Private vehicles are stealing public cities: land-use analysis across and Dundee,

Marli de Jongh

Photo: Ross Sneddon on Unsplash

SAGES policy internship working with Scotland’s Future Forum at the Scottish Parliament and the Edinburgh Centre for Carbon Innovation (ECCI)

Foreword This report was written prior to the Covid-19 global pandemic, which resulted in the lockdown of many countries worldwide including Scotland. During lockdown there was a global reduction in atmospheric air pollution as a result of the temporary shutdown of industry and lower demand of transport. In Edinburgh, NOx – a greenhouse gas (GHG) associated with emissions from road vehicles – reduced by 78 % on St John’s Road between the start of lockdown in March, and May (Wu and Carslaw., 2020). Similar dramatic decreases in nitrous oxides were recorded in other Scottish cities including Glasgow and Dundee. Moreover, further research during the pandemic identified a potential link between cities with higher amounts of air pollution and higher covid-19- related death tolls (Wu et al., 2020). This highlights the threat air pollution in cities – primarily caused by excessive car use – can have on human respiratory and cardiovascular health (Harrison and Beddows., 2017). During lockdown the need to prioritise space for pedestrians in cities has become more apparent as social distancing rules began. On 28 April, Scottish government announced a £10 million budget for pop-up active travel infrastructure, to be used during the pandemic to ensure physical distancing by widening pavements and cycle lanes. Such changes can be seen in cities across Scotland such as Kelvin Way in Glasgow which was completely closed to motor vehicles to allow for pedestrians and cyclists to exercise safely while keeping the mandatory 2m distance. Such changes in active transport infrastructure have led to a massive influx in cycling, where cycling rates in Scotland are currently up by 75% (Transport Scotland., 2020). In summary the Covid-19 pandemic has shown how quickly air quality can improve when GHG emissions are strictly limited. In city environments most of our emissions come from road transport, in particular excessive personal car use. The pandemic has also highlighted the important role of active travel in a greener future and that if active travel infrastructure is in place, people will use it. At the time of writing this foreword, Scotland remains under lockdown and local councils are continuing to make the most of the absence of cars to improve active travel infrastructure. However, the next challenge will be for councils and government to continue this progress post-pandemic, which will require bold restrictions on car use in cities.

Marli de Jongh June 2020

Introduction Since 2010 the UK has experienced five of its hottest years on record (Figure 1). In April 2019 Scotland became the first country to declare a climate emergency. The Scottish government’s declaration was a response to increased global awareness of the threats associated with climate change and acts as an acknowledgment that climate change mitigation should be the focus of government, driving future political decisions. Climate change, characterised by an increase in global surface temperatures, is caused primarily by the burning of fossil fuels (Karl & Trenberth., 2003). Following the introduction of the Climate Change (Scotland) Act in 2009 the legislation has been revised several times. In 2019, the Scottish Parliament set the most ambitious target to date with the goal of net-zero on all greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions by 2050, including carbon neutrality by 2030. Scotland’s emission goals are regarded the most pioneering of any country and go beyond the goals set out in the Paris Agreement. Globally, the transport sector is a major contributor to the burning of fossil fuels, accounting for 26% of GHG emissions (Chapman, 2007). This trend is reflected in Scotland where transport accounts for 36.8% of total emissions and remains the only sector with increasing GHG emissions (Scottish GHG emissions report, 2019). The continued increase of GHG emissions within the transport sector reflects an increase of road transport emissions, primarily associated with increases in car ownership and dependence. In 2018 the number of licensed motor vehicles reached 3 million; its highest ever level. This is a 12% increase since 2008; where 71% of households had access to one or more cars for personal use (Scottish Transport Statistics, 2019). Furthermore, across the UK a quarter of all car journeys are under two miles in length (Mackett., 2000). Increases in car dependence may be multifaceted and involve factors including access to public transport and the availability of active (cycling and walking) transport infrastructure. Cars being used more frequently, particularly in cities, leads to greater levels of congestion and GHGs in our atmosphere. Congestion in cities is particularly problematic and is known to result in dangerous levels of air pollution affecting both the environment and human health. The World Health Organization (WHO) estimate 4.2 million deaths globally per year due to outdoor exposure to polluted ambient air. In city environments non-CO2 GHGs such as nitrous oxides and particulate matter (PM) are considered especially harmful for human health. A common governmental response to congestion is to create more space for motor vehicles by building more roads and space for parking (Hymel., 2019). As more space is dedicated to road transport infrastructure, more people are encouraged to drive for convenience through induced demand (Chapman 2007; Hymel., 2019) – which ultimately leads to more congestion and creates a vicious cycle more private vehicles, more road infrastructure, repeat. The aim of this project is to assess how space is allocated in city environments, with a focus on how much space is dedicated to cars in comparison to other modes of transport. This aim will be achieved through digital mapping of three case study sites in Scotland: Scottish Event Campus (SEC), Glasgow; area, Glasgow; and the Dundee Waterfront. Results will then be discussed in context of Scotland’s recently published National Transport Strategy (NTS). The NTS outlines Scotland’s transport aims over the coming 20 years and was recently published in February 2020. The strategy outlines four priorities as follows: to reduce inequalities; take climate action; help deliver inclusive economic growth; and improve health and wellbeing. The report will conclude with recommendations regarding existing and future policy focussed on reducing GHG emissions of transport in cities through promotion of active transport.

Figure 1: Warming stripes for the UK, showing annual average temperature (Co) from 1884 to 2018 (UK Met office). Warmer annual average temperatures are represented by warm colours such pink and red. Methods Ordnance Survey maps were used as base maps from which area and distances were calculated using Edina Digimap. By combining digital and field mapping, the accuracy of features recorded on the most up to date OS maps and Google Earth Images were assessable. As well as assessing the accuracy of digital maps, field mapping was also used as an opportunity to record data unavailable from OS maps – such as number of on- street parking spaces and presence of cycle paths. Editing and digitisation of maps was completed using Inkscape software. Space is mapped into ten categories which are defined below: • Roads: Roads are considered as space dedicated to cars in the absence of any bus or cycle lanes; • Car parks: Car parks are always regarded as space dedicated to cars. This includes open car parks and buildings which function as a car park (e.g. multi storey car parks); • On-street parking: On-street parking was mapped, including spaces that were being used illegally for parking (e.g. frequented parking on double yellow lines); • Public transport: This category consists of dedicated bus lanes, and public transport stations; • Buildings: This is a general buildings category and excludes buildings used as car parks, and/or bus/train stations; • Pavement: Pavement is considered as space dedicated to active transport; • Green space: Green space is any space without paving, buildings or other structures and therefore can include verges and random patches of degraded soil/grass; • Loading and storage: In instances where paved areas, attached to buildings usually, are used not for parking, but for storing containers and/or bins etc.; • Cycling: Space dedicated to cycling is defined as either instances where cycle lanes are on roads but separated from the main road by a physical barrier – as this has been shown to be the safest way for cyclists and motorists to share road space (Marshall & Ferenchak., 2019), or instances where cycle lanes are on pavements where markings such as paint are accompanied by appropriate signage; • Under development: This category is used for cases where the land is currently being transformed as part of a project and therefore the end use of the space is unknown. Case Studies Three case study sites were selected with the area of selected sites varying from 0.12 km2 – 0.27 km2. Each site has similarities and differences associated with primary land use (i.e. leisure, commuting, tourism) and each span different developmental time periods. This was to highlight differences in city planning approaches during different decades. Below is a brief introduction to each of the case study sites. Scottish Event Campus (SEC), Glasgow The SEC is Scotland’s largest events centre consisting of the SEC Centre, the Armadillo and the Hydro Arena. The area is situated on the north side of the in the district of Finnieston, Glasgow City. Land use is primarily for tourism and leisure with venues commonly used for concerts and conferences throughout the year. In 2021 the SEC is due to host the UN climate change summit (COP26). In terms of PM2.5 and PM10 pollutants, Glasgow was found to be the most polluted city in Scotland and 3rd most in the UK (WHO, 2016). PM is major pollutant associated with motor vehicles and is particularly harmful for human health (Harrison and Beddows., 2017). Glasgow’s poor air quality and position as host of COP26 make it an ideal case study for evaluating car dependency. Construction of the first venue in the area, the SEC Centre began in 1983 after the closure of Queen’s dock in the 1960s. The Armadillo was built later in 1995 and, in 2004, £562 million was invested into the area as part of a regeneration programme which included the construction of the Hydro Arena which opened in 2013. The nearest train station is Exhibition Centre which is approximately a 5-minute walk from all venue entrances. The total area mapped in this study was 0.27 km2 (Figure 2a). Dundee City Waterfront The Dundee City waterfront project, including the construction of the Victoria and Albert (V&A) Museum, is a £1 billion project which has been ongoing since 2010. The V&A museum opened to the public September 2018. The waterfront project is hoped to increase tourism to the city by creating a more developed open space for people to travel, shop and explore. The project covers an area of 0.27 km2 along 8km of the River Tay (Figure 2b). The case study area used here focusses on part of the central waterfront zone which is considered the focal point of the project and includes the museum, train station and Discovery Point. Finnieston The Finnieston area lies <1 km to the north of the SEC in Glasgow. The land use of the area is primarily residential and commercial and is a heavily relied upon commuter road for motorists, cyclists and pedestrians travelling between Southside, City Centre and West End of Glasgow. The housing is mainly Glasgow tenements, many of which were constructed during 1850s. The businesses are a mixture of restaurants, bars, cafes and other amenities all contributing to the productivity of the area. In 2019 Finnieston was deemed the ‘hippest place to live’ in the UK by The Times (2016), and one of the ‘top ten coolest neighbourhoods’ in Europe by The Independent (2018). The total area mapped is smaller than the previous case studies at 0.12 km2 (Figure 2c). The area is known for having an abundance of on-street parking affecting both congestion and commuter safety.

Figure 2: Showing location and extent of case study sites: a) SEC, Glasgow (top); b) Dundee Waterfront (middle); and c) Finnieston, Glasgow (bottom) - slightly North of the SEC campus (Ordinance Survey, 2020). Results Results are shown in Table 1 and 2. Figure 3 shows visually how space is allocated across each case study site. Below is a summary of results for each case study: Scottish Event Campus (SEC), Glasgow The amount of space dedicated to cars at the SEC is 41% (112,205 m2). Of the total space dedicated to cars, 67% (75,912 m2) is car parks and the remaining 33% is roads. The proportion of pavement at SEC is 10.3% - predominantly located outside arenas. The total proportion of green space consists of verges and degraded soil. There is one dedicated cycle lane in the case study area which passes through the tunnel at the SEC. It was noted that there was more space dedicated to smoking on the SEC campus than bicycle parking. There are no dedicated bus lanes. One train station (Exhibition Centre) serves the location. It is well connected to Glasgow Central Station and thus all stations it serves. There is a bus stop outside the Armadillo, but it is only accessible to private coach companies and city sight-seeing busses. There are no public buses connecting to the largest events campus in Scotland. Dundee City Waterfront The proportion of space dedicated to cars at Dundee waterfront area is 34% - the lowest of the case study sites (Figure 3). Of the total space dedicated to cars, the majority consists of roads at 58% (50,947 m2) with the remainder dedicated to car parks (41%) and on-street parking (1%). The proportion of green space in Dundee is 9.9%, predominantly occurring as patches, apart from Slessor Gardens. Dundee has the highest proportion of space dedicated to pedestrians (pavement) at 21%. Cycling infrastructure at the waterfront consists of a bike shelter attached to the train station which has capacity for up to ~140 bikes, with bike hire available in the train station. Generally, bike parking facilities are more common in comparison to other case studies – especially near the train station and V&A. However, there is still no dedicated, segregated cycle lane. There was also only one bus lane identified across the entire mapping area. Finnieston The amount of space dedicated to cars in the Finnieston mapping area is 36% (43,003 m2). Of this 36%, around 51% is made up of car parks while 42% consists of roads. Finnieston also had the highest proportion of space dedicated to on-street parking and buildings at 2% (2,880 m2) and 29% respectively (Figure 3). Green space principally consists of gardens attached to residential properties. Of all case study sites, Finnieston, despite being a hub for nightlife, has the lowest proportion of space dedicated to pedestrians (pavements) at 8%. There are no dedicated bike or bus lanes in the area, although bike hire and parking can be found intermittently along Argyle Street.

SEC Dundee Finnieston m 2 % m 2 % m 2 % Total area 273,967.5 100 254,345.7 100 118,139.3 100

R 36292.4 13.2 50,946.9 20 18,152.4 15.4 CP 75912.7 27.7 36,095.7 14.2 21,971.6 18.6 (OS)-p 0 0 1162.3 0.5 2879.6 2.4 P 28124.3 10.3 53,246.7 20.9 9783.6 8.3

B 73725.7 26.9 30,692.2 12.1 33,597.8 28.4

G 30290.2 11.1 25,116.2 9.9 13,683.3 11.6 PT 295.5 0.1 20,359 8 2602.9 2.2

C 252.9 0.1 133.7 0.1 0 0 UD 0 0 34,625.6 14 11,917.2 10.1

LS 29073.8 10.6 1967.4 1 3550.9 3 Table 1

SEC Dundee Finnieston m 2 % m 2 % m 2 % Cars (Total) 112,205.1 100 88,204.9 100 43,003.6 100 Roads 36292.4 32.3 50,946.9 57.8 18,152.4 42.2 CP 75912.7 67.7 36,095.7 40.9 21,971.6 51.1 (OS)-p 0 0 1162.3 1.3 2879.6 6.7 Table 2 Tables 1 and 2 showing numerical results from study. Table 1 (top) shows area (m2) of all categories and their relative percentages while Table 2 (bottom) shows space (m2) considered dedicated to cars with relative percentages.

SEC - TOURISM/LEISURE Loading and storage 11%

Roads Green space 13% 11%

Building Car parks 27% 28%

Pavement 10%

DUNDEE-TOURISM/BUSINESS/LEISURE Loading and storage 1% Under development 14% Roads 20%

Public transport 8%

Car parks Green space 14% 10%

Building On-street parking 12% 0.5%

Pavement 21%

FINNIESTON - RESIDENTIAL/COMMERCIAL/COMMUTING Loading and storage Under development 3% Roads 10% 15%

Public transport 2%

Green space 12% Car parks 19%

On-street parking 2% Building 29% Pavement 8%

Figure 3: Allocation of space compared across each case study site: SEC (top), Dundee Waterfront (middle), and Finnieston (bottom). Discussion Scottish Event Campus (SEC), Glasgow The SEC is Scotland’s largest events campus – reflected by the vast number of car parks in the area (Figure 4). These large, single-level car parks are only used when large-scale events at the SEC take place, meaning that most of the time they remain unused. Furthermore, these carparks are the result of environmental destruction of natural habitat for urban wildlife concurrently with promoting the use of private vehicles. The lack of public buses linking the campus to the city is concerning. Important factors to consider when improving public transport include affordability, convenience and reliability. Subsidising or offering fare-free public transport to events at stadiums/arenas as part of the ticket price has been implemented in other European countries, the US and Australia (OECD., 2002). For example, recently the 72,000 seat Husky Stadium in Seattle offered fare-free transit for fans on game days, resulting in an increase of public transport use from 4% to 21% (CityLab., 2020). At the SEC campus, the cost of every event ticket could include a valid city-wide rail, bus and subway ticket. This would be an excellent way to encourage public transport and aligns with the NTS to help deliver inclusive economic growth, by getting people to where they need to be. With improvements to public transport, some of the underused, single-level car parks could be developed into green spaces and/or small businesses helping to increase the aesthetic and productivity of the area. Dundee City Waterfront Dundee is the most recently developed area in this project (commencing 2010) where 14% of land space is still under development (Fig. 5). Some of these developments involve the removal of single-level car parks (suggested in SEC section) and development of green spaces. Therefore, Dundee’s development plans do show a more forward approach to more environmentally friendly city spaces, which is in line with the NTS priorities such as the promotion of green spaces as a means of climate action. Despite having the highest proportion of space dedicated to pedestrians (pavement), however this space is very fragmented due to the wide, multi-lane road network cutting through the area. Moreover, pedestrian crossing wait times were lengthy: up to 5 minutes and with no audible sound alert for visually impaired persons). A reduction in pedestrian waiting times is recommended to ensure pedestrian prioritisation and safe crossing (Japs., 2000). The area could also benefit from a more connected cycle route, linking the cycle route at the waterfront to the city centre shopping area. A simple way to improve cycling accessibility in the area would be to update the existing puffin crossings into toucan crossings. Alternatively, segregated cycle lanes could be introduced as discussed in the Finnieston section below. Promoting active transport as a key component of the NTS and would help improve health and well-being, while also supporting the 2050 target for net-zero. Finnieston The Finnieston area is a mixed-use area consisting of residential and business properties, whilst also serving as a key commuter route. As a residential and business area, on-street parking is more common here and creates problems such as congestion, subsequent air pollution and safety issues for cyclists and pedestrians. Finnieston also has the lowest proportion of space dedicated to pedestrians at 8%, despite the vast number of pubs, restaurants café and small businesses along Argyle Street (Figure 6). This low proportion of space dedicated to pedestrians and higher proportion of space dedicated to cars may inhibit the success of local businesses by making the area increasingly unappealing to walk around, browse through shops, and generally spend time in as congestion increases with increasing private vehicle usage. Restrictions to on-street parking, particularly on Argyle Street, would create a safer, more open environment while helping to reduce congestion. This freed up space could be used to introduce segregated cycle lanes and widen pavements, giving pedestrians and businesses more space to interact. Segregated cycle lanes have been shown to be the safest design for both cyclists and motorists as they separate users from the main road by using a physical barrier (Marshall & Ferenchak., 2019). Building segregated cycle lanes has also been shown to encourage more cyclists to the area which would help to reduce car dependency (Macmillan et al., 2014; Marshall and Ferenchak., 2019). Businesses on streets with dedicated cycle routes grew faster on average than those streets without (Klemmer et al., 2018). Again such changes would support the NTS priority to deliver inclusive economic growth by making business areas more accessible for people using active and public transport. As well as environmental and economic benefits, cycling has also been linked to lower incidences of cardiovascular disease, some cancers and premature mortality (Celis-Morales et al., 2017). Analysis from Sustrans found that between 2017 and 2040 the NHS could be saved up to £319m and see 34,000 less incidences of type 2 diabetes, stroke, breast cancer and depression if cycling rates were to increase at the same rate as in London since 2000 (since when they have more than doubled) (Guardian., 2019). A local example of where this is currently happening in Glasgow is Victoria Road in Southside Glasgow, where on-street parking has been removed and segregated cycle lanes complete with pedestrian crossings have been introduced. Since such developments, the area has seen several new, thriving local businesses. It is also worth noting that in comparison to road infrastructure, bike infrastructure is cheap with high benefits to cost ratio (Sælensminde., 2004). As well as aligning with the NTS through improving health and wellbeing, cycling as a mode of transport has also been shown to reduce transport inequalities within cities (Yates & Whyte., 2019). A cycling inclusion project – Bikes for All (BfA) – aim to reduce inequalities in accessing cycling in Glasgow, by offering bike hire at low costs and improving people’s knowledge and confidence in cycling around cities. The project targeted groups of people who faced financial difficulties, did not have access to a bike and/or were part of a demographic less likely to cycle. Of all participants recruited for this two-year project, almost half of recruited participants identified as BAME, while 26% and 28% of participants were seeking asylum and homeless, respectively. Follow-up survey results were positive, suggesting that participants confidence in accessing cycling had increased and that cycling had a positive impact on physical and mental wellbeing. NextBike (bike hire company in Glasgow) are currently working to create more bike hire stations in some of Glasgow’s most deprived areas as a means to maintain diversity and inclusion within the cycling community. Such bike communities and projects play an integral role in the NTS by creating diverse cycling communities and reducing inequalities that exist in city cycling.

SEC - TOURISM/LEISURE Loading and storage 11% Roads Green space 11% 13%

Building Car parks 27% 28%

Pavement 10%

↑N E

Figure 4: SEC mapping area showing results of how space is allocated across the case study site.

DUNDEE-TOURISM/BUSINESS/LEISURE Loading and Under storage development 1% 14% Roads 20%

Public transport 8% Car parks Green space 14% 10%

Building On-street 12% parking Pavement 0.5% 21%

↑ NW

Figure 5: Dundee waterfront mapping area showing results of how space is allocated across the case study site.

FINNIESTON - RESIDENTIAL/COMMERCIAL/COMMUTING Under Loading and development storage 3% Roads 10% 15% Public transport 2%

Car parks Green space 19% 12%

On-street parking Building Pavement 2% 29% 8%

Figure 6: Finnieston mapping area showing results of how space is allocated across the case study site. ↑NE Conclusions This study has shown using three case studies that space in cities is overwhelmingly dedicated to the car – where roads, car parks and on-street parking cumulatively account for the highest proportion of space at each site. Furthermore, green spaces, public transport and cycling infrastructure are extremely lacking and appear to be of relatively low priority. This is particularly apparent at the SEC, Glasgow, where there is more space dedicated to outdoor smoking than bike parking. Overall, the case study sites could benefit from the following recommendations aimed at reducing private vehicle dependency: • Revision of bus timetables providing regular and reliable services for event campuses. • Subsidising or offering free transport with tickets for event campuses. • Restrict the construction of single-level car parks with low-usage (e.g. SEC) which inefficiently use space and have a negative impact on the environment. • Redevelopment of such single-level car parks into green spaces and small business spaces which are: aesthetically pleasing, environmentally friendly, and economically beneficial; while also discouraging driving by reducing parking facilities. • Reducing waiting times at pedestrian crossings where possible and modifying crossing into toucan crossings to create more accessible cycle routes. • Restrict on-street parking in favour of wider pavement and segregated cycle lanes to encourage economic growth, safe cycling and lower congestion and GHG emissions. The above recommendations are in line with the priorities and objectives of the National Transport Strategy by prioritising active and public transport. Prioritising active and public transport will reduce car dependency and in turn help to reduce GHG emissions in cities.

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