membership of such a group is incompatible with membership of other exchange groups, since the demands of the two are likely to conflict (unless different groups undertake different tasks at different times of the year). In addition, group exchange is made for easier if the amount and type of work required on all forms is identical; this means above all that participants should have farms of equal size (Moore, 1975 as cited in Messerschmidt, 1992, p. 96).
In Palpa district Parma system is common among both caste and ethnic farmers. It been helped to solve labour shortage in agricultural activities. Such kinds of cooperative effort
106 have been playing significant role by exchanging symmetrical tasks as well as equal amounts of time. A farmer secures the help of other farmers for sowing and transportation and in return renders similar help to other farmers.
(ii) Dhikuri/Dhikur
In Tibet, people suffered from food shortages (especially for festivals and other occasions) due to transportation difficulties in the off –season, such as road blockades due to natural calamities. In order to solve these problems, the community developed a collective “grain bank”. This idea led to the formation of a community storehouse made out of mud known as Dhikuri.
This idea was transmitted to Nepal as a solution to similar community problems and now Dhikuri exists in the form of a very informal community- based organization in many areas. In Nepal, as in Tibet, Dhikuri was originally used for storing grain. However, due to the growing demand for capital rather than grain, it emerged to functioning as an informal banking and lending operation.
Dhikur is common mainly among the Thakalis of west-central Nepal, the Gurung and Bhotia communities. It is also found in other communities like Newar and Magar though occasionally.
Dhikur is a voluntary credit association organized by a group of friends to raise capital for individual investment. It is a rotating credit cooperative managed by the members themselves in order to gather certain funds and provide them to each of them in turn by turn basis. It renders services to the particular communities as informal 'credit co- operatives'. Each Dhikur rotates as per size of members. Each members of association pay regularly (usually monthly) prescribed amount of installment plus certain interest compounded incrementally. The combined installments contribute the capital of the association, which is available for individual investment once. The profit of the cooperative coming from interest procedures comeback equitably to each members. However, the member who takes the lump sum at each incremental interest provision, the investment required at each round grows rapidly and those who take the sum at or near the end receive proportionately more than those near the beginning. In essence, those at the end are
107 proffering a loan to the others and as lenders they accept deferred payment and a substantial profit (Messerschmidt, 1992).
Dhikur constitutes following advantages:
Access to credit is fairly easy and rapid.
No need to give guarantee in kind.
No supervision is needed in the use of the credit.
Equity in opportunity to receive credit, and
It allows an opportunity for individual member to get the large amount of money usually required for an economic enterprise through collecting small amounts from its members.
(iii) Guthi
In terms of institutionalized Civil Society Organizations, it is worth mentioning the institution of 'Guthis' and/ or 'Gosthis' (Chand, 1999). Guthis are 'Trusts' that were in existence in Nepalese societies informally since ancient Nepal as the main medium of the mobilization of the public works. The word Guthi is derived from Sanskrit word Gosthica or Gosthi, which means family connections, partnership of fellowship in the management of property to be used for religious purposes (Regmi, 1966). The Guthi is an institution of immovable property set aside for religious purpose in the care of some person without having any kind of alienable rights. The property held as Guthi is in most cases land, which yields income in terms of produce. Primarily, the Guthi came into existence as a step to provide endowments for the upkeep of the temple and domestic observance and rites. In course of time, Guthis developed as an institution which tended to keep social groups and their individual members safe from process of disintegration by providing adequate economic sanctions against the same (Regmi, 1965).
Guthis are based on either caste or kinship to ensure continuity and security of the community’s social, economic or cultural interests; they derive from a system of institutional land ownership under which lands are endowed for religious and charitable purposes.
Gosthis of Guthiyars is the main medium of the mobilization of public works. The system of Guthi has retained great socio-cultural values as it mobilizes local resources-physical, human
108 and financial for local development by building Dharmasalas, Pattis, Pauwas, Paneros and so on.
Guthis are taken as an institutionalized social services protected from Lichhavi times to date. In its origional form Guthis are communal temple and land tenure associations, common among the ethnic Newars of Kathmandu valley. However, the concept of Guthi has also been further elaborated in the form of literary foundation (i.e. Madan Puraskar Guthi), health institution (i.e. Mrigendra Chikitsa Guthi), social services (i.e. Nepal Charkha Pracharak Gandhi Smarak Maha Guthi) and so on.
In addition to these organizations, there are many other traditional and cultural association in Nepal for a past few centuries. For instance, Dharma Panchayat (all indigeneous nationalities of local self rule headed by a Mukhiya and performed all political, social, cultural, religious and legal –judicial functions), Bheja ( an institution of the Magar- a traditional form of institution which unifies all the members and performs multiple function in religious, agricultural, economic and resource management and entertainment areas), Kiduk ( co-operatives association)-maintained for social unity warm human relationship among Bhotes ), and Ro Dhin (a social and cultural organization of the Gurungs and Magars for the socialization of young girl and boys).
In terms of institutionalized local Organizations in Palpa, Guthi is a prominent one that was in existence in societies informally since ancient Nepal as the main medium of the mobilization of the public works. For example, the land of Sinchas, Bagnas and Khanigaun was kept as Guthi to conserve the Bishnupaduka Devalaya of Tansen. Likewise, Amar Narayan Guthi and Rana Ujeswori Bhagabati Guthi are other prominent Guthis established in a historical time and are functioning till now. The Guthi is an institution of immovable property set aside for religious purpose in the care of regular religious functions and conserve of temple, Pati, Pauwa, Dhara, Pokhari, etc.
(iv) Animal Sajheri is another example of local people’s cooperation in Palpa district. It is related to male buffalo Villagers who feel the need of male buffalo, contribute some amount of money to buy the buffalo. It belongs to no one individual in the village but is sajha (owned in common). Those who have contributed to its purchase are known as the sajheri (Shareholders in modern term). The sajheri do not have to pay any fee for services, but
109 outsiders who were not ‘mixed in’ must pay some amount of money each time they make the male buffalo to service their female buffaloes. The right to keep this money goes to that person as his compensation for raising the male buffalo.
5.1.2 Local Organizations During Rana Rule (1846-1950)
People's participation in social service during the Rana Regime (1846-1950) was quite negligiable, for that was the period when the general masses were neglected, and rather suppressed, in every field. No doubt, the Rana rulers, indirectly initiated social services in the country by introducing some significant reforms, but the people were not allowed to engage themselves in social activities out of fear that they might exploit the opportunity for political purposes, detrimental to the rule (Shah, Manandhar, Mishra & Biwas, 1986).
The first pioneering social institution in the history of social service sector of Nepal was Shree Chandra Kamadhenu Charkha Pracharak Mahaguthi founded by Tulsi Mehar, a dedicated follower of Gandhi, in 1926. The main objective of this organization was to develop cottage industry through dissiminating 'Charkha' (spinning wheel) and to produce sufficient quantity of cotton cloth for the Nepali people. Though he won the support of the people and collected funds for the organization, he was suspected of being an Indian agent and was arrested in 1930 and imprisoned for a few months (Shah, Manandhar, Mishra & Biwas, 1986). The institution now, has large asset, which is being used to operate various community development programmes especially schools for the needy and downtrodden children and 'Mahila Ashram Kendra' (institute for the women) for the destitute and socially exploited women.
On 15 January 1934 the country was shaken by the Great Earthquake which killed thousands of people and damaged valuable properties. This was probably, for the first time in the history of Nepal, which significantly revealed the strength of the community and the relevance and impact of social services. It was said that volunteers from almost each and every households rendered their assistance voluntarily, to those directly affected by the earthquake. For rescue operating one official relief committee (Bhukampa Sevak Dal) and another unofficial committee (Maharaj Servant Society- consisting mainly of Indian businessmen) were formed. The aim of these
110 organisationswere however, the same as to provide services to the earthquake affected persons and community as a whole. These organizations were instituted just to provide services during the period of earthquake and were therefore short-timed. In 1947 a group of five, led by Dayabir Singh Kansakar, established the Paropakar Aushadhalaya (now known as Paropakar Sangh). The institution was set-up with a motive to distribute medicine to the poor and downtrodden segment of the society without any cost.
Along with these Civil Society Organisations, there were many other remarkable Civil Society initiatives during Rana rule. Among them, Madhav Raj Joshi's Arya Samaj, Tulsi Mehar's Malami Guthi and Sukra Raj Shastri's Nepal Nagarik Adhikar Samiti are some of the prominent ones. Many of these good men and colleagues became victims of state suppression and some were put to death (NSAC, 1998).
During the period of Rana Rule, the Government was not positive to encourage local organizations because the Government was fearful that local organizations would become vehicles for political activities. For this reason, there was no encouraging environment to build local organizations in Palpa district too.
5.1.3 Local Organizations During Panchayat Rule
During the Panchayat period (1961-89), too, citizen were not free to express a political opinion, let alone organize themselves freely, for collective civic and political thinking and action. The nation was divided into two political communities: those who were with the panchayat state and those who were not. The latter group was the enemy of the state and thus 'anti-national'. Under these conditions, Civil Society was threatening. The near monopoly of the government in the sphere of employment obliged many members of the Civil Society to become a part of the system. Majority of the teachers, lawyers, other professionals, intellectuals and the media were directly or indirectly co-opted by the state. Non-governmental organizations were incorporated into a quasi-governmental framework under the Social Services National Coordination Council (SSNCC) headed by the Queen in 1977 (NSAC, 1998).
111 During the Panchayat period, attempts were made to build local organizations in Palpa district in a governmental framework. At that period Panchayat was thought as best local institution to conduct local affairs. Some attempts were made to strengthen Panchayati base from the government side. For example, the decentralization Act of 1982 adopted the user group/CBOs approach to local development in response to the failure of the conventional development practices. The policy could not achieve satisfactory result as hoped in the national as well as district level mainly due to bureaucratic nature of development administration and centralization of decision- making particularly regarding resource allocation.
5.1.4 Local Organizations after the Restoration of Democracy
After the restoration of democracy in 1990 NGOs have been mushrooming in Nepal. These NGOs however represent various types and nature of organizations ranging from advocacy, community development to professional and occupational groups. The variation in the nature of wide range of organizations (see Box 1) under one umbrella creates confusion and resistance for identity (Nepali, 2005).
Since 1990, the civil society is beginning to emerge in to the mainstream of national activities. There has been a phenomenal growth of civil society organizations (people's organizations, community-based organizations and NGOs). The favorable global environment and the need of the nation have encouraged civil society organizations to participate in development activities. Occupational and professional associations have sprung up as never before. Trade unions have grown in size and diversity. Human rights groups taking special interest in the rights of women, children, the disabled and consumers have grown.
In the past fifteen years there has been also a tremendous growth of networks of NGOs in the country. These networks represent the cultural groups, ethnic communities, issue based groups and NGOs. The NGOs cover various sectors ranging
112 from child welfare to aids and drugs control. Large share of NGOs are contributing towards community and rural development (Table 5.1).
113 Table 5.1: NGOs by Sectors, Nepal (Up to June 2005)
Sectors Number Percent Child Welfare 603 3.33 Health Service 408 2.25 Disabled/Handicapped 387 2.13 Community and Rural Development 10284 56.74 Women Development 1577 8.70 Youth Activities 3065 17.0 Moral Education 487 2.69 Environment Preservation 1023 5.64 Education Development 230 1.27 Aids and Drugs Control 62 0.34 Total 18,126 100.0
Source: SWC, 2005
Table 5.2: Trend of NGO Growth
Year Number 1990 300 1992 600 1994 2100 1999 8000 2003 15740 13 April 2006 19523 Source: SWC, 2005
There were only 300 NGOs registered in Social Welfare Council until 1990 but after that the number of NGOs is found drastically increased and reach its number 8000 in 1999. Between 1999 to 2006, NGOs have been found grown continuously adding about 11500 NGOs (Table 5.2).
This rapid increase in the number of NGOs in Nepal reflects the democratic ideas of freedom and a desire to influence development directions at both national and grass root level. The institutionalization of the beliefs and practices has become a challenge for both the government and the NGOs themselves (ADB, 1999). 114 Figure 5.1: Trend of NGOs Growth
Community forestry, farmer–managed irrigation systems and self-reliant development groups emerging in different parts of the country have been contributing significantly in Nepal's development. In irrigation and drinking water, people have demonstrated that they can build, operate and manage the systems better than the state machinery. Similarly, the ordinary rural households organized as user groups have earned recognition all around for their efforts in managing and conserving resources so important to them. Their performance and accomplishments in this respect go beyond what is normally noticed under the official banner of the community forestry programmes. Scattered communities have been involving themselves in these activities, a traditional process, which has gathered a new momentum with increased awareness and exchange of success stories inspiring such efforts across the country. Locally initiated forest protection activities for the household began in the '60s, though they picked up speed later in the '80s and '90s (Human Development Report, 1998).
Since the1990s, formal and informal non-government local organizations have been mushrooming in Palpa district as in other parts of the country. These organizations are found engaged in advocacy, community development to professional pressure groups and occupational groups.
115 The organizations formed outside the government in Palpa district can be broadly categorized into two groups- NGOs and NGLOs.
(i) Non Government Organizations (NGOs)
The spatial distribution of modern formal NGOs in Palpa district is uneven. Most of the NGOs are concentrated in district headquarters and its vicinity. Similarly, access to road and resource availability is another factor for their location. Out of 585 NGOs, 149 (about 25 percent) are concentrated in Tansen Municipality. The NGOs registered in District Administrative Office in Palpa district are presented in Appendix X.
(ii) Non-Government Local Organizations (NGLOs)
The NGLOs which are formed in Palpa District have been presented in Table 5.3, which shows largest share of CFUF in number and the VDCs covered. The distribution of CFUG is found in all the VDCs/Municipality while other NGLOs are working in certain places.
Table 5.3: Distribution of NGLOs by types and VDCs, Palpa Type Number Percent No. of VDCs/Municipality CFUG 424 43.4 66 GPG 152 15.5 46 WCG 179 18.3 40 COPs 78 8.0 37 CPG 76 7.8 37 WCDG 46 4.7 10 VPG 14 1.4 10 IWUG 9 0.9 8 Total 978 100.0
Source: Government Line Agencies, 2005
5.2 Spatial Distribution of Non Government Local Organizations in Palpa
Most of the NGLOs in Palpa district are found located near the road. The numbers of NGLOs have been found decreased with increasing distance from the road. Majority of the NGLOs (40.9 percent) and settlements (33.7 percent) are located within 2 km
116 distance from the road followed by 22.6 percent NGLOs and 24.5 percent settlements within 2-4 km distance. There are only 0.4 percent NGLOs and 0.5 percent settlements within 14-16 km distance from the road. A quantitative analysis of distribution of settlements and NGLOs in Palpa shows that there is highly positive correlation (0.93 at 0.01significant level) between the number of settlements and the number of NGLOs. The positive relationship between them is also shown in scatter diagram (Table 5.4, Figure 5.2, 5.3 and 5.4)
Table 5.4: Spatial Distribution of NGLOs and Settlements by Road Distance, Palpa
Distance (km) Settlements* Percent NGLOs** Percent
0-2 380 33.7 399 40.8
2-4 277 24.5 221 22.6
4-6 199 17.6 150 15.3
6-8 130 11.5 89 9.1
8-10 71 6.3 54 5.5
10-12 46 4.1 37 3.8
12-14 20 1.8 24 2.5
14-16 6 0.5 4 0.4
Total 1129 100.0 978 100.0
Sources: * Government Line Agencies, 2005
** Digital Data Obtained from Central Department of Geography
117 Figure 5.2: Spatial Distribution of NGLOs and Settlements by Road Distance, Palpa
Figure 5.3: Scatter Diagram
118 Figure 5.4 Distribution of NGLOs by Road Distance
119 5.3 Current Pattern
The current patterns of local organizational settings are discussed under the following headings:
5.3.1 Government Organizations
There are 3,913 VDCs, 58 Municipalities (including one Metropolitan city and four sub- Metropolitan cities) and 75 DDCs (2005) in the country. Local elections are held every five years. The historical roots of current local government structures date back to the Panchayat era (1960-1989). The Acts enacted after the restoration of the multi-party system only changed the names and some responsibilities, but the basic structure remained more or less the same.
The lowest level of local body is the village Development Committee (DVC). It is a cluster of rural settlements. The density of population is highest in the Tarai (fertile and flat land) while it gradually decreases in the hills and the mountain regions. The VDC is divided into nine wards. In each ward there is provision of ward chairman and four members including one woman. The ward chairperson is also a member of the VDC. Local people elect VDC officials directly.
At the village level, the VDC is an executive body made up of a total of 13, including all ward chairpersons(9) and nominated members including one woman(2), Chairperson(1) and vice- chairperson(1).
The village Council is the legislative body at the village level consisting of a total of 53 members, including Chairperson(1),Vice-chairperson(1), all ward members(36), ward chairperson(9), and members nominated(6) by the council from amongst those who are socially and economically backward, and who have inadequate representation in the village council. The village council does meetings biannually and approves village development plans, policies, tax and other revenue proposals, including budget. It reviews and approves the expenditures of the VDC (Figure 5.4).
120 Figure 5.5: VDC Level Local Government Structure in Nepal, 2002
Check & balance
Source: Adopted from the LSGA, 1999
One junior level staff is deputed by the Ministry of Local development (MLD) through the DDC Secretariat to work as VDC Secretary. He/she plays the key role at the VDC, but VDC Secretary is a member of the central civil service. There are no other supporting staffs in most of the VDCs because the central level government does not extend budgetary support and the VDC cannot afford it out of their own resources. Resourceful VDCs, especially those in the southern part of the country (Terai) and Kathmandu valley, do hire a few junior staff (two to five) on their own payroll. This is to say that the financial, technical and administrative capacities of VDCs are very weak in general. The financial standing of VDCs spread across hilly and mountain region is extremely weak in comparison to the VDCs of the Terai region.
121 There are 58 Municipalities in Nepal, which include one Metropolitan city (Kathmandu), four Sub-metropolitan cities (Biratnagar, Birgunj, Lalitpur and Pokhara), and 53 municipalities, vary greatly in terms of population (from 10,000 to nearly one million), size, capacity, financial status and number of staff and elected representatives. Any territory which expects to be declared a municipality, ought to have a population strength of 10,000 and basic infrastructures (road, electricity, telecommunication, drinking water, etc.).
Municipalities are divided into a minimum of nine wards. There is no specific provision on the maximum number of wards a municipal body can have, Mayer (1), Deputy Mayer (1), one ward chairperson from each ward (depending on the number of wards) and two nominated members constitute the Municipal Executive Committee. Much like in the VDC, municipalities also have similar structures at the ward and Municipal Council level. But the number of nominated members can vary in the Municipal Council (minimum 6 and maximum 20). The Municipal Council approves plans, budget, policies, tax proposals. It also reviews and approves the expenditures of the municipality. MLD deputes officer level staff to each municipality. He or she works as Executive Officer Cum Secretary of the Municipality.
The district level local government (i.e. DDC) is an intermediary local government at the sub- national level, which lies between central-level government at the upper level and VDCs and Municipalities at the lower level.
A district is divided into different 'Illaka' (sub-districts). Depending on criteria such as population and area, the district can be divided into nine to seventeen 'Illakas /sub districts. All elected VDC and Municipal Council members elect one DDC member from each Illaka/sub district. A similar election process elects the DDC president and Vice President. All Illaka/DDC members, two nominated DDC members, (nominated by the DDC from amongst those six who are nominated to the District Council), DDC President and DDC Vice President, together with Members of Parliament (MPs of both houses) as ex-officio, constitute the DDC (Figure 5.5).
Figure 5.6: District Level Local Government Structure in Nepal, 2002
122 Source: Adopted from the LSGA, 1999
The MLD deputes the a senior gazetted-level staff to each DDC secretariat to work as Local Development Officer (LDO) cum DDC secretary and works as development coordinator at the district level. The LSGA and Regulation 1999, provide the legal basis for the local bodies. The LSGA (1999) policy framework is clear and supportive to institutionalization of local institution (Adhikari, 2006).
5.3.2 Semi -Government Institutions
Such institutions largely constitute public enterprises and range from financial institutions to manufacturing units, public utility and social services corporations. These institutions were expected to function to regenerate income, promote investment, facilitate employment opportunities, sustain the structure of financial and production economy delivers certain commodities and services. However, many of semi-government institutions have failed to achieve their goals. Instead, they are overstaffed and inefficient creating an unnecessary 123 financial burden on the government. The semi-government institutions, by and large, are urban based and those dealing with rural areas do not have an adequate network. However, the financial institutions have better institutional network at the district level. Particularly, the Agriculture Development Bank (ADB/N) has reached grassroots level through the Small Farmers Development Programmes (SFDP). The Small Farmers Development Programme which provides an integrated approach to community development is considered a successful experiment in poverty alleviation. Likewise, the Nepal Food Corporation supplies food grains to the food deficit areas which are mainly hilly and mountainous remote areas and has better institutional network (Gurung, 2003).
5.3.3 Cooperatives
The cooperatives are supposed to provide various activities such as rural credit, marketing of agriculture inputs and farm produce and also retailing consumer goods. However in practice, the cooperative function has been limited to relending loans to their stakeholders out of funds received from the Agriculture Development Bank (ADB/N) and selling fertilizer and high yielding variety seeds on Agricultural Input Corporation or AIC dealership.
5.3.4 Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs)
NGO has become very important and popular organization these days especially in the developing and under-developed countries where there is widespread poverty and deprivation. The NGO's contribution would be more productive and useful if they could work independently and unhampered by constraints of government bureaucracies. It is accepted that NGO do play important role in development activities. However, active cooperation between NGOs and GOs at the local level can give new impetus to the decentralization process
NGO can neither replace the government nor capture the service areas in monopolistic ways. They are to collaborate with GOs. NGO forum is to act as a "watch dog" over government activities addressed to the well being of the people. They should help the people for the improvement of their own futures. When the targeted people are enabled to do things by themselves, the role of NGO should be terminated for self-reliance. NGOs in Nepal are non-profitable voluntary organizations. NGO are registered with CDO office and
124 affiliated with Social Welfare Council (SWC) in order to get official recognition and some occasional financial support.
NGOs of national stature, for instance, Family planning Association, Nepal Red Cross Society, Nepal Children's Organization were founded 1959, 1960 and 1964 respectively. These are very large, important and popular NGOs. But unfortunately, these NGOs have become bureaucratic and developed centralized decision making system, salaried personnel of these NGOs are not necessarily motivated towards selfless services to those in needs. Often, they lack local orientation and have problem in reaching to poor and working in remote and backward areas. The local NGOs are small and lack institutional capabilities, technical as well as financial (Gurung, 2003)
5.3.5 Community Organizations and User Groups
The other local institutions involved in service delivery are community organizations: also called self-help organizations or indigenous institutions. Although, there is no reliable data on the number and functions of such organizations in almost all districts of Nepal, there are certain activities taken-up by these organizations. These organizations are found to be involved in managing community resources such as forestry, irrigation, drinking water, and delivering social services such as health, education, and other religious and welfare services. Community organizations were developed in the past by individuals, households and village communities. However, they have been ignored by governmental agencies and disrupted or displaced by well meant public sector interventions.
The user groups became grassroots organizations in areas such as planning and management of drinking water schemes, irrigation, forestry, trail construction and school building which are funded by the local government institutions from the block grant. The Chairman and other members of the user groups are drawn from the real beneficiaries of the project. Small Farmers Development Programme and Production Credit for Rural Women or PCRW have also adopted user-group approach in executing their programme.
125 CHAPTER VI ORGANIZATIONAL FEATURES OF NON GOVERNMENT LOCAL ORGANIZATIONS IN PALPA
In order to have a better understanding of the organizational features of NGLOs in Palpa district, this chapter deals with origin, purpose, group size and composition, organizational rule, linkage, organization forming process, organization and vision/ mission.
6.1 Origin of Local Organization
Local organizations have a long history. Since the origin of the human civilizations, local organizations have been existed for the support and fulfillment of the group activities. Generally, the age of the organizations can be considered as indicator whether they are new or old. Though there is no definite number of years to define new or old, at least years of age with some activities can be taken as indicator of old organizations.
Two aspects of the origin of LOs are (a) age of organization itself, and (b) the impetus for organizing (internal or external, or both). In general, older LOs are more likely to be stable, while newer organizations have to prove themselves for sustenance. The older organizations, exist now, have evolved through a long experience of working activities and therefore are established and institutionalized. Members of the older LOs know what to do and what expectations they get from their LOs whereas newer LOs are likely to be less certain whether their cooperation will be rewarded. Therefore, sustaining newer organizations often require a more intensive effort (Subramanian, Jagannathan & Dick, 1997).
The stability of older LOs does not necessarily imply that they are unchanged. LOs that were established many years ago but not active today are likely to remain as organizations without any activity unless something is done (internally or externally) to animate them. Some of the older LOs may change with the external pressure. The organizations soon get registered to retain formal status in order to get assistance from public agencies. This is the
126 most prevalent example of rapid change (Shivakoti, 1992). Two other concepts related to the sustainability of organizations are their resistance to actions taken by small groups that could destabilize their "viability" and the ability of small, newly formed organizations to induce the larger population to cooperate for their "stability" (Axelrod & Hamilton, 1981).
The history of the local organization in Palpa district reveals that there were only 9 local organizations in 1990 that was the year of the restoration of the democracy. The number of organizations is increased by about 11 times within a span of 10 years (Figure 6.1).
Figure 6.1: Trend of NGLOs Establishment
Every local organization has to follow the formal procedure to register it at its own organization. Figure 6.2 has shown the pattern of NGLOs for registrations. Those local organizations found to have affiliated to different types of government line agencies. The largest number of the local organizations with almost two –thirds have affiliated to/registered at the district level government line agencies such as agriculture, forestry, watershed, etc. (Figure 6.2). Next to it are the local organizations affiliated to their own type of NGOs.
127 Figure 6.2: NGLOs by Nature of Place of Registration
Table 6.1 shows the pattern of registration time. One hundred and Twenty-one NGLOs have registered their organization at district within a year while 13 took from 5 to over 10 years. Those organizations that are registered within a year were due to their "very active" nature. In other words, they got resources from both internal and external sources to deliver services to the local needs. Here, mandatory provision of registration while taking internal and external resources, in many cases, has played important role for registering organization soon after they formed. The late registration of organizations is mainly due to lack of resources and opportunity to get internal and external support.
Table 6.1 Pattern of NGLO Registration
Time of Registration NGLOs Percent Cumulative Percent Registered at the time of established 69 40.6 40.6 Within a year 52 30.6 71.2 Within 5 years 36 21.2 92.4 5 to 10 years 9 5.3 97.7 Above 10 years 4 2.3 100.0 Total 170 100.0 100.0
Source: Field Survey, 2005
128 6.2 Purpose of Local Organization
An organization wishing to succeed must have held common purposes strongly. An organization must possess the means for success, the most important of which are appropriate leaderships and resources. Physical, financial and material resources need to be adequate to fulfill the purpose. Likewise, results are the achievements of an organization and the “bottom line” by which it is judged. Results need to be consistent with the NGLOs purpose. Figure 6.3 represents this unified view of purpose, means and results as a series of concentric circles of purpose, the innermost circle, is the central force radiating out to the other two areas. It is the motivation and justification for bringing together the means, which make the results physically possible.
Figure 6.3 The Unifying Force of Purpose
Source: IFRRS, 1994
Each organization is designed to fulfill certain needs of the people. Therefore, it constitutes one or more objectives. Besides, type of objective it focuses is also important while dealing with the objective of LOs. Further, the LOs have also set priority order of the objectives if LOs contains more than two objectives. LOs having single-purpose are more focused and are driven by a specific task. Mastering one task and doing it well is easier when the group's attention is not spread over too many activities (Subramanian, Jagannathan & Dick, 1997). By focusing on only one task, LOs can tailor their activities to users' specific needs. Furthermore, by focusing on a single issue like water and sanitation, LOs may represent a single issue interest group, and are therefore able to represent user interests to government
129 and private sector entities, and can lobby for better services or changes. Groups that are involved in multiple sectors or activities often spread their organizational capacity too thinly, and may end up not doing any one task well. By contrast, not always organizations with only one purpose can succeed to achieve their objective. The organizations having multiple purpose can address their various needs better than the single purpose organizations. Whatever the activities may be- single or multiple- the purpose of local organization should effectively address the need of local people (Figure 6.4).
Figure 6.4 Determination of Common Goal/Objective
Source: Sharma, 2002
Palpa district has the local organizations having both single and multiple objectives, however the latter dominates over the former. Only about 13 percent organizations have single objective. There are organizations having up to five objectives that account for the largest share, 27 percent (Table 6.2).
130 Table 6.2 Distribution of Organization by Priority Objective
Objectives Ist 2nd 3rd 4th 5th
Conservation and management of forest 42 8 0 8 1
Fulfillment of needs 4 34 8 15 8
Launch income generating activities 3 23 12 0 0
Increase production 37 7 8 8 28
Management of marketing 2 4 2 0 0
Medical herbs production 15 0 1 0 0
Afforestation 5 15 0 0 0
Soil Conservation 10 5 43 0 0
Conserve water source 0 16 12 7 0
Supply safe and pure water 0 0 8 0 7
Credit facility 16 8 0 28 0
Encourage to saving 21 8 0 0 0
Poverty reduction 0 3 16 0 0
Increase irrigation 3 7 7 1 0
Job oriented training 4 4 2 2 0
Awareness building 8 6 9 14 2
Total 170 148 128 83 46
Source: Field Survey, 2005
The figure 6.5 shows that 13 percent organizations have single objective. The organizations having two, three and four objectives are 12, 26, and 22 percent respectively. And the organization mentioning five objectives are 27 percent of the total organization. Most of the organizations (87 percent) have multiple objectives hoping to address various needs of the local people.
131 Figure 6.5: NGLOs by their Objectives
The objectives of local organization vary according to the nature of organization. Most of the local organizations are concentrated in the conservation and management of forest. Forty- two local organizations have placed conservation and management of forest as their first priority objective. This is followed by the LOs with increase production as first objective. Among the 19 organizations having poverty reduction as one of the major objective, none of them have placed poverty reduction in the first objective (Table 6.2). Though poverty is the main problem of Palpa district only 3 LOs have given it second priority and 16 have put it in third priority.
6.3 Group Size and Composition
The size of an organization affects its ability to survive, its relation with other organizations, and its adaptability to change in the environment. Large communities will have larger carrying capacities for organizations than small communities. That is, the resource available in small communities will not support organizations as large as those in large communities. One obvious constraint on organization size is the size of the community itself (Miller, 1983).
One of the crucial issues in contemporary literature on collective action is related to the effect of group size on the likelihood of group action. According to Olson (1965) a clear distinction ought to be made between the behaviors of individuals depending on some basic characteristics of the group to which they belong. To explain this point he uses two parallel typologies. The first one is based on group size whereby a distinction is made between small, intermediate and large groups. The second typology differentiates between 'privileged' groups and 'latent groups.' A privileged group is defined as a group in which each of its
132 members or at least some of them have an incentive to see that the collective good is provided, even if he has to bear the full burden of providing it himself. In such a group the collective good may be obtained even without any group organization or coordination (Olson, 1965). The latent group is defined as a very large group distinguished by the fact that whether a specific member contributes or not to provide the collective good, will not significantly affect other members.
The group size becomes a matter in both an institutional and a technological sense. Collaboration and compliance become difficult as communities get larger and relationships among members become less personal. If group size is reduced, intra-group enforcement of rules becomes less expensive. A variety of structures have emerged around the world for organizing local efforts to develop rural communities, but there are some recurrent patterns that offer guidance. Large amorphous mass movements have not been successful anywhere without some structure. The most effective programs have had a system of “nested” organizations that starts from a base-level group or association that can maintain solidarity and discipline. Smaller organizations have lower transaction costs, that is, easier in communication, and members are able to observe and discourage “free riding” (Olson, 1965). In sharing the cost of activities implemented for the local communities, some of its members have not contributed anything either cash or kind, such members are known as free rider. At the same time, smallness by itself contributes to weakness as very small groups face the problem of getting support and services, so it is important for groups to be linked with one another. Hence, the size of the group that is appropriate depends on the local situation, activities, cooperation among members and capability of the leader etc.
The size is desirable for members themselves to have some say in the size of their organization, to make it more truly “theirs”. There is no certain number of members for a group, which generally depends on the nature of organization and population size of the area. Some argue that the common size of base-level organizations is between ten and twenty members. In such a group, everyone can know each other well, communication and transaction costs will not be very high and any free riding members can be easily known. But, it does not mean that the large size of group always become less effective. Large sized local organizations can also function better if their sub-organizations under the network can facilitate collective action. In this case, membership may include all the residents in a village, but the operating mechanism at local level may be a smaller representative body. There is a
133 challenge with the large size organization mainly in coordination of several smaller groups scattered throughout the country. Management supported by coordination and monitoring mechanism can be a problem for the large size LOs. The table 6.6 shows the size of membership in NGLOs in Palpa district.
The table 6.3 shows that half of the local Table: 6.3 Size of Memberships of NGLOs organizations have less than 50 Number of members. Among them 23 NGLOs have No. of Members NGLO Percent members with the size of 10 to 20 Below 50 85 50.0 members. Three local organizations like 50-99 47 27.6 CFUG, COPs and WCG have a wide range 100-149 17 10.0 of members consisting of small to large and largest sizes. The largest 150-199 8 4.7 membership size found in the study area 200-249 4 2.4 is a cooperative, located in Tansen 250 & above 9 5.3 Municipality which is due to large Total 170 100.0 population size of urban area. Other Source: Field Survey, 2005 larger size groups are associated with the forest user groups and irrigation group.
Different organizations with different nature exist in the study area. Consumer, producer, cooperatives are the major groups. Most of the organizations with 61.8 percent are consumer groups followed by the producer group (26.5 percent) and cooperatives (7.6 percent). Likewise more than three-fourths of the consumer organizations are having less than 100 members in size. But, most of the producer groups (93.3 percent) have membership size less than 50. Cooperatives are generally found larger in terms of number of members in organizations (Table 6.4).
Table: 6.4 Size of Membership by Nature of Organization
Size of Membership
below 250 and Group 50 50-99 100-149 150-199 200-249 above Total Consumer 38 39 15 6 3 4 105 Producer 42 3 0 0 0 0 45
134 Cooperatives 0 3 2 2 1 5 13 Community Development 5 2 0 0 0 0 7 Total 85 47 17 8 4 9 170
Source: Field Survey, 2005
The size of membership also is found varying according to the type of organization. Of 170 local organizations, half of them have members below 50 membership size. Coffee groups, community development groups, vegetable groups ginger groups have members below 50. Large membership size is found in the cooperatives and the consumer group particularly in the community forest groups and irrigation (Table 6.4).
Table: 6.5 Size of Membership by Types of Organization
Group Size of Membership below 50 50-99 100-149 150-199 200-249 250 and Total above CPG 13 0 0 0 0 0 13 CFUG 19 32 13 4 2 3 73 COPs 0 3 2 2 1 5 13 GPG 25 3 0 0 0 0 28 IWUG 1 0 0 1 0 1 3 VPG 4 0 0 0 0 0 4 WCDG 5 2 0 0 0 0 7 WCG 18 7 2 1 1 0 29 Total 85 47 17 8 4 9 170 Percent 50.0 27.6 10.0 4.7 2.4 5.3 100.0
Source: Field Survey, 2005
About 48 percent of the members of the NGLOs are from Janajati, which is obvious since majority of the district population (50.9 Percent) contain Janajatis, particularly the Magars. Likewise the Jati occupy about 44 percent of the total members. Similarly, about 8 percent Dalits are found involved in NGLOs in the study area. The members of Muslim community are found only few. The gender differences in terms of membership in NGLOs can be seen in
135 the study area. The membership of male (69 percent) is two times greater than that of the females (31 percent) (Table 6.6).
Table: 6.6 Membership in NGLOs by Caste, Ethnicity and Sex
Caste/Ethnicity Male % Female % Total %
Jati 3947 42.9 1985 47.0 5932 44.2
Janjati 4542 49.4 1866 44.2 6408 47.8
Dalit 688 7.5 369 8.7 1057 7.9
Muslim 21 0.2 1 0.1 22 0.2
Total 9198 100.0 4221 100.0 13419 100
Percent (68.6) (31.4) (100.0)
Source: Field Survey, 2005
In general, the membership in NGLOs is open to all community members but this does not mean that it is compulsory. Some people do not like to be organized. It depends on various conditions. For example, to join in Producer Groups such as Ginger and Coffee Groups, members should have to produce related crops. In some cases, though some of the members of the community have fulfilled the basic criteria for membership into the local organization but they do not like to join in organization by various reasons.
There were altogether 105 households that did not join any of the organizations. This is very small size that represents only 0.7 percent of the total sample households of the settlements where local organizations were sampled. The reasons for not being members have been grouped into seven major types. They are:
i. Having no faith in the program, ii. Difficulty to attend meetings iii. Incapable to convince iv. Distance of the house v. Better-off family vi. Organizatioal Rules of not including new members, and vii. Differences in the objective of the program
136 Those who were "hunekhanes" (well-off) did not participate in the group due to their dislike with the objectives undertaken by the groups. Likewise the ultra poor also did not join the group due to distant location of the activities from their house.
One-hundred five NGLOs are found Table 6.7: Causes of not being Members unable to involve some community members into their organization. The Causes No of NGLOs Percent causes of not being member of the Single 94 89.5 organization vary from single to Double 10 9.5 multiple. Most of the villagers (89.5 percent) were found not joining into Triple 1 1.0 organization due to single cause Total 105 100.0 (Table 6.7). Source: Field Survey, 2005 6.4 Organizational Rules
Government should provide minimal recognition of the rights to organize as a fundamental principle for self-governing NGLOs. Right to mobilize resources from their membership and other sources, right to open and operate bank account and obtain credit, ownership in local resource and development activities, provision of monitoring and leadership, right to work between the organizations etc. give legal support for NGLOs.
To function effectively, community groups have set rules which define membership requirements, responsibilities and benefits, accountability, how violators of rules will be punished and how disputes will be resolved. This may be done formally, with written texts, fees, fines, or informally through practices. In all cases, however, rules evolve.
Out of the total 170 local NGLOs, 167 organizations have their own written rules. Of this, 152 organizations reported that all their members follow organization’s rules while remaining 15 organizations reported that their member violate their rules sometimes. The types of punishment, for those who violated the rules depend on the nature of violation. The punishment included fine, membership expelling, etc.
137 6.4.1 Membership Fee
Certain entry fee should be paid to enter in an organization. Not all the organizations have set membership fee. Out of the total organizations, 29 NGLOs did not have any entry fee. The organizations which has membership fee are found more active in local development activities than those that do not have. The amount of entry fee has differed from place to place and from one organization to another. The entry fee has ranged from Rs. 5 to NRs. 5000 (Table 6.8). Eighty-eight organizations have entry fee below Rs 50. There were only 3 NGLOs that have entry fee ranged from Rs 2500 to 5000. They are Jyagdi Community Forest, Rampur; Arsaudi Water Consumer Group, Palung Mainadi; and Rampur Water Consumer Group, Rampur. It was found that those who in-migrated to the community from other areas have to pay higher entry fee than those from inside community. In some organizations, the entry fee is determined by dividing the total capital (cash and assets) of the organization by number of members in that organization. The average membership fee of the organizations is Rs. 155.3.
138 Table 6.8: Membership Fee (Rupees)
Membership Fee Number of NGLO Percent 5 14 8.2 10 40 23.5 15 6 3.5 20 2 1.2 25 25 14.7 30 1 0.6 50 20 11.8 100 4 2.4 105 1 0.6 110 14 8.2 150 1 0.6 200 2 1.2 500 4 2.4 550 1 0.6 1001 1 0.6 1500 2 1.2 2500 1 0.6 3000 1 0.6 5000 1 0.6 No Fee 29 17.1 Total 170 100.0 Mean entry fee 155.3 Source: Field Survey, 2005 6.4.2 Membership Criteria
Each organization has adopted certain criteria for entry into its organization. NGLOs have following criteria for membership:
1) Resident of the village 2) Not a member of other similar organization
139 3) Involved in the same working activity, e.g. Ginger, Coffee, etc. 4) All of above.
Of these criteria more than one- Table 6.9: Membership Criteria for Organization third (38.8 percent) of the No. of Criteria NGLOs (f) Percent organizations have reported to be 1 23 13.5 fulfilled three criteria to be a member in NGLOs while about one- 2 57 33.5 third have reported to be fulfilled 3 66 38.8 two criteria to be a member. 4 20 11.8 Likewise, there are very few Open to all 4 2.4 organizations which have fixed one Total 170 100.0 criteria to be a member (Table 6.8). It is found that the organizations Source: Field Survey, 2005 which have determined one criterion to be a member are more flexible in their nature. The increased number of criteria for achieving membership of organization shows the rigidity in their nature.
The membership can be cancelled by the organizations due to different reasons. Out of 170 organizations, about four-fifths NGLOs have determined the rule of membership cancellation who violates their rules and norms (Table 6.9). The following are reason for cancellation of membership of NGLOs:
1) Work against its own organization 2) Not involvement in implementation of the decision taken by the organization 3) Absence in general meeting at least three times 4) Outmigration from the village
Table 6.10: Causes of Membership Cancellation
No. of reasons No of NGLOs Percent 1 24 14.1 2 21 12.4 3 29 17.1 4 66 38.8 No provision of cancellation 29 17.1
140 More than one-third (38.8 percent) Total 170 100.0 organizations have fixed four criteria Source: Field Survey, 2005 as the causes of invalid membership while others have fixed three, two and one criteria for invalid membership (Table 6.10). The organization having multiple criteria for invalid membership are said to be more rigid in organizational discipline.
6.5 Linkage
Establishment of linkages is an important component of organizational sustainability. Linkages enable groups to draw upon resources from various sources and also signify organizational legitimacy. It is not necessary to enter into formal contact to establish link, any interpersonal interactions are forms of linkages. One of the main structural aspects of local organizations is to focus attention on linkages between lower and higher levels. Linkage can be defined in terms of interaction and exchange of information and other resources on a regular and reliable basis, looking at the extent and effectiveness of communication and influence both downward to upward from different levels of local organization (Esman and Uphoff, 1984). Vertical linkage can be defined as frequency of interaction between base level organization and higher tiers, in which the highest level is still a representative organization. Likewise, horizontal linkage can be defined as an interaction between and among the same level of organizations.
According to Uphoff (1986) vertical linkages are of two kinds: (i) higher level bodies of the same organizational structure, e.g., connections within a federation of cooperatives, and (ii) across kinds of channels, as when a 'local government gets grants and technical assistance from a national level primary voluntary organization, or a farmer's association has ties to the ministry of agriculture and to state banking institutions. Both kinds of linkages are obviously important, but only analysis of vertical linkages should distinguish between those that are "intra-channel" and "inter-channel".
Small organizations by themselves may be beautiful, but their impact will be limited if they are not joined in some of the large organizations. Any program that aims to produce widespread benefits must address the question of how to organize a hierarchical structure that is animated from below even more than from above. There is an ever-present danger when small groups are federated that they will be dominated by higher levels of the organization.
141 Small base-level groups from being joined together in a large structure can improve their activities into the coherence and motivation by reducing transaction costs and the problems of free-riding. A nested organizational structure with small groups at the base is more likely to be successful and gain benefits than larger, one tier associations at the local level.
Table 6.11: Horizontal and Vertical Linkage of Organization
Linkages with Good Moderate Poor Total Local Institutions (VDC/DDC, 159 11 - 170 Municipality and GLAs) Regional Federations, GLAs 74 22 74 170 National Govt. Institutions, 92 58 20 170 Federations and Cooperatives Local NGOs and NGLOs 104 43 23 170 Local INGOs 18 80 72 170
Source: Field Survey, 2005
The horizontal linkage of the NGLOs is interaction between and among base-level organizations while vertical linkage is interaction between base-level organization and higher tiers. Table 6.11 indicates that sample local organizations have good horizontal linkages with base-level organizations while comparatively poor vertical linkage with higher tiers. Figure 6.6 indicates that NGLOs of the study area have horizontal linkage particularly with local government institutions (DDC, VDC and Municipality), GLAs and NGOs, NGLOs/CBOs whereas they have vertical linkage with regional level GLAs and their own regional federations/cooperatives. Likewise, they have also vertical linkage with national government and national federation's cooperatives
142 Figure 6.6 Vertical and Horizontal Linkage of Organization
Source: Author's construct, 2009
Figure 6.7 indicates that the distance between the circles representing their own organizations (CFUG of Bagchaur) and other organizations. A large distance such as youth club indicates that the group has no influence on the other organization while a short distance such as hospital and bank implies that the institution has some influence on the other group. Overlap of the circles such as WUG, VDC, DFO, etc. suggests that the organization has collaboration with other. The direction of circles, however, does not mean anything.
143 Figure 6.7: Organizational Linkage of CFUG, Bagchaur, Humin
144 6.6 Meetings of Non-governmental Local Organizations
NGLOs as autonomous institutions may run effectively so long as all their members have the opportunity to participate in decision-making activities. All groups recognize that decisions have to be made and implemented by them. All groups are aware of the objectives and desired effects of those decisions and their own individual roles and responsibilities. The formal forum which requires the participations of members in decision-making activities is the assembly of users. There is a provision in the operation plans of most user groups which theoretically ensure the calling of two general assemblies once a year. There can also be extra-ordinary assemblies of users called if immediate decisions need to be made.
Regular group meetings also constitute an essential element of group processes. Frequent and regular group meetings are an important element of successful NGLOs. These organizations hold meetings to discuss issues, identify priorities, develop action plans and strategies, and debate a range of resource management issues. An additional meeting is called if there is a specific problem to be addressed.
Table 6.12: Period of Holding General Table 6.12 shows that about two- Assembly Meetings third of the local organizations General Assembly Number of Percent hold their general meeting ones a NGLO year. It depends on their need and Once a Year 112 65.9 activities. Few organizations Twice a Year 46 27.1 conduct their meetings twice a Uncertain 12 7.1 year. Total 170 100 Source: Field Survey, 2005
6.7 Organization Forming Processes
The process of organization development usually takes linear or non-linear routes. Two kinds of patterns are followed to form organization (Fig. 6.9). First, it considers local people only as 'beneficiaries' or pre-group of development provided by government and/or external agencies. The second provides ownership of development intervention to local people. The latter comes from the internal realization of the needs of the local people. In the latter people can be better channelized through membership based NGLOs than the former. The
145 internal realization of the needs of the local people generates awareness about the pressing needs of their own areas. The participants of the latter organization feel that local problems can be better addressed by their common effort. This realization stimulates them to form their own organization. To achieve the objective of forming organization, they discuss first with their nearest neighbours and then they call all interested inhabitants of the village for meeting. In this meeting, they discuss openly about their priority needs and determine what types of organization they need in their village to develop their own area. The outcome of the meeting is that majority of the participants reach in a consensus and feels that without their organized effort they cannot improve their existing situation (Figure 6.8). This process of organization formation enables the participants to raise the voice and they will be well informed. On the other hand, in the linear path, the process takes place from the top. First, the higher level collectivities (federations, cooperatives, etc.) is formed and the process goes down and motivate local communities to form organization. No matter whether linear or non-linear model is followed, empowerment occurs when the group members or the collective membership of a group or collective organization become informed and begin to influencing decision-makers and to control over resources.
146 Figure 6.8: Organization Building Process
147 In Palpa district, mostly the initiatives to form the NGLOs have taken non-linear path. In few cases, linear path or mixed of both internal and external is followed by NGLOs. The largest initiative, i.e. one-third NGLOs have been taken by the community members, whereas the least by INGOs with below 1 percent (Table 6.13).
Table 6.13: Initiatives for Formation of NGLOs
(n=170)
Types of GOs and Community Community Total Org. GLAs VDC/DDC NGO NGO INGO Leader Members CPG 7 0 12 0 0 0 1 20 CFUG 36 7 14 20 1 6 26 110 COPs 0 0 0 3 0 0 12 15 GPG 0 0 27 0 1 0 15 43 IWUG 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 3 VPG 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 2 WCDG 7 7 0 0 0 0 7 21 WCG 15 17 0 0 0 1 27 60 Total 65 31 54 24 2 7 91 274 Percent 23.7 11.3 19.7 8.8 0.7 2.6 33.2 100.0
Source: Field Survey, 2005
The initial formation strongly determines the future development trend of the NGLOs. Even so, the rapid pace in the number of NGLOs formation has led to some of the institutional weaknesses in them. The result of the field studies provides the following weaknesses:
The formation process is found often elite biased. Settlement-level or bottom-up planning has not been emphasized as a best practice for decision making within the NGLOs. Staff of government line agencies (GLAs) and NGOs are generally found belonging to the elite groups and only rarely holds in-depth discussion with all the users in the individual settlement (hamlets) making up the NGLOs, in order to identify their needs and wishes. Even where wider discussions were held, non-elite users often felt that their views had not been taken into account.
148 The constituents of NGLOs are often not clarified. For example, in the case of forest user groups, the survey maps on which forest handover is based were almost out of date. The community forest boundary is not being clarified. This probably will lead the FUG to inherit serious boundary encroachment conflicts.
Poor awareness about community organization concepts, best practices, roles and responsibilities among users, etc. have existed among the members. This means that they are often not fully imparted with the NGLOs during formation.
The incentive to form a group to create group-based organization may also vary while working towards a commonly identified 'need' or 'purpose'.
There has been a wide impact of incentives to the organizations. Some were very active until the incentives provided by the external agencies. They exist nowhere when such incentives ceases.
6.8 Organization Vision/ Mission: Stated and Perceived
Vision is the image of the members of the organization about how it should work. Mission is the overall purpose according to which an organization operates. The mission statement reflects unique local conditions in which the organization functions. It is known and accepted by organization members. An organization’s mission is its raison detre. There are mainly two types of organization missions such as written-the mission statement, and unwritten - conceived by organization members.
The mission statement is the written expression of the basic goals, characteristics, values and philosophy that shape the organization and give its purpose. By expressing the organizations ultimate aims essentially, what it values most-the mission statement provides members with a sense of shared purpose and direction. Values are the priorities in the nature of how the organization should carry out its objectives. These values are the personality or culture of the organization. Values are the priorities in the nature of hour the organization should carry out its activities. These values are the personality or culture of the organization. The long term goal enshrined within it serves to inspire the organization's strategic planning and major activities. Strategies are the different approaches used by the organization to achieve their goals. Therefore strategic goals of an organization work toward to achieve the overall accomplishment of the mission which action/project plans identify
149 immediate activities and responsibility to make success the strategy. The process of vision formulation is shown in Figure 6.9.
Figure 6.9: Process of Vision Formulation
Source: Sharma, 2002 Table 6.14: Written Besides, the organizational mission that is formally written Mission/Vision of NGLOs down is the perceived organizational mission. Often the Groups Yes No later does not correspond to the stated mission, being out- CG 13 0 of-data or even misconstrued. But the perceived mission is CFG 72 1 nonetheless a powerful behavioral driver for those in the organization. One task of an organization overall Cops 13 0 assessment is to access the degree to which the formal GG 28 0 mission statement is understood and has been internalized IRRI 3 0 by member of the organization, i.e. the congruence of VG 4 0 perceived and stated mission. WCDG 7 0 WCG 23 6
Out of the total 170 organizations, 163 have written Total 163 7 vision/mission and the rest including one CFUG and six Source: Field Survey, 2005 WCGs have no written documented vision/mission. Most of the NGLOs (161 out of 163) have maintained vision/mission in the form of minutes. Only two NGLOs of community forest groups have published it in broacher/leaflet (Table 6.14).
150 CHAPTER VII
CONTRIBUTION OF NON GOVERNMENT LOCAL ORGANIZATIONS TO RURAL DEVELOPMENT
This chapter highlights the contribution of NGLOs to rural development with special emphasis on resource mobilization, capital formation, capacity building, need identification and participation. Contribution of NGLOs to program formulation, information sharing, employment generation and conflict resolution is dealt simultaneously.
7.1 Capital Formation
Capital formation is one of the major achievements of NGLOs in rural community development. Almost all the organizations have been working for capital formation. Physical, social, human as well as financial capitals are the major types of capital formed by different NGLOs in the study area. The major activities of NGLOs in different types of capital formation are discussed below under different headings.
7.1.1 Improved 'Social Capital'
Local organizations create a new social forum, with the potential for local level development planning, improved social support structures and social cohesion. This can be labeled as 'social capital' i.e. networks and institutions which are available to household for collective action. The benefits of the creation of 'social capital' depend upon the participation of household and individuals in local institutions, and enhanced knowledge of rights and duties involved in securing a better life. They may also be improvements in network and contacts necessary to access financial capital. Local organizations provide a forum for community decision-making and planning local areas on local priorities and empowering local communities to demand the appropriate services from local government line agencies. In addition, creation of welfare fund, management of exposure visit and recreation etc., are major functions that the NGLOs have been conducting in the study region (Table 7.1 and Appendix XI). District Forest Office, Local Community and Water Consumer Group have been contributing to create social capital (Appendix XII).
151 7.1.2 Physical Capital
Local organizations have led to improved village level infrastructure (Physical Capital) in the majority of local organizations studied. Table 7.1 depicts the fact that the NGLOs have contributed to build physical capital largely compared to others. Of the total activities performed by NGLOs, about two-thirds are concentrated in building physical capital. Out of the total frequencies 215, the physical capital alone constitutes 136, which is very high. NGLOs create physical capital mainly in areas of afforestation, management of drinking water, road construction and toilet construction (Appendix XI). The main areas of contribution in physical capital building are listed in Table 7.1. Forest User groups, FINIDA, DDC,VDCs, District Forest Office, etc. are the major helper organizations that they provide financial and material support to NGLOs to create physical capital (Appexdix XII).
7.1.3 Financial Capital
Financial capital is defined as the accumulation of capital through different activities such as coffee farming, ginger farming, income generating activities, market management, nursery production, poverty reduction, selling wood, timber, etc. The provision of financial capital (the establishment of credit and micro-credit schemes) can be a significant outcome of local organizations and if so its availability to households and its uptake, can then be an impact'. Majority of the local organizations studied have some accumulated funds. But it differs from one organization to another. While some organizations have generated a significant amount others have increased their funds only slightly since formulation. Production groups such as ginger and coffee production groups and production cooperatives have generated larger funds by selling their products. Likewise, forest users groups have earned large share of money by selling forest products (i.e. timber and nursery seedling). Groups without this advantage depend on smaller fund raising through membership fee. Local organizations have moved towards mobilizing their funds for micro-credit although the organizations of co-operative groups have played an important role in credit opportunities for member households. In addition, out of the total frequency 215, 16 activities (7.4 percent) of NGLOs are found directly related to creation of financial capital (Table 7.1 and Appendix XI. Soil Conservation Office, Forest Users Group, District Coffee Byabasayik Sangh, etc. are the major organizations that have been contributing to financial capital formation (Appendix XI).
152 7.1.4 Human Capital
The development of human capital improved the capabilities of individuals to secure their well-being. The effects of developing human capital can be cumulative and multiplicative. Local organizations have contributed to improving 'human capital' in various ways. Training provided by local organizations has increased the skills of some of the organization members (e.g. account training), although this has proved to be of limited benefit. Some other training provided to female members have significant impact in increasing women's awareness, social role, significance and empowerment. Of total activities, more than one-fourths activities are found performed by NGLOs in palpa (Table 7.1 and Appendix XI) Forest Users Group, District Coffee Byabasayik Sangh, DDC, District Agriculture Office., Red Barna, MARD, REDA, etc. are the major organizations that have been contributing to human capital formation (Appendix XII).
Table 7.1: Capital Formation through Different Functions by NGLOs
Capital/Function Frequency Percent Financial Capital 16 7.4 Human Capital 59 27.4 Physical Capital 136 63.3 Social Capital 4 1.9 Total 215 100.0
Source: Field Survey, 2005
The information about contribution of NGLOs to local development obtained from FGDs is that conservation and management of forest, management and distribution of drinking water, road/trail construction, kulo construction for irrigation and income generation activities received as high priority, health and education as medium priority and skill development and employment generation as low priority. Likewise, the information obtained from KIS regarding major achievements from NGLOs is contribution to local development, local resource mobilization, knowledge of self-reliance and right and duties.
153 7.2 Resource Mobilization
Resource mobilization is one of the major contributions of NGLOs. They mobilize local as well as external resource for their community development. The local resource may be generated through contribution in cash as well as in kind whereas external resources are mostly mobilized in the form of cash.
7.2.1 Local Resource Mobilization
If there are appropriate local institutions backed by conducive policies, national and international resources can be used to elicit greater local resource contributions for the sake of a wide variety of development efforts (Uphoff, 1986). Grants can be designed to further a wide range of objectives and can be directed to the whole range of local institution with a view to increasing the overall volume of resources devoted to development. The value of community's contribution of labour and material inputs is many times greater than that of the local taxes and grants from the government and donors. The material contributions not only spur local effort, but their being given in-kind reduces possibilities for corruption (Pradhan, 1980 as cited in Uphoff, 1986, p. 252).
One objection to such a strategy can be that the provision of materials with the expectation that communities or localities will provide matching labour for construction can be regressive form of resource mobilization. Particularly in communities that are highly stratified, poorer members are likely to have to provide proportionally more labour even if they derive relatively less benefit (Pradhan, 1980 as cited in Uphoff, 1986, p. 252-253). Local resource mobilization on a self-help or matching grant basis helps stretch the resources that the government can contribute to rural improvements. Even if communities are generally poor, they usually have some resources that can be applied to meet priority needs. Rural people's labour is a valuable resource that they can contribute, along with materials, reliable information and managerial skills (Esman and Uphoff, 1984).
Table 7.2: Contributions of Local People to NGLOs, Palpa
Group Labour Cash (Rs) Total Percent Number of Amount (Rs) labour
154 CPG 5,510 440,800 140,000 580,800 5.1 CFUG 48,105 384,8400 135,4584 520,2984 46.1 GPG 13,605 108,8400 353,000 144,1400 12.8 IWUG 12,480 998,400 140,000 113,8400 10.1 VPG 3,160 252,800 137,000 389,800 3.5 WCDG 3,650 292,000 0 292,000 2.6 WCG 21,480 171,8400 516,000 223,4400 19.8 Total 107,990 863,9200 264,0584 112,79784 100.0
Source: Field Survey 2006 Note: Free labour amount rupees have been converted from daily wage, which is Rs 80 in average multiplied by number of free laborers contributed. Similarly, many of the organizations have been charging Rs. 80 per day from their members who cannot participate in development activities as a free labour.
CFUG has received the most importance in terms of labour and cash. This shares 46 percent of the total contributions. Two other groups relatively less important than CFUG are WCG and GPG in terms of percentage share. The cash contribution for WCDG is nil. They receive necessary money from outside. Majority of the local people of Palpa district are found contributed to local development activities by providing labour and then cash. Labour contribution is more than three times than that of cash contribution (Table 7.2).
7.2.2 Collection and Mobilization of Organization's Capital
The NGLOs accumulate their capital from various sources. The NGLOs encourage members to save the foundation for all resources mobilization regularly. The saving amount from members and revolving fund allows organizations to start micro-credit activities for income generation.
Table 7.3 depicts the fact that membership fee and revolving fund are the major sources of capital in NGLOs which share 11.8 and 5.3 percent in total sample organization. From the table 7.3, it is evident that out of the total sample organization about 24.7 reported that membership fee and revolving fund are the main source of capital of their organization, while about 18.2 claimed that membership fee, revolving fund and selling timber, stone, gravel and other products are the main sources of their capital.
Table 7.3: Sources of Organization Capital
155 Sources of Organization Capital Frequency Percent
Revolving Fund 9 5.3
Revolving Fund + Others 4 2.4
Membership Fee 20 11.8
Membership Fee+Others 3 1.8
Membership Fee+Revolving Fund 42 24.7
Membership Fee+Revolving Fund+Selling Products 31 18.2
Bank Deposit 2 1.2
Bank Deposit+Others 2 1.2
Selling of products 4 2.4
Bank Deposit+Membership Fee+Others 2 1.2
Bank Deposit+Membership Fee+Revolving Fund 2 1.2
Bank Deposit+Membership Fee+Revolving Fund+Others 4 2.4
Bank Deposit+Membership Fee 1 0.6
Interest+Revolving Fund 1 0.6
Interest+Revolving Fund+Others 1 0.6
Interest+Membership Fee 8 4.7
Interest+Membership Fee+Others 6 3.5
Interest+membership Fee+Revolving Fund+Others 7 4.1
Land+Interest+Membership Fee+Revolving Fund 1 0.6
Selling of products+Membership Fee+Revolving Fund 7 4.1
Bank Deposite+Interest+Membership Fee+Revolving Fund 6 3.5
Bank Deposite+Membership Fee+Revolving Fund 2 1.2
N.A. 5 2.9
Total 170 100.0
Source: Field Survey, 2005 Others: Fines and collected welfare fund N.A.= Not available
156 Table 7.4 Mobilization of Saving Amount
NGLOs (in number) Percent
Saving Mobilization Area CPG CFUG COPs GPG IWUG VPG WCDG WCG Total
Bank Interest 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 10 11 6.5
Rotational credit for 0 15 0 0 0 1 1 1 18 10.6 members
Rotational credit and Productive investment for 7 31 1 0 0 1 0 0 40 23.5 members
Productive investment for 6 20 12 22 1 1 2 1 65 38.2 members
Bank Interest and Productive 0 1 0 6 0 1 0 2 10 5.9 investment for members
Bank Interest and Productive investment for members and 0 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 1.8 salaries
Bank interest, Rotational credit and Productive 0 1 0 0 0 0 2 2 5 2.9 investment for members
Salaries 0 1 0 0 2 0 0 0 3 1.8
No Saving 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 13 15 8.8
Total 13 73 13 28 3 4 7 29 170 100.0
Source: Field Survey, 2005
The ways NGLOs have spent their income are perhaps even more interesting than their sources of income. This information gives us a sense for their priorities and for whether investments are aimed at benefitting the community as a whole or just some subsets of community members. Table 7.4 reveals that more than one-thirds (38.2 percent) local organizations have invested their savings on productive activities for members. Saving mobilization on rotational credit and productive investment for members constitute about one-fourth (23.5 percent).
157 7.2.3 External Resource Mobilization
Support from the government and donor agencies is required to be successful of an organization. Support does not mean only cash help but it also represent skill and knowledge. The combination of internal and external support for technical expertise and other resources is essential for the better performance of NGLOs.
Table: 7.5 Cash Help for NGLOs (amount in '000)
NGLOs VDC/DDC NGO INGO Government Others Total Office No Rs No Rs No Rs No Rs No Rs No Rs Percent CPG 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 15 0 0 1 15 0.4 CFUG 12 281 1 25 0 0 2 20 1 5 16 331 9.6 COPs 2 105 0 0 5 500 0 0 0 0 7 605 17.6 GPG 0 0 0 0 9 235 0 0 0 0 9 235 6.8 IWUG 2 100 1 400 0 0 1 160 0 0 4 660 19.2 VPG 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.0 WCDG 7 85 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 7 85 2.5 WCG 10 1425 1 15 0 0 2 60 0 0 13 1500 43.7 Total 33 1996 3 440 14 735 6 255 1 5 57 3431 100.0 Percent 58.2 12.8 21.4 7.4 0.2 100.0 Average 60.5 14.67 52.5 42.5 5
Source: Field Survey, 2005
Table 7.5 reveals that majority of the NGLOs have received cash help from VDC and DDC. Their contribution is 58.2 percent of the total cash. Likewise, one-thirds cash help have been received from both INGO and NGO. The NGLOs have received least cash help from government line agencies which shares only 7.4 percent. The information about possible sources of fund for local development obtained from FGDs conducted in sixteen places is that DDC, VDC, District Irrigation Office, NGOs and INGOs have indulged in providing cash help.
158 Water is the most important in terms of cash support, followed by irrigation. The nature of these two development activities is that they require relatively huge money for construction. In the present case WCG has contributed 43.7 percent of the total cash help received by local organization. The irrigation receives 19.2 percent. The cooperatives are in the third position in receiving cash help, which get 17.6 percent of the total organization. Most of the amount received by cooperatives is in the form of seed grant, which the cooperatives use as a revolving fund for micro credit. The INGOs are in top in helping cooperative to establish revolving fund. The vegetable groups are not getting any cash support from external sources.
The comparison between local and external contribution shows that NGLOs have mobilized more local resources than the external resources. The internal contribution is very high in CFUG whereas the external contribution seems high in WCG followed by IWUG and COPs. Because to launch both drinking water and irrigation water supply needs relatively high amount of money and usually it becomes impossible to make it success only by internal sources (Figure 7.1).
Figure 7.1: Comparison between Internal and External Contribution
7.3 Need Identification
159 The organizations to be successful need to fulfill people's felt needs and opportunities at the time of plan formulation. Without involving all members in decision making, actual need of the members cannot be identified. Proper and pragmatic planning and participatory decision making is strongly required to all organization to be successful.
The extremely dysfunctional consequences of elite articulation of needs of the people, it is necessary to evolve a mechanism through which the masses are enabled to have a vital say in determining their needs. It should be taken as granted that the masses are quite aware of their own conditions of living. They should have definite views about what are their needs and what preference, scale influence the satisfaction of those needs. It is most likely that most preferred needs of the people may be ignored or needs not felt to be essential components of their lifestyles, if the needs are to be defined by those at the top. It is therefore necessary that the needs of the people must be ascertained in such a way that the identified needs have a crucial relationship with people's lifestyle and their condition. At the same time, it is also necessary that the people themselves must have a decisive voice in the articulation and identification of their needs (Mishra, Sharma & Sharma, 1984).
Hence, local organizations should be capable of identifying their own needs from the discussion of their members together with community. Such needs identified by particular local organization is considered as viable and related to the actual need of the community. In doing so, all the members participation should be an integral part of the need identification.
Table 7.6 Involvement of Groups in Need Identification
(N = 170)
Group/ Management Local Percent Organization GO NGO Members committee community Total
CPG 0 0 11 0 2 13 4.5
CFUG 1 2 72 21 47 143 49.0
COPs 0 0 13 0 0 13 4.5
GPG 0 6 28 0 20 54 18.5
IWUG 0 0 3 0 0 3 1.0
VPG 0 1 1 0 2 4 1.4
WCDG 0 0 7 0 7 14 4.8
WCG 0 0 29 0 19 48 16.4
160 Total 1 9 164 21 97 292 100.0 Percent 0.3 3.1 56.2 7.2 33.2 100.0
Source: Field Survey, 2005
The column information indicates the role of organization in need identification whereas the information contained in the rows shows the relative importance of groups. Table 7.6 reveals that most of the local needs are identified by members of the organization followed by local community. In community forest groups, management committee and government organizations also influence in the decision of the local need.
The process of need Table 7.7 Processes of Need Identification identification varies from one Process NGLO Percent NGLO to another. The result Visiting village 2 1.2 is that village gathering is the Village Gathering 152 89.4 most popular and effective Visiting village + Gathering 9 5.3 method for need identification. It occupies 89 Visiting village+Gathering+Media 1 0.6 percent of the total. Visiting Gathering + Media 6 3.5 village and media is the least Total 170 100.0 liked by the organization Source: Field Survey, 20005 (Table 7.7). It can be said that it includes longer process.
7.4 Program Formulation
Program formulation is one of the important activities of the local organizations. The identified need should be included in the program. At the time of program formulation, leaderships of the organization should consider the need of local people as well as their line agencies. Though the process of program formulation varies between local organizations, most of the organizations concerned with their member and NGOs while formulating the program. In addition, there is wide variation between the community forest groups while formulating program. Many of them are concerned with government line agencies, their members and executive committee where others are concerned with the NGO. Some even formulate programs from
161 executive members without concerning with the members of the particular organizations and external agencies. Most of the NGLOs (79 out of 170) formulate their programs consulting their members. Most of the COPs, GPG, IWUG, VPG, WCDG and WCG consult their members at the time of program formulation while CPG consult both NGO and members simultaneously at the time of program formulation and most of the CFUG consult GLAs particularly DFO and members at the time of program formulation (Table 7.8).
162 Table 7.8 Process of Program Formulation of NGLOs
Processes CPG CFUG COPs GPG IWUG VPG WCDG WCG Total GLAs and Executive Committee 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 GLAs and Members 0 26 0 0 0 0 0 0 26 GLAs, Members and Executive committee 0 21 0 0 0 0 0 0 21 GLAs, NGOs and Members 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 GLAs, NGOs, Members and Executive 0 12 0 0 0 1 0 0 13 INGO and Member 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 NGO + Member and Executive committee 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 NGO + Members 12 0 0 8 0 1 0 0 21 Members 0 7 12 20 3 2 7 28 79 Member and Executive committee 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 2 Executive Committee 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 All 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 Total 13 73 13 28 3 4 7 29 170
Source: Field Survey, 2005
7.5 Information Sharing
Effective communication is essential in any organization that communicates organization's activities, tend to be more successful. Usually, it is the task of leaderships to ensure successful communication and conduct various activities by synthesizing the information. In NGLOs, information sharing does not mean ‘one-way communication’. It means rather a two-way communication method where different information of their members can be appropriately combined with leadership’s information. However, the member's assembly is an important decision-making forum where the direction of an organization is decided with the help of available information.
163 Almost all the sample organizations share their information with the members though Table 7.9: Process of Sharing of Program Information the method of information sharing differs N = 170 from one to another. Gathering is the most effective method of sharing of program Process Response Percent information. It is evident by 87.1 percent of Motivator 6 3.5 the total organization. Motivators are found Leadership 35 20.6 not so effective in sharing program information (Table 7.9). The supplement Correspondence 33 19.4 information obtained from KIS is that the Gathering 148 87.1 local people know about the activities of Other 3 1.8 NGLOs mainly by four sources. They are Source: Field Survey, 2005 group meetings, local development Other: Media, information board and local activities, participating in program newspaper formulation and participating in program implementation.
However, some people expressed that they are not getting information about the programs and organizations in their community. One Black smith of Rupse expressed:
“I don’t know anything about local groups. Nobody comes here and tells us about these groups. They (rich men) think us illiterate and backward and try to suppress us. We cannot raise our voice against them because our daily livelihood is more or less dependent on them”.
7.6 Employment Generation
Organizations also act as employment source. However it depends on the size and nature of activities of the organization. The NGLOs perform the task of employment generation mainly by two ways. First, it creates jobs inside the organization for their members. Second, it provides various trainings, awareness and necessary resources to make them able to create self-employment.
Table 7.10 Nature of Employment Number of Average Group Employment Salary CFUG 9 1888 COPs 26 1560 WCG 22 411
164 The field survey shows that out of 170, No employment 113 - 57 NGLOs have provided employment Total 170 - to the local people. Only three NGLOs Source: Field Survey, 2005 (CFUG, Cops and WCG) out of eight NGLOs have been providing jobs with salary. Forest watchman, (Banpale) in CFUG, cash collector in cooperatives and water distributer in WCG are the major employment opportunities in NGLOs. The salary of employee differs by nature of job and financial resource of the NGLOs. The average salary of employee is Rs. 1058, which also differ between the groups such as Rs. 1888 in CFUG, Rs. 1560 in COPs and Rs. 411 in WCG (Table 7.10).
Local organizations are also found to be involved in providing self-employment generation through skill upgrading especially in order to support their livings by means of providing different schemes like micro credit, awareness programmes and various trainings, etc.
The local people with traditional livelihood strategies are adversely affected by the NGLOs. A blacksmith of Humin 5, who is also the member of community forest user group pointed out about the impact of community forest on their livelihood as.:
“Community forest user groups restrict us (blacksmith) to use species of trees necessary for making the charcoal necessary to pursue their profession. Yes, it is ok it may restrict all group members from collecting fuel wood at specific times of the year but the rules are not very harsh to them as they are not dependent on particular tree species for their livelihood”.
Contrary to that, one of the member of the Sarki caste (another Dalit caste) of Chhahara VDC indicates that he is highly satisfied with the access to resources allowed them as member of their local CFUG:
“We regularly attend the meetings and assemblies related to forest management. We send another member of the family when seniors are busy. In assembly, issues are discussed like how to protect forest, how and when to distribute the forest products, how to check illegal theft of the forest product and how to punish those who violate rules of CFUG. We get some firewood and grasses in specific time. We can get permission quickly if we need some wood to make kuto, kodalo, and halo for agricultural purposes”.
165 7.7 Encouraging Participation
Local organizations are found to have involved local people in them. This is very essential not only to establish organization but also to involve and make aware the local people themselves in local development.
Participation in all its aspects including participation in benefits as well as in decision making, implementation and evaluation, is perhaps the most central feature of successful rural development (Cohen and Uphoff 1980 as cited in Uphoff, Esman & Krishna, 1998, p. 76 ). Although there are different ways in which rural people can participate in their own development, the process best begins with decision making, which is the essence of empowerment.
Participation includes the people’s involvement in the entire decision making process. It is possible only through the people's own organization and through self- organized action. It is universally accepted and advocated that without community involvement and participation, development initiatives, either in the economic or social sector, have little chance of success, especially at the grass-root level where the majority of the population resides (Asian Productivity Organization [APO], 1994).
Participation can ensure effective utilization of available resources. If the local resources both human and Physical are utilized on the basis of decisions taken by the people themselves, many problems faced by people can have local solutions at their levels. With active involvement of the local people, it is possible to break the mentality of dependence and also to increase their awareness, self- confidence and knowledge of the development process. Indeed, the involvement in decision- making, implementation and monitoring through grass-root organization helps in developing local human resources.
7.7.1 Status of Participation
Local development cannot be successful without people's participation. Mutual understanding, cooperation and help are necessary to become local development successful. From people's participation local resources such as cash, kind, knowledge, skill, etc. can be utilized efficiently. The respondents of the NGLOs were asked what they feel about the status of people's participation in development activities in recent past. In
166 response to this inquiry, it is found that participation of local people in the organization has increasing trend. Now it is about three-fourths (74.7 percent). Only about 12.9 percent of the respondents pointed out that the participation had decreased than before and 9.5 percent respondent viewed that it had remained the same as before, while remaining 2.9 percent do not have any idea about the inquiry (Table 7.11). The information obtained from FGDs regarding areas of participation is that drinking water, road/trail construction, irrigation/kulo construction, forest management, education, social development such as club building construction and so on. Likewise the supplement information obtained from KIS regarding the differences in people's participation before and after the formation of NGLOs is that people's participation was limited only in implementation stage in the past whereas recently they are involved in every stage of participation i.e. program formulation, implementation, benefit sharing, monitoring and evaluation.
Table 7.11: Status of Participation
Group Increased Decreased Constant Don’t Know Total CPG 10 2 1 0 13 CFUG 52 8 10 3 73 COPs 11 1 0 1 13 GPG 17 5 6 0 28 IWUG 3 0 0 0 3 VPG 3 0 1 0 4 WCDG 7 0 0 0 7 WCG 24 0 4 1 29 Total 127 16 22 5 170 Percent 74.7 9.5 12.9 2.9 100.0
Source: Field Survey, 2005 7.7.2 Causes of Increasing People's Participation
Table 7.12 Causes of Increased People's Participation (n=127) Causes Response Percent Increase emphasis on people's participation by 11 8.7
167 About two-thirds (65.4 percent) NGOs respondents who perceived Awareness of people increasing people’s participation in regarding their village recent years pointed out awareness development 83 65.4 of people regarding their village People's Participation in development as the main reason. program selection 21 16.5 About one-third respondents viewed All of above 42 33.1 that the reason of increasing Source: Field Survey, 2005 people’s participation by NGOs; awareness of people regarding their village development and people’s participation in program selection have collectively played role for increasing people’s participation (Table 7.12). The supplement information obtained from KIS regarding causes of increased people's participation included increased people's faith towards NGLOs, local leadership in decision making, policy framework of I/NGOs to encourage people's participation, awareness created by past unsuccessful development efforts and ownership in local development outcomes. The box 7.1 also shows peoples view about contribution of NGLOs in increasing participation in community development.
Box 7.1: Local People's Perception about Contribution of NGLOs to Increased Participation
Basu Dev Devkota is a socially recognized personality in Rampur. He is the Campus Chief of a local private college and also works as a head of management committee of local Community Radio Rampur. According to him, there are various NGLOs working in Rampur VDC like Community Forest Users Group, Water Users Group, Coffee Producers Group, Irrigation Group, Cooperatives and so on. The important contribution of these organizations is that it has enabled people particularly women through trainings and the process of group meetings to claim various development services and utilize not only the local resources pooled from group members but also the supports received from all donors or government. These NGLOs have encouraged indirectly in forming even other NGLOs successfully. Nowadays, even women have started to talk about income generation programs, which few years ago were only the domain of male members. The main contribution is the awareness among women and women entrepreneurship. All men and women have taken interest in participation to local development activities. Though beneficiaries have integrated the development programs at settlement level, there is a need for coordination with external agencies levels so that resource, efforts and participation could go together to achieve a common goal.
168 7.7.3 Causes of Decreasing People's Participation
Only 16 out of 170 NGLOs have Table 7.13 Causes of Decreasing Peoples shown that the people's Participation (n=16) participation is decreasing in recent Causes Increased Response Percent years. They claimed that the major Government support 4 25.0 cause of declining participation is NGO support 2 12.5 political conflict in development Misuse of development fund 4 25.0 activities, which is about two-thirds Political conflict in (Table 7.13). development activities 10 62.5 Source: Field Survey, 2005 7.8 Cooperation with Other Organizations
The development activities of any place cannot be accelerated in isolation. It needs joint efforts and mutual trust between institutions working in the same place. It helps to share resources and information that may acquire by various institutions at distinct level. Out of the total respondents 170, about 78.8 percent mentioned that their organization has done cooperation with other organization while remaining 21.2 percent viewed that their organization has no cooperation with other organization. To identify the level of cooperation of their own organization with other organization, it was asked to all the respondents to list and specify those organizations. From the organizational survey, it was found that most of the organizations have their best cooperation with government organization like DFO and DDC. REDA and JCBS are major NGOs that have been working together with these organization. FUG is the main user group organization that they have cooperation with them to conduct local development activities (Table 7.14). The supplement information obtained from FGD about organizations involved in local development are VDC/DDC, District Forest Office as government institution, CFUG, WCG, Women Group etc. as NGLOs, REDA, LISP, JCBS, etc, as I/NGOs.
169 Table 7.14: Cooperation of NGLOs with Other Organization (N =134)
Government Institution I/NGO User group Other
Organization Number Organization Number Organization Number Organization Number
BALBIKASH 1 CFUG 13 Women Group 1
DAO 2 FEDERATION 1 GPG 1 Cooperatives 3
DCOPs 1 GPG 1 WUG 1 Producer's group 5
DDC 13 JCBS 5 IWUG 1
DFO 39 JCBS+LISP 2
DSCO 1 NARMSAPH 1
DWSO 2 LISP 1
REDA 28
IRRI. 1 RSDC 1
IRRI/DDC 1 VEDF 1
SCO 7
Total 68 41 16 9
Percent 50.8 30.6 10.5 6.7 Source: Field Survey, 2005
Note: DAO=District Agriculture Office, DCOPs=District Cooperatives, DFO=District Forest Office, DWSO=District Water and Sanitation Office, DIO=District Irrigation Office, DSCO=District Soil and Conservation Office, JCBS=Jilla Coffee Byabasayik Sangh, LISP=Local Initiatives Support Program, REDA=Rural Economic Development Association, RSDC-Rural Support Development Centre, VEDF=Village Environment Development Fund, GPG=Ginger Producer's Group, NARMSAP= Natural Resource Management Support AREA Programm, WUG=Water User Group, IWUG=Irrigation Water User Group, and CFUG=Community Forest User Group.
7.9 Presence of Other Organizations in Local Development
Table 7.15: Organizations Involved in Local Development (N=170) Organization Frequency Percent INGO 17 10.0 NGO 125 73.5 Consumer Group 165 97.1 Mothers Group 119 70.0
170 To identify the possible institutions that Club 111 65.3 have carried out local development Producers Group 120 70.6 activities beside local government institution (VDC and DDC), an inquiry Cooperatives 76 44.7 was made with the respondents of local Source: Field Survey, 2062 organization. About 97 percent of the respondents pointed out that the consumer groups are involved in local development. About three-fourths of the interviewees pointed out to the presence of NGOs. Similarly, other respondents claimed that mother group (70.0 percent), producer’s group (70.6 percent), and club (65.3 percent) are other major organizations involved in development works beside local government institutions (Table 7.15).
7.10 Perception about the Capacity of Local Development
The organizations which are capable and incapable depend upon nature of activities, fund size, awareness, skill and education, etc.
NGLOs are generally small Table 7.16: Causes of not being Capable for organizations and therefore do not Local Development (N=49) need large number of people with Causes Response Percent adequate skill and training. Inadequate fund 44 89.8 However, some minimum Lack of experience 8 16.3 requirements of management skills, awareness and motivation Priority for other things rather to development 25 51.0 skill and funding support are Lack of technical knowledge 46 93.9 essential for being capable local Lack of managerial organization. leadership development 31 63.3 Lack of coordination with other organization 29 59.2 Source: Field Survey, 2005 There are differences in the perception about the capacity of local groups in local development. Out of the total respondents, 121 respondents of the sample organizations were found in favour of their capacity in local development while remaining 49 respondents were against this perception. Of this, overwhelming majority noticed lack of technical knowledge and inadequate fund as the main causes for it (Table 7.16).
171 7.11 Conflict Resolution
Conflict can occur between individuals or groups of people due to differences in interests between them. Conflict can be constructive and destructive. It is a kind of disagreement among members that occurs because of personal interests and lack of understanding of individual rights in conjunction with a power relationship. Usually, conflict is about power and interest either to obtain more benefit or to check the inequality. One person or group might want more power than others. Conflicts are also important elements of group processes. Group conflict has both positive and negative effects on group performance. Conflicts are common in the functioning of organization. Such conflicts have potential for adversely influencing the performance of the organization.
Conflicts in the organization stem from many sources. They are pervasive throughout the organization, and the possibilities for resolving them depend on the situation. Organizational conflict and conflict resolution strategies cannot be confined to the internal realm of the organization. It is essential that an organization first of all recognizes the nature of the conflict for what it is and then should prepare a conflict resolution strategy which is appropriate for that particular conflict. Some common kinds of organizational conflicts are: i) intrapersonal conflict frequently arising in organizations is based on misunderstandings and tensions between certain group members and the organization; ii) interpersonal conflict takes place between individuals due to differences of opinion, different orientation, power struggle, role competition, and other events that involve two or more persons; iii) organizational conflict occur due to intra and interpersonal conflicts. However, some conflicts are the direct result of organization’s actions, operational rules and procedures, and iv) inter-organizational conflict is between competing organizations experiencing conflicting self-interest (Deer, 1972). The potential sources of conflicts in our study reported by sample organization are many, of which, crucial sources are listed below.
Table 7.17: Sources of Conflict in NGLOs (N=40) Causes Response Percent Expel from the 35.0 membership 14 Unequal distribution of 42.5 income/profit 17
172 The organization survey has Selection of 40.0 revealed that only forty (23.5 trainees/trainers 16 percent) out of 170 have some types Misuse of finance 12 30.0 of conflict. However, the causes of Lack of equity in 35.0 implementation of rule 14 conflict vary from one organization Source: Field Survey, 2005 to another. Feeling of unequal distribution of income/profit is the main reason for creating conflict between members which accounts for the largest responses with almost 42.5 percent followed by debate in selection for trainees/trainer which is about 40 percent responses out of total (Table 7.17). Next to this, expelling from the membership and lack of equity in implementation of rule are other main reasons for generating conflict which account for equal 35 and 35 percent responses respectively. Some NGLOs have found difficulties at the time of enforcing their rules due to low legitimacy and feeling of partiality in implementation of rules among their members. This can be argued as the product of poor institutionalization of the NGLOs leading to poor decision-making processes and poor cohesion amongst members. In the same way, financial misuse by leaders is another source of conflict; however, it is less pervasive in sample organization. conflict over financial misuse are found only in 12 NGLOs out of 40 and often found as a result of poor decision making processes, lack of transparency and ineffective auditing processes. The information obtained from KIS are about issues of conflict between members of NGLOs in selection of program, priority identification, individual interests (differences), feeling of unequal behavior, etc.
Table 7.18: Methods of Conflict Resolution (N=52) Methods Frequency Percent Leadership 7 13.5 Appropriate rule and regulation 12 23.1 Members discussion 31 59.6
173 Conflict management is useful, Inter-groups discussion 2 3.8 because it can prevent the conflict Total 52 100 from getting worse, improves Source: Field Survey, 2005 cooperation between the group members, motivates the group and builds trust and consensus. There are many ways to resolve the variety of conflicts arising in an organization. Group members particularly the leaderships need to receive skill and knowledge on how to cope with each of the problematic areas of organizational conflict viz. the intrapersonal, the interpersonal, the organizational and the inter-organizational. There should be root causes based remedy of conflict. Developing mechanisms for managing conflict of opinions and interests and practicing strategies for its resolution are essential skills need to be developed in all groups. It is an opportunity for leaderships to establish their quality among the group members by managing various egos in a desirable way. The strength of an organization would be reflected upon by its ability to manage the conflicts. The discussion between members is the best method to conflict resolution (59.6 percent) followed by appropriate rule and regulation, which is 23.1 percent (Table 7.18).
7.12 Organizational Capacity Building
Capacity building is a process of organizational development, in which partners are empowered. They learn to realize and celebrate the full potential of their organizational expression. It is a process through which organizations become able to mobilize, pull and manage internal as well as external resources for the overall development of the organization as well as the community, they are working with. In essence, capacity building is a process which enables organizations to perform better. There are mainly four dimension of capacity building. They are to whom the capacity building work, what purposes the capacity building fulfill, how it is done and what improvement is necessary in organization for capacity building (Figure 7.2).
Figure 7.2 Dimension of Capacity Building
174 Source: Sharma, 2002 with simple modification by author
Social mobilization as a mechanism for organizational capacity building is a dynamic process by which people living in a community are organized into groups to share and discuss problems, to seek solutions by mobilizing their own and outside resources, and to become more active participants in the decision-making processes that affect their lives as individuals, households and members of the community. The objective is to create self governing/empowering community organizations and gain control over the decision- making process in community-level activities. This is achieved through ensuring ownership (or genuine participation), sharing benefits equitably, and transparency in decision- making and accountability (UNEP & ICIMOD, 2005). An attempt is made in the following to assess these through a set of indicators that reflect the various dimensions of organizational capacity building at the grassroots level, based on the information obtained from the sample survey.
Social capital formation at the local level is the basic building block for ensuring the sustainability of all other forms of capital, human, physical, financial, and natural, and better development outcomes. Social capital is an accumulation of various types of social, psychological, cultural, institutional and related asset that increase mutually beneficial cooperative behavior, a behavior that is productive for others as well as for oneself. Experience suggests that local-level institutions with high social capital are in general relatively more successful than others (UNEP & ICIMOD 2005). The core issue in this context is how to measure social capital. Keeping in view the major area of concern of the NGLOs,
175 the following major dimensions of organizational capacity building were identified for assessing the building of NGLOs capacity (UNDP, 2004):
Decision Making Process
Degree of Participation
Information, Knowledge & Transparency
Accountability
Leadership
Trust and Solidarity
176 Box 7.2 Dimensions of institutional capacity building and underlying indicators
Decision-making process: Proper understanding of how group decisions are made in the formulation of rules and regulations, programme selection, and programme implementation becomes important for the sustainability of the grassroots organization. If decisions are not made with the full participation and consensus of group members, other crucial attributes of institutional capacity building are unlikely to emerge and be sustained. The group’s decision- making process is assessed by specifying a number of criteria: consensus, persuading members to reach consensus, majority rule, and imposition by the outsiders/project.
Degree of participation: The types of indicators designed to monitor the degree of participation are influenced by organizational growth, group behaviors, and group self- reliance. In the present study, the implementation, and maintenance of the pilot projects, including their participation in making rules and regulations.
Knowledge and transparency: Transparency in project information and the decision-making process means that decisions have to be made so they are easily understood by all participants, who should be fully aware of and responsible for the outcome of their decisions. Transparency in the decision-making process is measured by assessing the group members’ degree of knowledge and information about project objectives, about group rules and regulations, about the revolving fund, and about group saving and investment.
Accountability: Related to transparency is the degree of two-way accountability of the group to its members and vice-versa. Three indicators included to capture this critical element of group empowerment include the accountability of women members for group decisions, the group’s accountability to its members, and NGO/social mobilizer's accountability to the group members.
Leadership quality: The success or failure of grassroots organizations, as long-enduring participatory institutions, depends among other things upon how honest, devoted, responsible, and efficient (skillful) the leaders are in managing group activities in a sustained way. The most effective and sustainable leadership is the one that follows the decisions and desires of the community as a whole, playing an enabling and facilitating role. Trust and solidarity: Mutual trust and cooperation among members of communities is a significant factor in explaining organizational performance. The features of social organization that enhance trust and cooperation increase community well-being by making institutions more democratic and efficient in delivering public goods and services. The degree to which members of the community trust each other has been measured by three sets of indicators, namely trust and solidarity among group members, trust/unity between group and non-group members, and levels of self confidence.
Box 7.2 shows the rationale behind these dimensions of organizational capacities (DOCs). Several qualitative indicators were used to assess the perceptive judgment of respondents
177 on DOC. The indicators were measured using a standard scoring method rated on a five- point ordinal scale between the most desirable (5 points) and least desirable (1 point) outcome. The average index for each indicator was then derived by dividing the total score by the total sample cases. The total score is simply the actual response count of an indicator multiplied by its respective predefined value (1 to 5). Composite indices for different dimensions are then derived by taking the average of the respective individual indices. Likewise, the overall index of institutional capacity building was computed by taking the simple average of the composite index of each dimension. Such an aggregated composite index of each organization can be further classified into five major groups indicating the state of the organization using the following rating scale (UNDP, 2004):
State of NGLOs Score
Self-sustaining 4.5 and above
Well-functioning 3.51 to 4.5
Satisfactory 2.51 to 3.5 Fair but unstable 1.51 to 2.5
Not functioning below 1.5
The relative positions of different dimensions of organizational capacity building and underlying indicators are shown in Appendix XIII and summarized in figure 7.3. The overall index of organizational capacity building ranged from 4.21 in CFUG to 3.21 in WCDG (maximum value 5). Taking all groups together, the average score for organizational capacity building was 3.76. In CPG, the average DOC score lay between 4.65 (decision making) and 3.40 (information, knowledge and transparency), while in CFUG it ranged from 4.72 (decision making) to as high as 3.44 (information, knowledge and transparency). In COPs the average score ranged from 4.40 (decision making) to 2.92 (information, knowledge and transparency). In GPG the average score ranged from 4.56 (decision making) to 3.24 (information, knowledge and transparency), while in IWUG it ranged between 4.19 (decision making) to 2.93 (information, knowledge and transparency). In VPG the average score ranged from 4.06 (trust and solidarity) to 2.9 (information, knowledge and transparency), while in WCDG it ranged from 4.10 (trust and solidarity) to 2.43 (information, knowledge and transparency). Likewise, in WCG the average score ranged from 3.69 (leadership) to 2.85 (information, knowledge and transparency). It is evident that the average score for decision
178 making was rated as quite high by group members for five among the eight NGLOs while information, knowledge and transparency was rated quite low for all (Appendix, XIII).
In aggregate, the relative position of organizational capacity building CFUG was found to be slightly stronger than that of other NGLOs. Overall, the average score for the decision making and trust and solidarity among group members was rated as quite high (4.02 and 4.01 respectively out of a maximum 5).
Figure 7.3 Overall Status of NGLOs
179 7.13 Management
NGLOs perform some managerial task also. The management skill of the organization determines its success and failure. If the management is quick, foresighted and honest and guided according to the philosophy of organization, it may be able to face many problems coming from internal and external areas.
7.13.1 Monitoring
Monitoring systems serves a dual function: the provision of basic data necessary to establish progress control during implementation and, more importantly, the collection of detailed information on benefits and outputs required for assessing long- term impact. The objective of monitoring is to support the establishment of program benefit in one hand and monitoring systems on the other that would be in the long-run help assess program's impact and benefits and provide valuable data for improving the future design of projects (Narayanasuwami, 1991).
The respondents, who had claimed that there Table 7.19: Mechanism of Monitoring were several mechanisms while undergoing the (N170) monitoring of the implemented program, were Mechanism Response asked to point out major five mechanisms which Group members 167 they had usually applied during the monitoring of Monitoring committee 31 program. Although the respondents raised various mechanisms, the greater frequencies and GLAs 142 relevant mechanism were grouped under the Helper NGOs 41 four headings. Out of 170 NGLOs, 167 have Source: Field Survey, 2005 responded that members of the group monitor implemented program of the organizations (Table 7.19).
7.13.2 Evaluation
The importance of evaluation, more, particularly performance evaluation as a management tool has received recognition and wider acceptance recently. Though monitoring and evaluation functions are related, there are distinct differences in their application to management of development programs. While monitoring is an internal project activity and 180 an essential part of good management practice, evaluation assesses the overall project effects and their impact and draws on data generated by monitoring systems to explain the trends in effects and impact (Casley and Lury, 1982 as cited in Narayanasuwami, 1991 : 149). The evaluation process identifies broader policy issues and lessons for the future and helps governments and aid agencies to learn from lessons of experience and redirect their focus and initiatives on those programs and projects that have greater developmental impact and sustainability.
The respondents, who had claimed that there were several techniques while undertaking the program evaluation, were asked to point out major five techniques which they had usually applied during the evaluation of implemented program. Although the respondents raised various techniques, the greater frequencies and relevant issues were grouped under the five headings. They were:
Need assessment: determines who needs the program, how great the need is, and what might work to meet the need.
Evaluation of program implementation strategy: determines whether an evaluation strategy is feasible and how stakeholders can help shape its usefulness.
Process evaluation: investigates the process of delivering the program.
Outcome evaluation: investigates whether the program caused demonstrable effect on specifically defined target outcomes.
Impact evaluation: assesses the overall net effects- intended or unintended of the program as a whole.
All the local organizations in Palpa Table 7.20: Evaluation Technique district evaluate their program in one (N=170) way or other. They evaluate their Need assessment 167 program by assessing the need of the Program implementation strategy 167 community, whether they have Process evaluation 107 fulfilled the need of local community Outcome evaluation 167 or not. They also evaluate the Impact evaluation 165 program implementation strategy, Source: Field Survey, 2005
181 process of program implementation and by measuring the outcome and impact of the program executed. Out of 170 NGLOs, 167 have used three techniques i.e. need assessment, programme implementation strategy and outcome evaluation at the time of program evaluation (Table 7.20).
7.14 Organizational Asset
Each organization has some assets to function smoothly. Though it seems comparatively less important than the financial resources of organization but its impact in achieving efficiency cannot be underestimated. Here, the organization assets are discussed in terms of office building and office facilities.
Table 7.21: Status of Office Building
Status Number o f NGLO Percent
Own Building 17 10.0
Rented 58 34.1
Member's House 85 50.0
Public Building 5 2.9
No fixed Office 5 2.9
Total 170 100.0
Source: Field Survey, 2005
From the organizational survey, it is found that 50 percent of the total sample organizations (170) have been running their activities maintaining their offices in member’s house while more than one-third (34.1 percent) organizations have kept their office in rented house. Likewise, 10 percent of the total has their own office building while 2.9 percent of the total organizations have been kept their office in public building such as VDC offices. Remaining 2.9 percent do not have any kind of fixed offices (Table 7.21). The organizations which have been functioning different activities and are resourceful have found either their own office building or kept it in rented house. Likewise, those organizations which do not have any fixed office are found either inactive or resource scarce or newly born.
182 Table 7.22: Office Facility
Group Stationary Furniture Others
CPG 10 4 0
CFUG 57 40 0
COPs 8 5 3
GPG 6 22 0
IWUG 3 0 0
VPG 3 1 0
WCDG 7 0 0
WCG 27 1 0
Total 121 73 3
Source: Field Survey, 2005
Other: Computer/Fax and Telephone
Most of the NGLOs have no modern office equipments. It is natural because most of them are located beyond the access of these facilities. This statement is justified by having computer/fax and telephone facilities in only one cooperative located at Tansen- the headquarters of Palpa district. Most of the sample organizations have only stationary facilities, such as files, papers and minute books followed by a few numbers of furniture (Table 7.22).
183 CHAPTER VIII
PROBLEMS AND PROSPECTS OF NON GOVERNMENT LOCAL ORGANIZATIONS
NGLOs have been facing different problems in planning, executing and managing different local development activities. In order to have a better understanding of the problems and prospects of NGLOs in Palpa district, this chapter deals with problems in program selection, problems in program implementation and SWOT analysis of NGLOs.
8.1 Problem in Program Selection
Program selection is one of the most important tasks of local organization. It is necessary to select an efficient and people oriented program based on local needs and resources to achieve positive outcomes from the program. The efficient selection of program leads an organization to its success. The objectives of NGLOs cannot be achieved without selecting appropriate program. The respondents, who had claimed that there were problems while undergoing the plan formulation and selection, were asked to point out major five problems which they had usually faced during the formulation of project plan. Although the respondents raised various problems, the greater frequencies and relevant issues are grouped under the five headings. They are presented in the Table 8.1.
Table 8.1: Problems in Program Selection (N=170)
Problems Frequency Weight* Low technical knowledge 167 0.59 Inadequate resources 167 0.59 Differences in need 167 0.59 Problems in need identification 139 0.71 Low information about helper organization 52 1.92
Source: Field survey, 2005 *weight is obtained as (1/Fi)*100, where Fi= Total frequency of the given problem
184 Table 8.1 shows that lack of technical knowledge, lack of required resources and differences in need among the members are the major problems while selecting programs. In this study, the least weight values of lack of technical knowledge, lack of required resources and differences in need (0.59) signify that relative importance of these problems in NGLOs in program selection. Lack of technical skill is often found due to low level of education and inexperience in formal planning. Unlimited needs of the villagers cannot be addressed by limited resources. Though, the members of NGLOs understand their urgent needs but cannot include in program selection due to resource constraint. Likewise, the differences in need and interests of member vary with one another, which sometime create contradiction in program selection. The resources of the organization are limited while the needs of the community are many. In this context, the prioritization of the urgent need of the community is important to benefit more local people from constraint resources. But, the prioritization of the need is always difficult as people want to see their own problem to be placed in the most priority order. Many NGLOs are facing this problem while selecting the program. NGLOs often work in small area. It is built primarily pooling member's resources but the resources available at local level cannot meet the needs of local people. At the time of program selection, it should be addressed, and for this they require knowledge about helper organization to collect necessary resources. But, lack of information about the external world, they cannot reach to the helper organization.
8.2 Problems in Program Implementation
Planning can be very effectively outlined on paper but if the implementation is done improperly the result will be disastrous. The important aspects of project implementation related to the NGLOs are construction and maintenance. Project implementation is a challenging job and very weak in Nepal. The scenario is not much different in the study area. If an action is not properly taken in operation, the goals and the objectives of a plan cannot be achieved. It is certain that there arise several problems in implementation of development program. Therefore, during the field survey the member of NGLOs were asked whether there had been problems while implementing the development projects or not.
The respondents, who had claimed that there were problems while undergoing the program implementation, were asked to point out major five problems which they had usually faced
185 during the implementation of program. Although the respondents raised various problems, the greater frequencies and relevant issues were grouped under the eleven categories.
Table 8.2: Problems in Program Implementation (N=170)
Problems Response Low awareness among members 67 Low participation in meetings 35 No right for price determination to user groups for their products 50 Financial problem 166 Unequal distribution of benefit 137 Focus on benefit instead of duty 30 Large number of membership households 65 High migration 30 Feeling of caste/ethnic discrimination 102 Unhealthy competition for program between the groups 16 Free ridership 137
Source: Field Survey, 2005
Most of the respondents of organization have expressed that they face financial problem after selecting the program (166 responses out of 170). Some of them have expressed their grievances that they withdrew those program before implementation or could not complete the implementation of the program due to lack of financial resources. Similarly, unequal benefit distribution (137 responses out of 170) is another important problem while implementing. The higher strata of the community are always ahead of taking benefits of the program. Free ridership is another problem of program implementation particularly in those development activities where exclusion is impossible (Table 8.2).
8.3 Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats (SWOT) Analysis of Non-Government Local Organizations Some NGLOs in the study area had evolved spontaneously while some others were promoted by GLAs, Aid agencies and NGOs during different periods for
186 implementation and management of local development and resource conservation activities. During the decade of 1960s and 1970s, most of the development projects supported by international aid agencies were either implemented by GOs or by private contractors. There was no one to take responsibility to carry on or manage project activities after the withdrawal of the external support. As a result, most of the projects collapsed after few years without any significant impact on local communities. To overcome this problem, now there is an increasing emphasis on planning and implementation of developmental activities through NGLOs, which can efficiently mobilize local people and resource. The information for SWOT analysis of NGLOs was obtained for present study by Focus Group Discussion (FGDs) as well as Key informant Survey (KIS).
8.3.1 Strengths
The members of NGLOs have strong unity and motivation for self-governance. A few of them, specifically community forest user groups and irrigation water user groups, have continued functioning for a long time with modifications and adjustments. They are functioning according to formal and informal rules made by concerned members, who have mutual understanding with each other as all of them get mutual benefit from the cooperation. Mostly decisions are made by consensus, and benefits gained are distributed equally among the members. The group members trust their leaders for financial management, and internal disputes are resolved either through mediation by their leaders or by group efforts. The participation of women is encouraged in all NGLOs (Table 8.3).
8.3.2 Weaknesses
Large number of NGLOs are formed and mobilized by line agencies and NGOs for implementation of their programs. Some saving and credit groups have collected huge amount of money. However, they have not been able to make productive use of their capital due to lack of entrepreneurial skills. Neither the groups nor the supporting agencies have been able to prepare viable investment plans that would generate income for group members. Local influential males from all caste and ethnic groups are the leaders of many NGLOs, and the wives of those leaders have taken leadership in most of the NGLOs formed by women. The line agencies and NGOs prefer working with relatively rich and influential local people, as they have close relationship with them and find it easier to implement
187 programs through such people. This has limited the role of the poor in NGLOs. Usually the leaders identify priority needs of the village and implement developmental activities according to their vested interest. In majority of instances, the organizations are dominated by males mostly in heterogeneous organization, and women have little role in decision- making. In some villages, the low-caste people have not been allowed to join the groups particularly in water user groups and saving credit cooperatives. This has lead to conflict between member and non-member households.
The majority of organization members are not trained on leadership and planning procedure. Though most of the NGLOs have record keeping system but it is not scientific and has no formal audit partly due to lack of training (Table 8.3)
8.3.3 Opportunities
All line agencies; NGOs and donor agencies have considered NGLOs essential for effective management of rural development activities at the local level. The Forest Act 1993 and Forest Regulations 1995 have recognized community forest user groups as autonomous and corporate institutions with right to acquire, sell and transfer forest products to generate income. Likewise, Local Self-Governance Act, 1998 has recognized local user groups as a development partner at the local level. Since then VDC, DDC and Municipality have initiated to conduct local development activities through user groups making them involved in all stages of planning processes. A national Federation of Community Forest Users, Nepal (FECOFUN), National Federation of Irrigation Water Users Association of Nepal (NFIWUAN), National Federation of Saving and Credit Cooperative Union, Ltd. (NEFSCUN), etc. were established as association of groups seeking voice in district and national policy and planning arenas.
Table 8.3: SWOT Analysis of NGLOs
Strength Weakness Opportunity Threat
Strong unity Majority of them are Growing relationship Migration of young among members formed and mobilized with line agencies, people to towns and motivation according to the NGOs, INGOs and Aid and cities for self interest of line agencies governance agencies and NGOs High dependency Recognized as local on external support Change in Conflict between partner by different
188 leadership based members and non- Government Acts Interest of different on consensus members over benefit political parties to Federations of local sharing capture the Cooperative NGLOs have got leadership members Decision Absence of long term recognition from both making based on vision government and non- Pressure of external consensus of the government sector as agencies to Dominance of local member associations for implement their elite in decision pooling resource by projects at the time Negotiation to making raising voice at district of approval for settle internal and national level funding disputes among Involvement of same members influential person in Direct contact with aid leadership in different agencies for funding Fair benefit groups sharing among Line agencies, NGOs, the members Financial problem INGOs and donors are interested in their Lack of trained Mobilize local and capacity strengthening external resources manpower
Group expertise Limited contact of group member with Programme and support agencies budget is approved in Free-ridership consensus of all members
Group accountability
Increasing number of meetings
All line agencies, NGOs, INGOs and aid agencies are pursuing efforts to strengthen local groups lying outside the government not only implement and maintenance their projects successfully but also to make them sustainable after their retreat (Table 8.3).
8.3.4 Threats
Most Nepalese organizations are politicized. NGLOs are not an exception. There are conflicts and rivalry between group members stemming mainly from political polarization. This has been the most serious threat to keep on the groups working. There is a risk of power influence within the group. Group members aliened with ruling political party attempts to dominate other members due to their power relation with local political leaders. Generally
189 user groups are formed based on geographical proximity and traditional affiliation with local resources. There is tendency of out-migration particularly among youths in search of employment and better income as they are less and less interested in agriculture, which has threatened the sustainability of the NGLOs. The privatization policy of the government has curtailed subsidies gradually for chemical fertilizers and other support services. As a result, the relationship between user groups and line agencies has weakened, eventually making it difficult to promote productive activities (Table 8.3).
8.3.5 SWOT Summary
NGLOs, formed spontaneously or promoted by line agencies and NGOs, are potentially most important catalyst facilitating local development activities. However, their weak managerial and technical capabilities have impaired their effective action which needs immediate attention. They need technical and financial backstopping to enhance their institutional capability for sustaining the handed over programmes after completion of projects. Line agencies and NGOs, which had formed the user groups, should also take responsibility to strengthen their managerial and technical capabilities.
Taking advantage of the liberal government policy GOs and NGOs have been promoting NGLOs to implement their projects through these groups. This has led to rapid growth of NGLOs in Nepal. The study region is not an exception, where there are more than 900 NGLOs (Table 8.3). Such proliferation of NGLOs has created more problems rather than solving the existing ones. Duplication of activities, inadequacy and misuse of fund, conflict between NGLOs, and confusion among local people are the major problems. To address these problems and eventually to enable user groups to function as sustainable developmental organization, there must be control on mushroom like formation of NGLOs without adequate care. Provision of strict rules and regulations has to be made to prevent creation of new NGLOs if the existing ones are in a position to pursue the intended activities. In case the existing groups are not capable, their technical and managerial capabilities need to be improved through the provision of appropriate trainings.
190 CHAPTER IX
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
9.1 Summary
Rural development experience in Nepal has been indicated that there is a large reservoir of local resources across the country that can be mobilized through local initiatives. The present work has emphasized on the understanding of how the local people of hill region are organized themselves into NGLOs and are conducting rural development activities on their own efforts for their better livings. Therefore, the aim of this study is to explore the organizational features of NGLOs with a focus on origin, membership size and composition, decision making, rules, organization building processes, etc. It has also attempted to assess the contribution of NGLOs to local development with an emphasis on resource mobilization, capacity building, participation, information sharing, capital formation, conflict management tasks. Particular attention has been paid to evaluate capacity building indicators relevant to the NGLOs.
Palpa district has been chosen as the study area. It covers an area of 1463.74 sq. km. with a total population of 268558 in 49942 households. The area has an elevation ranging from 152 to 1936 meters with gentle to high slopes characterized mostly by moderate quality of soil. The area is characterized not only by diverse terrain but also by diverse communities such as the Magar, Brahmin/Chetri, Dalits, Newar and Kumal.
The research is basically guided by several theories and approaches and accomplished by using quantitative as well as qualitative methods and techniques. Organizational survey using semi-structured questionnaire, focus group discussion, key informant survey, case studies and observation are the methods employed to generate primary data for the study. Various maps have been used to conduct resource analysis of the study region. Simultaneously, different diagrams have been used in analysis of the organizational features and its contribution to rural development. SWOT analysis of NGLOs has also been conducted.
The following is the summary prepared on the basis of the findings of the work: 191 9.1.1 Development Pattern of Local Organizations
Local organization is not new phenomenon in Nepal. It has long history of running traditional community based organization, mostly in informal basis. Different community based informal traditional organizations such as Parma, Guthi, Dhikure, were functioning as a voluntary and democratic groupings of human beings based on social trust and cooperation aiming to achieve equality (of control and opportunity) and equity (of distribution) and mutually for the promotion of their common interests. It directly serves its member’s interests and needs but does not earn profit for itself at their cost. These traditional community based organization has also been surviving with the cooperation among its member in the study area.
During Panchayat and before it, the people do not have sufficient right to organize themselves freely and the people hesitate to form such organizations formally to work in a collective manner. After the restoration of democracy in 1990, the formal Non-Government Local Organizations (NGLOs) started to emerge in the mainstream of national activities. The favourable political environment and the need of the nation have encouraged NGLOs to participate in development activities. Therefore, interest based community organizations have sprung up as never before. The easy access to the registration system to the community groups in the district level has also contributed to increase the number of NGLOs.
The NGLOs are distributed in all the VDC/Municipality of the Palpa district. However, most of the NGLOs are concentrated near the road. More than 40 percent NGLOs and 33 percent settlements are located within the distance of 0-2 km from the road. The opportunity to access services and facility from the government line agencies as well as non-government organizations has encouraged local organizations to concentrate relatively in more accessible areas. Another factor for NGLOs concentration is resource. Therefore, most of the NGLOs are found concentrated in resourceful valley areas.
9.1.2 Features of Non Government Local Organizations in Palpa District
Out of total 170 NGLOs, there were only nine NGLOs up to 1990 in Palpa district. The number of NGLOs is found increased by about 11 times within a span of 10 years.
192 There is no any hard and fast rule to register the local organization. It depends on their task and need. Most of the local organizations of Palpa district are registered with Government Line Agencies and then in NGOs. The largest number of the NGLOs with almost two-thirds have affiliated to/registered at the district level Government Line Agencies such as agricuture, forestry, watershed, etc. followed by their own type of NGOs (about 24 percent). Next to these, Cooperatives (7.6 percent) and CDO office (4.1 percent) are other places where the NGLOs are registered. Most of the NGLOs (40.6 percent) are found registered at the time of establishment followed by (30.6 percent) establishment within a year. The tendency of registering in government line agencies and NGOs is to get resources from the government as well as NGOs. However, to get the formal legal status, the local organizations must be registered in District Administration Office (DAO).
Most of the NGLOs (87 percent) in Palpa district have set multiple objectives while forming local organizations. However, some of the NGLOs (13 percent) have single objective. The local organizations with single objective are more rigid and may not address diverse need of the community. The objectives of local organization vary according to the nature of organization. However, most of the local organizations are concentrated in conservation and management of forest.
The membership size of the organization indicates its strength and representation. However, the plan and policy of those organizations should address the diverse need among the members and mobilize the local resources properly. The lowest membership size (below 50 members) is found in Vegetable and Coffee Producers Group and the largest size (up to 250 and above members) is found in Cooperatives and Community Forest User Group and Irrigation. The lower membership sizes in those organizations are due to the criteria of producing respective product to be a member of the organization.
Consumer, producer, cooperatives and watershed community development are the major groups. Most of the organizations (105 out of 170) are consumer groups. Producer group, cooperatives and watershed community development groups can be placed in second, third and fourth (45, 13 and 7 respectively out of 170) ranking in terms of numbers of organization they comprise.
As majority of the population of the district are from Janajati, it consists of about half (47.8 percent) of the total members of the NGLOs. Another half percent of the members are from
193 so called upper caste i.e. Jati and Dalits (44.2 and 7.9 percent respectively). Overwhelming majority (68.6 percent) of the members are male and about one third (31.4 percent) are female.
Some of the NGLOs do not provide open access to be a member in their organization. This situation occurs because of various reasons. Some people do not like to be organized while others have to fulfill certain criteria fixed by the respective organizations. For example, in Producer Group such as Ginger Producer Group and Coffee Producer Groups have the mandatory rule to produce related crops by those households who want to be organized in such groups.
Almost all the NGLOs have set rules either formally or informally. The rules of the organization define membership requirements, responsibilities and benefits, accountability, level of punishment according to nature of violations of rules and methods of conflict management. This may be done formally, with written texts, fees, fines, or informally through practices. In the study region, overwhelming majority (167 out of 170) of NGLOs is found having written rules. Of this, 152 organizations reported that all their members follow organization’s rules while remaining 15 organizations reported that their members violate their rules sometimes. The type of punishment for those who violates rules depends on the nature of violation including fines in cash and expulsion from the organization.
Each organization fixes certain criteria to enter in organization, such as, should be resident of the village, should not be member of other similar organization, should be involved in the same field, and all mentioned above. Of these criteria more than one-third of the organizations have reported to have fulfilled three criteria to be a member in NGLOs while about one-third have reported to have fulfilled two criteria to be a member. Likewise, there are very few organizations which have fixed one criteria to be a member. It can be said that the organizations which have determined one criterion to be a member are more flexible in their nature. The increased number of criteria for achieving membership of organization shows the rigidity in their nature.
The membership once taken can be cancelled due to various reasons, such as, due to work against organization, due to not involvement in implementation of decision, due to absence in general meeting and due to migration from the village. More than one-third (38.8)
194 organizations have fixed four criteria as the causes of cancellation of membership whereas others have fixed single to three criteria for cancellation of membership.
The entry fee of NGLOs ranges from Rs. 5 to Rs. 500. Most of the NGLOs (23.5 percent) have entry fee only Rs. 10 followed by Rs. 25 (14.7 percent). out of 170, 88 organizations have entry fee below Rs. 50. There are only three NGLOs that have entry fee that ranges from Rs. 2500 to Rs. 5000. They are Jyagdi Community Forest, Rampur, Arsaudi Water Consumer Group, Palung Mainadi and Rampur Water Consumer Group, Rampur. Out of the total NGLOs (170), 29 NGLOs did not have any entry fee.
Establishment of linkages between horizontal and vertical organizations is an important component of organizational activities. Linkages enable groups to draw upon resources from various sources and also signify organizational legitimacy. One of the main structural aspects of local organizations is to focus attention on linkages between lower and higher levels. The NGLOs of the study area have their linkage with different base level organizations (horizontal linkage) such as, government line agencies, NGOs, cooperatives, VDC, DDC, etc and with regional and national level government line agencies, federations of cooperatives and NGLOs, regional level I/NGOs as vertical linkage. The sampled NGLOs have good horizontal linkage (159 out of 170) with base level organizations while poor vertical linkage with higher tiers.
The initiative to form the NGLOs are taken either internally or externally, and sometimes both. One-third of the total NGLOs have been formed by the initiatives of community members. The share of the NGLOs that have requested to form organization to the GLAs and NGOs is 23.7 and 19.7 percent respectively.
Overwhelming majority (163 out of 170) of NGLOs has written vision/mission while other remaining has not documented their vision/mission in written form. Of this, 161 NGLOs have kept vision/mission in the form of minute while only two NGLOs of community forest groups have published it in broacher/leaflet.
Meeting of the NGLOs is the formal forum of decision-making. The formal forum which requires the participations of members in decision-making activities is the assembly of users. These organizations hold meetings to discuss issues, identify priorities, develop action plans and strategies, and debate a range of resource management issues. An additional meeting is
195 called if there is a specific problem to be addressed. About two-third of the local organizations holds their general meeting once a year. It depends on their need and activities. Few organizations conduct their meetings twice a year.
9.1.3 Contribution of Non-Government Local Organizations to Rural Development
Capital formation is one of the major achievements of NGLOs in rural community. Physical, social, human as well as financial capitals are the major types of capital formed by different NGLOs in the study area. The NGLOs have contributed to build physical capital largely compared to other capitals. Out of the total frequencies (215), the physical capital alone constitutes 136, which is very high. The NGLOs have contributed to build physical capital mostly in areas of afforestation, management of drinking water, road construction and toilet construction. Forest User groups, FINIDA, DDC, VDCs, District Forest Office, etc. are the major helper organizations that they provide financial and material support to NGLOs to create physical capital.
Out of the total frequencies 215, the social capital formation by NGLOs constitutes only 4. Though the frequency of social capital seems very low, the importance of NGLOs in creating social capital such as network and institution building and maintain social cohesion cannot be overlooked. Formation of NGLOs is itself a social capital. Creation of welfare fund, management of exposure visit and recreation etc., are major functions that the NGLOs have been conducting in the study region. District Forest Office, Local Community and Water Consumer Group have been contributing to create social capital.
The provision of financial capital (the establishment of credit and micro-credit schemes) is a significant outcome of organizations. Majority of the local organizations have some accumulated funds, although some have generated a significant amount. Others have increased their funds only slightly since formation. Out of the total frequencies (215), the financial capital constitutes 16 after Physical and human capital. Production groups such as ginger and coffee production group and production cooperatives have generated larger funds by selling their products. Likewise, forest users groups have earned large share of money by selling forest products (i.e. timber and nursery seeding). Groups without this advantage depend on smaller fund raising through membership fee. Soil Conservation
196 Office, Forest Users Group, District Coffee Byabasayik Sangh, etc. are the major organizations that have been contributing in financial capital formation.
NGLOs have contributed to improving 'human capital' in various ways. Training provided by NGLOs has increased the skills of some of the organizations members (e.g. account training), although this has proved to be of limited benefit. Some other training provided to female members have significant impact in increasing women's awareness, social role, significance and empowerment. Out of the total frequencies (215), the human capital constitutes 59 after physical capital. Forest Users Group, District Coffee Byabasayik Sangh, etc. are the major organizations that have been contributing to financial capital formation.
The supplement information about contribution of NGLOs to local development obtained from FGDs is that conservation and management of forest, management and distribution of drinking water, road/trail construction, kulo construction for irrigation and income generation activities mentioned as high priority, health and education as medium priority and skill development and employment generation as low priority. Likewise, the information obtained from KIS regarding major achievements from NGLOs is that contribution in local development, local resource mobilization, knowledge of self-reliance and right and duties.
Local people contribute in local development by providing mainly two types of resources- free labour and cash contribution. It is also found that local people of the study region have contributed to local development by giving free labour three times (equivalent to Rs. 863,9200) more than that of cash contribution (Rs.264,0584). Poorer members are likely to have to provide proportionally more labour while richer people provide cash support to the organization for local development.
The NGLOs collects capital by various ways. One of the major sources of capital of the NGLOs is membership fee which contributes 11.8 percent in total. Other sources are revolving fund (5.3 percent), selling different products (2.4 percent) and bank deposit (1.4). Membership fee and revolving fund amount to about one-fourth (24.7 percent) as the source of organization capital. The savings of membership fee and revolving fund allows organizations to start micro-credit activities for income generation.
The NGLOs invest their income according to their sources of income. The investment pattern of NGLOs signifies the priorities of the community. More than one-third (38.2 percent)
197 saving of NGLOs go towards productive investment for members. Saving mobilization on rotational credit and productive investment for members share about one-fourth (23.5 percent).
Fifty-seven out of 170 NGLOs have been received support from the external agency. Majority of the cash help have been contributed by VDC and DDC to the local organization, which shares 58.2 percent of the total cash help. It is followed by INGO (21.4 percent) and NGO (12.8 percent), while direct contribution of the government line agencies is very low (7.4 percent). The information about possible sources of fund for local development obtained from FGDs conducted at sixteen places is that DDC, VDC, District Irrigation Office, NGOs and INGOs have indulged in providing cash help. Most of the cash help from these organizations goes to the WCG, which gets more than forty percent of the total cash help received by local organization. The reason for receiving high amount of cash help by WCG an irrigation users group from different sources is its nature of high cost activities to be performed, which is difficult to fulfill only from locally available resources.
The NGLOs have mobilized more local resources than the external resources. The internal contribution is significantly high (more than 50 lakhs) in CFUG whereas the external contribution is found high in WCG followed by IWUG. It is largely because to launch both drinking water and irrigation water activities needs relatively large amount of money. Therefore, usually becomes impossible to make it success only by internal contribution.
The NGLOs attempts to fulfill people's felt needs and opportunities at the time of plan formulation. For this, they involve all members in decision making. Most of the local needs are identified by members of the organization and local community, which share 56.2 and 33.2 percent respectively. In community forest groups, management committee and government organizations also influence in the decision of the local need.
Village gathering is one of the important processes of need identification. About ninety percent of the needs are identified through the gathering of village people. Some of the organizations reported that they have been identifying local need by visiting the respective village and talking informally to the village people. A few of the local organizations have been used media for the identification of local needs.
198 Program formulation is one of the important tasks of NGLOs. They include identified need in the program. Though the process of program formulation varies between organizations, most of the organizations (79 out of 170) concern their member at the time of programme formulation. Similarly, 26 NGLOs have been concerned with both GLAs and members whereas 21 NGLOs are concerned with both NGOs and members and NGOs while formulating the program. In addition, there is wide variation between the community forest groups while formulation program. Many of them are concerned with government line agencies, their members and executive committee where others are concerned with the NGO, some even formulate program from executive members without concerning with the members of the particular organizations and external agencies.
Almost all the organizations share their information to the members. However, the mechanism of information sharing differs from one to another. Village gathering is the main mechanism of sharing information of the NGLOs to the members. About 87 percent of the total NGLOs has responded gathering as the main mechanism of information sharing. Simultaneously, eighty percent organizations viewed that all the shared information can understand by the members while remaining twenty percent are against to it. The supplement information obtained from KIS is that the local people know about the activities of NGLOs mainly by four sources. They are: group meetings, local development activities, participating in program formulation and participating in program implementation
Fifty-seven organizations out of 170 are found to be engaged in providing employment to the local people. However, only three types of groups (CFUG, COPs and WCG) out of eight groups have been providing employment with salary. The overall average salary of employee is Rs. 1058 which also differ between the groups such as, Rs. 1888 in CFUG, Rs. 1560 in COPs and Rs. 411 in WCG. Local organizations are also found to be involved in providing self- employment generation through skill upgrading by providing different schemes like micro credit, awareness programme and various trainings, etc.
Overwhelming majority (three-fourths) of the respondent are found more agreed with the increased people's participation in the present day than before. The respondents who have been feeling decreased, same as before and do not have any idea comprises 9.5, 12.9 and 2.9 percent respectively. The information obtained from FGDs regarding areas of participation is that drinking water, road/trail construction, irrigation/kulo construction, forest management, education, social development such as club building construction and 199 so on. Likewise the supplement information obtained from KIS regarding the differences in people's participation before and after the formation of NGLOs is that people's participation was limited only in implementation stage in the past whereas recently they are involved in every stage of participation i.e. program formulation, implementation, benefit sharing, monitoring and evaluation.
The respondents who perceived increased people’s participation in recent years pointed out awareness of people regarding their village development as the main reason, which comprises about two-thirds. About one-third respondents viewed that increased emphasis on people’s participation by NGOs; awareness of people regarding their village development and people’s participation in program selection have collectively played role for increasing people’s participation. The supplement information obtained from KIS regarding causes of increased people's participation is that increased people's faith towards NGLOs, local leadership in decision making, policy framework of I/NGOs to encourage people's participation, awareness created by past unsuccessful development efforts and ownership in local development outcomes.
The respondents who perceived the trend of decreasing people's participation in local development claimed that the political tug of war in development activities as the main reason, whose share is more than 60 percent. Sufficient government supports to local development activities in recent years and misuse of development fund are other prominent reasons for having decrease in people's participation.
Out of 170 sampled NGLOs, 134 have done cooperation with other organization to perform task and generate resources. Of this, 68 NGLOs have their cooperation with Government organizations. Most of the NGLOs have their best cooperation with DFO (39 NGLOs) and DDC (13 NGLOs). REDA and JCBS are major I/NGOs that have been working together with their organization. CFUG is the main user group which has made cooperation with other NGLOs to conduct local development activities. The supplement information obtained from FGD about organizations involved in local development is that VDC/DDC, District Forest Office as government institution, CFUG, WCG, Women Group etc. as NGLOs, REDA, LISP, JCBS, etc as I/NGOs.
Most of the respondents (121 out of 170) are found in favour of NGLO's capacity in local development while some (49 out of 170) are against this perception. Of this, overwhelming
200 majority noticed that lack of technical knowledge (93.9 percent) and inadequate fund (89.8 percent) as the main causes for it.
About ninety percent of the respondents pointed out that the presence of consumer group with remarkable social and development performance in the societies these days. Some other respondents claimed that NGOs, mother group, producer’s group and clubs as major other organizations involved in development works beside local government institutions (VDC/DDC).
More than one-fifths (23.5 percent) NGLOs are found having some types of conflict. However, the causes of conflict vary from one organization to another. Feeling of unequal distribution of income/profit is the main reason for creating conflict between members followed by debate in selection of trainees/trainer, which constitute 42.5 and 40.0 percent responses respectively. Next to this, expulsion from the membership and lack of equity in implementation of rule are other main reasons for generating conflict. In the same way, financial misuse by leaders is another source of conflict; however, it is less pervasive in sample organization. The information obtained from KIS about issues of conflict between members of NGLOs is that selection of program, priority identification, individual interests (differences), feeling of unequal behavior, etc. About 60 percent NGLOs have resolved their conflict through discussion between members.
Six major dimensions of organizational capacity building are identified for assessing the capacity building of NGLOs. The indicators include, decision-making process, degree of participation, information, knowledge & transparency, accountability, leadership and rust and solidarity. The overall index of organizational capacity building ranged from 4.21 in CFUG to 3.21 in WCDG (maximum value 5). Taking all groups together, the average score for organizational capacity building was 3.76. It is evident that the average score for decision making was rated as quite high by group members for five among the eight NGLOs while information, knowledge and transparency was rated quite low for all. In aggregate, the relative position of organizational capacity building CFUG was found to be slightly stronger than that of other NGLOs. Overall, the average score for the decision making and trust and solidarity among group members was rated as quite high (4.02 and 4.01 respectively out of a maximum 5).
201 Almost all the organizations have provision of monitoring their program/activities. Among them, most of the organizations (167) monitor their activities through their group members. In addition to their group members, the Government Line Agencies (142) and helper organizations (41) also monitor their member organization's activities. Thirty-one NGLOs have established monitoring committee.
The evaluation techniques of the program differ among the organizations. However, need assessment, program implementation strategy, outcome evaluation and impact evaluation are most popular practices among the organizations. Out of 170 NGLOs, 167 have used three techniques i.e. need assessment, program implementation strategy and output evaluation at the time of programme evaluation.
Fifty percent of the total NGLOs have used member's house as their office whereas only 10 percent NGLOs have their own office buildings. Likewise, one-thirds has office in rented building . Most of the NGLOs (121 out of 170) have stationary facilities. Of this, 73 NGLOs have furniture facilities.
9.1.4 Problems and Potentials of Non-Government Local Organizations
Many organizations are facing problems while selecting programs. Low technical knowledge, inadequate resources, differences in need, etc. are the major problems that NGLOs are facing in the study area. The equal least weight value (0.59) of these problems signifies the relative importance of the problems. Many organizations are facing technical problems in need identification due to not having technical as well as professional knowledge among the members of the organizations. Similarly, about 18 percent organizations do not get sufficient information about the helper organizations.
Similarly, many organizations are facing problems while implementing the designed program. Majority of the NGLOs have faced financial problem (166 responses out of 170) in implementing after selecting the program. Likewise, unequal distribution of benefits among the members (137 responses in total), discrimination based on caste/ethnicity (102 responses in total) and free-ridership (137 responses in total) are other major problems in program implementation.
Strong unity among members, consensus based leadership, cooperative members, capacity to pool local and external resources, group accountability, transparent account system are 202 the major strengths of NGLOs perceived by local people. NGOs interest in forming NGLOs, absence of long term vision, dominance of local elite in leadership, lack of trained manpower, weak record keeping, etc. are major weaknesses. The growing relationship with line agencies, I/NGOs and Aid agencies, recognition by Government Act as local partner, growing number of members, increasing number of meetings, growing involvement of women member, etc. are major opportunities of NGLOs. Migration of young, misuse of resource by influential persons, conflict between members and non-members, dependency on external support, etc. are major threats to NGLOs.
Road, drinking water, market, health and education, agriservices, electricity, education and others (irrigation water, communication, employment, etc.) are the major problems in the study region. Road and drinking water are the most demanding factor which comprises very high priority. If the mean value (mean=37.5) of composite index is taken as basis, four infrastructure such as road, drinking water, health and education and agriservices are above the mean and therefore most important. Just below the mean value lie electricity.
Agriculture, livestock, tourism as well as forest and herb based cottage industry and mining and querying are the major prospect of the district. The local people have prioritized agriculture and livestock as the major potentiality. Palpa has many historical sites and natural beauties, which also attract many domestic as well as international tourists.
9.2 Conclusions The study was initiated with the aim of examining the organizational features of NGLOs. It has provided a glimpse of the western hill area which is inhabited by several communities by conducting various development activities on their own initiatives.
The use of several theories and approaches accompanied by a methodology with necessary quantitative as well as qualitative techniques to handle a variety of data and information collected from a range of sources has been considered as a strength of the study. In the same way, the use of recently developed tools like SWOT Analysis, Venn Diagram and Web Diagram in analyzing various components of organizational features in relation to local development activities proved fruitful. Also an attempt was made to assess the contributions of NGLOs to local development. Generalization
203 through quantitative method and specific analysis through qualitative method are found useful in exploring, understanding and explaining the reality. The following are some of the important conclusions that can be derived on the basis of the present research work:
Formation of NGLOs has provided a forum to the community members to be organized for achieving common goal through mutual cooperation. Therefore, a changing situation with increasing role of NGLOs in local development has been the apparent manifestation of the present-day.
The NGLOs have been played important role in increasing awareness of rural people particularly of women. It has ultimately increased the participation of women in local development. Now, organized women participate in group meeting and discuss about group activities without any hesitation. It has increased their respect and status in community as well as in household.
9.3 Recommendations
The following recommendations are based on the findings of the study:
This study has taken roads as a basis for dividing Palpa district into four quadrants to represent the NGLOs dispersedly located across different parts of the district. But this study did not consider the level of road access at the time of sample organizations selection. Therefore, the present study feels the need of another in- depth study considering the level of road access and its impact on NGLOs based local development
This study has concerned mainly with the organizational features and contribution of NGLOs to local development within their functional area. Another aspect of such study is to see responses on needs of recipients. This should be left for further study.
Analysis of local development activities through NGLOs has been seriously hampered by the lack of organized village level data. Further efforts require first to establish village level data base to formulate realistic planning.
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xviii Quadrant-wise Allocation
Quadrant One Quadrant Two Quadrant Three Quadrant Four
8458.2 2492.3 7363.2 17174.7 x 165 x 165 = x 165 = = 39 x 165 = 12 34 80 35488.3 35488.3 35488.3 35488.3
Group wise Allocation based on Proportion of organization in each quadrant
Given number of the group
x total sample size of the same quadrant total number of the quadrant
Quadrant Qudrant Groups Quadrant One Two Quadrant Three four
xix Therefore total sample size= 40+14+35+81=170
xx APPENDIX: II LIST OF SAMPLE NGLOs by QUADRANT AND GROUPs
Qua Gr Ward Establ Regis S dran ou (cov ished tered N t p Name VDC ered) Village Year Year 0 CF Boughapok 1 One UG Salleri harathok 1 Birpokhara 2049 2055 0 CF Dharadi Syan Boughapok Pokharath 2 One UG Danda harathok 1 ok 2049 2055 0 CF Khanichha 3 One UG Purdisha p 2, 9 Maleng 2051 2051 0 CF 4 One UG Lekako Deurali 1, 9 Deurali 2053 2053 0 CF Bhairabsth 5 One UG Pokhaldanda an 3 Hatiya 2055 2056 0 CF 6 One UG Tallo Bakhre Chhahara 4 Chhahara 2057 2058 0 CF 7 One UG Amalabas Chhahara 5 Amlabas 2047 2048 0 CF Chirtungdh Bhaluachau 8 One UG Bhaluwachaur ara 6 r 2051 2053 0 CF Sundargau 9 One UG Chaulaneegaira Tansen 14 n 2050 2053 1 CF 0 One UG Salghari Deurali 3 Deurali 2051 2051 1 CF 1 One UG Lapsikhola Khyaha 5,6,7 Khyaha 2056 2056 1 CF Nayarnamt 2 One UG Raniban alesh 2,5 Nayar 2053 2053 1 CF Deurali 3 One UG Deurali 8 Laguwa 2057 2057 1 CF 4 Two UG Ketuke Bhir Chidipani 4,9,6 Satdobato 2049 2050 1 CF Nanggetar Bardale 5 Two UG Lurikhark Gejha 9 Manmaga 2053 2054 1 CF 6 Two UG Ekle Puchhar Khaliban 1 Ekletar 2055 2055 1 CF 7 Two UG Khaireniban Khaliban 3 Khaliban 2048 2049 1 CF 8 Two UG Dholar Siluwa 1 Sarkitole 2053 2054
xxi Qua Gr Ward Establ Regis S dran ou (cov ished tered N t p Name VDC ered) Village Year Year 1 CF 9 Two UG Taharepanda Hungi 8 Hungi 2052 2053 2 Thre CF 0 e UG Debisthan Badahare Dobhan 3 Badahare 2052 2054 2 Thre CF Ganeshtol 1 e UG Ganesh Dobhan 7 e 2054 2058 2 Thre CF Kushumkh 2 e UG Darlam ola 9 Darlam 2054 2054 2 Thre CF Devisthan Jul 3 e UG Danda Mashyam 1 Debisthan 2049 2052 2 Thre CF 4 e UG Bharkesh Telgha 1 Bharkesh 2050 2054 2 Thre CF 5 e UG Belautichaur Mahila Telgha 9 Ganasal 2051 2054 2 Thre CF Surungtun 6 e UG Surungtung Telgha 2 g 2052 2053 2 Thre CF 7 e UG Dharap Danda Mashyam 9 Jantilung 2052 2055 2 Thre CF 8 e UG Gause Mashyam 5 Kalimati 2052 2052 2 Thre CF 9 e UG Khadanunthala Thimure 9 Tallotal 2052 2055 3 Thre CF 0 e UG Tillottama Dobhan 5 Jhumsa 2053 2054 3 Thre CF Lamachau 1 e UG Satpatre Dobhan 6 pari 2052 2052 3 Thre CF Raniban 2 e UG Khaltukhark Thimure 9, 3 Dhustung 2052 2052 3 Thre CF Panch 3 e UG Banghusrithulakohal Kachal 6 Bote 2050 2053 3 CF 4 Four UG Jyagdi Rampur 1 Pyakluk 2038 2039 3 CF Bakamalan 5 Four UG Debisthan g 2 Gejha 2055 2057 3 CF Bakamalan 6 Four UG Salghari Mahila g 3 Banka 2052 2053 3 CF Bakamalan 7 Four UG Pokhari Danda g 3 Banka 2052 2053
3 Four CF Thulo Pahad Sahalkot Bhangbari 2048 2050
xxii Qua Gr Ward Establ Regis S dran ou (cov ished tered N t p Name VDC ered) Village Year Year 8 UG 5,6,7 3 CF 9 Four UG Sapangdee Sahalkot 2 Puranthar 2053 2054 4 CF Bohoridan 0 Four UG Sani Amrai Darcha 1 da 2052 2060 4 CF 1 Four UG Thuloban Darcha 1, 6 Rajghara 2048 2054 4 CF Bhirgauda 2 Four UG Masanghat Kaseni 8 Dhamigha 2052 2054 4 CF 3 Four UG Dharadipakha Jhadewa 2 Semara 2047 2051 4 CF Andheri Madanpok Damkada, 4 Four UG Chharchhare hara 1, 6 Gothuwa 2052 2053 4 CF 5 Four UG Redhee Jhadewa 9 Redhee 2055 2056 4 CF Kharirekot Chitrachha 6 Four UG Chitrechhap Jhadewa 7 p 2055 2055 4 CF Tallobelda 7 Four UG Budhikot Galdha 8 nda 2049 2051 4 CF Pokharatho Anpchaur, 8 Four UG Kalaban k Gophek 2042 2043 4 CF 9 Four UG Jorte Ghorlee Jhadewa 8 Kerauli 2048 2050 5 CF 2,3,6 0 Four UG Bokhar Mahila Jhadewa ,7 Khapuk 2051 2053 5 CF Phecheba 1 Four UG Phechebas Deurali Jhadewa 3 s 2052 2053 5 CF Kabhre Danda Madanpok 2 Four UG Bayarkhark hara 4 Chhpa 2050 2050 5 CF Madanpok Pipaldand 3 Four UG Khawa hara 3 a 2051 2052 5 CF Kisanbari Karki 4 Four UG Danda Rampur 5 Kisanbasi 2044 2063 5 CF 5 Four UG Ratmata Rampur 5 Ratmata 2049 2050 5 CF 6 Four UG Saureni Jhadewa 2 Saureni 2049 2052 5 CF 7 Four UG Satyawati Kokdanda 1 Lagad 2054 2057
xxiii Qua Gr Ward Establ Regis S dran ou (cov ished tered N t p Name VDC ered) Village Year Year 5 CF Biskundan 8 Four UG Dumkidanda Kokdanda 7 da 2052 2053 5 CF 9 Four UG Bhul Bhanjyang Archale 8 Chiuri Tole 2053 2056 6 CF Dharmashala Bahadurpu 0 Four UG Liudebi r 3,1 Takatung 2055 2056 6 CF 1 Four UG Ramche Rampur 4 Dadharan 2045 2045 6 CF 2 Four UG Jalkeneekhola Darcha 3 Maulathar 2055 2057 6 CF 3 Four UG Raini Pani Arukhark Gadakot 5,6,7 Arukhark 2051 2054 6 CF 4 Four UG Ramche Galdha 6 Jokhanltari 2049 2051 6 CF 5 Four UG Raniban Jhirubas 9 Bhutukdi 2055 2058 6 CF 6 Four UG Khalluk Jyamire 3 Jyamire 2055 2056 6 CF Lamadanda 7 Four UG Bhangabari Jyamire 5 Bhangbari 2047 2050 6 CF Bhainsitha 8 Four UG Tetendanda Kaseni 4 ra 2057 2060 6 CF Simaldand 9 Four UG Simaldee Koldanda 8 a 2056 2057 7 CF Jogekhola Huldee Madanpok 0 Four UG Chaur hara 3 Deurali 2049 2051 7 CF 1 Four UG Koldanda Mityal 4 Aamdanda 2055 2056 7 CF 2 Four UG Mologaira Mityal 8 Chiuribas 2054 2055 7 CF 3 Four UG Jhoparagaira Rupse 8 Sapangdi 2053 2053 7 CF 4 Four UG Toklaudi Gothadi 9 Gejdanda 2054 2054 7 WC Okhar Ghari Bhuwanpo 5 One G Kailashpur khari 2 Kailashpur 2032 2039 7 WC Kamere Bhuwanpo Dandagau 6 One G khari 5 n 2050 2060
7 One WC Acharyatole Deurali 5 Acharyatol 2049 2049
xxiv Qua Gr Ward Establ Regis S dran ou (cov ished tered N t p Name VDC ered) Village Year Year 7 G e 7 WC Bhutuke 8 One G Deurali 7 Bhutuka 2048 2048 7 WC Baughagumba Baugha Thulopokh 9 One G Gumba 2,1 ara 2055 2056 8 WC Chhahara Tallo 0 One G Chhahara 2 Chhahara 2053 2057 8 WC Chhahara 1 One G Chhahara 5 Chhaptole 2056 2057 8 WC Khyaha 2 One G Khyaha 9 Ghari 2051 2052 8 WC Barangdi 1,2,7 3 One G Barangdi ,8 Beldanda 2052 2052 8 WC Phoksingkot Phoksingko 4 Two G t 1 Jhokedi 2054 2055 8 WC Tanhu Tahun 3,4,6 Gerudand 5 Two G Humin ,7,1 a 2050 2050 8 Thre WC Dobhan Paithedan 6 e G Dobhan 5 da 2056 2050 8 Thre WC Dobhan 7 e G Dobhan 4 Sridanda 2057 2057 8 Thre WC Kusumkhola Kushumkh Gohodi/Dh 8 e G ola 7,8 ikichaur 2051 2053 8 Thre WC Sirukhark 9 e G Khasauli 1 Sirukhark 2062 2062 9 Thre WC Arsaudi Palung 0 e G Mainadi 4 Arsandi 2058 2058 9 Thre WC Dharadi Khola Palung 1 e G Mainadi 4 Dharadi 2054 2050 9 Thre WC Phek 2 e G Phek 2 Pelachaur 2056 2056 9 Thre WC Phek 3 e G Phek 9 Ratmata 2057 2057 9 WC Chaladi Rupse, 4 Four G Rupse 1,2,5 Amrai 2049 2049 9 WC Madanpokhara Madanpok 5 Four G hara 6 Damkada 2050 2050 9 WC Bade Aap Bagale Madanpok 6 Four G Gaira hara 5 Badeanp 2060 2061
xxv Qua Gr Ward Establ Regis S dran ou (cov ished tered N t p Name VDC ered) Village Year Year 9 WC Rampur 7 Four G Rampur 1,5,6 Bijayapur 2053 2054 9 WC Aunse 8 Four G Rampur 9,5 Kathan 2038 2058 9 WC Devinagar Ayarbari 9 Four G Devinagar 4 Tole 2059 2059 1 Devinagar 0 WC Ragibhanj 0 Four G Devinagar 6 yang 2059 2059 1 Juthapauwa Juthapauw 0 WC a 1 Four G 3 Damar 2056 2056 1 Koldanda Koldanda 0 WC 2 Four G 4 Satyabati 2060 2060 1 0 WC 3 One DG Amlabas Chhahara 5 Amlabas 2057 2057 1 0 WC Bhanjyanp 4 Two DG Suryajyoti Chidipani 3 okhara 2060 2060 1 0 Thre WC 5 e DG Somhar Phek 7 Somhar 2055 2055 1 0 Thre WC 6 e DG Kaule Phek 5 Kaule 2055 2055 1 0 Thre WC Juthapauw Juthapauw 7 e DG Danshinghar a 6 a 2056 2057 1 0 WC 8 Four DG Sapandi Rupse 8 Sapangdi 2058 2058 1 0 WC Pipaldand 9 Four DG Pipaldanda Rupse 4 a 2060 2061 1 1 CP Sardewa Coffee 0 One G Samuha Somadi 3 Sardewa 2058 2059
1 CP Phedi Krishak 1 One G Coffee Samuha Chidipani 8 Phedi 2058 2058
xxvi Qua Gr Ward Establ Regis S dran ou (cov ished tered N t p Name VDC ered) Village Year Year 1 1 1 CP Baraha Coffee 2 One G Samuha Khanigaun 9,8 Khanigaun 2049 2050 1 1 CP Sri Hariyali Coffee 3 One G Samuha Mujuhng 3,5,7 Thanti 2059 2059 1 1 CP Hariyali Coffee 4 Two G Samuha Humin 5 Bagchaur 2055 2057 1 1 Thre CP Sri Ganesh Mahila 5 e G Coffee Samuha Telgha 8 Telga 2058 2059 1 Sri Nawakiran 1 Thre CP Coffee Uttpadak 6 e G Sam. Mashyam 5 Bhaisikatta 2055 2059 1 1 CP Kaligandaki Coffee 7 Four G Bikash Sam. Rampur 1 Bijayapur 2056 2057 1 1 CP Gaunle Coffee 8 Four G Samuha Gadakot 6 Gajbandi 2058 2059 1 1 CP Sri Namuna Coffee 9 Four G Samuha Jhirubas 3 Adhmara 2058 2060 1 2 CP Sri Pragati Coffee Lampokha 0 Four G Samuha Jyamire 7 rk 2058 2058 1 2 CP Mandabya Coff. Utt. Madanpok 1 Four G Krishak Samuha hara 1,6 Gothuwa 2058 2058 1 2 CP Tintiaanp Mahila Madanpok 2 Four G Coffee Sam. hara 7 Tinti Anp 2057 2057 1 2 VP Siddha Tarkari/Biu 3 One G Utpadan Samuha Argali 1,5,8 Argali 2053 2056 1 2 VP Byabasayik Tarkari Pipaldand 4 Two G Utpadan Samuha Pipledanda 9 a 2058 2059
1 Thre VP Tarkari Utpadan 2 e G Krishak Sam. Kachal 5 Kafalbari 2057 2058
xxvii Qua Gr Ward Establ Regis S dran ou (cov ished tered N t p Name VDC ered) Village Year Year 5 1 2 VP Srijansil Tarkari Madanpok 6 Four G Utpadan Sam. hara 7 Tinti Anp 2056 2062 1 2 GP Mehalpani, Bhuwanpo 7 One G Phokkeaanp khari 4,7 Mehalpani 2058 2058 1 2 GP Khanichha Mahachha 8 One G Mahachhap Tallo p 8 p 2059 2059 1 Baugha 2 GP Pokharatho 9 One G Khaddevi k 4 Namikuwa 2058 2058 1 3 GP 0 One G Baskhark Somadi 4 Baskhark 2059 2060 1 3 GP 1 One G Dig Somadi 9 Dig 2058 2058 1 3 GP 2 Two G Janasewa Chidipani 7 Chidipani 2058 2059 1 3 Thre GP Palung 3 e G Pallakhark Tallabari Mainadi 3 Pallakhark 2054 2058 1 3 Thre GP Palung 4 e G Hasikhusi Mainadi 5 Maidika 2059 2059 1 3 Thre GP 5 e G Ijardanda Thimure 8 Ijardanda 2058 2058 1 3 Thre GP 6 e G Mirmire Koldanda 9 Koldanda 2057 2058 1 3 Thre GP 7 e G Somhar Phek 7 Somhar 2056 2057 1 3 Thre GP 8 e G Tallo Somar Phek 7 Thumkila 2056 2057
1 GP 3 Four G Sising Archale 1 Sising 2058 2058
xxviii Qua Gr Ward Establ Regis S dran ou (cov ished tered N t p Name VDC ered) Village Year Year 9 1 4 GP 0 Four G Chiriya Archale 3 Chiriya 2059 2060 1 4 GP 1 Four G Archale Archale 4 Archale 2058 2058 1 4 GP 2 Four G Lindi Sahalkot 4 Lindi 2056 2057 1 4 GP 3 Four G Bhangbari Sahalkot 6 Bhangbari 2059 2059 1 4 GP 4 Four G Laligunras Galdha 1 Patkasa 2056 2056 1 4 GP 5 Four G Gejha Galdha 7 Gejha 2056 2056 1 4 GP 6 Four G Devgir Jhadewa 6,2 Devgir 2057 2057 1 4 GP 7 Four G Bhaluwa Jhirubas 2 Bhaluwa 2057 2057 1 4 GP 8 Four G Khadar Jhirubas 5 Khader 2057 2057 1 4 GP 9 Four G Sakini 'Ka' Jalpa 1 Sakile 'Ka' 2057 2057 1 5 GP Sakile 0 Four G Sakini 'Kha' Jalpa 2 'Kha' 2057 2057 1 5 GP 1 Four G Gramin Ujjlal Mahila Mityal 4 Mityal 2058 2058 1 5 GP 2 Four G Khoplangdi Mityal 8 Khoplang 2058 2058
1 GP 5 Four G Samaj Ujjal Mahila Mityal 9 Bhoma 2057 2057
xxix Qua Gr Ward Establ Regis S dran ou (cov ished tered N t p Name VDC ered) Village Year Year 3 1 5 GP 4 Four G Serdanda Sahalkot 1 Serdanda 2057 2057 1 5 CO Bhairabsth 5 One Ps Bhairab Mahila an 3 Hatiya 2058 2059 1 5 CO Ramdi Dugdha Khanichha 6 One Ps Uttpadhak p 2 Ramdi 2042 2051 1 5 CO Janapriya 7 One Ps Swavalamban Khaya 6 Santichaur 2053 2054 1 5 CO 8 One Ps Argali Multi Purpose Argali 1 Pujarigaun 2049 2050 1 5 CO Siddha Bachat Makhan 9 One Ps Tatha Loan Tansen 4 Tole 2057 2057 1 6 CO Maidanbar 0 One Ps Sri Khandevi Khanigaun 1 i 2055 2056 1 6 CO Majuwa Dugdha 1 Two Ps Uttpadhak Hungi 6 Majhuwa 2055 2055 1 6 Thre CO Baldhenggadhi Baldhenga Baldhenga 2 e Ps Swavalamban dhi 8 di 2055 2055 1 6 CO Srimani Mauri Bikas Madanpok Karkidand 3 Four Ps Sahakari hara 5 a 2057 2060 1 6 CO Andhakar Mukti Adarshana 4 Four Ps Bachat Rampur 5 gar 2056 2056 1 6 CO Satyavati 5 Four Ps Swavalamban Koldanda 3 Koldanda 2055 2055 1 6 CO Janabikash Bahadurpu 6 Four Ps Swavalamban r 3 Takatung 2054 2054
1 CO Janauddar 6 Four Ps Swavalamban Jyamire 3 Jyamire 2054 2054
xxx Qua Gr Ward Establ Regis S dran ou (cov ished tered N t p Name VDC ered) Village Year Year 7 1 6 IW Mailee Kulo Jala 8 One UG Upabhokta Samiti Argali 2 Fosran 1800 2051 1 6 IW Satbise Jetho Kulo 9 Two UG W.C.G. Gejha 3 Satbesi 1860 2050 1 7 IW Thulo Tandi Sinchai 0 Four UG Yojana Darcha 6 Thulotandi 2057 2057
xxxi APPENDIX III
ORGANIZATIONAL SURVEY QUESTIONAIRE
(The purpose of this study is to fulfill Degree of Philosophy in Geography conducted under the Dean's Office of Humanities and Social Sciences and the information obtained from this survey will never be used except for academic purposes.)
1. Preliminary Information
1.1. Name of the organization……………
1.2. V.D.C………………….
1.3. Ward No………………..
1.4. Village/Tole…………….
2. Organizational Features
2.1 Organization Establishment Year……………….
2.2 Organization Registration Year………………
2.3 Place of Registration:
(a) Government Line Agencies ( ) (b) CDO Office ( ) (c) Cooperatives ( ) (d) NGLOs ( )
2. 4. Types of Organization:
(a) Consumer Group ( ) (b) Producers Groups ( )
(c) Cooperatives ( ) (d) Community Development ( )
2. 5. What are the main objectives of the organization? (include leaflet if any)
1) …………………… 2) …………………………...
3) …………………… 4) ……………………………
5) ……………………
2. 6. How many households are served by this organization? ………………
2.7. How many members are there in this organization? …………………..
xxxii Caste/Ethnicity Male Member Female Member Total Member
Caste
Ethnicity
Dalit
Others
2.8 What are the qualification needed to join this organization (multiple answer may come) (a) Should be resident of the village ( )
(c) Should not be member of other similar organization ( )
(d) Should be involved in the same field ( )
(e) All mentioned above ( )
2.9 What are the reasons for a family not being member of this organization? If any (a) No faith in the program ( )
(b) Difficulty to attend meetings ( )
(c) Incapable to convince ( ) (d) Better off family ( )
(e) Distance of the house ( ) (f) Rules of not including ( )
(g) Don't know ( )
2.10 How many households are not the members of this organization? ……… 2.11 Does membership fee require to be a member of this organization? (a) Yes ( ) (b) No ( ) go to Q. No. 2.13
If Yes how much rupees? NRs………………………
2.12 Does the membership become invalid? (a) Yes ( ) (b) No ( ) go to Q. No. 2.15
2.13 If Yes, in which situation? (a) Due to work against organization ( ) For example …………
(b) Due to migration from the village ( )
(c) Due to absence in general meeting ( )……………times
(d) Due to not involvement in implementation of decision ( )… times
(e) All mentioned above ( )
xxxiii 2.14 How many times the general meeting of the organization members held yearly? (a) Once a year ( )
(b) Twice a year ( )
(c) Uncertain ( )
(e) Others (specify) ……………………..
2.15 The house where the organization is settled now is rented or own? (a) Own ( ) (b) Rented ( ) (c) Member's house ( )
(d) Public building ( ) (e) No permanent office ( )
2.16 What are the sources of capital for running organization? (a) Land ( ) (b) Bank deposit ( )
(c) Loan in interest ( ) (d) Membership fee ( )
(e) Monthly saving ( ) (f) Revolving fund ( )
(g) Income from selling products ( )
(f) Others (specify) ……………………..
2.17 What are the facilities of this organization to run? (a) Stationary ( ) (b) Furniture ( )
(c) Others (specify) ……………………..
By what process the Organization was formed?
…………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………
2.18 If yes, from whom? (a) From Local VDC/DDC ( )
(b) From NGO ( )
(c) From NGOs and GOs ( )
(d) From INGOs ( )
(e) Government Line Agencies ( )
(f) From Community Leaders ( )
(g) From Members (community efforts) ( )
2.19 Does this organization has any written rules and regulation?
xxxiv (a) Yes ( ) (b) No ( ) go to Q.No. 2.25
2.20 If yes, how far the rules are followed? (a) Completely ( ) go to Q. No. 2.25 (b) Sometimes ( ) (c) Not at all ( ) 2.21 If the rules are not followed, what kind of punishment is given? ...... 2.25 What kind of linkage is there of this organization to other organizations?
Organizations Good Moderate No linkage
Local institutions (VDC/DDC and GLAs)
Regional Federations and GLAs
National Govt. institutions, Federations and Cooperatives
Local NGOs and INGOs
Local INGOs
2.26 Is there any written aim / mission of this organization ?
(a) Yes ( ) (b) No ( ) go to Q.No. 3.1.
2.27 If yes, in what form?
(a) In broacher/leaflet ( ) (b) In minute ( )
(c) Others (specify) ……………………..
2.28 Does the vision / mission of this organization is informed to members?
(a) Yes ( ) b) No ( ) go to Q.No.3.1.
2.39 If yes, do the members understand it?
(a) Yes ( ) (b) No ( )
3 Contribution / Impact, Role and function 3.1 How many programmes are implemented until now?
Number Name of programme Objective Helping Organization
1
2
3
xxxv 4
5
3.2 How are the local people involving themselves in development works of this organization?
Types Quantity (In total)
Shramdan /Labour ……………………… persons
Economic help (cash) ……………………….Rupess
Physical help …………House …...Ropani land
Others(specify) ………………………………….
3.3 Is there any cash donated to this organization until now?
(a) Yes ( ) (b) No ( ) go to Q.No. 3.5
3.4 If yes, from whom?
(a) Local VDC/DDC Rs……………………..
(b) From NGO (mention name) ………...... Rs……………………
(c) From INGO (mention name) …….. Rs………………………
(d) Government office (mention name) ….. Rs………………………
(e) Others(specify) ……………………..
3.5 How is the collected money of organization mobilized?
(a) By keeping money at bank in interest ( )
(b) By giving money to members in rotation basis ( )
(c) Investing in members household in productive works ( )
(d) Salary ( )
3.6 Has this organization invested saved money in interest in other organization?
(a) Yes ( ) (b) No ( ) go to Q.No. 3.8
3.7 If yes, How much money is taken as loan by other organization?
S.N For what Loan taking Provided date Loan amount Interest rate purpose saving group
xxxvi 1
2
3
4
5
3.8 Who identifies the need of the village?
(a) From government office ( )
(b) From INGOs ( )
(c) From NGOs ( )
(d) From discussion between members ( )
(e) From management committee ( )
(f) Local community ( )
3.9 How the problems of village are identified?
(a) By visiting village ( )
(b) Gathering ( )
(c) From Programme (mention) ………………………..
(d) Media…………………………
(e) Others(specify) ……………………..
3.10 How are the programmes of the organization formulated? (may come multiple answer)
(a) By the help of Government Line Agencies ( )
(b) By the help of INGOS ( )
(c) By the help of NGOs ( )
(d) By the members ( )
(e) By Executive committee ( )
3.11 How the programme/activities are informed to community?
(a) By motivator ( ) (b) By leadership ( )
(c) By correspondence ( ) (d) By gathering ( ) xxxvii (e) Others (Specify)…………
3.12 Has the organization provided employment for any?
(a) Yes ( ) (b) No ( ) go to Q.No. 3.14
3.13 If yes, for how many persons ……… How much salary/allowance …………
3.14 What are the difference in participation in development activities during the time of formation of this organization and now?
(a) Has increased ( ) (b) Has decreased ( ) go to Q.No.3.16
(c) Same ( ) go to Q.No. 3.17 (d) Don't know ( ) go to Q.No.
3.15 If it has increased, what are the reasons?
(a) Due to the increased emphasis on people's participation by NGOs ( )
(b) Due to the increased awareness of people regarding their village development ( )
(c) Due to people's participation in programme selection ( )
(d) All mentioned above ( )
3.16 If it has decreased, what are the reasons?
(a) ue to sufficient governmental support ( )
(b) ue to sufficient NGOs support ( )
(c) ue to misuse of development budget ( )
(d) ue to political tug of war in development activities ( )
(e) thers(specify) ……………………..
3.17 Is your organization working together with other organizations?
(a) Yes ( ) (b) No ( ) go to Q.No. 3.19
3.18 If yes, with which organization?
(a) overnmental(specify) ……………………..
(b) GOs(specify) ……………………..
(c) onsumer(specify) ……………………..
(d) thers(specify) ……………………
3.19 Are the groups capable in village development? xxxviii (a) Yes ( ) go to Q.No. 3.21 (b) No ( )
3.20 If no, why? (may come multiple answer)
(a) Inadequate amount ( )
(b) Lack of experience ( )
(c) Priority in other than development ( )
(d) Lack of technical knowledge ( )
(e) Division between villagers ( )
(f) Lack of managerial and leadership development ( )
(g) Lack of coordination with other organization/office ( )
(h) Others (specify) ……………………..
3.21 In your village, except VDC/Municipality and DDC which other organization are involved in development activities?
(a) INGOs ( ) (b) NGOs ( ) (c) Consumer group ( )
(d) Mother group ( ) (e) Clubs ( ) (f) Producer's group ( )
(g) Cooperative ( ) (h) Others(specify) ……………………..
3.22 Organizational Capacity Building
3.22.1 Decision Making Process
How are decisions made in your group with respect to the following areas?
S.N Indicators Making rule (Voting) 5
Leader's imposition 4
Domination of major ethnic group 3
Imposed from outside (NGO/Social mobilize) 2
Don't know 1
1 Committee formation
2 Making Rules and regulation
3 Selecting Programme
4 Preparing action plan
xxxix 5 Implementation of Programme
3.22.2 Degree of Participation
How do you assess the degree of your participation in the following group activities?
How do you assess the degree of your participation in the following group activities?
S.N Indicators Very high (>80%) 5
High (60 – 80%) 4
Moderate (50 – 60%) 3
Low (20 – 50%) 2
Very low (<20%) 1
1 Making rules
2 Needs identification
3 Making action for the Programme
4 Implementation of the program
5 Monitoring the Program
3.22.3 Information, Knowledge and Transparency
To what extent are you familiar with the goal, objectives, and activities of the Project?
S.N Indicators Very high know everything 5
Almost everything 4
Some knowledge 3
Little knowledge 2
Don't know 1
1 Organization goal/objective
2 Group saving and investment
3 Group revolving fund
xl 4 Group rules and regulations
3.22.4 Accountability
How do you assess the degree of accountability in your group?
S.N Indicators Very high 5
High 4
Medium 3
Low 2
Negligible 1
1 How accountable are you to your group decision (rule, regulation)
2 How accountable is your group to its members
3 How for you accountable to your organization's Programs
3.22.5 Leadership Quality
How do you rate the quality of your group leader?
S.N Indicators Very high 5
High 4
Medium 3
Low 2
Negligible 1
Group Leader
1 Honesty/Sincerity
2 Dedication
3 Responsible/accountable
4 Skill and Capability
Group Secretary/Treasures
5 Honesty/Sincerity
xli 6 Dedication
7 Responsible/accountable
8 Skill and Capability
3.22.6 Trusts and solidarity
How do you perceive levels of trust and sense of solidarity among your group members to have changed overtime after.
S.N Indicators Very high 5
High 4
Medium 3
Low 2
None 1
1 Trust and solidarity/unity among members
2 Trust/unity between group and non group members
3 Level of self confidence
4. Problems and Prospects
4.1 Is there any conflict in this organization or not?
(a) Yes ( ) (b) No ( ) go to Q.No. 4.4
4.2 If there is, for what reasons it appears?
(a) Due to unequal distribution of income/profit ( )
(b) Due to expulsion from the membership ( )
(c) Due to debate in selection of trainees/trainer ( )
(d) Due to financial misuse ( )
(e) Due to lack of equity in implementation of rule ( )
4.3 How do you solve these contradictions?
(a) From leadership ( )
(b) From appropriate rule and regulations ( )
(c) From members discussion ( )
xlii (d) By inter-group discussion ( )
(e) Others (specify) ……………………..
4.4 If there appears new problems in the organization, are the members informed?
(a) Yes ( ) (b) No ( )
4.5 What kinds of problems are appeared in selecting the programmes of the groups?
1………………………………… 2…………………………………
3………………………………… 4………………………………
5 ……………………………………
4.6 What types of problems are appeared in programme implementation?
1………………………………… 2…………………………………
3………………………………… 4………………………………
5 ……………………………………
4.7 Is the monitoring of programme is conducted? If yes how?
1………………………………… 2…………………………………
3………………………………… 4………………………………
5 ……………………………………
4.8 Is the evaluation of programme conducted? If yes how?
1………………………………… 2…………………………………
3………………………………… 4………………………………
5 ……………………………………
4.9 In your opinion, what are the major problem of village?(mention in priority basis)
1………………………………… 2…………………………………
3………………………………… 4………………………………
5 ……………………………………
4.10 In your opinion, what are the development opportunities of this village? (mention in priority basis)
xliii 1………………………………… 2…………………………………
3………………………………… 4………………………………
5 ……………………………………
4.11 To strengthen this organization in coming future, what should be the role of this organization? Give suggestions.
1………………………………… 2…………………………………
3………………………………… 4………………………………
5 ……………………………………
xliv APPENDIX IV
GUIDELINE FOR FOGUS GROUP DISCUSSION
Types of Group M======Number of Participants======
VDC…………. Ward No======VillageM======FacilitatorM======Notemaker ======
Date M======Time M======Place M======
1= Brief Description of Participants
S. N. Age Sex Caste/ Ethnicity Education Occupation Involved Remarks NGLOs
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
2. Encouragement to make Venn and Network diagram To construct Venn Diagram, participants were encouraged to make circles of various sizes on the given pieces of paper to represent various NGLOs located in their village. The bigger the circle, the more important is the organization. The distance between circles represents, for example, the degree of influence or linkage between organization. Overlapping circles indicate interactions and the extent of overlap can indicate the level of interaction. 3 Major activities that are being conducted NGLOs in the village 4 Benefitted groups 5 Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats of NGLOs 6 Process of people's participation 7 Major areas of people's participation 8 Major needs of the village (in priority basis) 9 Responsible organizations in local development 10 Involvement of local people in decision making to local development 11 Possible sources of required fund to local development 12 Prospects of development 13 Suggestions to strengthen local development
xlv APPENDIX V
SITES OF FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSION BY QUADRANT AND PARTICIPANTS
Quadrant: One
Sites/Settlements VDC Participants
Pujarigaun Argali Badri Bhattarai, Dhadhiram Neupane, Dev Bd. Rana, Kalpana Rana, Man Bd. B.k.
Joshichaupari Tansen Dilip B. k.,Ganesh Saru, Purna Prasad Ghimire, Janaki Nepal, Krishna Bashyal.
Maidanbari Khanigaun Rama Bashyal, Krishna Rana, Prem Nepali, Ganesh Bashyal, Purna Thapa
Thanti Mujhung Krishna Karki,, Bharat Karki, Dal Bd. Nepali, Sumitra Karki, Man Bd. B.k.
Quadrant; Two
Rumaldanda Chidipani Niranjan Acharya, Kshitiz Acharya, Dal Bd. B.K., Rama Acharya, Man Bd. Thapa.
Bagchaur Humin Narayan Adhikari, Ram Pd. Khanal, Sabitra Adhikari, Man Bd. Thapa, Purna Nepali
Budhathoki Siluwa Ashbir Saru,, Ram Bd. Saru, Maya Saru, Ramesh Nepali, Govind Achaya
Majhuwa Hungi Kamala Pant, Ram Pd. Pant, Ganesh Thapa, Rama Nepali, Krishna Pande.
Quadrant: Three
Dovan Bazaar Dovan Buddha Basnet, Man Bd. Darlami, Bhog Bd. Thapa, Manisara Thapa, Ramesh Nepali
Kaule Pheka Krishna Raut, Hari Kunwar, Ram Bd. Gharti, Krishna Nepali, Lal Bd. Thapa.
Darlam Kusumkhola Krishna Acharya, Hari Thapa, Krishna Bd. B.K., Purna Bd. Khamcha, Harimaya Rana.
Ganasal Telgha Lochan Gaire, Baburam Gaire, Hira Nepali, Manasara Aslami, Man Bd. Thapa.
Quadrant; Four
Dadhran Rampur Bishwobandhu Paudel, Ram Pd. Regmi, Shiva Raj Sigdel, Jeevan Nepali, Bal Bd. Rana.
Pipaldanda Rupse Hira Acharya, Lal Bd. Rana, Madhave Nepal, Ramesh B.k., Dhanisara Kumal.
Tinti Aanp Madanpokhara Dhanapati Sharma, Lekh Nath Bhandari,, Lal Bd. Thapa, Purna
xlvi B.k., Sita Bhattarai.
Gejdanda Gothadi Ramesh Kafle, Krishna Sunar, Ramesh Darlami, Manisara Rana, Hari Ale
xlvii APPENDIX VI
CHECKLIST FOR KEY INFORMANT INTERVIEW
Name of Interviewer======
VDC======Ward No======VillageM======Facilitator======Note maker======
Date M======Time M======Place M======
1. What are the particular areas that the NGLOs of the district have been contributing? 2. How did these contributions become possible? 3. How do you get information about NGLOs? 4. What was the status of your participation to local development before the formation of NGLOs in your village and now, in what areas your participation is high? 5. What are the reasons for increasing participation? 6. How do you feel about the coverage of NGLOs? 7. In what issues particularly there occur conflict between members and why? 8. In your opinion, what kinds of leadership needed for NGLOs? 9. What are the Strengths (S), Weaknesses (W), Opportunities (O) and Threats (T) of NGLOs? 10. What are the major achievements of NGLOs? 11. What are the major problems of the village? 12. What are the major problems of the NGLOs? 13. What can be done to strengthen NGLOs in future?
xlviii xlix APPENDIX VII
LIST OF KEY INFORMANTS BY QUADRANT AND OCCUPATION
Name of the Quadrant Address Occupation Interviewee Bhuvan Bhattarai One Argali Teaching Ganesh Khanal One Tansen Teaching Krishna Dhital One Tansen Development Worker (SICODER,Palpa) Bal Bd. Rana One Baughapokharathok Civil Servant Noor Raj Bashyal One Barangdi Community Leader Narayan Adhikari Two Humin Teaching Rameshwor Panthi Two Chidipani Political Leader Binod Nepal Two Chidipani Development Worker (DLGSP,Palpa) Dev Pd. Shrestha Two Birkot Social worker Kalidas Shrestha Two Tahun Teaching Om Bd. Saru Three Kachal Political Leader Buddha Basnet Three Dovan Teaching Krishna Karki Three Mashyam Social Worker Bal Bd. Thapa Three Baldhengadhi Community leader Om Bd. Gharti Three Kachal Political Leader Madhav Nepal Four Rupse Teaching Ek Pd. Bhandari Four Madanpokhara Political Leader Basu Dev Devkota Four Rampur Teaching Rudra Marsangi Four Jhirubas Social Worker Gopal Bhattarai Four Rampur Community Leader
l APPENDIX VIII
CHECKLIST FOR ORGANIZATIONAL CASE STUDY
1. Name of Organization======2. VDC======3. Ward No======4. Village/ToleM======5. Types of organization:…… 6. Registration date: … 7. Major objectives: i).…………………… ii)…………………… iii)…………………… iv)…………………… v)…………………… 8. Served Villages: 9. Served households: 10. Number of membership Caste/ethnicity Male Female Jati: Janajati: Dalit: Muslim: 11. Organization Building Process 12. Incentives 13. Helper Organization 14. Participation in Management Committee: Caste/ethnicity Male Female Jati: Janajati: Dalit:
li Muslim: 15. Written Rules/Law (a) Yes ( ) (b) No ( ) If no, what are the working procedures? 14. Fill following information looking minute book by researcher himself: i) Minute book: a) Kept ( ) b) Not kept ( ) ii) Meeting a) Regular ( ) b) irregular ( ) iii) If it is regular, what is time interval…… iv) Filling information of last three meetings according to minute book:
Place of Date Agenda/ Participated Minute kept/ Meeting Decision Members not kept male female
15. Sources of income 16. Pattern of expenditure: (a) Cheque ( ) (b) Cash ( ) 17. Auditing: a) Yes ( ) b) No ( ) If no, what are the reasons? 20. Organization Pattern
21. Participation
22. Sustainability
23. Distribution of benefit
24. Description of leaderships
Leaders Name and Selection method Capacity to Member of surname (Unanimus/ write minute VDC/DDC elected/selected) President Vice President Secretary Treasurer 25. Problems
26. Causes of Conflict
lii APPENDIX IX
SUMMARY MATRIX OF METHODOLOGY
Study Objectives Indicators Sources of Methods of Analysis Information
Analyze the development Parma Secondary Sources Analytical pattern of local Guthi Graphs organizations in Nepal in Dhikur Diagram general and in Palpa in NGOs particular. NGLOs Explore the Origin Primary sources Qualitative and organizational features of Formalness Interview Quantitative NGLOs. Purpose FGDs Graphs Linkage KIS Diagram Initiatives Observation Membership size Case Studies Rules Decision making process Assess the contributions Resource Mobilization Primary sources Priority ranking of NGLOs to local/rural Capacity building Interview Composite index development Need identification FGDs Venn diagram Participation KIS Spider diagram Information sharing Observation Capital formation etc. Case studies Analyze the problems Problems in program Primary sources Priority ranking and prospects of NGLOs formulation Composite index in local development Interview Problems in program FGDs SWOT analysis implementation KIS Descriptive Problems of the study region Observation Development potentiality Case studies SWOT
liii APPENDIX X
NUMBER OF NGOS IN DAO, PALPA UPTO CHAITRA, 2004
SN VDC NGO SN VDC NGO SN VDC NGO 1 Archale 1 24 Gejha 7 47 Nayar Namtales 3
2 Argali 9 25 Gothadi 4 48 Palung-Mainadi 11
3 Bahadurpur 1 26 Heklang 6 49 Pheka 14
4 Bakamalang 4 27 Humin 5 50 Phoksingkot 3
5 Baldengadi 8 28 Hungi 5 51 Pipaldanda 6
6 Bandipokhara 7 29 Jalpa 6 52 Pokharathok 6
7 Barangdi 5 30 Jhadewa 4 53 Rahabas 1
8 Baugha Pokharathok 8 31 Jhirubas 1 54 Rampur 15
9 Baughagumba 12 32 Juthapauwa 2 55 Ringneraha 2
10 Bhairabsthan 9 33 Jyamire 3 56 Rupse 11
11 Bhuwanpokhari 2 34 Kachal 8 57 Sahalkot 2
12 Birkot 3 35 Kaseni 9 58 Satyawati 2
13 Chappani 5 36 Khaliban 10 59 Siddeshwor 5
14 Chhahara 14 37 Khanichhap 3 60 Siluwa 5
15 Chidipani 21 38 Khanigaun 2 61 Somadi 3
16 Chirtungdhara 4 39 Khaseuli 17 62 Tahun 8
17 Darcha 16 40 Khyaha 3 63 Tansen 149
18 Darlamdanda 9 41 Koldanda 1 64 Telgha 6
19 Debinagar 4 42 Kusumkhola 5 65 Thimure 2
20 Deurali 18 43 Madanpokhara 22 66 Yamgha 9
21 Dovan 9 44 Masyam 9 Total 585
22 Gadakot 10 45 Mityal 2 Source: District Administration Office, Palpa, 2061 23 Galdha 4 46 Mujhung 5
liv APPENDIX XI
CAPITAL FORMATION THROUGH DIFFERENT FUNCTIONS BY NGLOS
SN Capital/Function Frequency
Financial Capital 16
1 Coffee Farming 1
2 Ginger Farming 2
3 Income Generation 2
4 Market Management 3
5 Nursery Production 4
6 Poverty Reduction 2
7 Selling Wood 2
Human Capital 59
8 Account Training 2
9 Agriculture Management Training 2
10 Awareness Program 2
11 Bee Keeping Training 2
12 Camp on Women's Reproductive Health 1
13 Coffee Pathsala 1
14 Training on Conservation of Herbs 1
15 Environmental Sanitation 5
16 Forest Management Training 3
17 Ginger Processing 7
18 Goat Farming Training 1
19 Naspati Grafting 1
20 Training 4
21 Training on Coffee Processing 1
22 Training on Health and Sanitation 1
23 Training on Herbs Management 3
24 Training on Improved Cooking Stove 1
25 Training on Insect Control 11
26 Training on Lead Farmer 1
27 Training on Nursery Development 7
28 Training on Seed Production 1
lv 29 Training on Use of Ginger 1
Physical Capital 136
30 Trail making 2
31 Afforestation 16
32 Biogas Construction 2
33 Club Building Construction 4
34 Construction of Check Dam 5
35 Construction of Dhinki Pump 1
36 Drinking Water Storage Tank Construction 19
37 Forest Management 12
38 Improved Cooking Stove 6
39 Kulo Construction 1
40 Maintenance of Road 6
41 Office Construction 1
42 Pipeline Extension 7
43 Road Construction 14
44 School Construction 9
45 Temple Construction 8
46 Toilet Construction 16
47 Water Source Conservation and Management 4
48 Construction/conservation of Ponds and Well 3
Social Capital 4
49 Creation of Welfare Fund 2
50 Forest Observation Tour 1
51 Recreation 1
lvi APPENDIX XII CAPITAL FORMATION BY HELPER ORGANIZATION
S.N. Capital / Helper Organization Frequency 1 District Coffee Byabasayik Sangh 2 2 District Development Committee 2 3 Forest User Group 4 4 MARD 1 5 Members of Coffee Producers Group 1 6 SIMI_NEPAL 2 7 Soil Conservation Office 4 Human Capital 59 8 Cooperatives 1 9 Cottage and Small Scale Industry 1 10 District Agriculture Office 3 11 District Coffee Byabasayik Sangh 12 12 District Development Committee 1 13 District Forest Office 9 14 Forest User Group 4 15 Local Community 3 16 MARD 1 17 REDA 10 18 REDBARNA 2 19 Rural Support Development Program 1 20 SIMI_NEPAL 2 21 Village Development Committee 2 22 Village Environment Development Fund 2 23 Water Consumer Group 3 24 Women Development Ofiicer 2 Physical Capital 136 25 Cooperatives 1 26 District Development Committee 11
lvii 27 District Drinking Water Officer 3 28 District Forest Office 4 29 FINIDA 20 30 Forest Management 2 31 Forest User Group 27 32 Local Community 9 33 Local Community/Water Consumer Group/District Forest Office 2 34 Local Initiative Supporting Program 1 35 NARMSAP/FO 2 36 REDBARNA 3 37 Rural Support Development Program 1 38 SIMI_NEPAL 1 39 Soil Conservation Office 6 40 Village Development Committee 26 41 Village Development Committee/District Development Committee 9 42 Water Consumer Group 8 Social Capital 4 43 District Forest Office 1 44 Local Community 1 45 Water Consumer Group 2
lviii APPENDIX XIII
INDICATORS OF ORGANIZATIONAL CAPACITY (FIVE POINT SCALE)
Indicators CPG CFUG COPs GPG IWUG VPG WCDG WCG TOTAL
Decision Making 4.65 4.72 4.40 4.56 4.19 3.81 2.95 2.92 4.02
1.Committee Formation 4.95 5.00 4.94 4.73 4.68 5.00 3.11 4.32 4.59
2.Making Rules and Regulation 4.60 4.72 4.57 4.47 3.81 4.75 2.52 3.52 4.12
3.Selecting Program 4.52 4.42 4.20 4.66 4.10 4.52 2.50 2.11 3.88
4.Preparing Action Plan 4.37 4.52 4.12 4.24 3.82 2.25 3.11 1.81 3.53
5.Implementation of Program 4.82 4.92 4.17 4.72 4.55 2.52 3.50 2.82 4.00
Degree of Participation 4.20 4.39 3.98 4.28 3.88 2.90 2.85 3.43 3.74
1.Making Rules 4.90 4.95 4.85 4.75 3.85 2.11 2.11 4.11 3.95
2.Needs Identification 4.25 4.45 4.95 4.69 4.30 3.60 3.11 3.95 4.16
3. Making Working Plan 3.80 4.11 3.80 3.55 3.50 3.11 2.44 2.45 3.35
4.Implementation of Program 4.95 4.95 2.80 4.80 4.55 3.55 3.80 4.11 4.19
5.Monitoring the Program 3.11 3.50 3.50 3.60 3.20 2.11 2.80 2.55 3.05
Information Knowledge and Transparency 3.40 3.44 2.92 3.24 2.93 2.84 2.43 2.85 3.01
1.Goals and Objective of Organization 4.11 3.70 3.10 3.40 3.60 2.75 4.50 3.61 3.60
2.Saving and Investment of Group 3.50 2.80 2.20 2.70 2.11 2.55 1.50 2.25 2.45
3.Revolving Fund of Group 1.50 2.51 2.58 2.90 1.50 1.25 1.20 1.30 1.84
4.Rules/Regulations of Group 4.50 4.75 3.80 3.95 4.50 4.79 2.52 4.25 4.13
Accountability 4.05 4.20 4.11 3.98 3.60 3.00 2.47 3.55 3.62
1.Accountability to Group Decisions 4.80 4.95 4.96 4.70 4.11 4.10 3.15 3.85 4.33
2. Group Accountable to Members 3.80 3.55 4.11 3.45 3.80 2.80 2.10 3.70 3.41
3.Accountability to Organization's Program 3.55 4.11 3.25 3.80 2.90 2.11 2.15 3.10 3.12
Leadership Quality 4.13 4.30 3.95 3.73 3.82 3.88 3.93 3.69 3.93
1.Honesty/Sincerity 4.70 4.82 4.85 4.38 4.31 4.55 4.21 3.90 4.47
2.Dedication 3.95 4.11 4.10 4.13 3.95 3.85 4.11 4.25 4.06
3.Responsible/Accountable 4.85 4.90 4.15 3.95 4.25 3.22 4.51 3.95 4.22
4.Skill and Capacity 2.80 2.75 3.00 2.51 3.15 3.25 2.50 2.35 2.79
5. Honesty/Sincerity 4.55 4.65 4.35 4.25 4.17 4.19 4.13 4.11 4.30
6. Dedication 3.95 4.85 4.15 3.17 3.38 4.52 4.62 4.77 4.18
7.Responsible/Accountable 4.77 4.88 4.55 4.33 4.37 4.50 4.23 4.11 4.47
8. Skill and Capacity 3.50 3.40 2.45 3.15 2.95 2.92 3.11 2.11 2.95
Trust and Solidarity 4.43 3.86 4.13 4.26 4.04 4.06 4.10 3.20 4.01
1.Trust and Solidarity among Group Members 4.95 4.82 4.77 4.43 4.25 4.11 4.90 4.10 4.54
lix 2.Trust/Unity between Group and Non group Members 4.80 3.50 3.38 4.55 4.75 3.95 4.25 2.11 3.91
3.Level of Self-Confidence 3.55 3.25 4.25 3.80 3.11 4.11 3.15 3.40 3.58
Total 4.16 4.21 3.93 3.99 3.77 3.47 3.21 3.32 3.76
APPENDIX XIV SUMMARY RESULTS OF CASE STUDIES Case 1. Rampur Phant Irrigation Project
Location: Rampur
Registration Date: 2047
Place: District Administration Office
Number of members:1250
The main objective of this organization is to provide irrigation facilities for Darcha (Ward, 1, 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8) and Rampur (Ward, 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8) VDCs. It has been served– Bairghat, Kirtipur, Rajghara, Gandakidhik, Botegaun, Kumal Dhik, Bohoridanda, Kansjheri, Khaptar, Sadabart, Bangepasal, Miyagaun of Darcha VDC and Bejhad, Materi, Bhambak, Rangbhang, Gaudan, Koiletari, Tilpur, Pokhara, Kauwa, Pyakluk, Bijayapur, Majuwa, Bultar, Gaitar of Rampur VDC
At the beginning those households who had some irrigable land collectively discussed to form such organization. Though there was no consensus about this organization building among the farmers at the initial stage and latter on, organized farmers began to convince their neighbors regarding the need of such organization for management of irrigation canal and increase production and income. At the span of time, the number of membership grew up and the number of members reached 1250 at now. At present, the organization has 7 members on its managing committee and has one chairman and one vice- chairman. The organization has own written rules for its running.
Community members have taken incentive to form this organization. They felt themselves that if this irrigation canal is managed by themselves, it would be able to make people’s participation not only for maintenance but also in every stage of decision making. There are many organizations that have been helping to this organization from the initial stage to now. Asian Bank did help in initial stage to construct this canal while the Government of Nepal and District Irrigation Office have been helping particularly in maintenance.
There are 7 male members in the management committee- all from caste group. The former management committee was headed by Dalit. The organization has its own written rules which guided the conduct of all the members and those who violate these rules are punished according to the degree of their violation. If the rules of the organization can not address some issues, it is solved by management committee. Meeting is irregular. In minute,
lx it is mentioned to conduct meeting on 15th of every month but it is not implemented. All the agendas and decisions are kept in minute.
Last three meetings according to minute book
Place of Date Agenda/Decision Participated Minute Meeting Members kept
male female
Own office 2062 Chaitra 20 1.Cleaning canal 7 - Kept 2063 Baishak 5 2. Maintenance of canal 7 - Kept 2063 Baishak 31 3.To collect 20 Rs. Per Ropani 7 - Kept Toli Pramukhs (tole head) represent as Sakha Member (branch member) and president of Sakha Samittee elected as Mul Samittee. The leadership is selected on the basis of both – unanimously and majority.
Mul samittee - seven members- one president is unanimously selected
Sakha samittee -nine members - one sakha head
Tole samittee - Four members- one tole leader (toli pramukh)
All the transactions are done by cheque and audit is done regularly.
Description of leaderships
Leaders Name and Selection method Capacity to write Member of surname minute VDC/DDC
President Yuba Raj Khanal Unanimous Yes VDC Head Vice President Faneswor Gautam Unanimous Yes Nominated ward Head Secretary Prem Bdr. Gautam Unanimous Yes - Treasurer - - - -
The peon kept by all wards inform all ward members about the organization activities. As per information provided by peon people participate in organization’s activities. There is no equity in participating organization’s activities because there are no differences in participation from the family as per land holding size. Those who have large size of lands and who have small size of land all have to send one member from the family. Furthermore, those who have much land usually play the role of advisor while who have little land do work hard in the field. But the distribution of water depends on land holding size. Those who have much land get much water and vice versa. To reduce this problem, now there is provision to pay money proportionate to their land holding size and using this collected money necessary activities are conducted.
Those families who are located at the head used much water and replaced the warm water by cold. So to reduce this problem now, the provision is made to keep equal tap to distribute equally. Landslides and siltation are the major problems. There is no harmful conflict between members in this organization. However, sometime there appears contradiction due
lxi to personal interest, feeling of unequal distribution of benefits, personal clash between leadership and general members, etc.
Case 2. Rajkulo Jethi Irrigation Project
Location: Argali
Types of Organization: Consumer Group
Constructed in: 1864
Registration Date: 2045
Place: District Administration Office
Number of members: 234 male and 1 female
The organization was formed aiming to provide irrigation facilities for Argali Phant. It has served Khutilam, Tinsaya, Charsaya, Sayamuri, Tallosaya, Rabidas, Ranuwa, Neupanegaun, Puranogaun, Pujerigaun,Rabidas, Chhatiwangaun, etc. villages.
At the beginning the irrigation kulo was run informally. But when the number of users increased it became impossible to co-ordinate users for its management. To reduce this problem, those households who had some irrigable land and were benefitted from the kulo collectively discussed to form some kind of organization, which can co-ordinate all the users. For this, they form a kulo samittee from among the users. After long period, when they registered it as a consumer group at District Administration Office, the project got formal form and the pattern of organization changed. At the certain span of time, the number of membership grew up and the number of members reached 235 now. At present, the organization has 11 members on its managing committee including one female and has one chairman. The organization has own written rules for its running.
Community members have taken incentive to form this organization. They felt themselves that if this irrigation kulo is managed by themselves, it would be able to make people’s participation not only for maintenance but also in every stage of decision making. There are many organizations that have been helping to this organization from the initial stage to till now. District Irrigation Office, Regional Irrigation Office, Pokhara and Small Irrigation Project have done cash contribution to this project. The amounts of cash helped by these organizations are as follows: District Irrigation Office: 2061-2,72,000 Rs, 2062-4,00000 Rs. Regional Irrigation Office: 2039- 4,00000Rs, 2041-3,75,000Rs Small Irrigation Project: 2058-50,000Rs. There are 11 members in the management committee including 1 female- all from caste group. The organization has its own written rules which guided the conduct of all the members and those who violate these rules are punished according to the degree of violation. If the rules of the organization can not address some issues, it is solved by
lxii management committee. Meeting is regular. On the first day of Jestha and Bhadra, meeting is held regularly. If the meeting cannot be hold timely due to genuine cause, all the activities are looked by management committee in general and it is the responsibility of the Mukhiya (treasurer) and secretary in particular. The decisions taken by these two persons have to be followed unanimously by all users. All the agendas and decisions are kept in minute.
Last three meetings according to minute book
Place of Date Agenda/Decision Participated Minute Meeting Members kept
male female
Chautari 2063 Baishak 29 1. Preparation of annual budget 10 1 Kept presentation
1. Annual budget presentation 2063 Jestha 1 and,
2. Election. 234 1 Kept
2063 Bhabra 1 1. Review of the annual activities
230 1 Kept
Toli Pramukhs (tole head) represent as Sakha Member (branch member) and president of Sakha Samittee elected as Mul Samittee. The leadership is selected on the basis of both – unanimously and majority.
Mul samittee - seven members- one president is unanimously selected
Sakha samittee -nine members - one sakha head
Tole samittee - four members- one tole leader (toli pramukh)
All the transactions are done in cheque and audit is done regularly.
Description of leaderships
Leaders Name and surname Selection method Capacity to write Member of minute VDC/DDC
President Parshuram Bhattarai Unanimous Yes VDC Head Vice President - - - - Secretary Bishnu Pd. Adhikari Unanimous Yes - Treasurer Sheshkanta Neupane Unanimous Yes -
Members of the management committee inform all settlement members about the organization activities. As per information provided by them people participate in organization’s activities. There is no equity in participating organization’s activities because
lxiii there are no differences in participation from the family as per land holding size. Those who have large size of lands and who have small size of land all have to send at least one member from the family. But the distribution of water depends on land holding size. Those household who have 40 murri khet have to send one member at work daily. Though this rule of organization has attempted to reduce the inequality to some extent but it cannot be perceived as rational because those households who have less than this limit should also send at least one member per day Those who have much land get much water and vice versa.
This organization is functioning through consumer’s efforts. So it has now capacity to run with best participation and management skill. The grasses lying below and above the kulo are sold locally which is being the main source of income. Likewise, the member who does not participate in work is fined. Those household who have 40 murri khet should send one member at work daily. If one member cannot go for any reason, he should pay 30Rs per day. It is also the main source of income.
To make distribution pattern more equitable between head and tail now the distribution key (sancho) is made of cement which was of wood before. The key is made according to occupied land. This makes possible for the irrigation of land equally, which are located in the tail as in the head. At the time of key construction, the shape of the land from where the kulo flows is given due attention. Siltation on the bed of kulo and landslides are the major problems. There is no significant conflict until now between members in this organization. Case 3. Namuna Mahila Tatha Bachat Samuha
Location: Humin –5, Bagchour, Palpa
Established Date: 2050 Service Provided Households: 50
Number of members: 50 (females)
Registration: Mahila Kalyan Sangh
The main objective of the organization is to enhance female’s consciousness and provide incentive to backward females through female literacy, compulsory savings and investing income generating activities.
At the beginning 10 households of equal income status and backward women collectively started this program with their initial efforts and capital investments. Then they began to make their neighbours conscious about their organization and at the span of time it grew up and the number of members reached 50 now. At present, the organization has 11 members in its managing committee and has one chairman and one vice- chairman. The organization has own written rules for its running.
lxiv At the time of organization building people got incentives from four NGOs working in the district. They are Women Welfare Association, M.S. Nepal, V.D.R.C. and LISP. Every issues and problems are discussed between members of the organization and lastly, decisions are taken by assembly through consensus. For this, first of all the leaders of the organization identify growing needs of the members and problems faced by organization, if any. Then they put it in assembly and make discussion openly. After discussion, they come to final conclusion. The organization has undertaken following major activities:
Health and Sanitation Programs are launched by this organization. For this, the organization with the help of its members have campaigned awareness building programs related to construction of toilets and use of smokeless stoves. The organization lends money from their saving fund as per their rule to those who feel it necessary. Adult education and gender awareness is another program conducted by this organization. For adult education, local educated individuals are encouraged to take responsibility with little incentives. The materials such as books, pencils and notebooks and kerosene are managed by the organization using common fund. For gender awareness the organizations manage different meetings between members and non-members and door-to-door campaigns to slow down the gender discrimination. They encourage local people to send school both son and daughter, provide equal wages to males and females, give equal opportunity to health and so on. The organization helps and encourages its members to invest in income generating activities such as goat keeping, coffee plantation. For this, organization provides micro credit on installment basis. Lesson Learned from the Case Studies
From all these cases important lessons can be gleaned which can serve as guidelines to the planning and implementation of local development activities through NGLOs. These are: a) security of access to resources encourages accountability and proper sense of ownership, b) organizations and skills are important characteristics for implementation of local activities, c) the role of “bridge catalysts” or facilitators is equally important, d) economic incentives enhance collective action, and, e) local development activities must be anchored on people’s need. Concluding Remarks
Efforts in the local development planning to use local resources and make people’s lives better have traditionally involved decision making at the higher level of government. The local people acted as mere recipients of these efforts. However, this strategy has proven unsuccessful. An alternative approach which has emerged from the lesson shows that local organization formation focuses on the capability of the community to control the use of its own resources. The approach recognizes the interaction of people and resources i.e. physical, human and financial within a particular setting.
lxv The local organizations lie beyond the government is grounded in the premise that local people can manage their own resources given the opportunity to do so. The organizations have to be equipped with the necessary skills. They have to develop a sense of ownership for the resource and development infrastructure to ensure better lives. This sense of ownership will promote local community for equitable sharing of fruits of local development and self- reliance.
lxvi APPENDIX XV FIELD EXPERIENCES
Field survey was conducted during the months of January-February, 2005. The time duration was appropriate for intensive surveys from the point of view of obtaining responses of the people for two main reasons. Firstly, this is fair weather season and therefore commuting is easy, secondly, this is the off-season of major agricultural activities. The field survey was to be carried under such circumstances where the activities of the Maoist insurgents and the search by armed forces of the government were simultaneously going on in the district. The researcher took help from local people particularly of local teachers from the community itself to cope with the difficult situation and to ease the situation for organizational survey. Further, their cooperation was helpful in organizing the focus group discussions and the interview with the key respondents. The work was intended to cover the entire Palpa district as the study area. The war between the Maoist and Government’s army made some unfavourable situation to move from one place to another due to intensive checking and cross gun firing at some places. It was very difficult to carry toposheet map and camera to fulfill the research objectives due to the suspicion of information flowing from one to another of their activities. Ph.D student identity card provided by Dean’s Office and a letter of supervisor made easier to some extent to complete the field survey successfully. The researcher got direct experience of war between the armies during the time of field survey on February 2, 2005 when the Maoist army attacked Tansen, the headquarters of Palpa district. On that day, researcher returned from Rampur VDC to Tansen after completing the field work at 5 pm and went to rest in guest house of the Electricity Authority. At 7 pm a police inspector came to our living place and told us to switched off all the electricity and he also warned us about the possibility of attack by the Maoists. We took our meal earlier and tried to verify the police information about the possible attack asking our friends in the surrounding village by telephone till 8 pm. We found the police warn was correct. Until this time the activities of police and armies were intensified here and there. We had no way to go outside from the Darbar compound because the quarter was one of the buildings lying in that compound. Therefore we were compelled to sit there. At that time I did many speculations with some hope and with some frustration. I remembered all my family members, relatives and friends. We could not speak to each other. Suddenly about at 10 pm we heard the first bomb blast and cross gun firing just 25 meters away from our room. These activities frightened us and we were psychologically terrified and no hope of survival. The on-going war-like situation and a cross-firing right to the nose made me hopeless. Nevertheless, there was no end of hope to be alive. We spend about 8 hours under such stress and tension. My friends who were the teacher of Tribhuvan Multiple Campus had come to get information about me. They became very happy seeing me alive from unforeseen situations. The researcher got some interesting experience at the time of field survey. Only two among others are mentioned here. First, when the preparation of Focus Group Discussion at Rampur including Kumal community at chautari closer to their settlement was made and just the discussion was begun a person of the community came, who had taken alcohol named locally rakshi and began to disturb our
lxvii discussion. He demanded only to note down his logic because other participants were not aware of the situation of the village. The researcher with the help of other participants tried to convince him not to disturb the work but we all became failure. There was no way except to stop the discussion for that day and the same discussion was arranged with the same participants next morning in my friend’s house successfully. Second, when the organizational survey in Rupse VDC according to sample selection was started by filling up questionnaire of sampled Community Forest Users Group, a member of another organization i.e. Coffee Producer’s Group asked researcher not to do partiality between the organizations. Though researcher told him his research constraints, he did not become convinced. To keep better relation with the villagers, researcher decided to fill extra questionnaire though it was not useful for my study. The field visits were not only difficult moments but also some significant learning process relating to different communities and their organizations. The respondents were comfortable while talking with the help of local people whom they knew. It should be mentioned here that the area was not new for me being a resident of the same district and many students of the researcher were involved in different jobs at different places which made easy to organise field study as well as for night halt. Some of the people were even very curious about the issues of research and shared their ideas freely and positively. No any respondent opposed to share his personal knowledge and information during the time of data collection. In sum, it can be said that the interaction with the people in the rural environment was, by and large, fruitful and the moments passed there were exciting, joyful and memorable.
lxviii