Prehistoric settlement pattern analysis in the Mimbres Region, New Mexico
Item Type text; Dissertation-Reproduction (electronic)
Authors Graybill, Donald Alan, 1942-
Publisher The University of Arizona.
Rights Copyright © is held by the author. Digital access to this material is made possible by the University Libraries, University of Arizona. Further transmission, reproduction or presentation (such as public display or performance) of protected items is prohibited except with permission of the author.
Download date 25/09/2021 02:28:14
Link to Item http://hdl.handle.net/10150/597070 PREHISTORIC SETTLEMENT PATTERN ANALYSIS
IN THE MIMBRES REGION, NEW MEXICO
by
Donald Alan Graybill
A Dissertation Submitted to the Faculty of the
DEPARTMENT OF ANTHROPOLOGY
In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements For the Degree of
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
In the Graduate College
THE UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA
1 9 7 3 THE UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA
GRADUATE COLLEGE
I hereby recommend that this dissertation prepared under my direction by ______Donald Alan Graybill______entitled _____ Prehistoric Settlement Pattern Analysis in the_____
_____ Mimbres Region, New Mexico______be accepted as fulfilling the dissertation requirement of the degree of ______Doctor of Philosophy______
,/ y IS23. iissert Director Date
After inspection of the final copy of the dissertation, the following members of the Final Examination Committee concur in its approval and recommend its acceptance:»
This approval and acceptance is contingent on the candidate's adequate performance and defense of this dissertation at the final oral examination. The inclusion of this sheet bound into the library copy of the dissertation is evidence of satisfactory performance at the final examination. STATEMENT BY AUTHOR
This dissertation has been submitted in partial fulfillment of requirements for an advanced degree at The University of Arizona and is deposited in the University Library to be made available to bor rowers under rules of the Library.
Brief quotations from this dissertation are allowable without special permission, provided that accurate acknowledgment of source is made. Requests for permission for extended quotation from or repro duction of this manuscript in whole or in part may be granted by the copyright holder.
SIGNED: © COPYRIGHTED
BY
DONALD ALAN GRAYBILL
1973
111 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
My interests and involvement in the field of Anthropology were initially encouraged by Dr. David M. Gradwohl of Iowa State University.
His patience with an undisciplined undergraduate is gratefully acknowledged.
Although the majority of my work at The University of Arizona has been in the Department of Anthropology, it has also been my privilege to be associated with the Laboratory of Tree-Ring Research as a student and graduate research assistant. Contact with Drs. Bryant Bannister, Jeffrey
S. Dean, Charles W. Ferguson, Harold C. Fritts, C. V. La Marche, and
William J. Robinson has provided me with useful insight into a broad range of both chronological and paleoenvironmental research topics and methods. Drs. Bannister and Ferguson were helpful members on the minor
committee for the doctoral examinations. Drs. Ferguson and La Marche provided me with employment at critical times in my financial career, which is also much appreciated.
The Department of Anthropology under the direction of Dr. Raymond
H. Thompson has been a stimulating academic environment. In addition to
this, the department has provided me with valuable teaching experience and
financial support at various times.
Particular thanks are due to Dr. Arthur J. Jelinek, chairman of
the dissertation committee. Our association has included several years
and several aspects of professional research and teaching. There has
iv V been no greater stimulus and assistance than his in my professional career. Drs. Emil W. Haury and William J. Robinson also served on the dissertation committee, providing valuable suggestions and criticisms of this work.
Several of my peers have provided helpful comments and sugges tions regarding this project. They include Michael B. Collins, Meade F.
Kemrer, Tony Luebbermann, J. Jefferson Reid, and Michael B. Schiffer.
This project was made possible, in part, by funds from the
Wenner Gren Foundation for Anthropological Research and the National
Science Foundation. Those funds are gratefully acknowledged.
The field efforts were made successful by the enthusiastic participation of G. Michael Jacobs, Bruce A. Jones, and Robert M.
Herskovits. Seldom have so few worked for so little. The analyses of
the data and my comprehension of using computerized statistical methods have been enhanced by lengthy discussions with David Taylor and Lawrence
Manire. The Department of Anthropology generously furnished the oppor
tunity for using computer time.
Other persons who deserve thanks and contributed to the quality
of this dissertation are Jack Hannah and Debi Hondorf who did the
illustrations, and Joyce Drennen who typed the final manuscript.
The final acknowledgments belong first to my parents who always
encouraged and supported my academic interests. My wife Kathryn has
been of greater assistance than I can describe through all phases of the
project. TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
LIST OF T A B L E S ...... x
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS ...... xii
ABSTRACT...... xiii
I. INTRODUCTION...... 1
Concepts ...... Cultural Adaptation Settlement Patterns Models and Assumptions
Organization ...... LO UJ ON hO
II. REGIONAL PERSPECTIVES ...... 8
Regional Cultural Boundaries ...... 8 Regional Natural Environment ...... 10 Geology and G e o g r a p h y ...... 10 Climate ...... 12 Biogeography ...... 15 Environment, Culture, and Diversity ...... 19 Early Agriculture ...... 19 Subsistence and Environmental Diversity ...... 21
III. ENVIRONMENT AND PREHISTORY IN THE MIMBRES RIVER V A L L E Y ...... 26
The Natural Environment...... 26 Geology and Physiography...... 26 Climate and Bio geography ...... 29 Nineteenth Century Observations on Environment and Prehistory...... 30 The Central and Lower ML mbres Valley ...... 30 The Northern Mi mbres V a l l e y ...... 32 Early Twentieth Century Archaeological Survey and D e s c r i p t i o n ...... 36 Archaeological Excavation ...... 37 The Chronological and Developmental Framework ..... 39
vi vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS— Continued
Page
IV. SETTLEMENT, SUBSISTENCE, AND PAST ENVIRONMENTS ...... 46
Early Hunters, Collectors, and Farmers ...... 46 Farming Communities ...... 46 Settlement Patterns: Early Villages ...... 47 Settlement Patterns: Later Developments ...... 48 Subsistence and Environment ...... 50 Excavated Biotic Data ...... 50 Food and T o o l s ...... 53 Architecture and Tools ...... 55 Fauna and T o o l s ...... 56 Environmental Variation...... 56 Perspectives ...... 58
V. ARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEY AND ENVIRONMENTAL VARIATION...... 59
Introduction...... 59 Procedures and C a t e g o r i e s ...... 62 Field Survey ...... 63 The Natural Environment ...... 65 Geology and Topography ...... 66 Hydrology...... 68 S o i l s ...... 71 Climate...... 74 Bio geography ...... 76
VI. CULTURAL AND CHRONOLOGICAL VARIATION ...... 82
Architectural Variability ...... 82 Depressions ...... 83 Stone Structures ...... 86 Ceramic Variability ...... 89 Plain, Tooled, and Slipped W a r e s ...... 91 Corrugated Wares ...... 93 Painted Wares ...... 95 Sources of E r r o r ...... 96 Sampling Error ...... 97 Contextual Errors ...... 97 The Chronological and Developmental System ...... 100 Period A, A.D. 500 - A.D. 1000 ...... / . . . 100 Georgetown Phase, A.D. 500 - A.D. 624 ...... 101 Survey R e s u l t s ...... 101 San Francisco Phase, A.D. 624 - A.D. 850 103 Survey Results ...... 103 Three Circle Phase, A.D. 850 - A.D. 1000 103 Survey Results ...... 104 viii
TABLE OF" CONTENTS— Continued
Page
Period B, A.D. 1000 - A.D. 1200 ...... 106 Chronology...... 107 Phase D e f i n i t i o n s ...... 110 Survey R e s u l t s...... 114
VII. SETTLEMENT, SUBSISTENCE, AND ENVIRONMENT ...... 119
Perspectives: Subsistence and Environment ...... 120 Agricultural Perspectives ...... 120 Environmental U n i t s ...... 125 Subenvironmental Variation...... 127 Period A: Settlement Variation ...... 131 Assumptions and Functional Variations ...... 131 Site Location and S u b s i s t e n c e ...... 138 Settlement by Subenvironment...... 139 The Range of S e t t l e m e n t ...... 140 Period B : Preliminary Investigations of Settlement Variability...... 142 Restrictions and Assumptions ...... 143 Site Type and Site Function ...... 143 Cultural and Subenvironmental Variation ...... 146 Settlement Size, Subsistence, and Environment ...... 151 Analytical Units ...... 152 Cluster Analysis...... 153 Settlement Size and Population...... 162 Environmental F actors ...... 164 Multiple Regression and Expectations ...... 168 Results of the A n a l y s i s ...... 177 Settlement and Environment: The Mimbres East Fork ...... 187 Settlement and Environment: The Mimbres West F o r k ...... 189 Site Size Class Dis t r i b u t i o n s ...... 190
VIII. COMPARISONS AND C O N C L U S I O N S ...... 196
Comparison ...... 196 Environmental Similarities ...... 197 Settlement Locations ...... 197 Subsistence and Population ...... 200 Conclusions...... 206 Alternatives ...... 207 New Research P r o b l e m s ...... 208 ix
TABLE OF CONTENTS— Continned
Page
APPENDIX I: SITE UNIT AND ENVIRONMENTAL DATA ...... 211
APPENDIX II: CERAMIC C O L L E C T I O N S ...... 223
LIST OF REFERENCES ...... 242 LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
1. Major vegetation associations and distributions...... 17
2. Number of species by life zone in New M e x i c o ...... 22
3. The phase system in the Mimbres V a l l e y ...... 42
4. Occupations by p h a s e ...... 43
5. Depression variability ...... 85
6. Pueblo size class variation ...... 90
7. Ceramic variations ...... 92
8. Georgetown Phase ceramic variation ...... 102
9. Three Circle Phase ceramic variation ...... 105
10. Period B ceramic variation ...... 115
11. Occupations by topographic form by subenvironment ...... 132
12. Occupations by nearest vegetation type by subenvironment . . 133
13. Occupations by nearest channel vegetation group by subenvironment ...... 134
14. Occupations by nearest soil group by sub environment...... 135
15. Occupations by nearest drainage rank by subenvironment . . . 136
16. Period B distances from sites to nearest alluvium and intermittent stream by subenvironment ...... 148
17. Period B distances from sites to nearest alluvium and intermittent stream by topographic f o r m ...... 149
18. Sites per cluster...... 160
19. Measures of cultural and environmental variation for nine clusters...... 166
x xi
LIST OF TABLES— Continued
Table Page
20. Descriptions of the regression variables for the six clusters along the North Fork - Upper Mimbres R i v e r ...... 170
21. Pearson correlation coefficients of environmental variables and site area per cluster...... 171
22. Multiple regression results ...... 178
23. First order partial correlations of environmental variables with site area per c l u s t e r ...... 180
24. Stepwise regression or d e r ...... 181
25. Predictions of East Fork site area per c l u s t e r ...... 188 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Figure Page
1. Regional variants of the No golion Culture ...... 9
2. Major physiographic variations of the Minibres Region .... 11
3. Climatic variation in the eastern Mimbres Region ...... 13
4. Major vegetation associations of the Mimbres Region ...... 16
5. The survey a r e a ...... 60
6. Subenvironmental divisions ...... 126
7. Dendrogram of complete linkages ...... 155
8. Interpretive data from cluster analysis...... 156
9. Dendrogram of a 12 cluster solution...... 157
10. Cluster locations ...... 161
11. Settlement area, alluvial area, and drainage score ...... 173
12. Settlement area, soil quality, and vegetation rank ..... 174
13. Site size classes per cluster...... 192
xii ABSTRACT
An attempt is made to develop new models for consideration of changing Mogollon-Minibres adaptations to the natural and sociocultural environment of the northern Mi nib res Valley area in New Mexico, circa
A.D. 500 to A.D. 1200. Analyses are based on surface ceramic and settle ment pattern data collected during an intensive survey covering about
55 square kilometers and extensive survey covering a lesser area.
The natural and prehistoric cultural environments of the Mi mbres
Region are described and summarized. Prehistoric cultural developments in the Mimbres Valley are reviewed in consideration of the nature of local cultural adaptations and change.
Northern Mimbres Valley cultural developments are divided into
two time periods, A.D. 500 to A.D. 1000 and A.D. 1000 to A.D. 1200.
Settlement pattern phenomena for each period are examined in seeking
locational and subsistence strategies. Multivariate analytical tech niques are used with data from the later time period to examine the
relationships between settlement size and various facets of the natural
environment. It is found that settlement size, across a diversity of
environments, varies most directly with several environmental variables
that are most limiting to crop agriculture. In general, soil moisture
appears to have been the most limiting variable.
xiii xiv
A synchronic consideration of trends in settlement and sub sistence patterns in the northern Mimbres Valley and in the Pine Lawn-
Reserve area of New Mexico develops a range of hypothetical constructs about probable causes and explanations for changes in those phenomena
that require further testing. CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
This study was designed to develop new models for consideration of changing Mogollon-Minibres adaptations to the natural and socio cultural environment in the northern Ml nib res Valley region of New Mexico.
The time of those prehistoric cultural developments ranges from about
A.D. 500 to A.D. 1200. The project was implemented by an intensive surface survey of settlement pattern phenomenon over several square kilometers with a diversity of terrain and biotic communities. This was considered to be the most economical and useful approach in developing a preliminary comprehension of changing adaptive strategies by the pre historic cultural groups there.
The majority of previous prehistoric cultural research in that general area involved site excavation in the central to southern Mimbres drainage and extensive survey in several sectors of the region. This study is, then, in part, an attempt to extend current knowledge about the range of prehistoric cultural variability into a relatively unknown archaeological area. This fact, in conjunction with various limitations of making surface observations alone, will restrict the scale of certainty with which generalizations and conclusions are made about pre historic cultural events and processes. The results of the study do, however, provide the most complete view of Mimbres area settlement
1 2 patterns over a relatively large and continuous area that is now
available. The study also presents a refined model for analyzing
simultaneous quantitative variations in settlement size and natural
environmental variation. The overall results of this project are con
sidered useful for developing new and more explicit research designs for
investigating the specific nature of prehistoric cultural change within
the total natural and socio-cultural environment of the northern Mi nib res
Valley.
Concepts
Cultural Adaptation
The culture bearing human populations represented in the survey
area are considered to be the units of adaptation in this study. The
process of adaptation is conceived as both the maintenance and survival
of those populations. This process may have involved changes in social
or cultural organization as well as in gene pools in order to ensure
survival of the group. It must be noted that these conceptions derive
primarily from the works of several cultural and physical anthropologists
(White 1959, Cohen 1968, G a m 1954, Baker and Weiner 1966, Howells 1966)
but represent my own anthropological viewpoint.
The particular cultural forms that are of interest in this study
are the distributions of settlement patterns through the survey area and
the probable subsistence patterns that may have been operant during the
occupations represented by those settlements. The problem of the study
becomes one of developing models for considering both if and how those 3 forms might reflect adaptive responses to the total environment at various times and then to consider how changes in those forms might best be explained.
Settlement Patterns
In this study the term "settlement pattern" is used to denote the observable spatial arrangement of prehistoric sites of human activity through the survey area at specified time periods. The operating assump tion is made that: "These settlements reflect the natural environment, the level of technology on which the builders operated, and various social institutions of social interaction and control which the culture maintained" (Willey 1953:1). These assumptions are, in effect, law-like generalizations about the causes of settlement pattern phenomena that need to be explored and refined in order that more precise and predic tive statements about cultural form and process can be made. This first requires the analysis of several particular sets of settlement phenomena that may then be compared in the search for generalizations that are law-like in nature. This project provides one data set that might ultimately be useful for that goal.
Models and Assumptions
The term "model" is used here in a broad sense to denote a coherent and orderly set of statements and problems that are the focus of investigation. This kind of use of a model is succinctly described by R. L. Ackoff (1962:108-109): 4
Scientific models are utilised to accumulate and relate the knowledge we have about different aspects of reality. They are used to reveal reality and— more than this— to serve as instru ments for explaining the past and present, and for predicting and controlling the future. What control science gives us over reality we normally obtain by the application of models. They are our descriptions and explanations of reality. A scientific model is, in effect, one or a set of statements about reality. These state ments may be factual, law-like, or theoretical.
The model that is developed to investigate cultural adaptations to the natural environment utilizes quantified measures of prehistoric settlement and of several environmental variables in attempts to determine how the locational and spatial (size) attributes of settlement might reflect cultural responses to those environmental factors that assumedly affected or limited subsistence. It is initially assumed that the present natural environment of the survey area bears some resemblances to the environment at the times of occupation. While this cannot yet be demonstrated, the survey area was selected as one sector in the broader region that is more likely to have undergone less environmental trans formation than others in view of Spanish and Anglo-American impacts.
This topic receives detailed consideration in succeeding chapters. In general, I will venture the opinion that no drastic long-term changes in this environment have occurred the past 1500 years such as complete replacement or changes in all biotic communities, massive temperature changes of several mean degrees per season or year, or major differences in mean annual precipitation on the order of ten or more inches. This does not, of course, rule out short-term fluctuations and minor shifts in climatic factors which appear to be common phenomena in the American 5
Southwest (Schulman 1956; Frltts, Smith, and Stokes 1965; Frltts 1965;
Robinson and Dean 1969).
The results of the study of the relationship of prehistoric settlement distributions with respect to current environmental variations should permit some insight into potential problems with the assumption above, although factors other than paleo-environmental variation are considered to be of significant import for understanding settlement and subsistence patterns. These are, of course, the historical and organiza tional aspects of the groups concerned (Willey 1953:1, Haury 1956:3).
The means for investigating culture history and prehistoric social organization in this study are limited to observations based upon surface cultural manifestations. For several reasons to be explained in succeeding chapters, it was found that these data did not permit fine-scale chronological control and, therefore, precluded the intensive consideration of synchronous social organization over time or space. Likewise, the clarification of culture history depends upon chronological control by definition, so it is not possible to provide intensive accounts of that topic. Had greater controls been derived, it would have been possible to develop models for considering the nature and rate of settlement expansion through the survey area as well as
for investigating the potential spatial range of forms of social organization. These topics can be pursued in greater detail in the future with research designs that are refined and tempered by the results of this, project. 6
Organization
Since this study relies upon previous prehistoric cultural research in nearby areas for preliminary cultural-chronological frame works, and as a source of inference regarding the outlines of cultural
development, it is necessary to review and summarize those efforts in
relation to the major topic of this study. The focus of this project
upon cultural-environmental interaction also requires that some perspec
tives on the broader environment surrounding the project area be pro vided. The following three chapters are an overview of those topics,
and provide a brief synthesis of Mimbres Valley prehistory as well.
Chapter V furnishes a detailed rationale for selecting the
current project area and describes the manner in which the survey was
conducted. Succeeding sections then describe and categorize several
aspects of the natural environment in the survey area that were determined
to be useful for analytical purposes. Chapter VI summarizes the range of
cultural variability that was observed and develops the basic cultural-
chronological categories that are appropriate for the study.
Chapter VII presents analysis and discussion that attempt to
discover the ordered relations that may have obtained between the vari
ables of settlement location and size with respect to several sectors of
the natural environment. This effort is not entirely successful for
Mogollon cultural manifestations preceding A.D. 1000, but provides more
insight into the adaptive strategies of the later occupations commonly
referred to as the "Mimbres Culture." 7
The final chapter provides a brief consideration of the local trends in settlement phenomena in view of broadly similar trends in the
Pine Lawn-Reserve area of Mogollon and Western Pueblo cultural develop ment, although strict comparisons are not possible due to differences in data collection and data availability. Final conclusions, possible alternative interpretations of some of these, and suggestions for con tinued research complete this study. CHAPTER II
REGIONAL PERSPECTIVES
The following sections provide a broad overview of regional environmental diversity as a background for consideration of prehistoric cultural adaptations. The Miiribres Region probably encompasses a greater area and greater environmental diversity than any of the other Mogollon cultural variants. However, vast areas of the northern Miiribres Region, perhaps as much as a thousand square kilometers, have never been surveyed by professional prehistorians. The southern desertic areas, along with much of the San Simon and Jornada Regions, share the dubious distinction of being the least understood in terms of prehistoric cul tural developments in the Mogollon area.
Some of the following treatments of environmental variation are brief, and data were necessarily abstracted from studies in nearby areas. The "isolated" nature of much of the region has not yet led to numerous fine-scale environmental studies of local variation, also a problem in prehistoric cultural studies.
Regional Cultural Boundaries
The boundaries of the Miiribres and other regional variants of the
Mogollon culture pattern are shown in Figure 1. These follow Wheat’s
(1955) summary. It is best to indicate that these boundaries do not represent inflexible mental constructs to myself, nor is it likely they did to people there in prehistory.
8 LITTLE COLORADO R. FORESTDALE BRANCH
CIBOLA BRANCH NEW MEXICO ARIZONA
* BLACK RIVER \ BRANCH EASTERN PERIPHERY
§ , . \ ! MIMBRES X c-V BRANCH JORNADA •TUCSON - SAN SIMON DEWING V BRANCH BRANCH
• E L PASO CHIHUAHUA 50 KW
SONORA LAKE GUZMAN
Figure 1. Regional variants of the Mogolion Culture. (After Wheat 1955) 10
The study will frequently refer to the Minibres Region. The use of the term "region" is synonomous with that of G. R. Willey and
P. Phillips (1958:19). The problems that set this region apart from others will receive continuing clarification in Chapter III when the history of prehistoric research projects in the Minibres River drainage is considered.
Regional Natural Environment
Geology and Geography
The Minibres Region archaeologically defined corresponds with two major physiographic variants of the Basin and Range Province shown in
Figure 2. Roughly the northern half of the region, or about 2200 square kilometers, is at the southeastern comer of the Mogollon Plateau. This vast volcanic province extends northwestward into Arizona and is transi tional between the Colorado Plateaus Province to the north and more
"typical" Basin and Range Province to the south (Kelley 1955, Trauger
1965, Ericksen et al. 1970).
This c o mer of the Mogollon Plateau is an area of extreme relief and complex geologic structures, primarily due to major tectonics associated with Tertiary vulcanism and limited uplift and erosion from that period through Recent times (Elston 1965, Trauger 1965). Elevations range from about 1500 to 3300 meters.
The eastern edge of the Minibres Region is along the north trend ing Black Range and Minibres Mountains that also form the eastern boundary for the region. The north central and northwestern sections of the region are on the western side of the Continental Divide covering rugged 11
ARIZONA NEW MEXICO
COLORADO /PLA TEA U PROVINCE
OUEMADO •
MOGOLLON PLATEAU
o0 / SILVER < * / CITY
•LAS DEMING •’ „ CRUCES
BASIN AND i RANGE PROVINCE
CHIHUAHUA
LAKE GUZMAN
. Figure 2. Major physiographic variations of the Mimbres Region 12
terrain dissected by the Upper Gila drainage system. This includes portions of the Blue, San Francisco, and Tularosa Rivers. The western edge of the region is roughly parallel to longitude 109°W.
Soils in these mountainous areas are generally formed in alluvial
and colluvial valley fill derived from the numerous volcanic formations
and, in some cases, from the Gila Conglomerate Formation of late Tertiary
to early Quaternary age. Montane vegetation naturally contributes to
soil formation although the various organic products seldom accumulate
to any substantial depth. Major s6il concentrations are generally
limited to the valley floors of the various river systems where local
conditions have not produced scouring or where the rivers leave the
narrow valleys to enter the Basin and Range Province.
South of latitude 33°N on the western edge of the region and
32° 40' N on the eastern edge, the topography changes quickly to one of
isolated north or northwest trending mountain ranges of both block
fault and volcanic structure (Fenneman 1931). These are separated by
basins usually filled with relatively coarse and clastic colluvium.
Drainage is generally poor within or between basins and no major rivers
currently dissect the entire area. Elevations range around 1300 meters
in many basins while the Florida Mountains near Deming reach 2057 meters.
This topography continues to the southern boundary of the Mimbres Region
at about latitude 31° 30' N.
Climate
A summary of some kinds of regional climatic variation is shown
in Figure 3. However, it should be noted that varied topographic Ml MB RES RANGER STA., N.M. DEMING, N.M. EL. 1920 M., 32*56' N, lOS’Ol'W EL. 1320 M., 32'16'N , 107 45' W
ANNUAL MEAN PRECIP.: 16.7“ ANNUAL MEAN PRECIP.: 8.5" MAX. 24.9" MAX. 19.5" MIN. 9.1" MIN. 2.7"
4 — • 4
•3
-2
RECORD 1928-1971 RECORD 1930-1960
ANNUAL MEAN TEMP: 01.2' ANNUAL MEAN TEMP.: 66.4' FROST FREE DAYS: 128 FROST FREE DAYS: 214
8 0 -
JFMAMJJASOND RECORD 1956-1971 RECORD 1930-1960
Figure 3 Climatic variation in the eastern Mimbres Region (After Stockton n.d., Von Eschen 1961) 14 conditions in the mountainous areas can contribute to drastically different micro-climates within short lateral and vertical distances
(Tuan et al. 1969).
The lack of precise temperature and precipitation data for many of the varied local situations in the area precludes precise designations in the modified Koppen system of climatic types. These range through some of the D, C, and B groups in the northern mountains while areas in the more southern Basin and Range Province may range from BWh to BSh
(Trewartha 1968).
A broadly descriptive classification of climatic types used in
New Mexico by G. F. Von Eschen (1961) and E. Tuan et al. (1969:159) suggests three major variations in the Minibres Region. Higher mountains above 2400 meters have Subhumid to Humid Continental climates. Middle altitudes from about 1400 meters to 2400 meters in the northern mountains have a Semiarid Continental climate, while the southern basins are classified as Arid Continental.
Throughout much of the region about half of the annual precipita tion falls during brief and heavy storms from July througji September.
Winter storms from November through March are of less intensity. Some of the highest northern elevations not recorded in Figure 3 may receive over 30 inches of annual precipitation.
Both south to north and lower to upper elevatlonal temperature gradients are notable through the region. Corresponding with these in most cases are variations in actual and potential evapotranspiration rates which are generally highest in the southern basins (Tuan et al.
1969). 15
Biogeography
The generalized range of current major vegetation groups in the region is shown in Figure 4. Given the topographic and climatic varia tions of the Mimbres Region, it is not unexpected that the biotic patterns are complex and varied. Table 1 indicates some of the major biotic associations, but much of the region is characterized by complex mosaics of these instead of by continuous zonal patterns. The data for both
Figure 4 and Table 1 were derived from several bibliographic sources as well as personal observations and are only presented as broad generaliza tions (Bailey 1913, Brand 1936, Little 1950, New Mexico A & M 1957). In
terms of one other broad biotic classification, the region has character istics of Dice's (1943) Apachian, Navahonian, and Chihuahuan provinces.
One set of variations included in Table 1 that is not immediately apparent concerns the elevational ranges of various species and communi
ties . These may vary as much as 300 or more meters within the elevations provided, generally with respect to variables affecting temperature and
available moisture (Merriam 1890, Lowe 1961, Martin 1963). Although the interrelations of all variables affecting the growth and range of complex
entities such as arboreal communities and individuals are not completely
understood (Odum 1971, Kramer and Koslowski 1960, Fritts 1965), Liebig's
law of the minimum is probably operant in many of the processes. In
terms of the range of various species with respect to temperature and
moisture gradients, upper elevational limits are usually controlled by
deficiencies in heat and lower elevational limits by deficient moisture
(Shreve 1915, Daubenmire 1959). 16
■• • •♦.»' • “* - - •
f> : nrV - ^ wrnmmKm mmm
. o <
J ^ : ^ ! desert scrub OPEN WOODLAND GRASSLAND FOREST
Figure 4. Major vegetation associations of the Mimbres Region. Table 1. Major vegetation associations and distributions.
Approximate Elevation Range of Association Vegetation Association (meters) Life Zone
Creosote-Tarbush-Mesquite Desertscrub 1200-1400 Lower Sonoran
Riparian Woodland 1200-2500 Lower Sonoran-Transition
Grama-Tobosa Shrubsteppe 1300-1500 Upper Sonoran
Oak Woodland 1300-1700 Upper Sonoran
Oak-Juniper Woodland 1400-1800 Upper Sonoran
Juniper-Pinon Woodland 1500-2300 Upper Sonoran-Transition
Ponderosa Pine Forest 1700-2600 Transition
Ponderosa Pine-Douglas Fir Forest 2300-2800 Transition
Douglas Fir Forest 2400-2900 Canadian
Spruce-Alpine Fir Forest 2600-3300 Hudsonian 18
A. W. Kuchler’s (1964) treatment of the potential natural vegetation in these areas is greatly simplified from the above and is not considered useful here. He only presents the potential presence of five greatly different associations, leaving transitions between these somewhat unstated and does not even note the presence of the various riparian woodlands. They are generally considered to be distinctive climax biotic communities, providing habitats for a variety of birds, amphibians, reptiles, and mammals (Lowe 1964:62). From about 1200 meters to 2000 meters the more obvious deciduous members of this association are cottonwood (Populus sp.), walnut (Juglans major), willow (Salix spp.), sycamore (Platanus wrightii), and ash (Fraxinus velutina). In addition to the more common species noted in the riparian woodlands for the "middle" elevations, various species of Quercus and
some conifers may join these associations as much as 700 meters below
their more normal range. At elevations above 2000 meters, various
species of Acer may be present while below 1500 meters, Prosopis sp. is
common. These and other mesic canyon habitats are sometimes characterized
by the presence of relatively dense shrub and other low ground cover in
addition to the more obvious deciduous trees.
The number of faunal species in the region is large and no
comprehensive listing is provided here such as those given by Vernon
Bailey (1913) for each major life zone across the state of New Mexico.
Bailey's major work on the mammals of New Mexico (1931) provides detailed
descriptions of many species, their ranges and areas of sightings or
concentrations in the state. In the Mimbres Region numerous small 19 omnivores and herbivores range through most areas, as do various predatory carnivores such as the lynx (Lynx rufus), mountain lion (Fells concolor), and the coyote (Canis lupus). Some of the ungulates such as deer (Odocoileus hemionus and 0. Virginianus), antelope (Antilocapra americana), elk (Cervus canadensis), and mountain sheep (Ovis canadensis)
tend to be more frequent in Upper Sonoran through Canadian habitats,
depending somewhat upon seasonal resources. Larger mammals such as bear (Ursus sp.) are better known in more forested areas. It is possible but not clearly demonstrated that bison (Bison bison) once ranged into
the southern grasslands.
Environment, Culture, and Diversity
The serious lack of intensive archaeological survey and excava
tion in many parts of the region precludes any elaborate synthesis of
cultural-environmental interactions through prehistory.
Early Agriculture
The location and resources of the region would suggest that it
is an ideal area for developing and testing models that concern experi
mentation by late Cochise or other Desert Culture groups with Mexican
derived cultigens. A. V. Kidder early noted that the Minibres ". . . lies
on one of the most practicable routes between Mexico . . . and the
north ..." (1932:xix-xx), but he hypothesized that the seeds of South
western Pueblo Culture "sprouted" in the San Juan nucleus. Thirty years
after Kidder had made those comments, a variety of work on the cultural
and agricultural prehistory of northern Mexico, the extreme northern 20
Mimbres Region, and adjacent areas of the southwestern United States had been accomplished (Martin, Rinaldo, and Antevs 1949; Martin et al.
1952; Mangelsdorf and Lister 1956; Haury 1957; MacNeish 1958; Dick 1965).
From the work of these and others, it then appeared that the seeds of at least two cultigens, if not the seeds of Pueblo Culture, had sprouted somewhat further south and earlier than Kidder had anticipated.
In 1962, E. W. Haury synthesized many of these developments in considering the development of urbanism, or lack of it, in the American
Southwest (1962). He suggested three conditions of major importance in the 1500 to 2000 year transition from subsistence bases of food collect ing to food producing: propinquity or opportunity for obtaining cultigens, and ", . . a n optimum cultural environment . . . , a willing ness to accept, to modify, and to build" (1962:116). In terms of the
Mimbres Region, and parts of the San Simon as well, the propinquity factor is well satisfied as is the presence of a similar environment to some of northern Mexico. The mountainous Basin and Range Province extends north of the Sierra Madre Occidental in both regions, providing a mosaic of environments that include highlands along which Zea mays and
Cucurbits sp. could be propagated. However, the interactive dynamics of the prehistoric groups and the precise environmental settings that would lead to experimentation or a willingness to accept the various cultigens as part of a subsistence base remains unknown.
Archaeological surveys and limited excavation of various cave sites in the Alamo Hueco Mountains and in the southwestern comer of the
Mimbres Region have provided gross indications that cultural materials of 21
Interest in these problems are present and need further examination
(Cosgrove 1947, Lambert and Ambler 1961). The range and kinds of generalized Desert Culture occupations through most other sectors of the region, including much of the Minibres and Gila drainages is not known.
Subsistence and Environmental Diversity
The number and diversity of biotic groups seen today through the region is relatively high. Reference to ethnobotanical literature in other areas of the Southwest suggests that many of the same plants and animals have some kind of potential, whether for food, medicine, or of artifactual utility (Stevenson 1909, Gastetter 1935, Whiting 1939).
It is not feasible to list all those species currently present, or that were probably present in the past, or that were likely used by prehistoric peoples in the Mimbres Region. One coarse indication of the kind of diversity that can be inferred to have been present is the numbers of species that Bailey considered characteristic of the various life
zones for much of New Mexico in the late nineteenth and early twentieth
centuries (1913). This furnishes the basis for Table 2 and only sums
those species listed for each life zone (Bailey 1913). There are about
30 species that are cross-listed for the Lower and Upper Sonoran zones, and 20 or less that cross-cut higher zones.
If the various figures in Table 2 are acceptable as rough
estimators of variation between and within zones in the Mimbres Region,
it is particularly interesting to consider some of them in terms of
access to resources and subsistence potential. One category of interest 22
Table 2. Number of species by life zone in New Mexico.
Life Zones Biota Lower Upper Tran Sonoran Sonoran sition Canadian Hudson! an
Mammals 57 85 46 31 6
Birds 40 53 55 29 7
Reptiles, Amphibians 33 45 2
Total Fauna 130 183 103 60 13
Trees 7 24 26 10 4
Shrubs and Cactus 79 127 31 10 2
Herbaceous Plants 26 29 26 34 36
Grasses 38 18 38 16 3 —— -- " " — '
Total Flora 150 220 121 70 45
Total Species 280 403 224 130 58
Boundary Sums of Species 683 627 354 188 23 is "boundary sums." These represent the sum of the numbers of species in each pair of adjacent biomes. Although the sums may need to be decreased by 15 to 30 species to adjust for some cross-occurrences, the relative change across the boundary sums would not change much.
Those variations are a gross reflection of the well known ecotone or edge effect (Odum 1971). In mountainous areas with diverse conation the areas of contact of the various biome boundaries and their mosaic associations permit extensive interchange of species. In these boundary situations there tends to be a greater variety of species than in areas of expansive non-mountainous biomes (Odum 1971:157).
From Table 2 it appears that the ecotones on either edge of the
Upper Sonoran biome coincide with the greatest potential biotic inter change and probably have the greatest biomass of faunal species as well.
This is probably not the case for the lower ecotone in the Mimbres
Region. This boundary occurs in the lower basin elevations that do not exhibit the numbers and kinds of varied mosaics seen at the Upper Sonoran-
Transition ecotone. In terms of prehistoric subsistence potential, a group oriented toward a mixed economy would probably find the latter an optimal zone for habitation during much of the year with seasonal forays into the other areas as plant produce ripened differentially and as some of the faunal ranges may have fluctuated with available forage and water.
Riverine contexts along this ecotone are also favorable areas for maize
agriculture in terms of relatively substantial water resources, but
length of frost free period and available soils may become limiting.
In the Mimbres Region the greatest extent of Upper Sonoran-
Transition ecotones is in the northern mountainous sectors, although 24 limited mosaics of these are seen in some of the isolated southwestern ranges such as the Peloncillo and Animas Mountains. Noting the presence of these "favorable" areas for subsistence does not, however, explain the prehistoric cultural processes that transpired there, and it is necessary to begin consideration of what is known about the later pre history of the region.
The majority of archaeological projects in the Mitnbres Region have concerned themselves with the post A.D. prehistoric period when settled village farming had become at least one established pattern of existence. The areas that have been the most intensively investigated within the broader region are the Pine Lawn Valley-Reserve area in the northwest comer, and, near the eastern edge, the central Minibres Valley.
From about A.D. 500 to A.D. 1000 both areas appear to undergo broadly similar developments in pit house architecture, ceramics, and
other items of material culture. Some of the archaeological phase dis
tinctions share the same name. About A.D. 1000 the developments in
material culture become somewhat different in the two areas. It has
generally been considered that an influx of Anasazi people or ideas was
partially responsible for some of those developments in both areas,
while in the Minibres Valley, traits of Hohokam cultural traditions have
also been considered influential (Haury 1936a, b; Martin, Rinaldo, and
Barter 1957:202). While not denying these possibilities, the view
taken here is that some of the current evidence also suggests marked
continuities in Mo go lion cultural traditions through the Minibres Phase.
The history and dynamics of Mogolion, Anasazi, and Hohokam interaction 25 in the Mimbres Region remain poorly understood, and there has been a lack of research on such problems the past several years. Further consideration of these is beyond the scope of the current project.
Trends in the nature of prehistoric cultural adaptation reflected in the archaeological record of subsistence related items, settlement patterns, and inferred social organizational concepts have received con siderable attention in the Pine Lawn-Reserve area (Martin and Rinaldo
1950:549-569, Martin et al. 1956:188-204, Bluhm 1960:538-546).
Those same topics have received less consistent treatment for the
Mimbres drainage area due in part to the varied and less continuous series
of research projects there. The following chapters attempt to consider
several kinds of cultural adaptive trends seen in the archaeological
literature concerning the area and from newer survey results. The con
cluding sections of this study will then consider the potentially useful
comparisons that might be made with respect to the Mini)res and Pine Lawn
areas. Those comparisons will be somewhat restricted by exact compar
ability of data collection procedures and by the limited time span of
the materials in the Mimbres Valley. Much of the northern Mimbres Valley
appears to have been abandoned by about A.D. 1200 (Haury 1936b), and
Tularosa Phase occupations were terminal in the Pine Lawn area about
A.D. 1300 (Martin et al. 1956). While the more desertic Basin and Range
areas in the southern region evidence later occupations through the Animas
and perhaps other phases (Kidder, Cosgrove, and Cosgrove 1949; McCluney
1962; Jelinek n.d.), the northern mountainous areas may have been generally
uninhabited until the arrival of Apachean groups. The date of this arrival
is unknown. CHAPTER III
ENVIRONMENT AND PREHISTORY IN THE MIMERES RIVER VALLEY
The following sections include a variety of archaeological and environmental information concerning several sectors of the Mirribres drainage, including the study area of this project. These data are presented here because they provide much of the basic material pre requisite for initial consideration of both the nature of prehistoric cultural development and for inferences regarding past environmental variations.
The Natural Environment
Geology and Physiography
The boundaries of the survey area of this study and several current geological and geographical features of the Mini)res drainage area are shown in Figure 5. The survey area lies entirely within the
Mlmbres Ranger District of the Gila National Forest. The Miirbres River
continues southward from this area through lands of state and private ownership in Grant and Luna Counties, New Mexico.
The survey area is mountainous with canyons and valleys deeply
incised into the frontal portions of the Black Range and Pinos Altos
Mountains. The two larger drainages in the survey area, the East and
North Forks of the Mimbres River, have sources in the western flanks of
26 27 the Black Range. The West Fork rises in the eastern Pinos Altos
Mountains. The three forks join at latitude 32° 57* N, longitude
108° 1* W, and the river follows a general south to southeast course along a major structural feature of the area named the Mimbres Trench
(Trauger 1965). The eastern side of the trench is defined by the Black
Range and Mini)res Mountains while the western side is marked by faults along the eastern edge of the Pinos Altos and Cobre Mountains. The
Mimbres Trench may only be a half graben with normal faults limited to its western side (Kuellmer 1954, Trauger 1965).
The northern and western portions of the drainage are now separated from the Gila drainage system by the Continental Divide. The
Mimbres Trench, however, extends northwest into the Sapillo Creek drainage, now tributary to the Gila. Thus, during at least part of the
Tertiary or early Quaternary, the Mimbres River, or more particularly, its West Fork, may have drained a much larger area than at present.
The stratigraphic unit most apparent in the northern portions of
the valley is Gila Conglomerate of late Tertiary to early Quaternary age.
This is usually disconformably overlain by Quaternary to Recent gravels
and alluvium, or, in some areas, by Quaternary volcanics (Lochman-Balk
1965, Trauger 1965). The Gila Conglomerate is usually disconformable on
the Tertiary Datil Formation, a coup lex sequence of volcanic materials
known from north of the San Augustin Plains through most of the volcanic
mountains of southwest New Mexico (Elston 1965).
The larger streams in the survey area appear to follow either
fault lineaments or to have cut into the Gila Conglomerate and overlying 28 materials. As the drainage continues southward along the Mi nib res
Trench, various members of the Datil and perhaps other volcanic forma tions are apparent along some flanks of the river. For the most part, however, the river and its major tributaries are currently flowing on and through Quaternary gravels and alluvium or pediment and bolson deposits (Dane and Bachman 1961).
The river is usually immediately flanked by benches of a similar colluvial nature. In the survey area these are often discontinuous, ranging from 5 to 30 meters above the valley floor and seldom exceed
50 meters in width. The valley floors are narrow here, not exceeding
200 meters at the junction of the three forks. At the edge of the river or benches, slopes ranging from 20% to more than 90% rise to mesas and ridges that are from 50 to 300 meters above.
South of the survey area the river continues for about 50 kilo meters through decreesingly mountainous terrain. The valley floor width increases to as much as 600 meters. The flanking benches become more continuous and are generally much wider than those further north.
Three or more of these structures are in evidence along portions of the drainage near San Lorenzo. It is unclear if these represent segments of
Pleistocene terrace systems.
The Minibres Trench becomes less apparent as Mogollon Plateau
topography gives way to the more open Basin and Range Province near
Taylor Mountain at latitude 32° 34' N, longitude 107° 54* W. Here the
river skirts the west side of the mountain, enters a large bolson
surrounding Doming, New Mexico, and loses complete definition near the 29
Florida Mountains. The river may have continued south and flowed into
Pleistocene Lake Polomas in extreme southern New Mexico and northern
Chihuahua in that epoch (Reeve 1965).
The only portion of the river with permanent surface flow today is an 18 kilometer stretch from just below the survey area to near the town of San Lorenzo. From here southward the surface flow varies directly with seasonal precipitation. It is also intermittent, perhaps due to both subsurface geological variations and m o d e m pumping and irrigation.
The water is generally considered to be "good" for animal consumption and crop growth, but extensive use of the water for irrigation has recently depleted the subsurface supply around Deming by as much as 15 meters
(Doty 1967). Irrigated crops grown along the drainage in decreasing order of their acreage in 1963 were cotton, small grains, hay, beans, orchards and truck-garden crops, and maize (Borton and Sorensen 1967:268).
Climate and Biogeography
Reference to Figure 3 (page 13) provides a broad perspective on climatic variation along the Mi nibres River. The greater relief as well as higher precipitation and lower temperatures of the northern valley correspond with a mosaic of vegetation patterns ranging from "barren" yucca and agave associations on steep south facing slopes through dense
coniferous associations on high north facing slopes. Riparian associa
tions vary somewhat as noted in the previous chapter with elevation
along the river. Southward from the survey area the major drainage is
surrounded by an increasingly xeric series of Upper Sonoran communities, 30 until Lower Sonoran creosote-tarbush associations are reached near the
Florida Mountains.
Nineteenth Century Observations on Environment and Prehistory
The Central and Lower Mirribres Valley
During military reconnaisance through parts of the American
Southwest, Lieutenant Colonal W. H. Emory traversed the Mimbres River
Valley for about two kilometers near the present town of San Lorenzo on
October 17, 1846. He noted that the river was about 15 feet wide, three
feet deep, and full of trout (1848:58). The bottom lands were densely
covered with cottonwood, walnut, and ash. Also noted were the presence
of 11. . . numberless Indian lodges which had the appearance of not
having been occupied for some time" (1848:58). An illustration accompany
ing Emory's text suggests the Indian lodges were wickiups, probably of
Apache origin.
Today the river flow in this vicinity would not generally reach
the proportions described by Emory during the month of October. The
arboreal species noted, Populus sp., Juglans major, and Fraxinus velutina
are still present but in less profusion, partially due to extensive
farming operations on the bottom lands.
A few years later and about 28 kilometers due south of San Lorenzo,
J. R. Bartlett with a field party of the United States boundary commission
camped on the Mimbres River in the vicinity of Taylor Mountain. His
observations on the area were made on April 30 and May 1, 1851 (Bartlett
1854:221-223): 31
When we reached the verge of the hills which bound the valley of the river . . . the bottom for nearly a mile was covered with verdure . . . we noticed a herd of about twenty black-tailed deer (probably Odocoileus hemionus) grazing on the luxuriant grass of the valley. . . . Great was our disappointment . . . at finding nothing but a diminuitive stream from ten to twenty feet in width. . . . Another feature was noticed in the Mi nib res, namely, its sudden disappearance or sinking into the desert, and its re-appearance some distance beyond. . . . I first walked down the stream about two miles to a thick grove of large cotton-woods (probably Populus fremontii). The bottom was much contracted here; nevertheless, it was thickly wooded and forest-like. Ash (Fraxinus velutina) and oaks (Quercus sp.) were interspersed among the cottonwoods. Saw many signs of turkeys (probably Meleagris gallopavo merriami), but shot none myself. Noticed wild roses (probably Rosa sp.) in great profusion, also wild hops (probably Humulus americanus) and the Missouri currant (probably Ribes sp.). . . . Found several old Indian encampments with their wigwams standing and about them fragments of pottery. Many well-marked Indian trails followed the river on both sides, showing that it had been, and probably is now, a great thoroughfare and place of resort for the Apaches.
The above description of the stream flow would be apt today. The arboreal species mentioned are present in the same area, but in less density. Mesquite (Prosopis juliflora var. torreyana) is now a frequent species also seen here. The river bottom is not covered with "verdure," and I doubt that wild game is presently abundant.
The "wigwams" mentioned above may have been Apache wickiups, but without better description of these or the pottery associated with them, it is impossible to know. The trails along the river might have been game trails as well as Indian trails.
In the 1870's the extensive geographical and geological surveys in the United States west of the 100th meridian resulted in several reports on environmental and agricultural conditions in the American
Southwest. Of particular interest here is a brief description of condi tions in the same area visited by Bartlett, but 22 years later. The old
X 32 town of Minibres had since been established near Taylor Mountain and at one time had reached a population of 600 people. In 1872 Dr. Oscar Loew reported on several conditions there, noting a population decline to less than one hundred people (1875:579-580) :
The cause of the emigration was fever and ague, endemic to this region. A large swamp on the south side of the village doubtless caused the disease. . . . The (Minibres) river, where it passes the town, is about 12 feet wide and one foot deep. Indian c o m has been raised in the bottom-lands without irrigation; on some farms irrigation is resorted to once a month. . . . The average yield was, last year, (1872) . . . 1800 pounds of c o m per acre. There is here a large stock range with 600 head of cattle, and thousands of sheep. Some eighteen miles from the town, toward the mountain range (probably the Minibres Mountains to the north east), a good supply of timber is found, chiefly scrub oak (probably Quercus turbinella); farther up the mountains pine is abundant (probably Pinus edulis and Pinus ponderosa) .
The Northern Minibres Valley
Although the town of San Lorenzo was settled in 1714 (Pearce
1965:146), there appear to be few published sources available describing natural conditions there and further north through the next two hundred years.
Adolph Bandelier travelled through part of the survey area of this study in 1883, but his comments are restricted (1884:94-95) :
Ascending the Minibres to about nine miles north of the mining works (this would place him near the present Minibres Ranger Station), the ruins drop off gradually, and a scattered forest of tall yellow pines covers the bottoms. Thence turning nearly westward, the great Continental Divide, probably here a spur of the Pinos Altos, is traversed, and the head-waters of the Rio Sapillo, a tributary of the Upper Gila, are reached. The Divide was probably uninhabited.
The scattered pines noted on the river bottoms are still seen on lower benches near the river and along the edges of the bottoms in many places. Some of the ponderosa pine in the area was logged in the early 33 part of this century, but the extent of these operations is unclear.
Individuals of this species in the 50 to 100 year age class appear more frequent in most of the survey area than do those of greater age.
The "dropping off" of ruins described above may be valid or may be due to the nature of site locations in this area, i.e., back along narrow densely wooded benches where Bandelier was probably not riding
or looking. South of the survey area many of the later and more obvious pueblos are on wide benches near the river.
Bandelier appears to have traversed some of the West Fork of the
Mimbres River in approaching the Continental Divide. The sites in this
area are generally away from the main valley on tributary streams which
might account for his belief that the area was not inhabited.
The lack and availability of other historic records concerning
the area limits discussion of evident environmental changes there the
past few hundred years.
The above observations suggest that inferences about the pre
historic natural environment and the distribution of prehistoric cultural
materials must be made with some caution when viewing the modern scene.
Cattle and sheep grazing, crop agriculture, mining, and lumber
ing have all been causal agents in continually changing the composition
of biogeographic communities. This is not to suggest that some aboriginal
groups were not also effecting change in the natural environment, but it
is questionable that such changes were of the magnitude seen in the past
two or three hundred years. I suggest that these changes have likely
been the greatest in the central and southern portions of the Mimbres 34 drainage. These areas, in contradistinction to the survey area, have the most attractive land for modern ranching and farming methods and have seen much greater concentrations of human populations. Historic villages or towns are not present either within or very near the survey area.
The primary floral changes in the central to southern areas appear to have been deforestation of oak, pinon pine, and perhaps, ponderosa pine in the more hilly areas; the arboreal and shrub cover near the river bottoms has been drastically reduced and the grasslands in the southern areas have been variously infested with cactus, scrub juniper, yucca, mesquite, snake weed, and creosote bush.
J. C. York and W. A. Dick-Peddie have reviewed several lines of evidence concerning recent changes in vegetation patterns for the more arid sections of southern New Mexico (1969) and their evaluations suggest similar changes as noted above. An earlier summary of these problems provides several tentative generalizations about the probable processes
and causes that may be pertinent in the lower Mimbres drainage (Dick-Peddie
1965:235):
Grass was the dominant vegetation occupying the mesas of southern New Mexico 100 years ago. Therefore, there has been a drastic change in the vegetation patterns since then.
A marked climatic change 100 years ago is unlikely because at a number of localities the grass has held its own against the shrubs.
The primary cause of vegetational pattern change from grass land to desert shrub has been livestock grazing.
The rapid increase in the amount of mesquite can be accounted for because the mesquite was already well established 100 years ago on scattered Indian village sites. 35
Yucca stands today are undoubtedly good Indicators of previous grassland areas.
Mesquite-occupied sites may further deteriorate and eventually be occupied by creosote bush.
It may be valid to assume that grass occupied mesa sites on which creosote bush now dominates. However, it would not likely be correct to assume that the present microhabitat is identical or even similar to that which existed under grass. Therefore, a creosote bush site today may be so modified that it will not support grass successfully.
In a number of instances the grassland-shrub ecotone is found today to be exactly where it was 100 years agp.
Although the above changes and processes have produced "new" associations in the southern areas, no major shifts in life zone boundaries appears to have occurred. By inference it is unlikely that the more northerly and higher Transition Zone has recently shifted boundaries. Changes in associations in that zone that may have occurred from cattle grazing are not well known but may involve increasing frequencies of juniper, yucca, and cactus, and decreasing amounts of shrub cover in or near streamside habitats.
In terms of hydrologic changes, the Mimbres River has been utilized for irrigation and pumping such that replenishment of the subsurface flow around Deming is a current problem (Borton and Sorenson
1967). Changes in and near the survey area are unknown.
The destruction of prehistoric sites has also likely been of the greatest magnitude in the areas south of the survey area and the Gila
Forest whether due to modern agriculture and settlement, road building, or deliberate vandalism. Descriptions of the relatively "intact" state of several sites seen in 1883 by Bandolier (1884) in the lower Mimbres 36 drainage provides some support for this. No similar descriptions could be made today. Although the exact amount and rate of vandalism in these areas is impossible to calculate, data from a recent survey indi cate that less than 1% of the sites located that contain puebloid architecture remain untouched (Jelinek n.d.).
In the central to lower valley there is one major state highway,
New Mexico number 61, that has been built along bench formations near the river. Numerous sites may have been destroyed. The same highway crosses the western edge of the survey area but does not appear to have traversed positions where sites are usually located.
Early Twentieth Century Archaeological Survey and Description
By the early 1900's a number of people had spent time locating
Mimbres ruins and describing some of the material remains being taken from them (Duff 1902; Hough 1907:83-89). The Mimbres ceramics with elaborate naturalistic and geometric design elements had attracted
great attention, and sites were being searched in several areas of southwest New Mexico. By 1914, J. W. Fewkes had visited the area and
described a variety of materials taken by local residents from Mimbres pueblos in the lower reaches of the valley (1914). He was quite
interested in considering how the prehistoric cultural materials and
traditions there were historically related to those of other areas
(1914:53):
A comparison of the limited archaeological material from the Mimbres with that from other localities in the Southwest suggests a provisional hypothesis that the prehistoric culture of this valley was not modified by terraced architecture nor 37
greatly affected by that of the lower Gila type, both of which evolved independently and locally, but belonged to an older type with which it had much in common.
Although a few persons had realized in the first quarter of the present century that the puebloid ruins in southwest New Mexico were different from those of the Pueblo region to the north and the Hohokam to the west, the temporal and spatial variations of the cultural materials remained to be discovered. W. Bradfield and others on the staff of the Museum of New Mexico were concerned with the latter problem and spent five days surveying in 1922 . . to determine . . . the nature and extent of the ancient culture or cultures of the Mimbres
Valley and of adjacent portions of the Gila and Rio Grande Valleys in
Grant, Luna, and Sierra Counties" (Bradfield, Bloom, and Chapman
1928:99). Ceramic collections were made from 29 sites. Due to a lack of information on ceramics, their conclusions were limited to noting that they had "... the apparent meeting, mixing, or succession of the
Midbres culture from the north, the Casas Grandes culture from the south and the Gila from the west" (Bradfield et al. 1928:105).
Other surveys by several groups in the 1925-1935 period pro vided continued refinement of the relative temporal placement and geo graphic range of major cultural traditions in and near southwestern
New Mexico (Sauer and Brand 1930; Cosgrove and Cosgrove 1932:104-107;
Cosgrove 1947; Gladwin and Gladwin 1934, 1935; Sayles 1936a).
Archaeological Excavation
Between 1923 and 1932 five sites in the Mimbres drainage were excavated and reported upon by persons with professional qualifications 38 or affiliations. The general site locations are shown in Figure 6. The
Three Circle Site in the northern area was not reported on following the death of the investigator, W. Bradfield. A report on the Cameron Creek ruin, also excavated by Bradfield, was published post-humously (Bradfield
1929). The Galaz site materials are known only in a limited manner from several brief reports (Bryan 1927a, b, 1931a, b, c, 1961; Cosgrove and Felts 1927). Reports on the Mattocks and Swarts ruins appeared respectively in 1931 and 1932 (Nesbitt 1931; Cosgrove and Cos grove 1932).
. A variety of reasons were put forth for undertaking the various excavations in the drainage, but one concern was shared by most investi gators. This was the placement of the cultural developments in the
Mimbres Valley in chronological perspective with better known prehistoric developmental sequences to the north. This is most clearly stated by
A. V. Kidder in an introductory set of comments to the Swarts Ruin report
(1932:xviii):
It . . . becomes our duty to place, if possible, the Mimbres culture, of which the Swarts Ruin is a very typical exemplifica tion, in its proper chronological niche. For any such assignment of a Southwestern group we are forced to turn, at present, to the so-called 'Pecos chronology* which, for better or worse, provides our only ordered sequential ranking of Southwestern cultures.
The developmental implications of the Pecos chronology were also of importance for interpreting developments in the prehistoric cultural record in the Mimbres. The latter were viewed as peripheral to those of the San Juan "nucleus," were judged against them in terms of sophistica tion, and, most importantly, were considered strongly influenced by them.
These conceptions were, again, most clearly stated by Kidder (1932:xx): 39
At about the same time that the typical Pueblo III groups were shaping themselves in the north, there sprang up in the Mini)res Valley a host of small villages. Who were the people that built them, we do not know. Nor can we tell whether they came from elsewhere or whether they were scattered indigenous semi- nomads, coagulated into settled communities through assimilation of the Pueblo way of life. These things we can and eventually shall find out. But northern influence played at least some part in whatever happened, for after what seems to have been a short period of existence in clusters of semi-subterranean hovels, the Minibrenos began to build rectangular, above-ground houses and to group them, albeit blunderingly, one against another in a vague imitation of the northern arrangement.
By 1932 the few available published reports had provided a broad range of descriptive information on prehistoric materials in the sites concerned, but with few exceptions, the descriptive terminology was not consistent between reports or was too difficult to utilize for generalization and synthesis. The cultural developmental terminology and synthetic framework of the Pecos classification was usually only utilized for brief concluding remarks. It clearly did not "fit" the range of observed variation. The sequence of pre-pueblo architecture and ceramics in the Mimbres was, simply, too different from those seen further north to fit such designations as Basketmaker III or Pueblo I and II. The later elaboration of pueblos and ceramics was viewed as somewhat contemporaneous with the middle Pueblo III period and was
generally referred to as the Mint res Culture.
The Chronological and Developmental Framework
In 1933 excavations were sponsored by Gila Pueblo at the Harris site in the Mimbres Valley and at the Mogolion Village site about 120 kilometers to the northwest near the San Francisco River. These projects were designed to better comprehend earlier prehistoric cultural variations 40 in the area from both the Pueblo materials to the north and those of the
Hohokam to the west. This work, in conjunction with the wide ranging archaeological survey data collected by Gila Pueblo, led to the defini tion of the Mogo11on Culture as a developmental entity with regional growth stages somewhat distinct from both the Pueblo and Hohokam Cultures
(Gladwin and Gladwin 1934, 1935:221-225).
The reports on those excavations and a study of prehistoric ceramics from the area by E. W. Haury defined the nature of the phases of Mogollon development in the northern Mimbres Region that range through the last half of the first Millenium A.D. (1936a, b ) .
Before discussion of the phase system, it is necessary to consider briefly the use of the archaeological phase as a conceptual device. The history of this concept in the Southwest had been considered at length by A. P. Olson (1962). My use of the term follows that of Willey and
Phillips (1958:22).
In the Mimbres Valley my interpretation of the definitional bases for phases named there suggests they have been primarily oriented toward the inclusion of sets of cultural materials that exhibit relatively discrete combinations of formal variability; they are seen in time spans
ranging from about fifty to two hundred years and are spatially limited
to the Mimbres Region or lesser areas within it. The kinds of cultural evidence that have been utilized for these purposes'have varied with the
amount and kind of data available, but ceramic and architectural styles have been utilized to the greatest extent. These comments are necessarily based on the few publications treating phase distinctions in the area
(Haury 1936a, b ; Danson 1957). 41
Overall, I consider the phase system operationally useful in this study for initial development of some cultural and historical perspectives, and several of the following sections use it as a broad organizational device. It should be noted that the use of this system does not preclude the development or use of other organizational frame works for considering trends or events in the cultural record.
The archaeologically defined phases of prehistoric cultural development in the Mimbres drainage that have become apparent through the published literature are shown in Table 3. The dates for the first three phases are primarily from a re-study of dendrochronological materials at the Harris site (Bannister, Hannah, and Robinson 1970), and most of the later dates are from a synthesis of the phase system
there by E. B. Danson (1957:17). The type sites listed there are from
Gladwin and Gladwin (1934:25). There are problems with some of the dates and with the utility of some of the definitional bases for the post A.D. 1000 phases. These problems will receive attention in later
chapters when survey data from the current project are presented.
The probable phases represented at each of the professionally excavated sites in the Mimbres drainage are shown in Table 4. Phase
assignments are based on my interpretation of the various reports for
each site and personal examination of surface ceramic collections from
each site. Table 4 is presented at this time because the ensuing discus
sion and the next chapters will frequently refer to the sites and phases
concerned. 42
Table 3. The phase system in the Miiribres Valley.
Phase Approximate date A.D. Type Site
Georgetown 500 - 624
San Francisco 624 - 850
Three Circle 850 - 1000 Three Circle Site
Hangus 1000 - 1050 Galaz Site
Mini) res 1050 - 1200 Swarts Ruin
Animas ? - 1400 Chihuahua A:9:5 (Gila Pueblo Number) Table 4. Occupations by phase
Phases Sites George San Three town Francis co Circle Mangos Mi mb res Animas
Cameron Creek Site ? X X XX
Galaz Site ? ? XXX X
Harris Site XXX
Mattocks Ruin X X X X
Swarts Ruin ? X X X X i
Three Circle Site ? XX ? blank = occupation unknown ? = occupation unclear x = limited or extensive o-cupation
JS w 44
The concept of the type site has not been particularly useful in the Minibres Valley. The Gladwins1 (1934:25) denotation of the Three
Circle site as the type site for the phase of the same name is difficult to justify since no report was made on the site. The Georgetown,
San Francisco, and Three Circle Phases are best known from the Harris
Site (Haury 1936b). There may be another phase intermediate between the
Georgetown and San Francisco Phases. Haury noted an ". . . unaccountable advance.in painted pottery between the Georgetown and San Francisco
Phases and . . . a sharp break in the architectural sequence. . . . Phases cannot be created on such slim indication however ..." (1936a:9). This potential phase is not used in the current study.
According.to the Gladwins' designation (1934:25) the type site for the Mangus Phase is the Galaz site. The limited publications on this site do not clearly indicate that it contained the kind of archi tecture noted as characteristic of the phase, i.e., small rectangular pueblos, nor do the reports provide enough data to permit "reliable" phase assignments of the structures that are present (Bryan 1927a, b,
1931a, b, c, 1961). The Mangus Phase was seldom referred to or discussed after 1934 until Danson’s publication of limited survey data from the area and brief synopsis of the phase system (1957). He elaborated the definition of the Mangus Phase primarily on the basis of the "Middle
Period" materials seen at the Swarts Ruin (Danson 1957:17, Cosgrove and
Cosgrove 1932). In general this period of development remains poorly
understood. 45
On the basis of Gila Pueblo survey data, E. W. Haury suggests there may have been a gradual north-to-south movement of groups through the A.D. 1000 to A.D. 1200 period in the Mimbres Valley (1936b:129).
A preliminary analysis of ceramic collections from more than 175 sites in the Mimbres drainage collected in 1967 by A. J. Jelinek does not yet completely substantiate such a population shift (Graybill n.d.). These data do permit the tentative suggestion that post-Mimbres Phase occupa tions were restricted to areas generally below 1800 meters and were most frequent in the presently arid ecotonal areas between the Upper and
Lower Sonoran Zones in the lower drainage (Graybill n.d.).
Most of the post-Mimbres Phase occupations have been assigned to the Animas Phase, but the range of dates and definitional bases for this phase are not particularly clear. The Gladwins designated a site in southwestern New Mexico as the type site, Gila Pueblo // Chihuahua A:9:5, but materials from the Pendleton Ruin in the same general area have become more definitional (Kidder et al. 1949). The phase was considered to date in the fourteenth century A.D. on the basis of ceramic cross dating (1949:143-146).
The occurrence of occupations of this phase in the Mimbres
Valley may be preceded by others with ceramics more akin to those of the
Dona Ana and El Paso Phases seen in the Jornada Region (Lehmer 1948), but this is again only a tentative suggestion based on preliminary analysis of surface ceramic collections (Graybill n.d.) . None of the site reports from the Mimbres Valley provide enough specific data on con textual relations of excavated materials from the post-Mimbres phases to currently resolve the problem. CHAPTER IV
SETTLEMENT, SUBSISTENCE, AND PAST ENVIRONMENTS
Although the Mint res Valley may be considered a transect through much of the natural environmental variation in the region, studies there have not yet provided a longitudinal perspective on some of the major kinds of cultural adaptations seen in other parts of the region or the
Southwest. This is partially due to the limited amount of prehistoric research as well as a result of the goals of the projects already accomplished.
Early Hunters, Collectors, and Farmers
No useful data are available concerning prehistoric occupation
and use of resources in the valley prior to about A.D. 500. This "gap" in the record is quite likely more apparent than real, given the presence of late Cochise and early Mogo11on materials in similar environments to
the north and northwest, such as those seen at Bat Cave (Dick 1965), the
Wet Leggett site and Tularosa Cave (Martin et al. 1949, 1952), and the
Cienega site (Haury 1957).
Farming Communities
In general accordance with the foci of this study, the following
sections summarize certain trends in cultural development in the Mimbres
Valley south of the survey area during the period from about A.D. 500 to
A.D. 1200. Perspectives on the current project are best gained by the
46 47 division of the discussion into two broad categories. Variations in settlement patterns are first considered. A second section summarizes the available data that best reflect prehistoric subsistence patterns.
The latter data will also permit some inferences regarding the environ ments being exploited and possible environmental changes since occupation times. Data concerning past environments in nearby areas is also con sidered for its utility in these topics.
Settlement Patterns: Early Villages
Since generalization is one purpose in the considerations of settlement patterns here, citations are infrequent. The data are entirely from the published site reports from the Mimbres drainage unless otherwise noted. From about A.D. 500 to A.D. 1000 the valley was populated by groups living in pit house villages. Known habitation sites are generally located on higher bluffs, slopes, or benches above the valley. The distribution of sites of any other functional nature and the distribution of sites in non-riverine areas is unknown. No sites have been completely excavated so the range of site sizes and the overall spatial arrangement of structures per site is poorly understood.
Ttoo formally and probably functionally distinct types of architec tural units are present in the early villages: habitation units and
"great-houses" or "kivas," the latter perhaps representing a ceremonial or special non-residential focus of social organization. They are generally larger and deeper than the habitation units.
Through this period there is a progression in plan view of the
forms of.structures from round to quadrilateral. There appears to be a 48
trend from about A.D. 900 to A.D. 1000 where the depth of pit houses
decreases to near or just below ground level. The walls of some struc
tures are lined with cobbles and adobe or flat stone slabs.
Settlement Patterns: Later Developments
The period from about A.D. 1000 to A.D. 1200 is characterized by the development of above-ground cobble and adobe-walled pueblos.
These sites are usually located on low terraces, benches, or hills near
the drainage bottoms. The distribution of sites in non-riverine contexts
is unknown.
Early in the period it appears that some pueblo floors are
slightly below ground level. Sites consist of from one to three or four
room pueblo units. The range in number of pueblo units or presence of
consistent spatial patterns of these is not yet recognized. Subterranean
rectangular "kivas" separate from habitation sites are likely present at
this time. Room 48 at the Mattocks Ruin may illustrate this, although
the room is difficult to place in temporal perspective (Nesbitt 1931:25).
Later in the period, corresponding with the Miiribres Phase, pueblo
floors are near ground level. Large multi-roomed contiguous structures
are known, some with enclosed courts and walled and open plazas. The
number of rooms per unit may exceed 75 in some cases, but the number of
these larger units per site is seldom more than three or four. At the
Swarts Ruin there were two units, one with about 72 rooms, another with
about 52 rooms (Cosgrove and Cosgrove 1932). At the Cameron Creek Village
there were at least four units with the number of rooms ranging from about
18 to 40 per unit (Bradfield 1929). The patterns of pueblo growth or 49 accretion and contemporaneity of major units within sites are not entirely clear.
The range of functionally differentiated sites is also unknown
during the Mangus and Mimbres Phases. Small isolated pueblos known from various portions of the region during both phases, when the latter are
ceramically defined, have generally been considered seasonal field houses. None of these have been professionally excavated or reported on.
Their spatial positioning with respect to large sites, to each other, and
to various natural resources is not clear. One site of some interest in
these matters is the Mattocks Ruin. It is situated on a bench not far
from the river bottom. Later occupations there exhibit a few scattered
one to four room pueblos through the Mangus and Mimbres Phases. These
might all be separate short-term occupations. If not, and some of the
Mimbres Phase pueblos are contemporaneous, their dispersed pattern may
represent a kind of community organization not previously considered in
the area. The focus of most excavations and summaries of normal life-ways
are generally with respect to the larger sites, e.g.: "The Swarts village
appears to have been a typical Mimbres community . . . the conditions
observed at Swarts give a fairly comprehensive picture and serve well to
illustrate the mode of life of the ancient Mimbrenos in general" (Cosgrove
and Cosgrove 1932:107). I suggest that the conditions at the Swarts Ruin
may only represent the mode of life of some, not all, Mimbrenos.
Most summaries or discussions of architectural trends through the
Mangus and Mimbres Phases also imply a single line of development from
small one-roomed pueblos through large multi-roomed structures. One of 50
Danson’s major criteria for separating the two phases is based on the size of the pueblo observed, Hangus Phase pueblos being from one to
15 rooms, Mimbres Phase pueblos being "large" (1957:17). These distinc tions are not completely acceptable on the basis of architectural data from the excavated sites discussed above. The discovery and explanation of different, yet contemporaneous, settlement patterns, community patterns, and their social organizational correlates remain to be accomplished.
Subsistence and Environment
The reports on the excavated sites in the valley do not separate faunal and floral data by phase or building period, and most data are only qualitatively presented. Thus, the initial part of the following section summarizes biotic data by site instead of by time period. This
"raw" data is presented here because it is not available in any other
synthesis and will be referred to in the ensuing discussions.
The biotic data and certain artifactual classes likely used for
exploiting them are then considered to develop as many perspectives as
are feasible on environmental manipulation.
Excavated Biotic Data
Cameron Creek Village (Bradfield 1923a, b, 1927, 1928, 1929)
Cultigens: Beans (Phaseolus sp.) Com; 4 to 8 row cobs (Zea mays) Squash (Cucurbita sp.)
Other flora: Pinon nuts (Pinus edulis) Walnuts (Juglans major) Cedar; some logs as large as 16" x 10’ (Juniperus sp.) 51
Fauna: Rabbit (Lepus sp. or Sylvilagus sp.) Deer (probably Odocoileus hemionus) Antelope (probably Antilocapra americana) Turkey (probably Meleagris gallopavo merriaroi) Macaw (1 - Ara macao, 1 - Ara sp.)
The Galaz Ruin (Bryan 1931b, c) Cultigens: C o m (Zea mays)
Other flora: Cedar; logs (Juniperus sp.) Pine; loss (Pinus ponderosa)
Fauna: Canid (probably Canis sp.) Deer (probably Odocoileus hemionus) Sheep (probably Ovis canadensis)
L. L. Hargrave (1970:48) reports that four macaws were found in the site.
//I Military Macaw (Ara militaris) In Kiva 73, probably Mimbres
Phase
#2 Scarlet Macaw (Ara macao) In Kiva 73
#3 Scarlet Macaw (Ara macao) In Kiva 73
#4 Scarlet Macaw (Ara macao) From area north of Room 35
The Military Macaw above is the only one of that species known from the southwestern United States in prehistory. The northernmost recorded occurrence of this species recently (1931) was at Soyopa,
28° 45'N latitude, some 175 miles south of the United States-Mexican border. The Scarlet Macaw is restricted to humid lowland forests from southern Tamaulipas on the east Mexican coast and Oaxaca on the west coast, south of Mexico City (Hargrave 1970:10). It is questionable that the macaws were procured in their native habitat by people from the 52
Mimbres Valley. Some form of interaction with Mexican groups or inter
mediaries is implied.
The Harris Site (Haury 1936b) Cultigens: Corn; 10 row cobs (Zea mays)
Other flora: Cedar; seeds, logs (Juniperus deppeana) Pinon; charcoal (Pinus edulis) Pine; charcoal (Pinus ponderosa)
Fauna: Pocket Gopher (Thomomys sp.) Wood rat (Neotoma) Ground squirrel (Citellus) Jack rabbit (Lepus cf. townsendii) Cotton-tail rabbit (Sylvilagus cf. floridanus) Badger (Taxidea taxus) • Racoon (Procyon lotor) Coyote (Canis cf. lagrans) Dog (Canis sp.) Gray fox (Urocyon cinereoargenteus) Red fox (Vulpes) Mountain lion (Felis cf. concolor) Bob-cat (Lynx rufus) Mule deer (Odocoileus cf. hemionus) Prong-homed antelope (Antilocapra americana) Bear (Ursus sp.) Bison (Bison) Duck sp. Great h o m e d owl (Bubo virginianus) Hawk (Buteo) Turkey (Meleagris) Tortoise sp.
The Mattocks Ruin (Nesbitt 1931) Cultigens: No data
Other flora: Cedar; posts (Juniperus sp.)
Fauna: Deer (probably Odocoileus hemionus) Rabbit (Lepus sp. or Sylvilagus sp.)
The Swarts Ruin (Cosgrove and Cosgrove 1932) Cultigens : C o m (Zea mays)
Other flora: Cedar; posts, some as large as 15" in diameter (Juniperus sp.) 53
Fauna: Mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) Prong horn antelope (Antilocapra americana) Cotton tail rabbit (Sylvilagus auduboni warreni) Jack rabbit (Lepus californicus texanus) Mountail sheep (Ovis canadensis texanus) Elk (Cervus canadensis) Bison (Bison americanus) Coyote (Canis lestes) Fox (Vulpes macrourus) Dog (Canis sp.) Golden eagle (Chrysaetos) Hawk (Buteo) probably Red-tail Crane
Food and Tools
The limited amount of data concerning cultigens and other flora likely used for food precludes much comment on trends in their use through time.
Stone tools associated with plant cultivation and processing vary through time in terms of qualitative presence, absence, or change in formal attributes. These data do not permit hypothesis testing about their predictive value for changes in plant use but are considered for their inferential utility.
Metates, generally associated with plant food processing, trend from rough basin shaped items in the Georgetown Phase, to well shaped trough forms in the Mimbres Phase. In the Southwest basin metates are often viewed as hallmarks of subsistence patterns based in part on collected plant foods. Troughed forms are usually seen in contexts where reliance upon crop agriculture is inferred to be quite important in the subsistence pattern. Thus, while it is probable that the overall
trend in the metate forms in the Mimbres corresponds with increasing use 54 of some cult!gens, it remains to be demonstrated. Other dimensions of
variation in both manos and metates with respect to fineness or coarse ness of the lithic materials utilized occurs. This mig^it reflect differ
ent stages of grinding maize, other collected plants, or both. The more
"finished" appearance of some metates in the later periods is probably not a dimension of a pure utilitarian nature.
Another class of items generally associated with plant cultiva
tion, chipped stone "hoes," is sporadically seen in the area first in the
San Francisco Phase and again through the Mangus and Mimbres Phases.
Whether all items reported in this category actually were intended to be
used or were used in cultivation is unclear. None of them show signs of
hafting. Those from the Swarts Ruin did not show wear on the edges or
the point according to the Cosgroves (1932:45), but only 13 were found in
or around a total of 172 excavated rooms ranging from about Three Circle
to Mimbres Phases. The disposal of "used" items perhaps occurred else
where .
Assuming for the moment. that cultivation was one of the functions
of these items, their reported frequencies do not simply vary as an
increase through time, and no inference is thus offered regarding changing
cultivation practices. One or two other dimensions of variation are
possible though. Nesbitt reports relatively large numbers of these
items from the Mattocks Ruin (1931:82):
One cache which contained 25 hoes was found on a ledge about two feet above the floor of a pit-room while another group of 47 hoes was found in association with a (male) burial (from below a Mimbres Phase room floor). Single specimens to the number of 15 were found here and there in the fill and on the floors of rooms. 55
The relatively high frequency of hoes through the 62 rooms here is of interest in view of the much lesser number of similar items found in the
larger Swarts Ruin. This set of inverse relationships may independently
suggest that functional differences by site are represented, as noted in
the previous section, on the basis of architectural size and unit
dispersion. In a vein of continued speculation, the cache of hoes with
the male burial at the Mattocks Ruin might suggest that some degree of
occupational specialization was not coupletely unknown there. Whether
the possible specialization in this case was cultivation or the manu
facture of hoes is difficult to determine. None of the burials at the
Swarts or Cameron Creek sites appear to be accompanied by such extensive
numbers or kinds of probable subsistence related items. No architectural
or other contexts described at any of the sites suggest specific rooms
or sectors were specially devoted to the manufacture of particular
classes of tools, jewelry, or other artifacts.
Architecture and Tools
Juniper, probably Juniperus deppeana, was widely noted for archi
tectural use throughout the excavated sites. This species is available
near all the sites today, but in low density and usually only of "shrub"
size.
The only class of tools that might be considered strongly
associated with heavy woodworking is axes. A few "crude" chipped stone
axes are present in the Three Circle Phase while better finished pecked
and ground stone axes are present in the Mangus and Mi nib res Phases. This 56 might suggest an increase in heavy woodworking in the later phases or might reflect late clearance of wooded bottom lands along drainages for
agricultural use.
Fauna and Tools
Although a great variety of faunal material is present, the
qualitative mode of presentation and lack of publication on temporal and
spatial contexts precludes much consideration of trends in faunal
exploitation.
The greater majority of the faunal groups or species are from
Upper Sonoran contexts (Bailey 1913, 1931). The animals more likely
found in Transition through Hudsonian Life Zones such as the bear and
mountain sheep are not surprising additions to the lists. Those zones
are currently less than one or two days walk from any of the excavated
sites. Seasonal fluctuations in faunal ranges may also have increased
the availability of bear and sheep in the Upper Sonoran Zone. The bison
from the Harris.site and Swarts Ruin may have been from the Rio Grande
Valley.
The chipped stone artifacts such as projectile points and
scrapers that are generally associated with faunal exploitation undergo
various formal changes during the period concerned but do not, again,
provide much of a basis for strong inference about trends in hunting or
processing activities.
Environmental Variation
The floral groups reviewed above are all qualitatively present
in Upper Sonoran communities that surround the sites today. The large 57 juniper posts or beams found in some sites could not presently be obtained in their respective vicinities. This might suggest transport
of the logs from higher areas or may only reflect the nature of recent
alteration of the landscape. Historic and modern usage of juniper for
firewood and fence posts as well as deliberate eradication may account
for the present lack of large individuals.
Most of the faunal groups noted above are still present in the
area while others not currently seen, such as elk, were reported north west of the area in the Mogollon Mountains in the late nineteenth century
(Bailey 1931:43).
The above considerations would all tend to support the hypothesis
that no drastic or major changes in the locations of Upper Sonoran Life
Zone floral associations have occurred since about A.D. 500.
In southern New Mexico qualitative changes in terms of the kinds
of species and quantitative changes in terms of the relative frequencies
of species in communities has probably undergone the greatest change in
the past two hundred years in Upper and Lower Sonoran Zones due to the
disturbances of Spanish and Anglo-American cultural systems, as noted in
Chapter III. A study of changing vegetation patterns the past 100 years
in and near areas of grassland in southern Arizona reached partially
similar conclusions, but also suggests that a recent shift to a slightly
drier and warmer climate may be an important factor (Hastings and Turner
1965:289).
From another point of view and generalization, a major study of
late and post-Pleistocene fossil pollen in southern Arizona and northern 58
Mexico does not provide evidence of massive climatic changes the past
2000 years (Martin 1963). If major changes such as extreme droughts did actually occur, the pollen data still do not indicate they . . were sufficient to shift biotic zones above their present level" (Martin
1963:68).
Perspectives
This chapter and preceding ones have purposefully dwelt at length on major variations in the modern to prehistoric natural and cultural environments in the vicinity of the study area of this project.
These data are considered essential background information in comprehend ing the remainder of this report. The perspectives gained thus far have suggested that the major archaeological research efforts in the Mimbres
Valley have been concentrated almost exclusively on materials in or near riverine contexts in the Lower and Upper Sonoran Life Zones. It was suggested that those areas have seen the greatest destruction of pre historic sites and have recently undergone greater modifications in the natural environment than is probable in the more northern survey area.
There are also extensive problems in utilizing the published archaeo logical data from the valley for any further generalizations. Those studies have furnished basic cultural-historical frameworks and include a wide range of cultural variation that requires further explanation. CHAPTER V
ARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEY AND ENVIRONMENTAL VARIATION
The initial sections of this chapter provide an overview of the rationale for selecting the northern Minibres Valley as a study area for this project. Following delimitations of major data categories and the nature of survey procedures, the observable variation in the natural environment that was considered useful for several aspects of the study are presented in some detail. This chapter is primarily descriptive in nature, providing the basic data and background information for use in succeeding analysis and discussion.
Introduction
The study area of this project shown in Figure 5 was chosen to encompass as much variation of the natural and cultural environment in.
the Upper Sonoran-Transition ecotone of the northern Minibres Valley as was deemed feasible, given the interaction of the real economics and the ideal goal achievement of conducting a complete and intensive survey
over a relatively large area.
It was considered that a survey of this nature was required in
order to develop knowledge of a more complete range of prehistoric
settlement variability in the several environmental settings than had
previously been accomplished. Most prior surveys in the Minibres Region
59 INTENSIVE SURVEY EXTENSIVE SURVEY MIMBRES RANGER STATION A
MIMBRES
Figure 5. The survey area. 61 have been extensive in nature, and most excavations in the eastern sectors have been limited to areas with Upper Sonoran biotic patterns.
It was also considered that obtaining new and increased amounts
of information in the adjacent and higher areas was not only a logical
step but a necessary one in order to meet several requirements. Given
the range of initial goals outlined in Chapter I, especially those con
cerning a relatively complete sample, it was necessary to have a study
area that did not exhibit an extensive loss of prehistoric sites due to
historic cultural settlement and land development. The latter factors
have also effected changes in the natural environment through many areas
of the region. It was desirable instead to avoid them in terms of
finding a study area that might contain environmental variation that
bore at least a remote semblance to that of the time period of interest.
In final addition, it was also desirable to accomplish surface survey in
an area that was in close proximity to areas where the prehistoric
cultural sequence was not entirely unknown so that preliminary analyses
of the survey data might utilize established chronological schema as
they appeared to be applicable.
Given these various requirements after brief reconnaisance in
several areas of the region and after considerable bibliographic research
concerning the environment and prehistory of the region, the sectors of
the northern Mi nib res drainage within the bounds of the Gila National
Forest, Mimbres Ranger District, New Mexico, were selected.
The relatively unknown archaeological status of the extreme
northern Mimbres drainage at the onset of the project required that a 62 basic inventory of prehistoric cultural remains be undertaken as part of the overall research design. Host of the field survey efforts were necessarily directed toward locating sites and making observations about them with respect to geographic locus, the nature and extent of
surface debris, and their immediate environmental setting. The
particular goals of the project naturally affected the specific manner
in which the survey was accomplished, the kinds of sites that were
given the greatest consideration, and the specific kinds of data
collected. The following sections describe survey procedures, environ
mental variation in the area, categories of data that were collected,
and several analytical frameworks developed for the project.
Procedures and Categories
For purposes of this study a site was operationally defined as
a relatively discrete spatial occurrence of prehistoric cultural debris.
No situation was encountered where sherds, structures, or lithics were
densely scattered for relatively great distances, complicating the use
of this definition. The general kinds and frequencies of sites now
known from the area are:
Sites with inferred pit-structure or pueblo architecture - 144.
Sherd areas with no apparent architecture - 16.
Bock shelters with evidence of prehistoric occupation - 4.
Sites not clearly historic or prehistoric - 4.
Thirty of these sites had been located during a recent extensive
survey in the region and ceramic collections had been made (Jelinek n.d.), 63 but all were visited during this study for the purpose of making further observations.
Succeeding sections of this chapter describe the categories of environmental data that were collected, while Chapter VI treats the
range of cultural data that was observed or collected. Data summaries per site for most cultural and environmental information are given in
Appendix I. Ceramic counts by type for all collections per site or
subsections of sites are given in Appendix II. Detailed discussions of
the variations in cultural and environmental data are not presented here but in later chapters when temporal controls and analytic frame works have been developed.
All chapters concerning the results of the survey present the
data in some detail. This might be considered excessive in some cases,
but an attempt was made to provide sufficient information for later
workers to be able to further evaluate these results or to use the data
for other scholarly purposes.
Field Survey
Approximately four months of field work were accomplished during
visits to the survey area from 1967 to 1972, including a continuous two
month season in 1972. Figure 5 illustrates the relative intensity of
the survey coverage. In areas that were intensively covered the field
procedure involved search and sweep operations by workers spaced from
about 10 to 50 meters apart depending on ground cover or terrain. The
total area covered in this manner is difficult to calculate because of 64 steep canyon sides and slopes that cross-cut those areas, but the figure is near 55 square kilometers.
As field experience was gained after survey over all types of landforms, it became evident that the higher and relatively arid mesa tops trending away from the main drainages were not loci of prehistoric activity that left substantial amounts of obvious cultural debris.
About 15 square kilometers of this kind of topography were intensively covered. No sites were located on the more rearward portions of the mesa tops although occasional chips or flakes of artifactual lithic debris were encountered. The relationships obtained between the kinds of areas surveyed and numbers of sites located led to the abandonment of the original goal of intensive survey of all areas because of the low probability of equally significant information gain from all areas. How ever, the remaining mesa areas were not totally ignored. The edges of the higher landforms near drainages were carefully searched while their medial and rearward sectors were covered in a less intensive manner.
Many are accessible by four wheel drive vehicle and were covered by driving lengthy transects along the mesa tops. While undertaking this approach, intermittent stops were made and limited areas were intensively surveyed by walking. This accounts for the isolated patches of intensive coverage shown in Figure 5. About 20 square kilometers were covered by this mixed extensive and intensive approach. The results of these pro cedures in terms of locating sites was negative, but this is considered useful information in comprehending the range of variation in prehistoric site locations. The coverage of these areas was also necessary for 65 continuing observation of biogeographic and physiographic patterns of variation. Since these observations provide the setting within which cultural variation is treated, the following section describes the ranges of variation in those environmental factors that are most important in considering prehistoric settlement and subsistence.
The Natural Environment
The next few sections are organized to first provide an over view of particular kinds of environmental variation that were encountered and considered to be useful for descriptive and analytic purposes and then to present the subdivision or categories of variation per environ mental factor that were observed, recorded, or later considered for various analyses of cultural and environmental covariation.
Most of the environmental factors that are described here were selected as the ones likely to be most useful in initial attempts to
comprehend both the presence and kinds of relationships that might pre vail among the variables of settlement location, in some cases settlement size, and changing subsistence potentials through the survey area.
Given the assumption that the local prehistoric population relied
upon varying combinations of crop agriculture, plant collection, and
faunal resources for subsistence, an attempt was made to select and
categorize sectors of the natural environment such as soils, hydrology,
and vegetation that through variation in the area, may have affected the
potential exploitation of resources and thus influenced the amount and
kind of settlement. 66
In most cases the categorization of particular environmental factors was accomplished with two criteria in mind. The first of these was an attempt to discern relatively discrete groups of variability that exhibit high similarity within groups and low similarity between groups for any one factor. Related to this and restricting the extent of the process was a need to carry out the field categorization-by rapid qualitative inspection in a manner that could be consistently applied.
Thus, most distinctions were made at a relatively low level of abstrac
tion inspection in a manner that could be consistently applied. Thus, most distinctions were made at a relatively low level of abstraction and
are primarily useful for seeking patterned site to environment relations
at a similar level.
Geology and Topography
The geology and some apparent features of topography were
described earlier in Chapter III and will not be repeated here although
a few additional comments are required. For brief descriptive purposes,
the topography of the area can be divided into three broad categories:
the deeply dissected mesa systems that account for over 80% of the total
surface area, the major drainage channels and valleys that separate those
mesa systems, and one hilly area of low relief.
The areas south and east of the East Fork and between the North
and East Forks are generally similar. They consist of gently sloping or
rolling mesa and ridge tops separated by deep, narrow canyons draining in
southerly directions. Elevations on the ridge tops range from 1800 meters 67 near the confluence of the forks to about 2400 meters along the upper portions of the East Fork, and to 2500 meters on the upper North Fork.
The area intervening between the North and West Forks near their junc tion is a rugged system of narrow ridges, steep cliffs, and deep canyons. Further north this develops into several broad, flat mesas separating the Sapillo Creek and the North Fork drainages.
The topography of the North and East Fork valleys is similar.
Low and narrow bench segments are present along various areas of each channel and are intermittent with slopes rising directly from channel edges to the mesas above. The valley floor widths at elevations of
2200 meters near the upper reaches of the survey on these forks range from 5 to 20 meters. These tend to become broader further south along each drainage, fluctuating with local constrictions. Near the junction of the three forks at an elevation of 1600 meters the width of each increase to about 175 meters each. From below this point to the southern edge of the survey area (about two kilometers) the width of the Mimbres flood plain is about 250 meters.
Some topography to the northeast of the West Fork drainage near
the Continental Divide and near the southern reaches of the West Fork is
different from that noted above. Relief is limited; a terrain of low hills and small mesa forms lightly dissected by small, seasonal streams
extending from one to two kilometers east and west of the main channel.
Observation of the locations of sites with respect to the
topographic variations just presented led to the following classification
of landforms upon which the sites were located. 68
1. Bench
2. Ridge spur
3. Mesa
4. Isolated hill or knoll
5. Slopes on mesa-sides or hillsides
6. Low ridges, points in lightly dissected areas
7. Flood plains
8. Rock shelters
Hydrology
At the extreme northern limits of the survey the stream in the
North Fork appears to be a permanent trickle. Small standing pools of water are notable most of the year along this fork as far south as
Section 4, T.15S., R.11W. Small standing pools were also noted on the extreme upper reaches of the survey along the East Fork Section 23,
T.15S., R.11W. during periods of low precipitation. With these excep
tions the streams in the various forks and their tributaries flow only as an aftermath of seasonal precipitation. Surface flow during the usually intense summer storms is rapid and seldom lasts more than a few hours. Winter rain storms are of less intensity. Stream flow follow ing these and also from snow melt can last several days or weeks.
Surface flow is also intermittent in some places, apparently varying with unexplained subsurface geological features. This is particularly notable along the North Fork where the stream traverses the boundary of Sections 17 and 20, T.15S., R.11W. and also occurs on a 69 lower portion of the West Fork near the common edge of Sections 31 and
36, T.15S., R.12W. In general, moisture conditions are somewhat dif
ferent in most of the West Fork area from those of the other forks.
The overall drainage area is smaller than the North or East Fork water shed, covers lower elevations, and appears to receive less precipitation.
Observation of both summer and winter surface flow of the three forks at
the junction area is of some interest in this regard. Runoff following
intensive summer storms results in surface flow in all three streams at
the junction area, though the North and East Forks appear to carry two
to three times the volume of water as the West Fork. Where surface flow
occurs through March and April following winter precipitation, the West
Fork may range from a trickle to no surface flow, while the North and
East Forks are relatively swift-flowing streams from one to three or
more meters in width and somewhat less than a meter at greatest depth.
It is not improbable that much of the water movement in the West Fork is
subsurface. A segment of the West Fork about two kilometers northwest
of the junction area provides further evidence relevant to this problem.
Here, for a distance of about one kilometer, the West Fork stream has
entrenched a channel to a depth of three meters below the majority of
the current valley fill. Relatively fine grained sediments alternating
with one and possibly two continuous gravel and cobble lenses within
the profile of this cut are apparent. No seepage of major proportions
from the walls of the cut is apparent following periods of summer or
winter precipitation. During periods when winter surface flow is apparent
in other channels, the surface flow at the bottom of the entrenched West 70
Fork channel is again only a trickle or non-existent. This minor flow
may represent the upper visible amount of that which flows through
coarse colluvium that is apparent at the base of the entrenchment and
probably underlies the majority of the finer sediments in the valley fill.
One major hydrologic factor categorized for use in analysis of
cultural-environmental relationships was stream rank. The method used
to provide the ranking follows Strahler's recent usage (1961) of an
earlier proposal by Horton (1945:281-284). The rank of a stream in this
scheme can be utilized as a consistent yet coarse measure of hydrologic
variation for several analytical purposes. Only those streams noted on
U.S.G.S. maps with a 1:24000 scale as perennial or intermittent were
utilized in the ranking process. Beginning at the upper reaches of
these, a rank of 1 was provided. Where two streams of rank 1 converged,
the resulting stream was given a rank of 2. Where two streams of rank 2
converged, the resulting streams were given a rank of 3, and so on.
While areas of permanent flow near various headwaters were
necessarily utilized in determining the rank of several streams, all
sites that were ultimately located and given nearest stream ranks were
in the vicinity of intermittent flows. This provides a relatively con
sistent basis for comparative analyses.
Hydrologic data noted for sites on the North Fork, East Fork,
and Upper Minibres drainage were of two kinds. The rank of the major
channel nearest each site was noted, as well as the horizontal and
vertical distance in meters from the site to the edge of the appropriate 71 flood plain. In the West Fork area most sites were not nearest to that major channel, so the rank of and distances to the nearest tributary were noted.
The only other surface sources of water that are readily apparent in the survey area are small traces or seeps along numerous faces of the
Gila Conglomerate Formation. These seeps are most apparent following periods of precipitation, but do not appear to collect in large standing pools nor to produce surface stream flow where the conglomerate faces intersect with colluvial channel deposits.
Soils
No professional or intensive soil studies and mapping have yet been accomplished in the survey area. The following is derived primarily
from personal observation as well as extrapolation from and interpretation
of a broad scale study of soils in Grant County, New Mexico (Maker, Neher,
and Anderson 1971:59).
The majority of the survey area, i.e., the mesas, hills,
slopes, and ridges, falls into an association called Rockland-Luzena-
Santana. When soils are present, textures range from cobbly loams to
clays. Soil depths vary widely but are generally less than 20 to 30
centimeters. Soils forming on igneous rocks tend to be acidic and those
forming on conglomerate are usually neutral.
Roughly two kilometers along each of the major forks above the
junction, as well as the short stretch of the upper Mimbres included in
the survey, contain alluvial materials that could probably be classified 72 as San Mateo and Shanta loam. Most of the land currently irrigated for m o d e m agricultural purposes in Grant County is in this association.
These finer grained sediments may exceed two meters in depth in some cases, but generally only the upper thirty centimeters appear to contain high percentages of loams, clays, or fine sand. Some gravels and cobbles are also present. Depending in part on whether high or low amounts of surface organic materials are present, the profile type of this association would probably be considered AC or (A)C.
Further up each of the major fork channels, toward their medial drainage in the survey area, there are two apparent continue involving increasing ratios of coarse to fine grained materials. The surface of each channel contains increasing amounts of gravels and cobbles while the depth of the finer grained sediments decreases to generally less than 20 centimeters. Near the upper reaches of the survey, the various channel fills consist primarily of boulders, cobbles, gravels and thin pockets of sandy sediments.
Increasing amounts of organic matter appear to be present in the soils of the middle and upper drainages as shrubs and arboreal cover increase in density both in and along the channels.
The colluvial floors of most of the major tributaries to the various forks, such as Powderhom, Dutchman, and Cottonwood Canyons are narrow with high surface concentrations of gravels or cobbles and few pockets of soil concentration.
An exceptionally different soil was noted in the central and western portion of the West Fork drainage. It is present in the various 73 shallow tributary drainage bottoms and appears to be developing in part from Gila Conglomerate and, perhaps more importantly, under a dense cover of ponderosa pine. The upper two to three centimeters are an organic mat of grasses and decomposing needle litter. Below this are three relatively distinct zones which were observed in various stream cuts in the area. First is a dark colored, fine grained clay to loam ranging from about five to fifty centimeters in thickness. Next is a subangular and blocky soil that is gray to brown in color, contains some
•sand and small gravel, and ranges from about .5 to 1.5 meters in thick ness. Below this to an unknown depth is a coarse red to brown soil with large amounts of sand and gravel intermixed. Although it cannot be verified without more professional consideration, these may be podsolic soils with A, B, and C horizons.
For initial descriptive purposes the soils along the various
channels were only divided into four categories:
1. Soil I
Soils near the three forks junction and upper Mimbres are
probably San Mateo and Shanta loams with limited amounts of
cobbles and a probable profile type of AC or (A)C.
2. Soil II
Soils along the medial drainages of the three forks are prob
ably San Mateo and Shanta loams with moderate admixtures of
cobbles and gravels. No profile type is suggested. Some
northerly tributary drainages to the West Fork also contain
soils of this nature. 74
3. Soil III
Soils along the upper drainages of the three forks are not
classified in local terminology and no profile type is suggested.
The bottoms consist primarily of coarse colluvial deposits with
scattered thin pockets of sandy soils.
4. Soil IV
Soils in stream bottoms tributary to much of the West Fork are
not classified in local terminology, but the profile type may
be ABC.
„ Data on soil categories near sites were noted in a manner similar to the determination of hydrologic categories per site. Soil categories for the alluvium or colluvium nearest each sites along the major forks and the upper Mimbres was usually a I, II, or III, while most sites along tributary drainages to the West Fork were nearest to soils of
category IV.
Climate
Modern climatic records of limited duration and scope are avail able at the southern reaches of the survey area from the Mimbres Ranger
Station. These data were summarized in Figure 3, page 13. The climate
of the higher altitudes in the area must be interpreted in part from both
general sources and the following unpublished data.
There is a short 8 year annual precipitation record from the
McKnight storage gage station located 21.5 kilometers northeast of the
Mimbres Ranger Station at latitude 33° 2 ’ N, longitude 107° 52* W, and \ 75 an elevation of 2914 meters. The average precipitation at this station for the period from 1955 to 1962 was 25.7 inches (Ritchie 1972).
An interpolation from this and data from the ranger station suggests that annual precipitation at the upper reaches of the survey area near
2200 meters may be about 20 inches. This is not inconsistent with vegetation patterns to be discussed in a later section.
Precipitation data from the southern survey area suggests a markedly bi-seasonal pattern with about 67% of the annual amount falling in the May through October period. Snowfall amounts at the Mini)res
Ranger Station are not available but probably account for less than 25% of the winter season precipitation. At higher elevations the snowfall may account for 25% or more of this figure.
Altitudinal variations within the area also affect temperature
variations. Average temperature would be expected to be about 5° to
10° cooler at the upper elevations in the survey area with respect to
temperatures near the junction of the three forks. This would also
likely shorten the frost free period at higher elevations to perhaps as
little as 100 to 110 days. In comparison with lower elevations, the
average length of this period probably exhibits greater variability in
both total length from year to year and in average date of the first
killing frost (Tuan et al. 1969:79). At the lower elevations the vari
ation in late and early season frosts is probably somewhat different,
the date of late spring frosts being more variable than the date of early
fall temperature below 32°F. These appear to be consistent patterns of
variation throughout the altitudinally diverse areas of New Mexico 76
(Tuan et al. 1969:79) and may be useful in later considerations of the feasibility of prehistoric agriculture in the different climatic regimes of the survey area.
Biogeography
The overall vegetation patterns of the survey area are diverse
and usually exhibit mosaic patterns rather than extensive linear zones or bands of plant groups. This is not unexpected given the variant
aspects of slope, soils, substrate and exposure that may occur in any
one square kilometer of the area. It was not possible to make exhaustive
studies of the occurrence, range, and density of all potentially edible
natural vegetation. Attempts were made to note major areal variations
in terms of presence, absence, and relatively obvious changes in density
of certain plant types identified at various levels of botanical
taxonomy.
The eight categories of plant associations listed below were
discerned for areas other than alluvial or colluvial stream bottoms.
1. Ponderosa Pine Forest
Pinus ponderosa probably accounts for over 90% of the arboreal
vegetation in these areas. Isolated individuals of scrub
Juniperus deppeana. Pinus edulis, and Quercus s p . are sometimes
present as well as miscellaneous grasses. Shrubs are infrequent.
This pattern is common along the southwestern tributaries to the
lower West Fork, toward the base of northern slopes at lower
elevations, and over most northern slopes at higher elevations
along the North and East Forks. 77
2. Mixed Forest A
Pinus ponderosa, Pinus edulis, Juniperus deppeana. Juniperus
scopuloruin, and Quercus sp. mix in varying proportions along
the benches and lower slopes at higher elevations on the North
and East Forks to provide a relatively dense forest cover.
Quercus gambelii is sometimes present. Shrubs such as Celtis
reticulata, Rhus trilobata, and Ribes leptanthum are not
uncommon.
3. Mixed Forest B
The same species are present as in category 2 above but in less
density, and the size of individuals is also somewhat smaller.
This association is frequent in the medial and southern reaches
of the survey area along lower north to east facing benches and
slopes near streams.
4. Mixed Forest C
Pinus ponderosa is infrequent in this association. Pinus edulis,
Juniperus deppeana, and Quercus sp. are present in varying pro
portions but not in high density. Isolated individuals of Agave
parry!, Yucca baccata, other Liliacae and various Opuntia sp. are
usually present. Shrubs are infrequent and grasses are sparse.
Areas of this cover are frequent on lower benches and various
slopes where local conditions appear to be intermediate between
the extremes of cool-wet and hot-dry.
5. Mesa Woodland A
Juniperus deppeana and Pinus edulis are present in varying pro
portions with some admixture of Quercus s p ., the Liliacae 78
mentioned above and some cactus. Grasses are frequent, and
shrubs are not usually present. The density of the larger
•cover species is generally low. This association is most
frequent on the tops of mesas and some high slopes with a
northern exposure.
6. Mesa Woodland B
Juniperus deppeana and Quercus sp. are most common but in
relatively low density with some admixture of the lower plant
cover of category 5 above. These patterns are most frequent
along high slopes with a southerly exposure and near the
southern edges of mesa tops.
7. Scrub Cover
Agave parryi. Yucca bacatta, grasses, and isolated individuals
of Quercus sp. are present in relatively low density in this
association which is primarily limited to steep slopes with
southerly exposures. ,
8. Grassland
Several species of grasses with limited admixtures of various
. Compositae, Amaranthus, and Chenopodiacae form this association.
The few occurrences of this pattern outside of riverine bottom
areas are on gentle slopes near the lower West Fork drainage.
The categories just described were utilized to characterize the vegetation group within which each site was located. In addition, the vegetation in the alluvial or colluvial bottom area nearest each site was also categorized. Four major associations were discerned. 79
1. Group A
The bottom areas of the medial to southern reaches of the three
forks and the upper Mimbres can usually be characterized by the
presence of several species of grasses, herbs, and various
members of the Chenopodiacae and Amaranthus groups. At the
edges of these areas where minor streams and rivulets become
tributaries, the density of shrubs and herbs increases. Members
" of the Riparian Woodland such as Juglans major and Populus
fremontii are also present. There appears to be high correspon
dence between this association and the soils of category 1
described in an earlier section.
2. Group B
Grasses, Chenopodiacae, Amaranthus, ponderosa pine, and varying
admixtures of scrub oak and juniper are a common association on
many of the tributaries to the lower West Fork. Shrubs and
cactus are infrequent additions. These areas usually exhibit
soils of category 4.
3. Group C
Junipers of widely varying size and age classes, isolated
individuals of ponderosa pine, oak, walnut, grasses, and
several herbs and shrubs become an association that is encountered
along the medial East and North Forks. This group corresponds
closely with the soils of category 3. 80
4. Group D
The vegetation of Group C above is present in increasing density,
and most species attain larger size. Willow, alder, Ganibel's
oak, isolated individuals of Douglas fir, and an increased
variety of shrubs and herbs in these upper reaches of the survey
along the North and East Forks coincides with soils of type 4
and relatively wet conditions most of the year. The vegetation
. on the slopes and benches near these areas is usually Mixed
Forest A.
Faunal resources in the survey area are not as readily observ able as other resources, and only a few comments are possible.
The specific live mammalian fauna that have been sighted while working in the area at various seasons include Odocoileus hemionus,
Odocoileus Virginianus, Pecari angulatus, Canis latrans, Urocyon cinereoargenteus, Lepus sp., and Sylvilagus sp. The deer and rabbit were observed in most areas while the coyote, fox, and peccary were noted in heavily wooded areas. One turkey (Gallopavo meleagris) was also noted in a wooded area near the Continental Divide. Skeletal material and tracks of Lynx rufus were also observed at various times.
Local residents report that bear (Ursus americanus), mountain lion (Fells concolor), mountain sheep (Ovis canadensis), and antelope (Antilocapra aroericana) have recently been seen or killed in the area.
My limited observations of distribution of the fauna at differ ent seasons of the year suggest only one notable variation with respect 81 to deer populations. During May and June when water and young green vegetation are scarce but most available along the upper reaches of the
East and North Forks, sightings of deer and fecal matter from several other mammals are also most frequent in those same areas. CHAPTER VI
CULTURAL AND CHRONOLOGICAL VARIATION
The following sections describe the categories of cultural data
that were collected and several descriptive and analytical units developed from them for use in the study. The frameworks or units of analysis were primarily devised for purposes of controlling chronological variation and for use in Chapter VII which treats settlement patterns in
regard to both cultural and environmental variation in the area.
Architectural Variability
The two major formal kinds of evidence encountered during the
survey that were considered to be the remains of prehistoric architec
ture were circular to rectilinear depressions and linear arrangements or
concentrations of igneous or conglomerate cobbles and slabs. These data
were respectively inferred to represent pit structure and pueblo archi
tecture. For purposes of this discussion the majority of the depressions
were assigned to the general time span from A.D. 500 to A.D. 1000 or.
Period A. The remaining architectural units are assigned to Period B ,
A.D. 1000-A.D. 1200. The more precise ramifications of these time
periods in relation to the local phase system will be discussed in
succeeding sections.
In several cases sites were encountered that contained more than
one spatially isolated architectural unit. These were treated separately
82 83 for the several observations described below and are listed separately in the appendices. When this situation occurred or when specific areas of a site were subdivided for ceramic collection, unique identifiers by reference to compass directions were given to units of consideration such as north unit, southeast unit, and so on.
Depressions
Ten sites with depressions and ceramics suggestive of pre-A.D.
1000 occupations were located. Data for each unit or site are in
Appendix I under "Period A."
Suspected architectural units were measured, permitting the
surface area covered by each in square meters to be calculated. The
diameters of circular depressions were measured with diameter end
points placed at the highest and most apparent pair of opposite points
on the ridges of earch that surrounded each depression. It is most
probable that this is a greater diameter than that of the original floor
space, but it was the most consistent kind of measure that could be
taken. Attempts to measure the basal or interior diameters of these
depressions were attempted but rejected because no consistent land
marks could be established. In general it was noted that measuring
procedures over-estimated the approximate diameter of the basal portions
of depressions by two to four meters. One of the rectangular depressions
that was located appeared to be lined with conglomerate cobbles along
two inferred walls and was measured along them. 84
The formal and spatial variability of the depressions can be utilized to develop descriptive classes. These are presented here, but the limited amount of data and one kind of potential inferential error restrict their utility, and thus no analyses crucial to arguments were made with these classes. The data can be viewed in a manner that suggests there are two size classes of circular depressions and one size class of rectangular depressions. The problems in measuring these have already been noted. One major inferential problem is whether some depressions were originally circular. Erosion, alluviation, and vegeta
tion may have produced rounded forms where the original form was approxi mately rectilinear. Assuming that this is not the case and that the
relative size measurements of depressions are a moderately accurate
reflection of consistent size differences in the past. Table 5 presents
the summary variation per class. Since it is likely that the measured
diameters are greater than was the case in the past, two area calcula
tions were made. The first was made with the measured diameter, while
the adjusted area calculation was made with the diameters adjusted
differentially per size class. The depressions in the larger size class
appeared to have a wider mound of earth surrounding them than did those
of the smaller class. The adjustments are of course only approximations
but probably provide, the more accurate size representation.
While the difference between the mean areas' or mean adjusted
areas of Class 1 and 2 depressions is not statistically significant, it
does follow the general trend for pit structures to occur in two size
classes in most Mogolion sites before A.D. 1000 (Wheat 1955). Table 5. Depression variability.
Specific Site Data Summary Statistics Per Class Classes Site No. Depression Mean Area Range Mean Adjusted Range Diameter Area* (M2) (M2) (M2)
Class 1 62 12.0 (Circular) 113 16.0 127 13.0 128 14.0 147.5 113.1-201.1 74.5 50.3-113.1 128 12.5 129 13.0 130 12.5 152 16.0
Class 2 79 8.5 (Circular) 113 5.0 38.2 19.6- 56.7 19.9 7.1- 33.2 129 7.0
Class 3 35 Length 8.0 (Rectangular) Width 7.5 60.0
* Adjusted area for Class 1 was calculated with measured diameter less 4 meters Adjusted area for Class 2 was calculated with measured diameter less 2 meters 86
The infrequent occurrence of observable rectilinear depressions precludes much comment about Class 3. It is an expectable form during
San Francisco and Three Circle Phase times based on Haury's work (1936b).
Three other depressions not included in Table 5 or the discussion above occurred in close association with inferred pueblo structures. At site 110 and site 123 small pueblo structures appeared to be built at or near the edge of single depressions each measuring 10 meters in diameter.
At site 71 a single depression 11 meters in diameter is located about
25 meters southwest of a large pueblo. None of these depressions con
tained surface evidence of interior stone wall construction. No sherds
clearly indicative of pre-A.D. 1000 occupations were located in any of
the site areas, and no sherds that could be clearly or solely associated
with these depressions were found.
Stone Structures
One hundred thirty eight sites contained concentrations of stone
materials suggestive of architectural units. In all cases they consisted
of unshaped igneous cobbles, conglomerate chunks or cobbles, natural
conglomerate slabs, or varying combinations of these.
Four sites, 25, 27, 59, and 136, yielded no ceramic or other
evidence that the single small unit at each sites was necessarily pre
historic and are thus excluded from further analysis.
Eleven sites contained concentrations of materials that were
different from all others in that exterior wall lineaments of closure
were often difficult, if not impossible, to discern, and the density of 87 cobble materials appeared to be so low that the presence of substantial surface stone-walled structures was questionable. Only three units appeared to be in a situation where alluviation or erosion might have produced these results by obscuring evidence of a former surface pueblo.
The vague or incomplete wall alignments and low density of wall rubble in the eight remaining sites may represent early states of pueblo-in-pit
architecture or forms of shallow pit or surface architecture utilizing
limited amounts of stone for basal support of jacal or brush superstruc
tures. The units at these sites were sketched, but their measurements
are not utilized for further analysis. Ten of the sites evidenced one
unit of this nature, while site 8 contained two units. The data con
cerning these sites and units in Appendix II are listed under "Period B,
sites with obscure pueblo architecture." The data for the 124 remaining
sites (136 pueblo units) are also listed in Appendix II under "Period B,
sites with probable pueblo architecture."
Of the remaining 124 sites, 119 of them each contained one
pueblo-like unit while 5 sites evidenced multiple units:
Site 3 - 4 units
Site 16-2 units
Site 41-2 units
Site 52-2 units
Site 80-3 units
The pueblo units were sketched, and measurements were taken along
the inner edges of apparent exterior walls. Interior walls or divisions
were noted when possible, but the scatter of cobbles, vegetation, or 88 vandalism had obscured these in most cases to such a degree that room counts were not considered reliable. Without professional excavation there is no means of determining precisely how much error is present in the unit measurements relative to original surface area. In general it is most likely the latter were underestimated due to localized factors of erosion, alluviation, and vegetation that may have obscured exterior unit boundaries.
It is also probable that measurement error varied with the size and shape of the unit under consideration, small quadrangular units containing the least error.
The formal variability encountered in the plan view of archi tectural units is not readily characterized for all cases in terms of common or simple geometric shapes. Over 60% of the units are quadrangular, but outline form of these varies from square to rectilinear to trapezoidal.
The imposition of these categories is even somewhat fallacious for none
are as regular as the geometric terminology implies. The remaining units evidence some forms that could be categorized as "L" shaped or "T" shaped, but most simply appear "irregular."
A general trend can be noted for increasing irregularity in unit
form with increasing unit size, but unit form cannot be readily quanti
fied with the current data for the purpose of making useful tests. It is
possible that such a trend may be partially related to the number and .
sequence of construction episodes at a particular unit.
For various descriptive and analytical purposes the observed
spatial variability of the 136 units can be divided into size classes, 89 but the focus of analysis through much of the remaining study is upon
the 124 sites as units, so size classes of total pueblo unit area per
site are now considered. * Table 6 presents a summary of relevant statistical descriptions
of the four size classes of areas that were derived from inspection of
frequency histograms of total unit area per site. The data were so
positively skewed in histograms of actual site size that logarithmic
transformations of those figures were performed. When histograms were
constructed from these, the classes became more apparent.
Table 6 also presents summary figures for vandalized or "potted"
site areas per size class. Field observation and measurement permitted
these calculations. The amount of vandalism was recorded by increments
of 25% of total architectural area per pueblo unit. This kind of
information was not included in Table 5 because none of the depressions
exhibited vandalism.
Ceramic Variability
Ceramic collections were made whenever sites exhibited such
materials. An attempt was made to collect sanples from in and near each
distinct architectural unit when this was feasible. Attempts to
randomize these samples were made by workers collecting every visible
sherd within reach of one spot, moving several paces to another spot
and repeating the process. A goal of 300 sherds was set for this type of
collection but was reached less than 10% of the time. In the majority of
cases the randomized surface collections represent all sherds that could 90
Table 6. Pueblo size class variation.
Size Classes
1 2 3 4
Number of sites 4 97 18 5
Size range (M2) 6—14 18-416 170-380 592-1525
Mean size (M2) 10.25 65.73 250.33 917.60
Sum total area (M2) 41.00 6376.00 4506.00 4588.00
Total area vandalized (M2) 2.75 1928.50 2645.00 3978.75
% total area vandalized 6.1 30.2 50.4 86.6 91 be located. Needle litter is several centimeters deep over many sites,
and some erosion or alluviation of site areas has also occurred which
further accounts for low ceramic recovery.
Where sites had been disturbed by vandalism the randomized
collections were made in undisturbed areas, and separate collections
were taken from back dirt and trenches.
The preliminary analysis of ceramic collections involved sort
ing all sherds by ceramic type or variety. Table 7 lists the ceramic
variations that were encountered. The summary counts of types per
collection are in Appendix II. Some of the variations of ceramic types
and difficulties in separating types require a few brief comments.
Plain, Tooled, and Slipped Wares
The category of Plain Brown may in many cases include sherds of
Alma Plain (Haury 1936a), Mimbres Plain Brown (Cosgrove and Cosgrove
1932:81, Hawley 1936:64), and plain brown sherds from the lower portions
of vessels whose medial to upper surface was manipulated in one of the
textured styles. No reasonable and consistent means of separating those
plain styles was discovered.
The category of San Francisco Red may include some of what has
been called Mimbres Plain Red-Wash (Cosgrove and Cosgrove 1932:79,
Hawley 1936:63). It is, however, unclear if the vessels from the
Swarts Ruin upon which the type descriptions are based were from Mimbres
Phase or more recent occupations. If the latter is the case, then the
type described may be akin to the Playas or Cloverdale styles (Sayles
1936b:30-37, Brand 1935). The presence of polished incised red ware at 92
Table 7. Ceramic variations.
Plain, Tooled, and Slipped Wares Plain Brown (See text) Alma Scored (Haury 1936a) Alma Incised (Haury 1936a) Alma Punched (Haury 1936a) San Francisco Red (Haury 1936a)
Corrugated Wares Alma Neck Banded (Haury 1936a) Clapboard Corrugated (See text) Clapboard Corrugated, smoothed variety (See text) Clapboard Corrugated, indented variety (See text) Clapboard Corrugated, indented and smoothed variety (See text) Clapboard Corrugated, incised variety (See text) Patterned Corrugated (See text)
Painted Wares Mogollon Red on Brown (Haury 1936a) Three Circle Red on White (Haury 1936a) Mimbres Boldface Black on White (Cosgrove and Cosgrove 1932) Minibres Classic Black on White (Cosgrove and Cosgrove 1932) Mimbres Polychrome (Cosgrove and Cosgrove 1932)
Intrusive Wares Reserve Smudged (Martin and Rinaldo 1950) Reserve Indented Corrugated (Rinaldo and Bluhm 1956) Reserve Indented Corrugated, smudged interior variant (Rinaldo and Bluhm 1956) Reserve Black on White (Martin and Rinaldo 1950) Sikyatki Polychrome (Colton 1956) 93
the Swarts Ruin (Cosgrove and Cosgrove 1932: Plate 92 e-g) which looks
like Playas Red Incised (Sayles 1936b) may further support such a possibility. The presence of this style provides further question
about Hawley’s interpretation of the Swarts data in her definition of
Mimbres incised (1936:63). Plain brown incised styles are not reported
from other excavated Mimbres Phase assemblages. This may be due to
sampling error, lack of publication, or the style may represent local
variation at the Swarts Ruin.
A similar problem is seen in regard to sherds separated as
Reserve Smudged. These are most likely from the non-textured portions
of other Tularosa or Reserve ceramics.
A brief note on smudging is appropriate at this point. The only
sherds that exhibited highly polished and smudged interiors were of the
Tularosa and Reserve types. Sherds of all Mimbres area plain and
textured types were encountered that contained blackened or sooted
Interiors, but it is unclear if this represents purposeful manipulation
or accidental sooting. Less than 5% of the sherds of local plain and
textured types exhibited this variation.
Corrugated Wares
The major variations in Table 7 from established terminology and
typology concern the textured wares. Three Circle Neck Corrugated
(Haury 1936a) is not included because I found no consistent means of
distinguishing the corrugated sherds of this type from those of Mimbres
Corrugated (Cosgrove and Cosgrove 1932:83, Hawley 1936:64). Thus the
category of Clapboard Corrugated for any collection may include sherds 94 of both types just discussed. This kind of lumping can obscure the chronological implications each type may have, but separating them on any set of questionable grounds would probably result in greater compli cations .
The indented variant of Clapboard Corrugated differs from the above by presence of coils that appear to have been pinched at intervals, some perhaps with a twisting motion.
• The smoothed variants of the indented and plain Clapboard styles appear to have been rubbed by hand or with a stone in some cases. The degree of smoothing varies from sligjhtly flattened edges along the clapboard coil on some sherds to obliterated coil junctions on others.
Smoothing on the indented style is generally heavy with a tendency toward flattened coil junctions and the sections of coils between pinches or indentations. Initially it was desired to further sort these styles by degree of smoothing to attempt fine scale distinctions that might be used for chronological considerations. Field examination of relatively large sherds from various portions of vessels and of complete vessels in museum collections suggested that the variation in smoothing or coil shape per vessel can be so extensive that distinctions made on small sherds may not be particularly useful. In addition, no satisfactory means of quantifying the degree of smoothing or coil shape was discovered.
The incised Clapboard Corrugated variant is similar in all
respects to Clapboard Corrugated except for incisions crossing the
clapboard coils. Sherds of this style appear similar to ones pictured by the Cosgroves (1932: Plate 95d) and to the decorative style of
Reserve Incised Corrugated (Rinaldo and Bluhm 1956:166). 95
Sherd counts in the Patterned Corrugated category may include some exotic sherds of Tularosa or Reserve styles. Macroscopic examina tion of these suggested wide ranges of variation in technology, style of indentation, and quality of work or style. It may be that most are local products. Bradfield (1929: Plate 90), the Cosgroves (1932), and
Nesbitt (1931:67-69) report variations of corrugated ware from general
Mimbres Phase times that appear to range from local products to imported wares similar to Tularosa Patterned Corrugated (Rinaldo and Bluhm
1956:169).
Painted Wares
The remainder of the study abbreviates the color coding for
types with bichrome nomenclature in accordance with general southwestern
archaeological literature, e.g., Black-on-White becomes B/W. In addi
tion, two ceramic types will require frequent discussion, and for
convenience these names are shortened by deletion of the term "Mimbres,”
i.e., the names utilized here are Classic B/W and Boldface B/W. The
latter type is sometimes referred to as Mangus B/W, perhaps following a
variation in terminology suggested by the Gladwins (1934:18). That
name is rejected here in favor of Mimbres Boldface B/W which has taxonomic
priority (Cosgrove and Cosgrove 1932:76).
Mogollon R/B and Three Circle R/W are probably under-represented
in the sherd collections from sites of the appropriate phases. Examina
tion of numerous surface collections from the broader Mimbres region in
the appropriate time range suggests that both types are prone to loss of 96 the red, brown, or white distinguishing paint. In some cases the
"white" color of Three Circle R/W more nearly approaches a pink to tan color similar to the brown of Ho golion R/B. Thus, given the problems of small sherd size, lack of extensive design element variation, and weathered paint, it became necessary to place questionable identifications of each type into a lumped category of mixed Hogolion R/B - Three Circle
R/W.
■ Problems in separating Boldface B/W and Classic B/W often
occurred, again due to small sherd size, sherds with only black paint
or a white slip, and weathered or eroded sherds. A category of mixed
Boldface-Classic B/W was created for such variations. It was initially
desired to consider design element variability on Classic B/W sherds for
its analytical potential in several kinds of problems, but sherd size
was generally either too small, thereby fragmenting the discernible
design elements, or the range of elements per collection was so
restricted that insufficient variability for analysis was encountered.
Sources of Error
The primary purpose in collecting ceramics during this study was
to attempt to use them in developing an understanding of the chronological
relations of the prehistoric occupations in the area. Since the ceramics
used for this task are solely from surface contexts, it must be noted
that the potential for certain additional kinds of analytical and
inferential errors in developing those chronological relations is present. 97
Sampling Error. The population of ceramics left by the
inhabitants of a site and the surface sample of that population
collected by myself may differ significantly in the relative repre
sentation of distinguishable ceramic types. This can result from an
insufficient sample size and from factors that may have differentially
affected the preservation and distribution of ceramics since occupation
times. In the survey area both problems are present.
Numerous sites in the area ejdiibit low numbers of surface
ceramics. The kinds of agencies that appeared to have potentially
affected this either singly or in combination are erosion, alluviation,
animal disturbance (cattle), floral cover, e.g., needle litter, and
recent vandalism.
In terms of differential preservation and ultimate sample
representation, painted wares are probably often under-represented due
to weathering and loss of paint. In many cases the representation of
these may be low because of prior collection by other human agents.
Contextual Errors. In using surface ceramics for making state
ments about prehistoric occupations, a number of associational possibil
ities need to be considered. In this study the major questions or
possibilities concern the direct or indirect nature of the association of
surface ceramics and evident architectural units.
The primary guidelines used for decisions about the nature of
" the associations that were encountered relied upon two general principles,
repetition of association and expectations derived from other similar
situations. 98
The consistent repetition of the association of specific ceramic assemblages with certain architectural evidence does not con clusively prove that the two were the result of activities by the same
cultural group or persons but does provide strong inferential support
for such a conclusion. In addition, the previous work on excavated
Mimbres area sites was initially relied upon for specific expectations
about the kinds of evidence that would most likely be associated in
surface context as representative of temporal occupational variants.
In the greater majority of cases it was found that certain ceramic
assemblages were repetitively associated with certain architectural
styles, e.g., relatively consistent sets of ceramic types were usually
associated with cobble walled pueblos as might be expected from the
various reports on occupations of a similar nature in nearby areas.
In terms of specific problems no situation was encountered such
as that seen at other excavated sites in the valley where post-Mimbres
Phase ceramic assemblages appear to represent re-occupation of Mimbres
Phase sites. A few cases did occur where one or a few sherds from
collections were clearly of later age than the rest of the assemblage
and the associated architectural unit. One piece of Sikyatki Polychrome
dating from about A.D. 1400 (Bretemitz 1966:95) was found on the surface
of a cobble walled pueblo (site 138) with an associated Mimbres Phase
ceramic assemblage. Occasional sherds of Mimbres Classic B/W were found
on sites with ceramics and architecture suggestive of Georgetown through
Three Circle Phase occupations. No precise explanation for these occur
rences is offered. None of the sites is located in a position where water 99 transport might have carried the sherds in question, and it is most probable that unknown human agents were responsible.
One other potential kind of error is whether the surface ceramic samples and associated architecture represent the only occupa tion of a site. It is conceivable and likely that the debris from the latest occupations of a site may cover all or most evidence of earlier occupations. For that reason the remainder of this study limits various foci and generalizations accordingly.
Given the nature of the data, the variety of problems mentioned in the last few sections and the lack of dating controls, it was not
deemed feasible to pursue fine-scale studies of minute stylistic or
technologic ceramic variation for chronological purposes. The available
data serve as a basis for framing more specific questions that will
require contextual data to be obtained by properly controlled excavation.
This procedure and appropriate analyses should provide sufficiently
precise kinds of variability that would permit better chronological and
associational controls. Until these kinds of tasks are performed, it will not be feasible to examine ceramic-chronologic relations by
quantitative techniques such as matrix ordering (Robinson 1951), or
other multivariate analyses such as factor analysis (Harmann 1961),
cluster analysis (Lance and Williams 1967), or multidimensional scaling
(Kruskal 1964). All these techniques have requirements concerning
sample size, form of variable distribution, and discreteness of variable
categories that cannot be met at present. 100
The Chronological and Developmental System
Since one desired goal of the project was to allocate occupa tions to archaeological phases, and many of the ceramic samples would not permit this on purely quantitative grounds, strategies based on both qualitative and quantitative variation were required. In addition to ceramic markers, the presumably associated architectural variation was also utilized whenever possible. These strategies were not entirely successful, generally due to insufficient sample size, absence of critical phase markers, and problems with some of the initial phase definitions. Thus, it was necessary to lump some of the phases into two broader periods in order to obtain categories useful for the data and problems at hand. The following sections describe the system developed for those purposes and the variation included in each time period.
Period A, A.D. 500 - A.D. 1000
This period includes occupations that appear to date from the
three early phases in the local system. The occupations are presented in terms of their most probable allocation to those phases, but my
assessment of the reliability of most of those allocations is low, and
succeeding analyses do not rely upon them extensively.
The principle of allocation primarily involved comparisons of
the observed survey data with the expected kinds of data associations
noted by Haury for these phases at the Harris Site and Mogo11on Village
(1936a, b ) . Since some of the dates associated with the phases are 101
utilized for the chronological bounds of Period A, they are briefly
discussed.
Georgetown Phase, A.D. 500 - A.D. 624
The later date for this phase is relatively secure, based on a
restudy of den dro ch ronological materials from the Harris site (Bannister
et al. 1970) where the phase was initially defined (Haury 1936b). The
early date is less secure and is placed in part by inference from the
dating of the Georgetown Phase and earlier Pine Lawn Phase materials in
west central New Mexico. The pertinent archaeological data there are
presented by Martin and Rinaldo (1947).
Survey Results. Single occupations from ten different sites can
be placed in this category. In most cases Plain Brown ceramics accounted
for over 85% of most collections with lesser amounts of San Francisco
Red and tooled variations of Alma accounting for the remainder. Table 8
presents the range of ceramic type variability for these collections.
Four of the sites contained no apparent architecture though it
may have been present. The other six sites each contained at least one
depression of the larger size class, one site contained two of these,
; and two other sites each contained one smaller depression. In most of
these sites it was tempting to discern other vague outlines of depres
sions, but none could be consistently agreed upon by field crew members
and thus were not recorded. It may be that the depressions of the
larger size class observed at some of these sites represent a communal
or kiva-like structure, while domestic structures of a smaller size class
were not recognized. 102
Table 8. Georgetown Phase ceramic variation.
Total Mean Range Mean Ceramic Type Count Count Count %
Plain Brown 944 85.82 1-201 88.70 Alma Scored 14 1.27 0-13 0.62 Alma Incised 0 0.00 0-0 0.00 Alma Punched 2 0.18 0-1 0.09 San Francisco Red 173 15.73 0-79 8.81 Alma Neck Banded 1 0.09 0-1 0.04 Clapboard Corrugated 0 0.00 0-0 0.00 Clapboard Corrugated, Smoothed Variety 7 0.64 0-5 0.32 Clapboard Corrugated, Indented Variety 1 0.09 0-1 0.07 Clapboard Corrugated, Smoothed and Indented Variety 1 0.09 0-1 0.05 Incised Clapboard Corrugated 0 0.00 0-0 0.00 Patterned Corrugated 0 0.00 0-0 0.00 Mo go lion R/B 0 0.00 0-0 0.00 Three Circle R/W 0 0.00 0-0 0.00 Mixed Mogollon R/B, Three Circle R/W 0 0.00 0-0 0.00 Boldface B/W 8 0.73 0-3 0.41 Classic B/W 3 0.27 0-2 0.19 Mixed Boldface B/W, . Classic B/W 10 0.91 0-8 0.67 Mi mb res Polychrome 0 0.00 0-0 0.00 Reserve Smudged 0 0.00 0-0 0.00 Reserve Indented Corrugated 0 0.00 0-0 0.00 Reserve Indented Corrugated, Smudged Variety 0 0.00 0-0 0.00 Reserve B/W 0 0.00 0-0 0.00 Sikyatki Polychrome 0 0.00 0-0 0.00 Unclassified 1 0.09 0-1 0.05
Sums 1165 105.91 1-254 103
San Francisco Phase, A.D. 624 - A.D. 850
The dates for the San Francisco Phase are again moderately
secure, based on data from the Harris site studied by Bannister et al.
(1970).
Survey Results. No sites exhibited occupations that could be
securely placed in this phase. This may represent sampling error,
improper allocation of occupations to the previous Georgetown Phase or
later Three Circle Phase, combinations of those, or a possible hiatus
in occupation.
The primary qualitative ceramic marker that separates assem
blages of the two.phases is Mogolion R/B which appears to develop
during the San Francisco Phase. Quantitatively it was not frequent at
the Harris site, accounting for about 5% of total sherd samples in houses
of Haury's Type III, San Francisco Phase (1936b:133). Given the initial
expectation of low frequencies of this type and problems of weathered
surface sherds, the apparent lack of San Francisco Phase occupations is
perhaps an artifact of sampling error and does not necessarily reflect
a hiatus in occupation.
Three Circle Phase, A.D. 850 - A.D. 1000
The terminal date for this phase is not especially secure. The
latest absolute date associated with data from this phase in the Mimbres
Valley is A.D. 877 for house 10 at the Harris site (Bannister et al.
1970:63). The latest tree-ring date associated with a structure of the
Three Circle Phase in the Pine Lawn area is A.D. 899 for house 5 at the
Wheatley Ridge Ruin (Bannister et al. 1970:59). Thus, the generally 104 accepted final date for the phase of A.D. 1000 may be too late given current evidence and may not exceed the early to mid 900's. No absolute dates directly associated with materials of the succeeding
Reserve or Mangus Phase in the Mimbres region are available to help clarify this problem.
Survey Results. Single occupations from nine different sites were placed in the Three Circle Phase. The presence of limited amounts of Boldface B/W, plain corrugated, and other plain, tooled, and slipped wares of the earlier phases characterized the ceramic collections.
Table 9 summarizes the range of ceramic variability for these collec
tions .
Four of the occupations are represented by sherd areas with no
discernible architectural evidence. Site 35 consists of one single
shallow rectangular depression that appears to have been lined on at
least one side with conglomerate cobbles and another separate area of
sherds and cobbles suggestive of one or more cobble lined pits. The
latter was too obscure for measurement. A similar architectural situa
tion was noted for site 162, but erosion precluded measurement of the
architectural unit.
Site 65 (LAS3) is the Three Circle site. Excavation by Bradfield
and several years' erosion of back-dirt have left no recognizable archi
tectural forms. Surface ceramics are abundant at the site, but our
sample only reflects Three Circle Phase occupation.
Sites 79 and 127 are similar and exhibit many of the difficulties
in utilizing limited surface collections and observations in allocating 105
Table 9. Three Circle Phase ceramic variation.
Total Mean Range Mean Ceramic Type Count Count Count %
Plain Brown 1374 114.50 8-298 74.17 Alma Scored 16 1.33 0-5 1.14 Alma Incised 0 0.00 0-0 0.00 Alma Punched 3 0.25 0-2 0.07 San Francisco Red 157 13.08 0-78 8.41 Alma Neck Banded 0 0.00 0-0 0.00 Clapboard Corrugated 68 5.67 0-16 2.85 Clapboard Corrugated, Smoothed Variety 56 4.67 0-34 1.57 Clapboard Corrugated, Indented Variety 8 0.67 0-8 0.20 Clapboard Corrugated, Smoothed and Indented Variety 1 0.08 0-1 0.02 Incised Clapboard Corrugated 0 0.00 0-0 0.00 Patterned Corrugated 0 0.00 0-0 0.00 Mb go lion R/B 1 0.08 0-1 0.02 Three Circle R/W 2 0.17 0-1 0.46 Mixed Mogolion R/B, Three Circle R/W 4 0.33 0-4 1.39 Boldface B/W 85 7.08 0-24 5,84 Classic B/W 28 2.33 0-15 1.30 Mixed Boldface B/W, Classic B/W 49 4.08 0-15 2.49 Mi mbres Polychrome 0 0.00 0—0 0.00 Reserve Smudged 1 0.83 0-0 0.02 Reserve Indented Corrugated 0 0.00 0-0 0.00 Reserve Indented Corrugated, Smudged Variety 0 0.00 0-0 0.00 Reserve B/W 0 0.00 0-0 0.00 Sikyatki Polychrome 0 0.00 0-0 0.00 Unclassified 2 0.17 0-1 0.05
Sums 1855 154.58 10-352
i 106 sites to phases. At site 127 the ceramic collection contains one sherd of Classic B/W, three sherds of weathered Boldface-Classic B/W, four of weathered Mogollon R/B-Three Circle R/W, fifteen of Plain Brown and two of San Francisco Red. The evidence suggesting pit house architecture is an approximately circular depression 12 meters in diameter. The most "straightforward" allocation of this site to the Three Circle Phase involved several assumptions. First, the depression, if truly circular, probably represents a non-domestic structure. Domestic structures were generally rectangular during the Three Circle Phase, and the presence of these may have gone undetected. The majority of the ceramic collection could also be found in the San Francisco or Three Circle phase although
the weathered Boldface-Classic B/W sherds would not be from the San
Francisco Phase. If those sherds are from Boldface B/W and the Classic
B/W sherd was left by an errant Mogollon, then the site may only repre sent Three Circle Phase occupation.
The questionable set of assumptions just recounted serves to
emphasize, if not justify, the need for the broader category in this
study that groups occupations from three early phases into Period A.
Period B, A.D. 1000 - A.D. 1200
This period includes occupations where cobble walled architec
tural forms appear to have been predominant, lumping what has been
referred to as the Mangus Phase (Danson 1957) and Mini)res Phase. Even
though these phase distinctions are not utilized here, it appears neces
sary to consider them at some length. In contradistinction to Haury's
phase definitions for the early periods (1936a, b ) , Danson's (1957) 107 subdivision does not appear so secure. This is not a capricious rejec tion of the latter's ideas. A subdivision of the cultural developments in this time period would have been of utility in this study. Attempts
to use those tentatively proposed divisions was prefaced by evaluation of his suggestions solely on the basis of the pertinent data published in the professional literature. This led to the conclusion that too many problems are yet unsolved that condemn the operational utility of his scheme. These comments are supported in the following sections
after brief consideration of the dates for the broader period.
Chronology
The early date for Period B may approach the mid A.D. 900's as
noted in the discussion of the late date for the Three Circle Phase.
No radiocarbon or tree-ring dates are available that are directly
associated with prehistoric cultural materials between the Three Circle
and Animas Phase manifestations in the Mimbres Valley. Thus, the late
date for the Mangus Phase (A.D. 1050) from Danson (1957:17) is apparently
an estimate. No intrusive ceramic types that might be utilized for
crossdating have been described from immediate post Three Circle Phase
contexts in clear stratigraphic placement in the Mimbres Valley sites
that have been excavated and reported upon.
The critical ceramic phase marker that has generally been con
sidered to separate the Three Circle and Mangus Phases is the development
and appearance of Mimbres Classic B/W, both developing from and continu
ing to be contemporaneous with Mimbres Boldface B/W.
Mimbres Boldface and Classic B/W sherds occur in sites in areas
surrounding the Mimbres Valley, but for the most part none of those 108 contexts are directly dated themselves. In the nearby Pine Lawn area
Boldface B/W appears to be a local product until the end of the Three
Circle Phase (Martin and Rinaldo 1950). During the succeeding Reserve
Phase, it is generally absent, but some examples of Classic B/W occur in association with the newly developed local style of Reserve B/W on
the floors of small pueblos (Martin and Rinaldo 1950:536-543). It is of course an open question as to the ultimate origin of the Classic B/W sherds in Reserve Phase sites, but even if they were demonstrated to be from the central to eastern Mlmbres Region, the date for Classic B/W is not secured because there are no absolute dates directly associated with Reserve Phase materials in the Pine Lawn area. The approximate
dates assigned to the Reserve Phase in this area are A.D. 1000 to A.D.
1100 (Martin and Rinaldo 1950).
Mimbres Boldface B/W and Classic B/W occur in varying propor
tions in some of Lehmer’s (1948) Mesilla and Dona Ana Phase sites and
in Encinas Phase contexts in the San Simon area (Sayles 1945), but none
of these are directly dated.
A limited amount of Classic B/W occurs at the Hohokam site of
Snaketown, Arizona. E.W. Haury suggests the context of their occurrence
does not precede A.D. 1050 (personal communication 1973). Snaketown is
about 300 kilometers from the central Mimbres Valley and about .250 kilo
meters from the western edge of the Mimb res Region. The presence of the
Classic B/W ceramics at Snaketown at about A.D. 1050 provides a good
approximate date, but not necessarily an early date, for the type. Some
substantiation for this may follow from C.C. DiPeso's yet unpublished 109 work at Casas Grandes, Chihuahua. This site is not more than 50 kilo meters from known Mlmbres Phase sites. DiPeso indicates that Classic B/W
at Casas Grandes does not occur in contexts post-dating A.D. 1050 (per sonal communication 1969). When the reports for the recent work at Casas
Grandes and Snaketown become available, it will be possible to evaluate
the potentially conflicting evidence of the dates for intrusive Classic
B/W in those areas more fully.
The final date of A.D. 1200 for Period B, or the Mimbres Phase,
is an approximation and is also problematic. It may vary by as much as
50 years in either direction when absolute dates become available from
newer research. The best discussion of the placement of the late Mimbres
Phase ceramics, notably Classic B/W, with respect to later assenblages
associated with what are now called Animas, Tularosa, and El Paso Phases
is in the final summary of the Swarts report (Cosgrove and Cosgrove
1932:109-113). That summary does not require extensive repetition here.
The Cosgroves' wide-ranging experience in southwestern New Mexico and
observation of stratigraphic relations in several sites cannot yet be
improved upon to any significant degree. In short, their conclusions
were that the Mimbres Phase pre-dated assemblages containing various of
the White Mountain, Gila, and Chihuahua Polychromes (Ramos?) and
Tularosa B/W. Few, if any, of those wares tend to be well dated prior
to A.D. 1200 (Bretemitz 1966). There is limited evidence that
Classic B/W may overlap in time with types such as El Paso Polychrome
and possibly some variants of Chupadero B/W, but no useful stratigraphic
data or dates are available for further discussion. 110
Phase Definitions
One of the major problems with defining phases in this tin® period is that some of the available data demonstrate continue instead
of discrete constellations of traits that are readily identifiable and
separable. This may only be a superficial problem due to my work with
surface materials that do not yet' evidence fine-scale and consistent
categories, or it may be inherent in the data to son® degree. The
concept of the phase may be inappropriate in the latter case, although
I will reserve judgment until more excavated and contextual data are
available. The following paragraphs consider in some detail the vari
ability in architecture and ceramics that is now apparent in the pertinent
sites that have been excavated and reported upon.
The sequence of architectural forms seen at the Mattocks Ruin
(Nesbitt 1931), Cameron Creek Ruin (Bradfield 1929), and Swarts Ruin
(Cosgrove and Cosgrove 1932) suggests gradual changes from pit structures
to cobble-lined pit structures to cobble walled pueblos with several
intergradations and minor variations in the period from about A.D. 900
to A.D. 1200. As noted in previous sections, several of the ceramic
styles or types in this time range are difficult to separate without
having large sherds or whole vessels. Some of the types associated
with the Mimbres Phase may not even be from Mi nib res occupations, and none
of the site reports include detailed summaries of sherd counts by style
or type by provenience.
The elaboration of the Mangus Phase definition by E.B. Danson
(1957) on the basis of brief survey and apparent reconsideration of the Ill data from the Swarts Ruin (Cosgrove and Cosgrove 1932) is difficult to evaluate. The limited data from his survey in the Mimbres region pre cludes much comment. The Cosgroves’ report (1932) does not list ceramic counts of all types for any of the structures, and it is not clear how
Danson arrived at the following list of ceramic discriminations for the two phases (1957:17-18):
Mangus Phase Mimbres Phase
Boldface B/W Boldface B/W Classic B/W Classic B/W Mimbres Red Mimbres Polychrome Mimbres Incised Mimbres Incised Mimbres Corrugated Mimbres Plain
If these ceramics are suggested for use as discriminators, there remain some problems. It is questionable that no plain ware is listed for the Mangus Phase, no corrugated ware is listed for the Mimbres Phase, and unclear why Mimbres Polychrome is necessarily a late style. Other excavated sites and most surface collections from the area evidence plain brown and corrugated styles from about Three Circle Phase on through the end of Mimbres occupations. At the Mattocks Ruin, Nesbitt found that
Mimbres Polychrome was not present in the latest surface pueblos, but sherds and vessels of this type were present in what he called "Middle
Period Rooms" (1931:75). Nesbitt's description of those rooms indicates
they were cobble walled rectangular structures in shallow pits (1931:
35-36). It is not, however, clear if the sherds and vessels were in a
floor context. In any case it is not clear how the Mangus and Mimbres
Phases might be separated by using these qualitative ceramic markers
alone. 112
From Danson's comments, it would appear that one of his primary reasons for separating the Mangus and Mimbres Phases was based on quantitative covariation of two B/W ceramic types with two local con struction periods at the Swarts Ruin (Danson 1957:17):
The Cosgroves show that Mimbres Boldface Black-on-white is more common in what they call 1 Middle Period* structures, and that both 'Middle Period* buildings and Mimbres Boldface pottery were considered to be older than, as well as partially contempo raneous with, Mimbres Classic Black-on-white and 'Late Period* buildings. A tentative division into 2 phases will therefore be made here.
The quote above should be read in conjunction with a comment on
the reliability of this data by the Cosgroves (1932:77):
It is well to preface further discussion on this point with the statement that stratigraphic conditions at Swarts were extremely bad. The digging of pithouses, the haphazard scatter ing of refuse, and particularly the constant sinking of grave- shafts, resulted in a continual churning of the earth during the entire occupancy of.the site. Not a single clearly stratified heap could be located.
In addition to those general qualifications, a specific note
should be made of the fact that about 5% of the total Classic B/W sample
came from below the Middle Period occupations in levels that are prob
ably from Three Circle Phase times. This may represent misclassifica
tion, mixing as noted above, or may partially reflect an earlier
development of Classic B/W than has generally been accepted, at least
in this sector of the valley.
There are statements in the work of Nesbitt and Bradfield that
add further dimensions of variation to be considered. At the Mattocks
Ruin, it was noted that B/W bowls with representational design motifs
reached their peak of development in the Early and Middle Periods of 113 occupation (Nesbitt 1931:74). Architecture in the early period here is similar to the rectangular pit structures described by Haury for Three
Circle Phase times at the Harris site (1936b). The cobble walled architecture in shallow rectangular depressions during the Middle
Period at Mattocks as well as Swarts and Cameron Creek is one of the more likely architectural forms that would immediately post-date the rectangular pit rooms of the Three Circle Phase. With regard to the co occurrence of ceramic style and architectural form, Bradfield's conclu sions (1929:53) at Cameron Creek are of interest:
There is also no evidence on this site to indicate the use of life-forms beyond the period that might be defined as the last of the (cobble walled) pit room occupation and the beginning of surface house construction. . . . It may also be said that the use of life forms precedes the striking development of space-line patterns.
The quotes and discussion above primarily serve to suggest that
the use of Boldface B/W, Classic B/W, and their occurrence with various
architectural forms to segregate phases is not yet a procedure that can be uncritically accepted. It is clear that Boldface B/W as described by
Haury (1936a) develops in Three Circle Phase context and evidences the
beginning of life form motifs in the Mimbres Valley area. The limited
evidence from both Cameron Creek and Mattocks indicates a high correla
tion of the development and refinement of the use of life forms on B/W
ceramics in times with architectural forms that appear to just post-date
the Three Circle Phase yet precede the development of large surface
pueblos commonly placed in the Mimbres Phase. The development of
elaborate and well-executed geometric designs on local B/W ceramics may
occur at about the same time but apparently continues somewhat beyond the 114 peak of realistic design use to the end of indigenous occupations.
There,is also the suggestion, primarily from the Swarts data, that
Boldface B/W continues to occur with all the various architectural forms discussed above, yet in decreasing frequency as the other B/W styles develop. On the basis of the Cosgroves* own discussion of the apparent churning and mixing at the site, it remains questionable how late in time Boldface B/W was actually produced. The number of Boldface B/W sherds found above late surface pueblo floors was only 150, or 1.8% of the sherds in that level. If this type did continue to be produced throughout the sequence, it would be useful to know more about the contexts of its manufacture and use, as well as that of the other B/W styles, in order to consider trends in functional as well as chronological variability.
Thus it can be suggested that either a restudy of the original
field notes and ceramic materials from some of the excavated sites or new studies of stratified sites are necessary at this point in order to
refine the sequence of cultural development after the Three Circle Phase.
It is also concluded that until this is accomplished, Danson’s (1957)
suggestions for a Mangus-MLmbres Phase dichotomy cannot be utilized as
operational definitions for categorizing surface ceramic and architec
tural variation.
Survey Results
One hundred thirty six sites contained occupations that were
allotted to Period B on the basis of the observed ceramic or architec
tural variability or both. Table 10 summarizes the kinds of variation 115
Table 10. Period B ceramic variation.
Total Mean Range Mean Ceramic Type Count Count Count %
Plain Brown 9028 61.00 0-250 42.59 Alma Scored 521 3.52 0-21 2.28 Alma Incised 15 0.10 0-2 0.06 Alma Punched 57 0.39 0-5 0.22 San Francisco Red 173 1.17 0-28 1.13 Alma Neck Banded 9 0.06 0-2 0.04 Clapboard Corrugated 999 6.75 0-38 4.80 Clapboard Corrugated, Smoothed Variety 3884 26.24 0-139 16.45 Clapboard Corrugated, Indented Variety 378 2.55 0-22 1.82 Clapboard Corrugated, Smoothed and Indented Variety 347 2.34 0-25 1.50 Incised Clapboard Corrugated 6 0.04 0-2 0.01 Patterned Corrugated 32 0.22 0—6 0.29 Mogollon R/B 0 0.00 0-0 0.00 Three Circle R/W 0 0.00 0—0 0.00 Mixed Mogollon R/B, Three Circle R/W 0 0.00 0-0 0.00 Boldface B/W 194 1.31 0-28 1.73 Classic B/W 4336 29.30 0-152 21.97 Mixed Boldface B/W, Classic B/W 1311 8.86 0-52 7.65 Mimbres Polychrome 8 0.05 0-3 0.07 Reserve Smudged 2 0.01 0-1 0.01 Reserve Indented Corrugated 69 0.47 0-14 0.21 Reserve Indented Corrugated, Smudged Variety 14 0.09 0-3 0.06 Reserve B/W 1 0.01 0-1 0.01 Sikyatki Polychrome 1 0.01 0-1 0.01 Unclassified 26 0.18 0-7 0.44
Sums 21100 142.57 2-555 116 that are present for all randomized ceramic collections. There are more collections than units because some units and sites were subdivided in various manners for collection purposes. None of the sites evidenced
occupations that could be placed before or after Period B.
The primary qualitative ceramic markers of Period B are Classic
B/W and smoothed or "obliterated" variants of clapboard and indented
corrugated styles. Other markers that were not frequently encountered
but were useful for inferring a minimal date of about A.D. 1000 were the
intrusive types from the Reserve or Upper Gila areas. It is difficult,
if not impossible, to make many further straightforward generalizations
about the trends in ceramic type occurrences or frequencies over all
collections without adding so many qualifications that the topic
becomes obscure.
It is of some interest that no apparent occupations or ceramic
assemblages attributable to them could be allocated to times later than
Period B. The 30 unclassified sherds from the sample include 16 with
B/W design colors. Most others are plain or red slipped. A few of the
B/W sherds were suspected to be from vessels of Chupadero B/W. This is
not beyond the realm of possibility given the observation of Chupadero
B/W in association with Minibres ceramic assemblages in sites along the
east flanks of the Black Range, only about 30 kilometers east of the
survey area and similar associations in other areas of southern New
Mexico (Cosgrove and Cosgrove 1932:110, Haury 1936b:130, Graybill n.d.).
The single piece of Sikyatki Polychrome mentioned earlier is
the only sherd of about 25,000 total sherds from all collections that 117 would generally be accepted to post-date Period B. Bretemitz, however, does indicate that this ceramic type may date as early as the mid to late 1200’s although, again, his most secure interpretation places it later at about A.D. 1375 - A.D. 1400 (1966:95). These rather slender threads of evidence might be utilized to suggest a potentially late date in the thirteenth century A.D. for some Period B sites in the survey area but this cannot be accepted or rejected until further evidence is available.
Of the 136 sites containing occupations allocated to Period B, two of them, sites 91 and 125, are sherd areas with no discernible archi
tecture. Eleven of the sites discussed in a previous section evidenced questionable or obscure pueblo-like architecture, while 124 sites con
tained pueblo-like units.
The sites with questionable pueblo architecture generally
evidenced ceramic collections that were small with wide variation in
overall type composition, precluding much useful discussion of their
chronological relations with the other pueblo occupations. It is possible
to infer that the obscurity of the cobble outlines at these sites would be an expectable phenomena for early forms of pueblo architecture where
most remaining cobbles are buried in pit structures beneath. It is also
possible to infer that some of these might represent temporary or
seasonal occupations that are coeval with the more substantial pueblos
of Period B. If this were the situation and excavated data were avail
able, it might be found that the proportions of ceramic types in
question would vary as much with site function as with chronological
position. 118
A similar problem is present with respect to the relative dates and functions of various size classes of pueblos. Evidence from the site reports in the area does suggest that most pueblos immediately following the Three Circle Phase are relatively small while the extensive multi- roomed structures appear to be a slightly later development. Discussion in previous chapters has suggested that some small pueblos may continue to occur in the later time range. The lack of good "early" and "late" ceramic markers for Period B and the small ceramic samples from the smaller pueblos again precludes any final decisions about the relative dating of most sites per size class in this study.
Thirteen sites evidenced occupations not allocated to Periods A or B.
Sites 51, 70, 72, 124, and 149 are small sherd areas with small samples and no clearly diagnostic types or styles that would secure
their temporal placements, although they do not contain ceramics sug
gestive of dates outside the time range of Periods A and B.
Sites 40, 42, 44, and 59 are small rock shelters. None con
tained midden surface areas exceeding four square meters or midden
depths apparently greater than one meter although this is difficult to
verify without excavation. Limited amounts of artifactual lithic debris were noted on the midden surface at sites 40 and 59 but were not collected.
Site 42 has been cleared by vandals and no midden debris remains. From
one to a few sherds were found in or near each site, and all sherds are
from Periods A or B times. CHAPTER VII
SETTLEMENT, SUBSISTENCE AND ENVIRONMENT
The succeeding sections present analysis and discussion that attempt to discern ordered relations in the distribution of settlement and probable subsistence pursuits in the face of several major varia tions in the natural environment.
It is initially assumed that the distribution of settlement over this landscape represents a series of adaptive responses to both the natural and socio-cultural environments and that ultimately it is necessary to comprehend the interaction of all those phenomena in order to explain both the process of adaptation and the particular form of adaptation at any particular time. Therefore, the following analyses can only be viewed as partial and preliminary, yet necessary, attempts to refine our conceptions of one sector of cultural response that may reflect adaptation to the total environment.
This approach is considered a necessary one in order to provide a set of basic conceptions that can serve to direct continuing inves tigations into the other important sector of social or cultural inter action.
The cultural responses to the natural environment by the several groups represented in the time period under consideration are initially examined from the viewpoint that the environment has not
119 120 changed in any radical manner that would completely obscure those responses. The results of some of the attempts to explain cultural - environmental covariation will, in part, permit further examination of the utility and validity of this assumption.
Following a set of introductory remarks regarding subsistence factors and the utility of different sectors of the survey area for different subsistence strategies, the distribution of Period A and
Period B settlements are examined. Period A settlements are few in number and do not permit lengthy or refined quantitative analysis of cultural - environmental variation. The distribution of those settle ments is discussed with respect to probable subsistence strategies.
A few of the Period B settlements are rejected for most analyses, but the distribution of settlement frequency as well as settlement or pueblo size with respect to environmental variations and probable subsistence strategies can be examined in some detail for 124 of the occupations.
Perspectives; Subsistence and Environment
Agricultural Perspectives
This section provides a broad overview and variety of back ground information concerning the probable cultigens utilized in the study area, some of their growth requirements, and considerations about aboriginal agricultural strategies that need to be kept in mind during the analyses and development of broader models of subsistence and settlement relations. 121
From archaeological evidence in nearby areas the major food crops that were probably grown by the Mogollon here were Zea mays,
Phaseolus vulgaris, and Curcurbita pepo (Martin et al. 1952:471).
The races of maize probably varied through time. Data from Tularosa
Cave in a similar time range as Period A and B of this study indicate a gradual shift from about A.D. 500 to A.D. 900 from ten and twelve- rowed cobs, probably a teosinte introgressed Chapalote race, to an eight-rowed race probably related to Harinoso de Ocho seen in nearby
Chihuahua about A.D. 750 (Martin et al. 1952:467, Mangelsdorf and
Lister 1956).
In the Mimbres drainage ten-rowed cobs were found at the
Harris site that evidenced occupations preceding A.D. 900, while eight-rowed cobs were located at the Cameron Creek Ruin that contains later occupations as well (Haury 1936b, Bradfield 1929). At about the
same time or shortly after the late changes in maize, the area may have received other species of squash and beans. Cutler and Whitaker
indicate that Cucurbita mixta and Cucurbita moschata are present in
a Pueblo II context in the southwest by about A.D. 900 (1961:431).
Phaseolus lunatus and Phaseolus acutifolius have not been identified
in archaeological context in the Mimbres area but are present, re
spectively, in the Verde Valley area of Arizona by about A.D. 780 and
in a Basketmaker III context in southern Colorado near the same time
or slightly earlier (Kaplan 1965). One other crop that may have been
grown in at least the southern Mimbres Valley was cotton (Gossypium
sp.), but I hesitate to suggest that it could thrive at the higher
elevations through most of the survey area. 122
A few broad generalizations concerning crop growth and aborig inal practices in the survey area are in order before considering
the more precise subenvironmental variation and potentials.
It is doubtful that more than one crop of maize, beans or
squash per growing season was attainable. The frost-free season ranges
from about 128 to 100 days depending on elevation and associated
climatic factors. Host varieties of maize probably produced better
yields with the greater period noted above. Beans grown at lower
elevations in southern New Mexico ripen in about 90 days and might
require 100 to 110 frost-free days in the survey area (Garcia 1917).
Data concerning the growth season of cultivated squash at these
elevations could not be located, but observation of the wild squash
(Cucurbita foetidissima) suggests an approximate 80 to 100-day growth
period from May into July or August.
It is most likely that the majority of prehistoric agricultural
pursuits were accomplished in the generally sandy soils of the major
valley bottoms or, in some cases, their tributaries. Soils on the
mesa tops, hillsides, and benches do not superficially appear to be
sufficient in quantity if not quality for concentrated and productive
agricultural use. Even given sufficient alluvial soils, the survey
area is probably not an "ideal" area for maize agriculture in terms of
potentially late spring frosts and dry conditions during germination.
The average date of the last killing frost over the past 15 years at
the southern reaches of the survey is May 29th. This is the dryest
month of the year with a mean precipitation of .38 inches, or less 123 than three percent of the annual total. June is somewhat wetter with a mean precipitation of .92 inches but most of this usually occurs in the latter portion of the month, probably too late for maize plant ing. Beans could perhaps be planted at this time and mature before the fall frost which has a mean date of October 2nd.
One other problem with crop agriculture in the valley bottoms concerns rapid runoff with some summer storms. Published data concern ing the frequency of periods of extreme rates and amount of runoff or floods that would be devastating to crops along the greatest width of the major flood plains is not available. Conversation with various local inhabitants and personal observation suggest this may be occurring once every four or five years.
One other means of considering the potential variability in prehistoric Himbres area agriculture is in light of generalizations based on ethnographic studies of aboriginal southwestern agriculture such as that of the Hopi, though this may be of limited utility. The overall Colorado Plateau environment varies in several respects from that of the Mogollon Plateau, and the probability of adaptive differ ences in the crops, especially in strains of maize, that might best succeed in each area may preclude comparative statements. The follow ing comments are not meant to be an exhaustive survey of Hopi or other southwestern ethnographic data on agricultural practices. One topic
is considered at this time for the purpose of denoting the potential
complexity and variations in maize growth strategies alone that might 124 have been operant in prehistoric times and which need to be kept in perspective.
A recent controlled study of the growth of several varieties of Hopi maize in irrigated plots at Mesa, Arizona is of particular
interest (Grove 1969). Several types of flour, flour-dent, and dent maize were compared. The flour and mixed types are probably more
strictly related to southwestern prehistoric types than some of the dents which are a recent introduction of a "Mexican June Complex"
(Grove 1969:1-5). The results of interest concern the variant rela
tions between maturation period and yield per type. The indigenous
varieties of flour and flour-dent mixes ripened respectively in 100
and 125-day periods, about 17 days less than the Mexican dents, but
the Hopi cultivars yielded both the highest and lowest grain volume-
weight (Grove 1969:22-28).
This information is complementary to the several studies of
Hopi agriculture denoting a specific yet seldom explained concern with
maintaining the purity of certain strains of maize (Robbins, Harring
ton, and Freire-Marco 1916:80; Whiting 1937). This concern may have
been a strategy for maintaining and maximizing productivity by using
the different strains in different agricultural zones with variant
moisture and climatic regimes denoted by Hack (1942:23) and further
discussed by Bradfield (1971).
The relevance of the above observations for considerations of
prehistoric agriculture in the Mogollon Plateau country concerns the
possibility that several agricultural strategies may have been operant
at any one time, particularly in areas that appear marginal for crop 125 growth. In addition to the possibility that different strains of maize were utilized, and perhaps even different species of beans and squash in the later periods, strategies in terms of planting in micro-habitats along the channels need to be considered. The akchin practice of the
Hop! is again of interest in terms of providing a model for potential consideration in the survey area. This task and several other views of cultural-environmental variability1 will follow the succeeding section which specifies subenvironmental units through the area and denotes their probable potentials and differences for various sub sistence practices.
Environmental Units
Host of the environmental categorization discussed in Chapter
V was a necessary first step in considering the range of variability
in the study area, but one other view of those factors is useful for analytic and summary purposes. The total variation across all en vironmental factors surrounding all sites is so great that it becomes unwieldy to utilize each individual site as the only basis for compar
ison, discussion, and, ultimately, generalization. Therefore, the
survey area was divided into six areal units shown in Figure 6, here
after referred to as "subenvironments.M
It is evident from earlier descriptions above that individual
factors in the environment vary widely through the entire survey area,
but in most cases there are sets of those which vary together in
relatively consistent manners. The subdivisions were made solely
on the basis of observations of the environment and reflect an attempt 126
10 e- /
SURVEY AREA
ENVIRONMENTAL SUBDIVISIONS
CONTINENTAL DIVIDE
• MIMBRES
Figure 6. Subenvironmental divisions. 127 to devise categories that contain low within-group variation and higher between-group variation. It must of course be realized that variation in some factors is of a continuous nature, each subenviron ment containing segments of those continue.
The more specific purpose for devising these categories was to provide analytical units for viewing the response of prehistoric groups in terms of settlement pattern phenomena to relatively similar sets of resources within subenvironments and for comparing settlement variabil ity between subenvironments in terms of immediate access to relatively different sets of resources.
The kinds of environmental factors that were observable will permit greater consideration of settlement and subsistence in relation to resources affecting agriculture and plant collection rather than faunal potential.
Subenvironmental Variation
The relative ranks of the subenvironments in the survey area from highest to lowest in terms of their current probable potential for the production of maize, beans, and squash can be viewed in the following order: (subenvironment numbers) 6,3,1,2,5,4. This ranking is based primarily upon my assessment of the relative quality of soils, climate, and other factors to be discussed. There is obviously room for question about this ranking procedure. Generalizations are neces sary, however, and are maintained at a sufficiently broad level that I do not consider them completely untenable. 128
The areas of higher suggested productivity, 6, 3 and 1, provide a transect along the Mimbres North Fork and Upper Mimbres River. While overall soil composition along this transect changes from relatively fine to coarse-grained, there are some large pockets of finer-grained sediments in the upper reaches. Moisture conditions along this tran sect are generally better than in other areas due in part to the larger drainage area of this system above the survey area than above the other forks and to a relatively large number of intermittent tributary drain ages along these areas.
Decreasing crop productivity, either yearly or over a several year period, might be expectable near the upper reaches of this tran
sect toward subenvironment 1 due to increasing elevation, shorter grow
ing season, and decreasing predictability of early growing season frosts
as noted in previous sections. More specifically, annual precipitation may increase from 16.7 inches to about 20 inches along this transect,
but the average frost-free season of 128 days at the junction area may
decrease to as few as 100 to 110 days with the 300 to 500 meter eleva-
tional change. It should be noted that the 128-day figure is only from
a 15 year record at the Mimbres Ranger Station, but even with this
potential unreliability as a predictor of longer trends, it is probably
a generous measure. Current temperature data are recorded in a station
six feet above the ground, probably underestimating frost-free periods
as they relate to crops near the ground as well as overestimating that
period for arboreal produce (Tuan et al. 1969:79).
Subenvironments 2 and 1 share many characteristics such as
elevation, species of natural vegetation, and probably overall climate. 129 but the upper reaches of 2, or the East Fork channel bottom, contains only limited and small pockets of the finer-grained sediments. In addition, the tillable areas that are present are narrow, some less than ten meters wide, and several arboreal and shrub species cover those areas in dense profusion. Unless it were removed, the natural vegetation cover would restrict sunlight to a degree that would probably be deleterious to maize growth. These various limitations as well as a short growing season suggest to me that the area would be less pro ductive than others mentioned above.
The least agriculturally productive area is probably the cen tral to lower East Fork, or subenvironment 4. The soils here appear similar to those along the North Fork in subenvironment 3, but moisture conditions along this segment of the East Fork may be critically limit ing for crop growth. There are no tributary drainages in that section of even intermittent status. Personal observations the past few years suggest surface flow in this area is more limited during heavy summer rains than in the adjacent areas up- or down-stream, although winter precipitation runoff does not visually exhibit the same differential.
Subenvironment 5 encompasses most of the West Fork drainage basin and provides the most difficulty in making generalizations about crop growth potential. Soils along the West Fork evidence similar gradients in particle size as noted for the other forks, but moisture conditions do not appear particularly favorable.
Soils in bottom areas of the north and northeasterly tribu
taries to the West Fork appear to contain limited amounts of fine
grained sediments only near their junctions with the main channel. 130
Host of these are narrow drainages with relatively steep gradients,
bottom areas more than one kilometer from the West Fork appearing to
be composed primarily of cobbles and gravels. The only potentially
useful areas for farming along these channels would appear to be near
their junction with the main fork where better soils are available.
Moisture conditions may be acceptable in these areas which contain
moderate amounts of scrub arboreal species and lower ground cover.
Soils in some northwestern, central and southwestern tribu
tary bottoms to the West Fork may be too acidic for crop growth given
their development in a pine forested area. The current density of
arboreal cover also limits sunlight to a degree that does not facili
tate the growth of lower ground cover and would probably limit crop
growth also. Moisture conditions are obviously sufficient for the
arboreal species, but these do not clearly reflect surface or near
surface conditions critical for crop growth.
The relative ranks of the subenvironments in terms of collec
tible and edible vegetation potentials is not so readily specified
but in some cases appears to vary inversely with agricultural differ
ences. My tentative assessment of the relative ranks of the sub
environments with respect to these resources, from highest to lowest,
is: 1, 2, 3, 6, 5, 4.
Subenvironments 1 and 2 at the higher elevations appear to
contain the most lush streamside vegetation, arboreal and other types,
as well as the greatest density of mesa-top arboreal vegetation. Col
lectible resources within communities preferring those habitats decrease
in frequency and variety toward the junction area and lower elevations. 131
The lower East Fork drainage is so dry that it again attains a low rank due to a general paucity of apparent useful stream-side vegetation. The southwestern sectors of the West Fork with stands of ponderosa pine forest appear to have more limited quantities of eco nomic ground cover vegetation than along the northern and eastern tributaries. Mesa-top vegetation is generally sparse, although the frequency of agave, yucca and cactus appears somewhat higher than in most other areas.
Period A : Settlement Variation
This section considers the natural environmental and cultural variability that appear to be most useful in developing statements about settlement and subsistence patterns during Period A. This is most readily accomplished by maintaining a perspective on some of the same classes of variation with respect to Period B occupations. For purposes of exemplification and discussion, summaries of the frequency of occupations for the two periods cross-listed by variation for sev
eral environmental categories and by subenvironment are now presented
in Tables 11 through 15.
Assumptions and Functional Variations
During initial attempts to seek order or pattern in data of
this nature, it is necessary first to consider a kind of cultural
variability that tempers the procedure. This concerns the operating
assumptions that are made about the functional nature or kinds of
activities that are most likely represented by occupational debris. Table 11. Occupations by topographic form by subenvironment.
Subenvironments and Periods
1 2 3 4 5 6 Totals A B A B A B A B A B A B A B
Topographic forms
Bench* 12 11 13 9 2 20 67
Ridge spur 1 1 3 2 19 4 6 7 29
Mesa 3 5 5 5 3 10 11
Isolated hill 2 2 4
Slopes 1 4 2 3 2 6 2 16
Low ridge points 10 10
*See Chapter V for explanation of these categories. 132 Table 12. Occupations by nearest vegetation type by subenvironment
Subenvironments and Periods 1 2 3 4 5 6 Totals A B A B A B A B A B A B A B
Vegetation types
Ponderosa forest* 3 2 7 2 14
Mixed forest A 8 4 3 2 17
Mixed forest B 3 1 9 5 1 10 1 19 2 47
Mixed forest C 2 11 1 2 2 1 4 4 11 6 32
Mesa woodland A 1 414 1 15 16
Mesa woodland B 3 1 1 2 3 3 7
Scrub cover 1 1 1 1
Grassland 3 2 2 3
*See Chapter V for explanation of these types. Table 13. Occupations by nearest channel vegetation group by subenvironment
Subenvironments and Periods 1 2 3 4 5 6 Totals A B A B A B A B A BABAB
Channel vegetation
A* 1 7 4 2 8 11 34 14 53
B 1 4 26 3 4 30
C 2 3 10 8 1 7 1 30
D 11 13 24
*See Chapter V for explanation of these categories. 134 Table 14. Occupations by nearest soil group by subenvironment
Subenvironments and Periods 1 2 3 4 5 6 Totals AB A BABABAB A B A B
Alluvial type
I* 6 1 8 11 34 12 48
II 2 3 1 16 6 5 14 2 6 43
III 11 13 2 26
IV 1 19 1 1 20
*See Chapter V for explanation of soil differences. 135 Table 15. Occupations by nearest drainage rank by subenvironment
Subenvironments and Periods 1 2 3 4 5 6 Totals A B A B A B A B ABA B A B
Nearest drainage rank
1 1 17 1 1 18
2 5 17 2 5 19
3 1 1 6 1 7
4 13 15 1 18 12 1 10 26 11 85
5 . 1 8 1 8
&H 137
For purposes of discussion it might be assumed that the 10 sites with depressions represent areas of habitation and that a range of domestic and subsistence activities occurred in the general vicinity of each one. More specifically, it might be inferred that the large depressions at some sites represent communal or ceremonial architec ture and that smaller domestic structures were present at most, if not all sites, but were not clearly recognizable. Similar inferences re garding the nine sherd areas that evidenced no plausible architectural forms are not justifiable. Seven of these are located near the base of slopes or on conglomerate outcrops where pit structure forms would not be feasible, though temporary brush shelters could not be ruled out.
There are two other sherd areas located in areas where pit architecture may have been missed. It is possible that the sherd areas remain from
activities not accomplished at habitation premises, but to specify
these activities would require further information than is currently
available. If the sample of habitation sites and sherd areas were
larger and sufficient variation in their locations with respect to
different resources were present, it might be possible to make statis
tically significant generalizations relating different activity and
resource loci. Excavation and analysis of the resulting data would
then necessarily be required in attempts at more final demonstration
of the nature of the activities.
Unfortunately, inspection of Tables 11 through 15 suggests a
notable trend toward consistency and a remarkable absence of diversity
in viewing Period A site locations with respect to major environmental
features. The greater majority of the sites are located on the higher 138 landforms in lightly wooded areas either adjacent to minor tributary streams to the major forks of the Himbres River or near the junction area along the West Fork. This limited amount of variation and the limited sample of sites precludes further discussion of the probable differences among the sites in terms of major function or activity with respect to subsistence and resources.
Site Location and Subsistence
The notable consistencies in site locations also make it a difficult task to attempt strong inference or hypothesis testing about locational strategies couched in terms of immediate access to natural resources alone. This is a particularly vexing problem in terms of site locations and probable areas of crop production.
If it is assumed that agriculture was an important subsistence sector and most, if not all, agriculture was accomplished in drainage bottom areas, why then are sites located so high above the drainages instead of immediately adjacent to them on the numerous available bench formations? The mean distance of all sites with probable pit-structure architecture from the nearest available alluvial bottom area is about
180 meters. Most benches or low points in this vicinity would permit a site to be located less than 50 meters from tillable alluvial areas.
It is also difficult to understand how other subsistence strat egies or needs would affect the specific locations of these sites.
Water, the bulk of collectible vegetation, and fauna would not neces sarily be closest at hand on these southern and relatively arid mesa tops. If anything were to be inferred regarding the use of natural 139 food resources, it would be more plausible to expect some seasonal forays away from permanent habitation units into higher or lower areas as plant produce and fauna were available.
It may be that the consistent site locations with respect to particular landforms are patterned in terms of some attribute of those locations that was culturally significant in manners not related to subsistence. Factors such as defense can be mentioned, but then the questions of how defensive these locations really are and who they were being defended against need to be considered. There are no data that would permit discussion of these and other potentially useful views of
Period A site distributions now considered.
Settlement by Subenvironment
There are notable differences in the frequency of settlements along the West Fork, North Fork and Upper Mimbres. The different fre
quencies are contrary to what I would have expected on the basis of the
currently observable differences. /
Of the 19 Period A sites, 10 with architecture and four sherd
areas are located along the lower reaches of the West Fork. Current
observations suggest this is a less suitable area for agriculture than
the nearby and better-watered North Fork-Upper Mimbres area. These
latter areas evidence only four Period A occupations, and only one of
these has apparent architecture. Assuming that agriculture was impor
tant and carried out on the West Fork, it might then be inferred that
crop growth conditions were necessarily better or different from now
at the times of Period A occupation. The three meter entrenchment of 140 the West Fork now seen in the vicinity of these site locations may have occurred after Period A, lowering the water table and making conditions appear less favorable than they were during Period A. There also appears to have been an avoidance of this area by most occupations during Period B in subenvironment 5. No firm conclusions about the time of the entrenchment can be drawn on the basis of this data, but the potential interrelations of this event with respect to site distribu tions should be investigated if further work is accomplished there.
The Range of Settlement
The restricted range of the Period A sites in the larger survey area is now considered. It is likely that the observed distribution of these sites reflects a certain amount of sampling error, but the complete paucity of observed Period A sites in subenvironments 1, 2 and
4 suggests that such error is at least minimal in those cases. This is not to say those areas were not exploited for some natural resources, but the absence of village or major habitation sites suggests they may not have been utilized for agricultural purposes to the extent of the more southern areas. In this instance I suggest that several major factors are of concern in initial attempts to understand this phenomenon.
First, there is no reason to expect that areas of more limited agricultural potential would be utilized for those purposes unless other factors, like territoriality or population pressure, were operating.
There is no reason to expect this during Period A. There is serious doubt that any of the few occupations assigned to Period A were actually
contemporaneous, thus logically precluding local inter-group competition 141 for resources and Its potential effects on site location strategies.
This does not, however, rule out the possibility that the sites of
Period A in the survey area might have been the upper or northerly end of other distributions of contemporaneous village sites extending to the west and south along the Sapillo and Mimbres drainages. Areas below
the survey area appear to have increasing agricultural potentials in
terms of soil and water. The extensive and long-term occupations at
the Harris site, about eight kilometers south of the survey area, were
clearly contemporaneous with some of the northern occupations, although
the number and distribution of other similar occupations in the distance
separating them is unknown.
For purposes of speculative discussion, let it be assumed that
some form of cultural interaction was instrumental in "forcing" or
directing settlement toward the upper Mimbres Valley.
The apparently consistent northern limits of the Period A
occupations might then be viewed in terms of a constant amount of
cultural pressure, in terms of possible environmental limitations on
subsistence, or both. The available data permit no further comment on
the degree or nature of possible cultural interaction. In terms of the
environment, the sites and nearby arable land probably fall within the
upper limits of the climatic regime earlier discussed for the southern
survey area. The length of the frost-free season and predictability of
the last early season frost would be decreasing toward the somewhat
higher elevations and latitudes near these sites. None of the arable
land immediately adjacent to the sites exceeds 1965 meters in elevation..
While this is only about 50 meters higher than the location of the 142 recorded weather data, some sites are from four to five kilometers north of that location. Along that distance, mountain masses have increased considerably, valleys are narrower, and the likelihood of cold air drains or even more frequent cold air masses is higher. These slight kinds of differences may have become critically limiting factors for sufficient crop growth, especially of Zea mays, depending on the exact requirements of the race or races in question.
If this kind of limitation did occur, the more extensive dis tribution of Period B sites through the entire survey area raises several questions about changes in cultural use of and response to the natural environment, and potential changes in the social or cultural environment. These will be considered in succeeding sections.
Summary statements regarding settlement patterns during Period
A are of questionable utility. The limited sample and range of sample variability have required extensive assumptions in order to provide even modest statements regarding order and pattern within the data that may be culturally significant. The contrasts in Period A and B site distributions will be further considered in Chapter VIII treating local problems and in limited comparison with data from other Mogollon areas. '
Period B : Preliminary Investigations of Settlement Variability
The larger and more extensive sample of occupations for Period B will permit a greater variety of discussion and examination of cultural-
environmental co-variation than was possible for the earlier Period A,
though discussion of cultural interaction is again limited. 143
Restrictions and Assumptions
It must be kept in mind that the amount of time represented by
the Period B occupations is approximately 200 years. It should be clear
from previous discussion that even this is an estimate. The actual time
represented may be as little as 150 to 175 years, or the length of the
period may have been underestimated, with Mimbres ceramic and architec
tural styles perhaps occurring as late as A.D. 1250 or even A.D. 1300 in
this area. For these reasons it is not yet possible to attempt to spec
ify or explain the rate or pattern of settlement expansion through the
area.
While the above are severe restrictions upon this study, it is
possible to consider the cumulative set of settlement events during
Period B in terms of variations in settlement location, size and density
with respect to major variations in the natural environment. This pro
cedure is necessarily maintained at a low level of abstraction, but is
considered a useful step in attempting to understand, if not specify,
some of the cultural-environmental relations that may have been consis
tently patterned during Period B occupations.
Site Type and Site Function
Before considering this in detail, a brief discussion regarding
Period B site size, form and probable function is necessary.
The three major categories of Period B sites that have been de
fined are sherd scatters, sites with obscure architecture, and sites
with probable pueblo architecture. The number of sherd scatters is 144 so few that their utility is limited for purposes of this study and they receive ho detailed consideration.
The 11 occupations with obscure architecture are also of limited utility for most of the succeeding discussions, but their locational variability with respect to that of the remaining 124 pueblo sites is of some interest. It has been suggested that these occupations may represent early habitation sites during Period B, or they may represent temporary or seasonal occupations with less substantial architectural forms that are contemporary with other occupations through Period B.
There are, again, so few sites of this nature that it is neither feasi ble nor useful to discuss their individual variations with respect to
specific environmental features for purposes of providing statistically
significant generalizations about their differences as they might relate
to environmental exploitation.
It is initially appealing to view these sites as the result of
local cultural trends, representing the transition from deep cobble-
lined rectangular pit structures to multiroomed surface pueblos. The
range of these sites within the survey area is restricted to subenviron
ments 5 and 6. The frequencies of these sites per subenvironment is
also similar to patterns seen during Period A, with eight of the 11
sites in the West Fork drainage and three in the immediate vicinity of
the three forks junction of the Mimbres River.
The early chronological placement of these sites is necessarily
mentioned as a possibility for later investigation but is not relied
upon for the remainder of the study. The possibility for sampling
error in terms of locating occupations of this nature is, intuitively, 145 high. Several of these occupations may underlie other pueblos of Period
B and were not differentiated due to poor ceramic representation or poor ceramic distinctions on the part of the investigator.
The one other formal anomaly that distinguishes some sites in the West Fork area from others in all areas is the presence of pueblos and depression in what appears to be an immediate association. In both cases where this occurs the relatively obvious pueblos are of size class 2. If the West Fork area was the site of initial pueblo develop ment following Period A, the presence of that form of architecture in contemporaneous association with circular depressions would not be totally improbable. These associations are not necessarily contempora neous, however, and may only represent different occupation of the same site.
The 124 pueblo sites that were previously divided into four size classes are the primary focus of most analyses. It is initially inferred that sites of the larger size classes 3 and 4 were habitation sites with a broad range of domestic and subsistence activities accomplished in and relatively near their respective vicinities. It is further inferred that
this was also the case for most sites of size class 2, although some of
these may have only been seasonally occupied. It is then suggested that
the small sites of size class 1 most likely represent seasonal or short
term occupations. Succeeding analyses will consider the probable nature
of the seasonal or short-term activities at or near those sites.
It will not be possible to conclusively demonstrate that all of
the above inferences and assumptions are necessarily valid or invalid.
It is necessary to denote these operating assumptions in order that 146 analyses can proceed, that these might be critically evaluated, and that the assumptions themselves might be refined or rejected.
Cultural and Subenvironmental Variation
Given the broadly different subenvironments of the area, it might be expected that subsistence patterns would have varied somewhat through the area in terms of the relative dependence upon crop agri culture and collected foods. It is of interest yet of considerable difficulty to determine how specific site locations or trends in site locations per subenvironment would necessarily reflect those potential subsistence differences. In order to begin examining this problem it might initially be questioned whether or not there are any major differ ences in site locations with respect to the various locational and environmental phenomena that were recorded. The six subenvironments and
the sites included within them provide a broad yet convenient set of analytical units for preliminary investigation of such matters.
Reference to Tables 11 through 15 indicates that the majority of
Period B sites are located on bench formations in moderately wooded areas near stream drainages of rank 4. There appears some tendency for in
creasing numbers of sites toward the junction area in subenvironment 6
with alluvial type I and channel vegetation A. While Table 11 suggests
there is some broad variation per subenvironment of site locations by
topographic form, several of those forms share similar attributes in
terms of being relatively flat to gently sloping, well drained, and
located immediately adjacent to potential farmland. This is generally
the case for benches, ridge spurs, slopes and low ridges or points in 147 lightly dissected areas. Thus, a more adequate reflection of the differences in locations of sites with respect to tillable areas is the actual distance from the site to that area. Table 16 presents this data by subenvironment for the 124 sites under discussion. This distance was calculated using the Pythagorean Theorem and the measured plane horizontal and vertical distances from sites to alluvial areas. Table
16 is usefully viewed in conjunction with Table 17 which presents summary statistics regarding these mean distances to alluvial areas by classes of topographic form, the frequencies being derived from the numbers of sites per form class.
The major exceptions or differences of interest in this data concern the sites on mesa tops in subenvironments 4, 5 and 6 . Their relatively high distances had notable effects on the means and other figures in Table 16. The six sites in the former two areas are on the frontal edges of mesas overlooking alluvial bottom areas, while those in the latter are considerably back on the mesa systems along the East
Fork. The mean distance of the three sites of interest from the East
Fork channel area is 750 meters and somewhat less for the six others to their respective channels at 180 meters. The small sample of mesa top sites precludes much discussion of the statistical significance of their "frontal" and "rearward" differences.
It is particularly difficult to understand why the three sites along the East Fork were located so far from water and alluvium unless
it is hypothesized that some subsistence task other than agriculture
influenced their location or some form of cultural "pressure" was
involved. Table 16. Period B distances from sites to nearest alluvium and intermittent stream by subenviron- ment.
Mean Standard Maximum Minimum Subenvironment if of sites distance deviation distance distance
1 13 39.1* 27.9 103.1 11.2
2 16 69.7 71.2 252.0 5.8
3 18 34.6 39.9 150.5 2.8
4 12 219.4 318.2 964.2 5.4
5 37 110.5 99.1 480.9 5.4
6 28 79.0 94.6 351.3 5.4
*A11 distances are in meters. 148 Table 17. Period l B distances from sites to nearest alluvium and intermittent stream by topographic form.
Topographic Mean Standard Maximum Minimum form if of sites distance deviation distance distance
Bench 62 32.3* 35.1 201.6 2.8
Ridge spur 28 93.6 75.7 314.6 14.1
Mesa 9 370.0 289.2 964.2 53.8
Isolated hill 4 69.3 64.5 146.1 5.4
Slopes 12 188.0 127.9 480.9 36.1
Low ridges, points 9 76.7 60.3 218.1 5.4
It Is difficult to hypothesize the former in view of areal trends in mesa-top resources. The major edible resources of bulk or quantity that were observed in these areas are produce of pinon, juniper, oak and grasses. The density of those resources is lower on the southern mesa tops than further north and east in subenvironments 1, 2 and 3 where no pueblo sites were located on mesa tops. Rejecting a subsistence dependent hypothesis for these loca tional observations may place the problem back in a cultural sphere, but without better knowledge of the contemporaneity of all sites con cerned, it is difficult to pursue this. Therefore, the question remains an open one until further investigations are accomplished. Leaving the few exceptions for the moment, and taking an overall point of view, the major and consistent trend for most sites to be located on landforms immediately adjacent to river or stream channels does suggest that the resources in those immediate areas were of some concern. This may only indicate a concern for immediate water supplies for vital needs but, if so, it then needs to be demonstrated that other factors such as soil and natural vegetation are not of importance. Therefore, in order to develop a better understanding of how the cultural variable of settlement may have been differentially influenced, affected and ultimately patterned across the landscape by the several environmental factors related to subsistence, it is necessary to examine the simultaneous variations in all these potentially interactive vari ables. This is accomplished in the following section. 151 Settlement Size, Subsistence, and Environment This section attempts to examine the simultaneous quantitative variations in settlement sizes and specific kinds of environmental factors through most of the survey area during Period B in order to determine if and how settlement size might reflect human response to the adequacy of locally accessible resources that may have affected subsistence. The several assumptions and complex inter-relations of variables in this problem will be clarified in some detail through the succeeding subsections. The problem can then be restated in more formal terms and appropriate tests will be performed. This summary treatment of the entire period of settlement will naturally mask a potential variety of short-term settlement responses and patterns in various sectors of the environment, given the lack of chronological differentiation. The overall view is, however, considered a useful and necessary one for initially discovering whether any sig nificantly patterned relations obtain between the quantified cultural and environmental variables. It may be the case that cultural and social-organizational variables are primarily responsible for any specific pattern of site distributions at any particular point in time. The summary view of several such patterns over a relatively long period of time in the same area, as in this situation may, however, emphasize the consistently critical environmental factors that may have been operant throughout all times of settlement. The consistency and signifi cance of cultural response to specific areas of environmental factors per 152 area may in fact only be readily observable with this larger sample of cultural responses. If consistencies are derived from the summary view taken here, and further work is accomplished to secure chronological controls, it will be possible to attempt a more refined examination of cultural and social factors and their relative causal or explanatory value for understanding both the expansion of settlement through time and the specific pattern of settlements at any one brief period of time in the study area. Analytical Units While preceding sections have utilized the frequencies of sites and their immediate environmental codes per subenvironment, the follow ing analyses attempt to utilize more refined and sensitive measures of variation. It is suggested that variations in settlement size across the survey area will provide a more adequate reflection of cultural and population response to environmental variation than would the simple frequencies of settlement. It will not be possible to utilize a completely particulate approach and consider each individual settlement size in relation to its surrounding environment. The difficulties in providing precise defini tions and measurements of the specific spatial area most likely associa ted with and used by each single occupation are insurmountable at this time. Therefore, it is necessary to delimit spatial units of analysis of reasonable size so that the definition and measurement of "locally 153 accessible resources" is a sufficiently broad yet relevant concept with respect to several adjacent occupations and the resource areas most likely utilized by the several persons responsible for them. The subenvironments discerned through the area in preceding sections might be utilized for this problem, but in some cases they en compass so much environmental variation that the potentially critical resolution of some local differences would be lost. In addition, the boundaries of the subenvironments were determined without reference to particular site locations. Since one goal here is to seek order and pattern in the cultural variability, a means of obtaining areal units of analysis that may have been culturally significant was sought. It was observed during field work that some Period B site locations ex hibited relatively discrete spatial groupings in various areas of the survey. This subjective view of site clusters or groups was given some consideration in terms of the current problem and means of objectifying this observation were sought. If this could be accomplished, the total settlement sizes and the environmental measures in the area surrounding each group of sites might provide reasonable analytical sets. Cluster Analysis The general kind of technique that was considered appropriate for the current problem is cluster analysis. The particular computa tional method utilized was "Ward's Method" from D. Wishart's Clustan 1A package of several computer programs for clustering (1969b). This method of clustering falls within a broader class of hierarchic fusion and agglomerative techniques in which individual items are grouped 154 together on the basis of specific criteria by which a cluster can be defined. "Ward's Method" or "error sum of squares objective function" was selected because it was developed to minimize the variation within a group of items and maximize the difference between those groups in relation to the particular items within each group (Wishart 1969a). In more specific terms of this study the method appears to be ideal for maximizing or finding the best separation of groups of sites that are themselves relatively homogeneous within groups with respect to location. In order to provide the analysis with a basis for measuring the locational similarity of sites, each of the 124 sites with inferred pueblo architecture was assigned positive numeric cartesian co-ordinates. The assignment of co-ordinates was in millimeters using site locations noted on maps with a 1:24000 scale. Assuming the sites are correctly placed on the maps, the error in measurement of the co-ordinates may not exceed 24 to 48 meters on the ground. The two co-ordinates for each sites were then utilized as con tinuous numeric variables, and the site was the object or case of analysis. These data were utilized by Wishart *s program (1969b) to calculate a matrix of euclidean distances between sites which was then used as a set of similarity coefficients or criteria between sites in the actual cluster analysis. Discussion of the interpretation of the results of the cluster analysis is assisted by reference to Figures 7, 8 and 9. Figure 7 is a dendrogram of the hierarchical set of junctions for the entire cluster analysis. The 124 nodes along the bottom of -120 124 SITE LOCATIONS Figure 7. Dendrogram of complete linkages. 155 156 1.3r X 12 - X l.l 1.0 E .9 — X I- UJ o X Q 1 ' INTER- X X — X O Cl X X .3 X X X 1 .2 ______X X X X .1L- X x x 1— 1— 1— 1 .! 1 1 1 l 1 t 1 1 1 1 ! 1 1 1 9 10 II 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 NUMBER OF CLUSTERS Figure 8 . Interpretive data from cluster analysis. Figure 9. Dendrogram of a 12 cluster solution cluster 12a of Dendrogram 9. Figure INTER-CLUSTER DISTANCE COEFFICIENT r-WO -IOO 5 3 3 2 2 Wl W2 E2 E3 W3 N5 LSE NAMES CLUSTER ( 157 158 the dendrogram represent the individual sites, but the actual site numbers were not included due to problems in a size reduction process of the figure. The plot does not scale the actual inter-site dis tances along this axis. The scale on the left side of the dendrogram is the actual measure of inter-cluster similarity or cluster distance coefficients developed during the analysis. The problem in viewing this graphical representation is which cluster solution to select. Are there only two, or four, or more "good" clusters here? Statistics can be derived from the program by which the significance of all variables per cluster for. each solution can be broadly assessed, but their use assumes that each variable across all cases exhibits a normal distribution. Examination of the locational variables in this study indicated that one, the y co-ordinate is normal, but the x co-ordinate is distinctly bimodal in distribution. Thus, other means of assessing the best cluster solution were sought. Reference to literature on this topic suggests there are no universally satisfactory rules for the problem (Goodall 1964, Williams and Lambert 1966, Orloci 1967, Madgwick and Desrochers 1972). However, one rela tively consistent set of concepts is apparent through the above refer ences and concerns the amount of "resolution" or amount of "information" gain or loss at any particular step of a clustering procedure. There is no need to utilize actual information statistics in this situation ' because, as Lance and Williams have noted, these are only a cumbersome multiple of the euclidean distance measures used in this type of analysis (1967:376-377, Field 1969). 159 Figure 8 is a graph of■the critical region of inter-cluster similarity coefficients in relation to the number of clusters that are accepted from the analysis. This region is critical in the sense that it covers a boundary between interpretations of clustering that can be thought of as ranging from a "low" information content yet "high" resolution of inter-cluster differences to a "high" information content and "low" resolution of differences. For example, a two cluster solu tion contains high resolution in that the spatial cluster differences are immediately apparent, yet each cluster contains so many of the original 124 sites that the amount of information that remains available and can be utilized is very low. Conversely, cluster solutions at the extreme lower levels of the hierarchy are not particularly useful. The strategy in this situation was to select a cluster solution that fell in an intermediate position between the extremes of the con tinue just discussed. Inspection of Figure 8 suggests that a 12 cluster solution is optimal in this case. That point on the graph is nearest the major transition in the analysis in terms of shifts in both informa tion content and resolution. The hierarchical relations of the clusters in this solution are shown in Figure 9. The 12 clusters were given the names or identifiers of Nl, El, Wl, Ml, and so on for geographic recognition purposes during discussion. The letters refer to the first initial of the fork of the Mimbres or the Mimbres itself depending upon the spatial position of sites per cluster. Table 18 lists the number of sites that are included in each of the 12 clusters. 160 Table 18. Sites per cluster. Cluster number Number of sites N1 6 N2 7 N3 11 N4 7 N5 19 Ml 7 El 16 E2 3 E3 7 W1 10 W 2 20 W3 11 It is noted at this point that several other kinds of cluster analysis were performed, and the results were consistent with those reported above. The specific analyses will not be presented here. Those which were utilized are referred to as "Furthest Neighbor," "Centroid," and "Mode" (Wishart 1969a, b, c). Figure 10 displays the geographic locations of the 12 clusters through the survey area. The dashed lines separating the clusters along the major forks and the Upper Mimbres were drawn halfway between the outermost site members of adjacent clusters. The areas along the 108* / • / X Nl / E3 CLUSTER BOUNDARIES •MIMBRES Figure 10. Cluster locations. 162 drainages per cluster then become the sets for which total settlement sizes and environmental variations are examined. The method utilized for this purpose is multiple regression analysis. In this case the use of the analysis involves an attempt to predict a dependent variable, settlement size per cluster, from several other independent variables, environmental factors per cluster, that hypothetically affect subsistence. Before considering the analysis in more detail, it is necessary to consider several assumptions and meas urements regarding the variables that are utilized. Settlement Size and Population The settlement or pueblo sizes measured during the survey pro vide only an approximate measure of amount of population per pueblo. It would be desirable to adjust and refine the size measurements to more accurately reflect the probable population figures they might represent, but no consistent or defensible means of accomplishing this could be found. No ethnographic data of this nature is available from the pueblos in the American southwest that could be utilized for plau sible inferences. Two different studies of the ratio between population and floor space utilizing ethnographic data respectively from California and several other world areas have been accomplished and suggest that there is not always a one to one or linear relationship between the two variables. Cook and Heizer (1965) and Naroll (1962) indicate that this relationship is more direct for relatively small structures with a few people than for larger structures housing several persons. While their 163 results are consistent at that broad, if not vague, level of general ization, the specifics of their results are variable in most respects and are not accepted for this project. More work of this kind needs to be accomplished before broadly applicable formulas can be used for making deductive generalizations about specific areas. Given the more general results of the studies noted above, it might be expected that size measurements of pueblos of size class 1 and 2 in this project provide the more accurate reflection of population, while the size of larger units may overestimate that figure. If, how ever, some of the smaller pueblos were only occupied seasonally, where did the persons responsible for those occupations reside at other seasons? The current, if not future, insolubility of that kind of problem and the lack of chronological controls suggest that too many problems would be encountered at this time to try to adjust or interpret site size in terms of actual population. The measured pueblo sizes per site are maintained for the duration of the analysis as a coarse yet necessary representation of population response per cluster through Period B. Again, it must be emphasized that what is being represented by the sum of total settlement size per cluster is a summary of settlement history that may be as little as 50 years in some clusters or as much as 150 years in others. The precision and level of generalization that are obtainable with this kind of control are unknown at this point of the analysis, but regularities may be discerned at a low level of abstraction. 164 Environmental Factors The definition of resources, their adequacy, and their acces sibility may vary widely in the same environment, depending upon the cultural views of the group concerned, but for initial purposes here it is assumed that this was a moderately constant set of perceptions for groups or persons responsible for Period B settlements. It is assumed that for most of Period B, crop agriculture involving maize, beans and squash probably furnished the most consistent and major portion of local diets with lesser amounts of collected plants and fauna as supplements. In this case it is suggested that the natural environmental factors of primary importance that can in some manner be ranked or measured for consideration in terms of their importance for subsistence and ultimately settlement are amount of soil, suitability or quality of soil, available water, temperature factors and collectible plant re sources. I do not perceive any useful manner of ranking or measuring faunal resources through the area. The necessity for consistency and accuracy in measurement forces a rejection of the use of data from the three clusters in the West Fork area. The areas of alluvium that need to be measured in the vicinity of the sites are obscured by arboreal cover. The measurement of the alluvium in other areas was accomplished by using a polar planimeter with appropriate aerial photographs scaled at 1:15840. The cluster boundaries shown in Figure 10 were located on the photographs, and only the areas of alluvium or colluvium between these boundaries and between the junctions of benches or slopes and the 165 broadest flood plain were measured for each cluster. Thus, the measure ments only reflect the surface area of the current flood plains along the North Fork, East Fork and Upper Mimbres River. Areas of soil on the floors of tributaries in these areas could not be consistently measured due to obscuring vegetation cover and are not included in the study. Very few of the tributaries to the major channels appear to have useful soil concentrations so the loss of these measurements may not be too important. Table 19 presents the summary measurements of soil area and the other variables per cluster. Soil quality is not readily measured given the limited and sub jective observations that were made in the field. It is, however, ranked on a rough scale according to my assessments. The apparently continuous gradation in fine to coarse-grained sediments along the drainages was a primary guideline for the procedure. The continuum was constrained within a range from one to three units, with the quantitative implication that soil quality for agricultural purposes is three times greater just below the junction area than at the upper reaches of the survey area on the North and East Forks. Two ranks or scores for stream variability were derived. In both cases the ranks of streams were derived in the manner described in Chapter V. One score for each cluster is the actual rank of the major channel flowing through the measured area of alluvium. The other score for each cluster is a sum of the ranks of all tributary drainages entering the main channel along the measured alluvial area. Reference to Table 19 indicates that there is so little variability in major channel ranks that it would not be a useful measure by itself. The two Table 19. Measures of cultural and environmental variation for nine clusters SA AL EL Cluster (M2) (M2) SQ VR (M) H2 R1 R2 N1 981 93730 1 10 2134 10 4 6 N2 1375 173525 1 8 2088 8 4 4 N3 2958 246052 2 7 2012 13 4 9 N4 1344 262319 2 5 1963 15 4 11 N5 2180 567025 3 4 1920 22 4 18 Ml 2279 384588 3 2 1905 14 5 9 El 1470 192778 1 8 2068 8.7 3.7 5 E2 211 108941 2 1 1993 6 4 2 E3 332 271045 3 2 1951 4 4 0 SA = Total site area AL = Alluvial area SQ = Soil quality of alluvial area VR = Vegetation rank, streamside, benches and adjacent mesas EL = Mesa elevation of alluvial area H2 = Total drainage rank (R1 + R2) R1 = Major drainage rank R2 = Sum of tributary drainage ranks 166 167 kinds of stream ranks per cluster were therefore summed to provide a more variable quantity for analytical purposes. While the drainage rankings are consistent, there is consider able question about their accuracy in reflecting actual moisture avail ability for crop growth. This is particularly serious in the case of the lower East Fork drainage. The greater length of this drainage and the entire length of the North Fork attain a rank of 4. The consis tently observable differences in the amount of surface flow in the two channels discussed earlier indicates that they are probably not equal in terms of moisture availability as the ranking system suggests. For this reason the data from the three clusters along the East Fork cannot initially be utilized in the same analysis with the other clusters. Instead, the results from analysis of the six cluster data set along the North Fork - Upper Himbres transect will be utilized to attempt to predict variations in settlement size in clusters El, E2 and E3. The results of that prediction should indicate whether all cluster data should have been considered concurrently. One other source of variation is with respect to natural vegeta tion. While the increasing amounts of potentially useful or edible produce from various arboreal, shrub and other plant types is somewhat apparent with increases in elevation and latitude, it is only possible to provide an approximate ranking scale for measuring that variation. Clusters were assigned natural vegetation ranks ranging from one to ten units, the clusters at higher and wetter elevations receiving the greatest ranks. As in the case of the ranking of soil quality, this is a subjec tive procedure that is perhaps only moderately accurate. 168 The lack of recorded temperature data at the upper reaches of the survey precluded any precise measures or ranks per cluster for this in formation. Instead, the elevation at the center of each cluster along the alluvial area of the major channels was utilized. While the cor relation of elevation with temperature may not be perfectly linear, they are closely related in transects of this nature (Tuan et al. 1969). The use of elevation may further provide an approximate relative measure of precipitation and evapo-transpiration differences through the area. In general, this is the coarsest measure of environmental variation because it not only includes several kinds of variation but may have high correlations with the several particular climatic variables just noted. This may obscure the potentially independent contributions that each single variable might make toward explaining the total variance in settlement size per cluster. Multiple Regression and Expectations A complete and rigorous explanation of the analytical model of multiple regression is not feasible here. A brief but readable ex planation I have encountered is by H.M. Blalock (1960). More extensive and rigorous discussions of the topic are available in most comprehen sive statistical textbooks. I have relied to some degree upon discus sions by G.W. Snedecor and W.C. Cochran (1967) and P. Armitage (1971), both oriented toward practical applications of statistical methods. In this project the variables that have been measured for the cluster sets in the survey area can be utilized to develop simultaneous equations of standard regression form 169 Y = a + Bj^Xj, + B2X2 + 8 3 X3 + B^X^ + 63X3 where a is a constant or "intercept" and B^ through B3 are also con stants derived from the analysis. These are constant multipliers of the independent variables X^ through X3 or, soil, area, soil quality, vegetation rank, elevation and total drainage score. The Y in the equation is the dependent variable or sum of pueblo area per cluster in this case. The analysis then essentially becomes a lengthy alge braic problem of solving the given set of simultaneous equations for the unknown beta or B values. The use of this method presumes that all variable distributions are normal and that the relationships of all pairs of independent and dependent variables are linear. Inspections of the skewness and kur- tosis figures in Table 20 suggests that the variable distributions tend to be positively skewed and sharply peaked. I hesitate to trans form all variable values into logarithms in this instance because of possible difficulties in final interpretation of the analytical results with six potentially interactive variables. The use of the positively skewed variables does not "invalidate" the analysis but has the effect of lowering the reliability or confi dence bounds for predictions from the higher values of the independent variables. In terms of linearity, crossplots of each independent variable with the dependent variable for the two data sets were examined. There are, however, so few points on the graphs of the crossplots that rapid visual interpretation is difficult and their presentation here would not be useful. Instead, Table 21 presents summary statistics regarding Table 20. Descriptions of the regression variables for the six clusters along the North Fork - Upper Mimbres River. Variable Mean Standard deviation Skewness Kurtosis SA 1852.8 742.6 .299 -1.24 AL 287873.9 167599.8 .640 -.641 SQ 21.2 7.7 -.042 -1.142 VR 6.0 2.9 0.000 -1.143 EL 2003.7 92.2 .335 -1.391 H2 136.7 48.4 .674 -.369 SA - Site area AL = Alluvial area SQ = Soil quality VR « Vegetation rank EL = Elevation H2 = Drainage score 170 Table 21. Pearson correlation coefficients of environmental variables and site area per cluster. SA H2 AL SQ VR EL SA 1.000 .409 .519 .614 -.482 -.565 sig. .000 .210 .145 .097 .166 .121 H2 .409 1.000 .914 .747 -.655 -.781 sig. .210 .000 .005 .044 .079 .033 AL .519 .914 1.000 .930 -.830 -.869 sig. .145 .005 .000 .004 .025 .012 SQ .614 .747 .930 1.000 -.943 -.945 sig. .097 .044 .004 .000 .002 .002 VR -.482 -.655 -.810 -.943 1.000 .973 sig. .166 .079 .025 .002 .000 .001 EL -.565 -.781 -.869 -.945 .973 1.000 sig. .121 .033 .012 .002 .001 .000 SA = Site area H2 = Drainage score AL = Aluvial area SQ ■ Soil quality VR = Vegetation rank EL = Median elevation sig. = Significance level 171 172 the Pearson correlation coefficient and associated significance level for all pairs of variables in the study. This coefficient assumes linear relationships between the two variables and can be thought of as the slope of the line on a scatterplot that describes their linear relation. This data is useful in viewing Figures 11 and 12 which are plots of the relative changes in the values of pairs of independent and dependent variables per cluster along the North Fork - Upper Mimbres transect. For further comparison and discussion those sets of relations for the East Fork clusters are also presented. The scales for each variable per pair are so different that a scaling factor was necessary. Those graphs and the data in Table 19 allow preliminary examina tion of variable relations for the purpose of determining whether a multiple regression analysis is profitably attempted. If so, there are four major kinds of information from the analysis that will be of interest for the current problem. First, and at a broad level, is the sum of site sizes per clus ter at all dependent upon any of the variables suggested to have affected subsistence. The variables that have been selected are plausible ones, and I would expect that they might account for at least some of the variation in total settlement area. Secondly, if there is some variance accounted for in the de pendent variable, the relative importance of the environmental variables is of interest. Inspection of Figures 11 and 12 suggests that changes in alluvial area and water rank per cluster at the higher elevations bears close resemblance to variations in settlement area, whereas the same relations 173 ii 8 5600 560000 (56) 4800 480000 (48) 400000 (40) 3200 320000 (32) 240000 (24) 160000 (16) 80000 (8) Nl N2 N3 N4 N5 Ml E2 E3 CLUSTERS Figure 11. Settlement area, alluvial area, and drainage score 4800 4000 ----- 2400 VEGETATION RANK VEGETATION SOIL QUALITY SOIL Nl N2 N3 N4 N5 Ml E2 E3 CLUSTERS 12. Settlement area, soil quality, and vegetation rank. 175 are not so apparent at lower elevations. The increasing amounts of alluvium toward the lower reaches of the North Fork, East Fork and the Forks junction area are not associated with similar rates of increase in settlement size or water rank. These factors alone suggest the analysis is worth pursuing in order to examine the more precise nature of those relations. The other graph indicates that the overall trend in relationships with the dependent variable may be worth continued consideration, but I make no judgment about the relative amounts of variance they might account for. Reference to Table 21 indicates that several of the independent variables have high positive or negative correlations with the depen dent variables, but simple interpretations of how much variance might be accounted for by each of these correlations is not possible because several of the independent variables are highly correlated among them selves. The regression analysis attempts to solve this problem by utilizing the partial correlation of each independent variable with the dependent variable. The calculation and use of the partial correlation coefficient is an attempt to isolate the more precise relationship be tween two variables by controlling for or "factoring out" the influence of the other intervening variables. This is one of the most crucial aspects of the analysis. In fact, the order in which the variables are selected and added to the regression equation will usually reflect the decreasing order of magnitude of their partial correlations with the dependent variable. The partial correlations at each step of the analysis and the order in which the variables are selected can thus 176 provide useful insight into the relative "independence" of the variables in question. The third major kind of information to be considered is the "reliability" or "goodness of fit" of the variance estimates for each variable and for the several of them taken together. The analysis will provide standard errors of the beta, or regression, coefficients for each variable that is included. A summary F ratio will also be provided from which the significance level of the total results can be derived. The fourth major aspect of the analysis is a consideration of how well the derived equations predict the measured sum of site sizes in particular clusters. The results of the regression can be utilized with the observa tions on the independent variables to calculate a predicted value of the dependent variable. If the appropriate variables have been included in the analysis and all other assumptions discussed above are met, then the predicted values will expectably be close to the observed ones. The computer program utilized for these analyses is a multiple regression option in a set of programs entitled Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (Nie, Bent, and Hull 1970). The program was in structed to attempt to utilize the five environmental variables one at a time or "stepwise" in predicting the dependent variable. No special inclusion level was set for the acceptance of any of the independent variables. 177 Results of the Analysis Table 22 presents the summary figures and statistics regarding stepwise linear regression results. The first sections of the table denoting variance (y) provide information about the relative and absolute amounts of variation in site area per cluster that are accounted for by the independent variables. Beta is the constant multiplier of each respective variable, and a, or alpha, is the constant, or "intercept." The standard error of beta provides a notion of the precision of each of those estimates, while the single F ratio for each one provides a measure of the significance of their presence. The overall F ratio provides a composite test of the null hypothesis that the beta coefficients are not equal to each other and to zero, or "...that all predictor variables are irrelevant" (Armitage 1971:311). The overall results of this analysis indicate that most of the environmental variables are not "irrelevant" and, in fact, their rela tionship with the dependent variable would occur by chance alone less than 5% of the time. The remainder of Table 22 provides a summary of how accurately the sum of site area for each cluster was estimated by the regression. The estimates are relatively good as might be expected since 99.9% of the total variance was accounted for across all clusters. None of the estimates per cluster is more than 2.5% in error. The slight differ ences per cluster in this figure do not require further comment. The total amount of variance accounted for in the sum of site area per cluster is surprising given the problems that have already been discussed with respect to the assessment of the reliability of the Table 22. Multiple regression results. Variance (y) Total change variance (y) S.E. Variables % % Beta Beta df F sig. Soil quality 37.7 37.7 868.081 30.360 4/1 817.51 5% Vegetation rank 8.5 46.2 1033.932 4.035 4/1 687.64 5% Alluvial area 12.7 58.9 -.033 -.001 4/1 603.22 5% Stream rank 41.0 99.9 49.238 2.251 4/1 478.34 5% a or constant =19785.957 Overall F ratio = 291.562 degrees of freedom = 4/1 Significance level = 5% Residual variation about y per cluster (M^) Measured site Regression estimate Residual Cluster area of site area variation N1 981 1010.03 -29.03 N2 1375 1353.99 21.01 N3 2958 2950.35 7.65 N4 1344 1320.91 23.09 N5 2180 2180.69 .69 Ml 2279 2301.04 -22.04 178 179 original measures or ranks of some of the variables. The standard errors of the beta coefficients reflect this to some degree with the greatest variability in predictive value being associated with the estimated ranks of soil quality and vegetation. The relative amounts of variance accounted for by each of the variables is of some interest but should not be over-interpreted to make broad generalizations about the quantitative uni-causal importance or lack of it regarding the sole effect of any one independent variable upon the dependent one. In other words, the relative independence of each of the "independent" variables needs to be kept in mind when interpreting their relative contributions to explanation of variance in the dependent variable. For example, stream rank accounts for 41% of the variance in this analysis, but it is the least "independent" of all the variables. Reference to Tables 23 and 24 will facilitate continued discussion of this. Table 23 presents the first order partial correlations of site area per cluster with each of the independent variables, controlling this figure for each pair by each other independent variable. This was derived from a computer program in Nie et al. (1970) using data from the six clusters of current discussion. It is immediately apparent that the independent variable of soil quality has the highest set of first order partial correlations with site area. Reference to Table 24 in dicates that this was in fact the first variable selected by the multiple regression analysis in attempting to explain the variance in site area per cluster. The variable chosen in step 2 of the regression analysis was vegetation rank which clearly had the second largest first order I 180 Table 23. First order partial correlations of environmental variables with site area per cluster. First order partial correlations SA with: SQ .54 .41 .50 .29 VR .37 -.12 -.31 .35 AL -.17 .25 .39 .07 H2 -.09 .14 — .19 — .06 EL .05 -.47 — .26 — .43 Control SQ VR AL H2 EL variable SA = Site area SQ = Soil quality VR = Vegetation rank AL = Alluvial area H2 = Drainage score EL = Median elevation 181 Table 24. Stepwise regression order. Steps Variable entered Variables not Partial in the equation correlations Step 1 SQ H2 -.09451 AL -.17705 EL .05897 VR .36919 Step 2 VR H2 . -.19473 AL -.48658 EL -.35948 Step 3 AL H2 .98896 EL -.94117 Step 4 H2 EL -1.00000 SQ « Soil quality VR = Vegetation rank AL « Alluvial area H2 = Drainage score 182 partial correlation coefficient with site area. The partial correlation coefficients in the third step of the analysis are of the second order, controlling for the two variables previously placed in the regression. This pattern of inclusion continued through the variables until the variance had been explained and the inclusion of elevation became un necessary. The past discussion became necessarily tedious, but the inter pretation and utility of the analysis can now be more intelligibly pursued. The regression results provide an overall view of changes in the dependent and independent variables, but several local phenomena that are different need to be examined for the purposes of determining how they affected•the broader results and how they might be of cultural importance. For these purposes it is necessary to consider the relative kinds of differences in population response or site area per cluster that appear to occur with increasing or decreasing amounts of particular environmental variables. The initial implication of the negative sign preceding the alluvial area beta coefficient is that for the sample as a whole, total site area decreases as alluvial area increases. This is graphically obvious in Figure 11 where the two variables maintain similar trends at higher elevations, but closer to the junction area the rate of alluvial increase shows two reversals with respect to total site area trends and the overall increase in alluvium appears greater than over all increases in total site area. It is likely that the reversals and different rates of change in these factors in the southerly clusters is primarily responsible for the final overall regression result of a 183 negative beta coefficient for alluvial area. While this may partially explain the statistical and mathematical results of the analysis, the question of why the site area figures demonstrate such variation with alluvial area in different clusters is of continued cultural interest. Since I do not control the relative contemporaneity of sites within or between clusters, a purely cultural or inter-cultural inter action model is not yet appropriate for this problem. Instead, it is necessary to offer further suggestions about the limitations that environmental variations may have placed upon the technology, sub sistence patterns, and ultimately settlement area or population of the people concerned. Visual field observations permit the inference that soil moisture per unit area of alluvium in the three southerly clusters may not be as great as that in the clusters further north, even though the stream ranks tend to increase from north to south. The suggestion is made that stream rank is not an adequate measure of available soil moisture for subsistence or crop growth in the three southern clusters for all portions of the alluvial areas there. It was previously noted in Chapter V that a segment of the North Fork in cluster N4 tends to maintain less surface streamflow than areas immediately adjacent to it. The alluvial width in this section is also four to six times greater than the adjacent areas. The distribution of sites within this area is of corresponding interest in that most are at the "ends" of the wider alluvial area, and no sites occur along the central portion of this section for a distance of about one kilometer. This may suggest that porous colluvium beneath the surface sediments 184 is the site of most water flow, restricting available surface moisture for crop growth. The alluvial width increases'even more through cluster N4 is about 250 meters at the southern extreme of cluster Ml. From Figure 11 it is evident that the rate of total site area increase across both clusters is not as great as the rate of increase in the amount of alluvium. This may again indicate that not all of the alluvial areas could be successfully utilized from crop growth. Observation of current stream flow suggests that only during a "5-year" flood does the entire alluvial area evidence bank to bank surface flow. During May and June there is generally no surface flow. These factors do not rule out the possibility that simple ditch irrigation may have been utilized during periods of summer runoff to create a more productive alluvial area, but evidence for this is not available. If irrigation had been accomplished and was successful, I would expect that site area would then show closer correspondence with the amount of alluvium in these areas. The above discussion has been primarily uni-causal in orienta tion, but one other result of the regression analysis can be considered as a partial adjunct or alternative. This concerns the variations in soil quality. The relative independence of this variable and the relatively high amount of variance that it accounts for may not be completely fortuitous or artifacts of the ranking system and the analysis. If not, the increases in soil quality from the northern to the southern clusters can be viewed as one of the most important single factors in explaining the overall north to south trend to total site area increase. 185 Locally, however, it may be that the effects of soil quality are subject to similar limitations as in the case of total alluvial area. The presence of certain critical amounts of soil moisture for crop growth may again be a crucial threshold that permits soil quality to be realized as an important variable itself. The positive relationship of one other variable, vegetation rank, with increasing site area is initially difficult to understand since reference to Table 21 indicates their simple Pearson correlation is -.48. Reference to Tables 23 and 24, however, indicates that vege tation rank has the second highest first order partial correlation of all variables and was in fact the second one selected by the regression. Thus, given the ranking systems that were utilized, and once the effect of soil quality in the problem was controlled for, vegetation rank obtains a moderately independent and positive relation with increasing site area per cluster. The amount of variance accounted for in this case is the least of all the independent variables at 8.5%. While the result must be viewed with caution in light of the subjective ranking procedure, it may be a reasonable one. One initial assumption of the study was that, overall, the use of collectible natural vegetation was of less importance for subsistence than crop agriculture. If the 91.5% of the variance accounted for by soil qual ity, alluvial areas, and stream rank is accepted as a moderate reflec tion of the importance of crop agriculture, then the above assumption is somewhat vindicated. However, it is not yet possible to objectively determine how the relative proportions of collectible or agricultural produce may have differed in importance for any particular area. 186 I suggest that the more northern cluster areas N1 and N2 offered the greatest variety and bulk of collectible resources as well as the least attractive areas for crop agriculture, but whether or not this perception was shared and acted upon by the persons responsible for occupation there remains a problem for later investigation. The fact that elevation was not included in the regression is not too surprising since it is such a broad kind of measure. This is not to say that elevation per se should not be considered in developing an understanding of cultural - environmental interaction, but only that its independence and precision as a measure for this kind of problem is inadequate. It was initially desired to consider the potential differences of various areas and site locations with respect to tributary drainages and the practice of akchin farming. It was considered that differences in site locations in terms of whether or not they were immediately adjacent to the confluence of tributary drainages to the major channels might be some indication of the desirability or value placed on such locations. Some consideration of this problem suggests this will be more readily accomplished when the relative dates of the various occupa tions are more in evidence. This is necessary in order to be able to assign independent or weighted probabilities to the potential for locat ing a site in such a position. In other terms, to utilize tests such as chi square at this time in testing the null hypothesis that there are no significant differences in site locations with respect to areas of confluence and areas without stream confluence would be fallacious 187 because there is no means of determining the independence of the events in question. Some sites may have been located where they were because other sites were already positioned in the more favorable areas. In brief summary, it appears that trends in total settlement area along the transect of discussion bear strong and comprehensible relationships to major environmental factors that most likely affected subsistence. The initial assumption that crop agriculture was, overall, the more important subsistence mode is maintained with the proviso that local or short-term variations in the relative proportions of agri cultural and collected foodstuffs require further examination. Settlement and Environment: The Himbres East Fork The settlement size and environmental relations derived from analysis of the North Fork - Upper Mimbres areas do not obtain in the East Fork area in the same manners. This is demonstrated below and was predicted prior to analysis due to consistently observed differences in stream flow that would necessarily be ranked as equal in using the cur rent system. No consistent or objective means could be found to adjust the East Fork stream ranks to reflect the realities of the differences. In order to support the above affirmations and refine my conceptions of the problem, the alpha and beta values derived from the analysis of clusters N1 through N5 and Ml were utilized in an attempt to predict the sum of site area per cluster in the clusters El, E2 and E3. The results are shown in Table 25. The gross lack of prediction is obvious and suggests the two sets of data are not comparably measured or that other factors need to be considered. 188 Table 25. Predictions of East Fork site area per cluster. Cluster Measured Predicted Error (M^) area (M^) area (M%) El 1470 -6495 -7965 E2 . 211 -3659 -3870 E3 332 -10410 -10742 . In addition to the problems noted previously with stream rank as a measure of available soil moisture and the observed dryness of the central East Fork through the area of cluster E2 and E3, the ranks of soil quality may be a problem. This may be related to differences in gradients along the North Fork and East Fork from their junction to an elevation of about 2130 meters at the upper reaches of both cluster N1 and El. The total elevational increase is about 213 meters in each case, but the rate of increase is about 1.6 times greater along the East Fork than the North Fork. The actual increase in meters per kilometer is respectively 46 and 29 for the East and North Forks. Assuming that the differences in gradients have a significantly different effect upon the downstream movement and deposition of sediments, the actual amount of finer-grained sediments per unit area may be greater along most of the North Fork than the East Fork. The colluvial cobble and gravel substrate of the East Fork may also be more porous than that of the North Fork, permitting greater subsurface flow in the former and also contributing to decreased surface soil moisture for crop growth. 189 Therefore, If the soil quality ranks as well as the water ranks in the East Fork area are actually overestimates of those values in comparison with the ranks from the other transect, the underprediction of the East Fork site area per cluster becomes more comprehensible. In viewing the more specific effects that the environmental variations may have had upon actual site locations along the East Fork, it is of some interest that the greatest concentration of sites is not only at the higher elevations of cluster El, but they are clustered near the few intermittent tributary drainages to the main East Fork channel. There are no tributary drainages in clusters E2 and E3 that can be classified as intermittent, but there are a few narrow canyons entering the main channel in these areas. In most cases where sites occur rela tively near the main channel on benches or low points in these cluster areas, they are also located immediately adjacent to the obvious canyons just noted. This may reflect a settlement strategy geared toward utilization of the minor amounts of runoff at the mouths of the various canyons for akchin farming. The small sample of eight sites and the difficulty in assigning probabilities of selection to all specific loca tions along this segment of the river precludes any useful statistical manipulations. Settlement and Environment: The Mimbres West Fork Settlement size and environmental relations in this area cannot be treated in entirely the same manner as in the preceding sections be cause of the lack of comparable environmental measures. One limited ob servation of site locations with respect to probable moisture variations 190 is briefly discussed. A succeeding section provides further perspectives on settlement variations in the'West"Fork area when site size classes per cluster for the entire survey area are considered and compared. Assuming that agriculture was also important and the most common mode of subsistence in clusters Wl, W2 and W3, the major distributional pattern of sites with respect to environmental factors may again reflect patterns of locally available soil moisture. The distribution of sites along the tributaries to the West Fork and avoidance of the latter is a consistent pattern that can be interpreted in such terms. The aridity of most of the West Fork main channel was previously discussed at length. Leaving that channel, the more mesic nature of the immediate vicinities of site locations where agriculture may have occurred is evidenced in the field by increasing density and lushness of natural stream bottom and streamside arboreal vegetation on the tributary drain ages. This is admittedly a subjective observation that requires more information than is currently available in order to support hypotheses about the importance of soil moisture for understanding site distribu tions in this area. Site Size Class Distributions This section attempts to develop one further perspective upon the probable nature of settlement strategies and resultant settlement patterns of Period B. In order to maintain units of cultural variation that are comparable with those of the preceding sections, the 12 cluster areas and associated sites are maintained. 191 The distribution of the frequencies of site size classes per cluster is now examined in order to consider whether any patterned relationship with major environmental differences is present. Once again the lack of chronological controls will mask several potentially different patterns of contemporaneous size class distributions that may have been present. This summary view of most or all substantial occupa tions may, however, be the best one for initial purposes since the sample would again be larger than one from any lesser period of time. It might be expected that larger sites would be more frequent in those areas previously suggested to be the more adequate for agri cultural subsistence pursuits on the simple intuitive basis that a better food supply can support a bigger population. This, however, assumes that cultural and social organizational principles dictated that living in large sites was preferable to living in small ones which cannot be demonstrated for any particular temporal segment of Period B . Reference to Figure 13 indicates that the better areas for agriculture along the North Fork - Upper Mimbres transect do have the majority of sites of size class 3 and all of those of size class 4. The more notable trend in most of those areas is a tendency for hierar chical orderings of the class frequencies with several sites of class 2 and fewer of classes 3 and 4. The exception in this transect is cluster Nl. This is particularly interesting since the limited alluvial areas in this cluster are all above 2100 meters. It was previously suggested in Chapter V that the frost-free season near this elevation may be as short as 100 to 110 days, and the predictability of early M CLASS I CLASS 2 CLASS 3 CLASS 4 CLUSTERS CLUSTERS 192 Figure 13. Site size classes per cluster. 193 season frosts would be decreased from that of lower elevations. From the results of preceding analyses, it would appear that agriculture was probably a part of the subsistence base in this area, but in light of the above comments, I would infer that it was a more precarious or hazardous mode of subsistence than in some lower areas further south. If this were the case, the differences in the relative frequencies of the site size classes might be considered in terms of differing cultural- organizational strategies. I hesitate to do this at this time because I have no information on the relative contemporaneity of sites by size class by cluster, nor any data concerning the distribution of sites above cluster Nl. It may be that there are a dozen more small sites further up the river that would have joined cluster Nl and provided a similar over all hierarchy of site sizes as that seen further south. Even if this were the case, it may still be that some or most of the smaller sites were earlier in time than the larger ones. The other obvious pattern in Figure 13 is the relatively high frequency of size class 2 sites and low frequency of other classes across the East and West Fork clusters. This broad pattern appears to correspond with areas somewhat less suitable for subsistence agriculture than most other cluster areas. The minor deviations from the pattern of unitary size classes in clusters El, W1 and W2 are of interest. Field observation indicates that areas in clusters El and W2 containing sites of size class 3 are in the immediate vicinity of the few areas across these six clusters with substantial surface soil moisture. This factor may again be the most crucial environmental one for understanding site size distributions. 194 Other environmental factors in those vicinities do not appear so favor able. The alluvial areas in the vicinity of the East Fork class 3 sites are of limited area and quality, containing relatively high proportions of boulders, cobbles and gravels to fine-grained sediments. The soils in the vicinity of the West Fork class 3 sites appear to have developed from weathered conglomerate under a ponderosa pine forest cover and are of questionable productivity for crop agriculture. The four sites of size class 1 are all located in the West Fork area. These pueblos are so small, ranging from six to 14 square meters, that it does not seem reasonable to consider them as permanent habita tion sites. They may represent seasonal places of habitation as previ ously suggested, but their limited numbers do not permit much discus sion of probable activity differences in view of each other or in relation to other sites of size class 2. One of the sites is located on a small isolated mesa segment, while the other three are near, the mouths of tributaries to the West Fork. All are within a few to a few hundred meters distance from other sites of size class 2 in the same environmental settings. My general assessment of the major reason for the broad trends in settlement size distribution is not, too surprisingly, similar to that of preceding sections. The total frequency of sites, the sum of their sizes, and their locational distributions are, overall, most comprehen sible when viewed with respect to the critical resources affecting crop agriculture. In general, available soil moisture appears to have been 195 the most critical resource that permitted or perhaps dictated where the majority of subsistence effort and habitation was located in view of a cultural focus upon agriculture. CHAPTER VIII COMPARISONS AND CONCLUSIONS The initial sections of this chapter provide a brief comparison and contrast between major trends in prehistoric settlement in the northern Mimbres Valley with one other area of Mogollon development where major synthetic treatments of broadly similar problems have been presented by P. S. Martin et al. (1956) and E. Bluhm (1960). This is the Pine Lawn-Reserve area in the northwestern Mimbres Region (Wheat 1955:3) which is more comparable to the current study area in terms of both the natural and cultural environment than any Mogollon area yet studied in detail. The final sections of this study provide summary statements and conclusions about the results of the project to date, offer some alterna tive interpretations of settlement phenomena, and suggest new and con tinued directions for research. Comparison The notable trends and major differences between Periods A and B settlement patterns that can be briefly considered in light of similar changes in the Pine Lawn Valley are changes in the kinds of locations most commonly selected for habitation sites, and major cultural changes in the nature and size of settlement units. Inferences and data regard ing corresponding changes in population and subsistence are also 196 197 considered. It is not possible to provide exacting comparisons or to make tests concerning the significance of similarities or differences in cultural development between the two areas because the goals and pro cedures of data collection were not identical, and the full range of survey information from the Pine Lawn area has not been published. It is, however, useful to begin to develop some notions of major similar ities and differences or major gaps in knowledge about the two areas in order that future research and data collection in either area might be oriented toward increasing comparability. Environmental Similarities The natural environment of the Pine Lawn area has been described by Martin et al. (1949:34-43). The climate of this area is most compar able to the southern reaches of the survey area, with annual precipita tion of about 16 inches per year and a frost free season near 120 days. The valley ranges from about 1830 to 2130 meters in elevation and is basin-like in that it is 5 to 6 kilometers wide and- about 16 kilometers in length. The area is drained by intermittent streams. Volcanic and conglomerate formations provide the basis for most soils. The predominant arboreal vegetation groups of the area range from ponderosa forest to pinon-jmiper woodland, suggesting the area is either in or near the lower reaches of the Transition zone. Settlement Locations One of the major similarities in cultural phenomena in the Pine Lawn and Mimbres valleys that is of interest here concerns the kinds of 198 locations of pit-house villages. The locations of the northern Miiribres Valley Period A sites in relatively high positions on mesas or hilltops is similar to pit-house village locations in most Mogolion areas prior to about A.D. 1000 (Wheat 1955, Danson 1957). However, to my knowledge, few satisfactory explanations for this broad cultural pattern have been offered. In the Pine Lawn area Martin and Rinaldo (1947:288) suggest that factors of defense, drainage, or the desire for a view may have been important but provide no convincing supportive data or tests of those hypotheses. Bluhm's later summary of data from that area (1960:541) also considers these kinds of locations "defensible" but does not pursue the problem. Bluhm does indicate that by Three Circle Phase times, near A.D. 900, site locations varied from high mesas or ridges to lower positions in the valley "... with more concern for arable land and access to water than defense" (1960:540). The more exact nature of the "lower" positions in the valley is not specified, nor whether they are on formations immediately adjacent to water and arable land. The loca tions of sites with respect to other resources is not discussed. There fore, the defensible nature of "higher" site locations, the nondefensible nature of "lower" site locations, and the relative value of all site locations for subsistence purposes remains in question for this area as well as for the Period A sites in the northern Mini)res Valley. The development of masonry pueblo architecture near A.D. 1000 in the Pine Lawn, and several other Mo golion areas as well, is similar to what is suspected for the ML mbres Valley. Following periods of plaster or 199 masonry lined pit structures, most areas evidence small "unplanned" or "irregular" pueblo or pueblo-in-pit structures, some with associated depressions or "kivas" (Bretemitz 1959, Bluhm 1960, Martin et al. 1964). The site locations in the Pine Lawn area were again not placed "... with regard to defense, but rather they were along the valleys and the edges of the mesas bordering the canyons, and a few were further up the valley slopes" (Bluhm 1960:541). In the northern Mimbres Valley the sites with questionable pueblo architecture and the pueblos adjacent to depressions may fall in this general time period, but, as previously discussed, there are no con vincing interpretations presently available concerning their functional and chronological "positions. Further refinement of chronological vari ability and excavation are necessary to determine if kivas and domestic structures of several time periods are present at those sites. Their locations are broadly similar to those of earlier periods in that they are limited to one sector of the survey area, and some are located on the edges of mesas as well as near water and tillable land. From about A.D. 1000 to A.D. 1250 or 1300 there appear to be increases in the size and regularity or planning of pueblo structure in the greater Upper Gila drainage as a whole, although there also appear to be fewer sites and a possible agglomeration of population into the larger ones. The locations of these sites again vary from "defensible" or "fortress" positions on mesas to lower positions near water and arable land (Wendorf 1956, Martin et al. 1957, Bluhm 1960). 200 In the Mini)res survey area there are relatively large and regular pueblo structures sometime during Period B, but all are located on low benches, points, or slopes near alluvium and water. Subsistence and Population One relatively consistent change that is noted in most areas of Mogollon and Late Mogolion or Western Pueblo development is a trend toward increasing reliance upon agriculture from as early as A.D. 500 through about A.D. 1300. This is generally inferred from the relative amounts and kinds of stone tools associated with cultivated versus collected or hunted foods or, as in the Pine Lawn-Reserve area, from direct evidence of the proportions and kinds of plant foods found in stratigraphic contexts over the several time periods (Martin et al. 1952, 1956). It was noted above that shifts in some site locations were also viewed as a reflection of increasing dependence upon agriculture, especially with the development of pueblo architecture. Bluhm's figures for the number of rooms or dwelling units per century by phase are of interest here (1960:542): Tularosa Phase, A.D. 1100-1250 6 Reserve Phase, A.D. 1000-1100 136 San Francisco and Three Circle Phases, A.D. 700-1000 50 Georgetown Phase, A.D. 500-700 17 Pine Lawn Phase, 200 B.C. - A.D. 500 17 201 The northern Miiribres Valley survey data were not recorded by rooms or units per century, but the relative increases in sites with architecture through some of the same time ranges are provided for contrast: Period B, A.D. 1000-1200 134 Period A, A.D. 500-1000 10 Before considering the increases in population that are suggested in the figures above, it is necessary to diverge for a moment and con sider the explanation that is offered for a lack of population increase in the early phases. This is considered necessary because Bluhm has presented the only major summary of population trends for any area within the Mimbres Region and has raised what I would consider question able issues. While I cannot argue the points in question with current data from this study, it is best to clarify some of these before they become entrenched in the literature as "facts" or standards by which other regional developments are measured. In attempting to explain some of the early trends in population Bluhm (1960:543) follows a previous suggestion by Cutler (Martin et al. 1952:469) that a minor shift toward an increasing proportion of wild plant foods seen in Georgetown Phase times at Tularosa Cave indicated climatic change that was temporarily disadvantageous for crop growth. This is inferred to account for the lack of population increase through the Georgetown Phase. She indicates that several short periods of "low" rainfall during the A.D. 500 to A.D. 700 time period that are inferred from E. Schulman*s (1954) tree-ring indices for this broad region provide 202 further substantiation for the notion that crop growth was limited, and, therefore, population did not increase. This complex series of causal relations is of questionable explanatory power. The sample of plant materials from Tularosa Cave is only a sample from a context that is apparently not the more common mode of habitation that is associated with agricultural pursuits, and would not necessarily be expected to con tain a representative sample of economic plant foods for most persons per phase. Reference to the ceramic counts per level in the cave and to discussion of the stratigraphy indicates there is also some leeway for assigning various levels to specific phases (Martin et al. 1952:51-57). W. R. Bullard (1962) has offered cogent criticism and lengthy discussion of these problems which will not be repeated here. Even if the samples from levels five through eight in Tularosa Cave are accepted as moderately accurate reflections of the percentages of various foods in some or most Georgetown Phase Mogollon diets, the implication that short periods when tree-ring indices were below normal were "bad" times for crop growth was not defensible when Bluhm wrote her summary (1960), nor can that statement yet be made in any meaningful sense. Recent studies have only begun to explore the complexities of both tree growth and crop growth in relation to annual and seasonal climate (Kemrer, Robinson, and Dean 1971; Burns and Robinson 1972). The more precise time period of the initiation of major popula tion increase in the Pine Lawn Valley is difficult to ascertain because the survey data there, as in the northern Miiribres Valley, did not provide simple distinctions between occupations of the San Francisco and Three 203 Circle Phases. This is unfortunate because it is the approximate time period (A.D. 700 - A.D. 1000) when several new races or species of maize, beans, and squash appear to have become available in the greater American Southwest, and immediately precedes the rapid increase in Reserve Phase populations. Bluhm only notes that a new type of corn was introduced into the area during the A.D. 700 - A.D. 1000 period and then suggests the admittedly conjectural hypothesis that some Reserve Phase population increase may have been due to the immigration of people from the north (1960:543). This is a difficult hypothesis to test, especially to pro vide information about the particular people or groups that were migrat ing, exactly why they migrated, the routes they travelled, and why they chose the Mogollon areas to settle in. While reserving judgment about this kind of explanation for population increases in the Mimbres region, one other line of evidence can be pursued. This concerns the broad correspondence of major population increases with the apparent intro duction of new cultigens into the Southwest. There may be no causal relation between these events, but they should not be overlooked as sources of hypotheses for discussion and testing. The cultigens that appear to be additions to the greater south western agricultural complex from about A.D. 700 to A.D. 1100 were previously noted in Chapter VII and include Cucurbita mixta, Cucurbita moschata, Phaseolus lunatus, Phaseolus acutifolius, and eight-rowed strains of Zea mays, either directly descended from or hybridized with "Harinoso de Ocho.11 Some southwestern variants of this are frequently referred to as Pima-Papago and Pueblo races of c o m (Anderson and 204 Cutler 1942, Galinat 1965). One other cultigen, Phaseolus coccineus, deserves mention, but the archaeological record of this species in the Southwest is not well known. Kaplan suggests that although this species is now cultivated in uplands from the Hopi area to Columbia, the major niches for it may have been previously occupies by Phaseolus vulgaris when Phaseolus coccineus became available, perhaps as early as 2000 years ago (1965) . While the precise benefits of the introduction of most of the newer species of beans and squash are not clear in such terms as amount of yield per species, it can be inferred that the diversity of niches represented by the adaptations of the several plants (Cutler and Whitaker 1961, Kaplan 1965) may have provided indigenous southwestern groups greater latitude in the choice of both crops and areas where agriculture might be practiced. There are more specific suggestions about the benefits of the newer "Tripsacum contaminated-Harinoso de Ocho" seen about A.D. 750 in Chihuahua in that it was more adaptable to higher altitudes and more northerly latitudes than the local Chapalote and that it hybridized with indigenous races of maize resulting in more abundant yields that were more easily milled (Galinat and Gunnerson 1963). The same authors also suggest that these factors at least partially explain an expansion of Southwestern Pueblo farming techniques from about A.D. 950 to A.D. 1100 into areas such as the northern 85% of Utah and that this strain of maize permitted agricultural exploitation of the Transition and Upper Austral Life Zones northeastward into New England (Galinat and Gunnerson 1963). 205 Given these considerations it becomes of interest whether the prehistoric cultural developments in the Pine Lawn and Mi mbres Valleys can be profitably viewed in similar ways. In the Pine Lawn-Reserve area there is an increasing predominance of eight-rowed maize above level five in Tularosa Cave, or, from some tine after Georgetown Phase to about A.D. 1200 (Martin et al. 1952:467). Cucurbita mixta, Phaseo- lus acutifolius, Phaseolus lunatus, and possibly a scarlet runner bean (Phaseolus multiflorus) that is similar to Phaseolus coccineus were also present in this area at least by about A.D. 1200 (Martin et al. 1956). While there is evidence for population increases from about A.D. 700 to A.D. 1100, it is unfortunate that there is no indication in the several publications from this area whether this was accompanied by an expan sion of the range of settlement into the medial to upper reaches of the Transition zone. In the Mimbres survey area it does appear that there was not only population increase about or just following A.D. 1000, but there was also an increase in the range of settlement. There are relatively large pueblos in Period B, but whether they are the final development in an unilinear trend or whether they were coextant with other smaller settlements is unclear. The final date of the later Mimbres settlements is also unclear. Therefore, it is somewhat difficult to compare the rate of population change or settlement size change with that given for other areas. It should be noted that the apparent population increase may not have been a drastic or rapid one given the possibility that about 200 years of settlement are present. In any case the geographical 206 range of settlement appears to have increased about 15 kilometers laterally and nearly 300 meters in elevation. The unfortunate problem which limits further discussion is the lack of direct evidence for changes in, or additions to, the suite of cult!gens. It is not unlikely that similar species or races as those seen in the Pine Lawn-Reserve area were introduced at various times, but this remains hypothetical, a problem for future excavation and analysis. Conclusions The notable trends and major differences between Period A and Period B settlement are changes in the landforms most commonly selected for habitation sites, changes in architectural form, and increases in the range of settlement through the survey area. The predominant sub sistence patterns and the rationale for locating sites on the higher landforms during Period A remains unclear, but the geographic range of those settlements may have been restricted by the cultigens that were in use if agriculture is assumed to have been practiced. There does appear to have been some population increase during Period B that broadly corresponded with the development of pueblo architecture, but whether this was due to immigration from Anasazi areas, other ML mbres areas, or represents purely local developments is not known. This population increase does correspond with a major increase in the range of areas that were settled, and with the general time period in the American Southwest when new cultigens were appearing that may have permitted new agricultural adaptations in the medial to 207 upper Transition Zone. A model was presented that related the amount of Period B settlement area to several environmental factors through most of the range of the Transition Zone and Transition-Upper Sonoran ecotone. Throughout that transect, settlement location and size appear to have been closely related to, and limited by, several natural environ mental factors that are limiting to subsistence based upon crop agricul ture. The most limiting environmental factor appears to have been available soil moisture. Alternatives The locations of most Period A sites may have been selected for defensive purposes, but several questions were raised above which placed that interpretation in a questionable light. Other considerations of the rationale for selection of those locations are equally speculative at this time. For example, it can be suggested that this was a loca tional strategy to remove population from the immediate vicinity of crops and the streamside habitat that economically important fauna may. have been attracted to at various times. There do not, however, appear to be any straightforward ways in which this hypothesis could be tested. The greatest density of settlement during Period A and Period B appears to have been near the southern reaches of the survey area which is nearest the boundary between the Transition and Upper Sonoran Zones. This could superficially be interpreted as a reflection of the "edge effect" (Odum 1971) with settlement flourishing at those points in space where the greatest access to the greatest diversity in natural 208 plant and animal resources was available. The density and variability in sites of both periods is not, however, known in the several kilo meters south of the survey area in the upper reaches of the Upper Sonoran Zone. In addition to that problem the relative reliance of Period A groups upon collected, hunted, or agriculturally produced foods is unclear. New Research Problems This study has suggested such a variety of problem areas that not all of them can be considered at this time. The major problems in developing conclusive arguments about cultural-environmental interaction stem from lack of knowledge about the paleo-environment and insufficient chronological and culture-historical control. The latter problems also prohibited useful consideration of socio-cultural systems, their inter action, and change. Preliminary solution to the several problems raised here and the refinement of cultural-environmental interaction would require excavation of different kinds of sites in different sectors of the survey area. From a practical viewpoint it is suggested that any further research should first be concentrated on the developments during Period B. Settlements of that time period are being destroyed at what may be an unparalleled rate in the American Southwest. Approximately 4000 square meters, or, about one fourth of the total measured settlement area in the survey area, has been vandalized in the past five years. Recent visits to the area indicate that this destruction is continuing. There 209 are only a few pueblos of size class 4 that remain for investigation, and many smaller sites are now being looted. I will venture the predic tion that at the present rate over 90% of the Period B settlement area will be destroyed within 10 years or less. It is suggested that one useful project to be undertaken would involve the excavation of one Period B site of each size class in different clusters near the extreme ends of the transect along the North Fork and upper Mimbres River. With appropriate field efforts and current analytical techniques this should provide the kinds of biological and cultural data that could be utilized for developing more complete models of the nature of cultural adaptations to the total environment. Preliminary studies of m o d e m dendrochronological samples taken from Pinus edulis and Pinus ponderosa in these areas during the survey indicate that tree-ring dating will be of utility in developing necessary chronological controls if sufficient samples are recovered in archaeological contexts. If it can be demonstrated that sites with different pueblo sizes or types are contemporaneous, it would then be of interest to attempt to determine whether the spatial clusters of these represent anything akin to community forms of social organization, or whether relative site sizes and placements are reflections of both functional and organizational patterns during Period B. The variability in Mimbres B/W ceramic designs might be useful for testing hypotheses about inter- or intra-site organizational structures, or even intercluster levels of organization. 210 Analyses of food remains, of storage facilities and of food processing tools at the several sites should permit some insight into possible variations in subsistence activities per site or per cluster area. In terms of architectural indications of organizational variability it might be expected that larger sites would contain more evidence of ceremonial activity such as "kiva-rooms" if site size is a reflection of the importance or central nature of places in hierarchical organiza tions. The tasks outlined above, clearly long-term and broad in scope, are necessary for investigating cultural adaptation and change over time and space. The promise of the results of the present study can only be realized through the further pursuit of these problems. APPENDIX I SITE UNIT AND ENVIRONMENTAL DATA The following pages list various environmental and cultural data in coded form that were observed at sites or sub-units of sites during the survey. The next few pages describe the codes used for this data. Information for each unit or site are in single horizontal rows, and the code name for each category is listed at the top and bottom of each column for reference. Most categories were fully described in various sections of the text. Column A: This is the site number. The missing numbers in some of the numbering sequence belong to sites outside the survey area not included in this study. Column B: This is the unit or areal subdivision of the site that the remaining observations refer to. Symbols: NO - North SO - South EA - East WE - West H - Half SL — Slope 211 212 NOEAH and NOWEH - North unit, east and west halves Blank - Entire site Column C : This is the collection number for ceramics taken from the unit. The x designation preceding each number is for general recognition purposes and for use in combining this data with another set of survey results. The letters succeeding each number refer to the general kind of collection made. R - Randomized B - From back dirt or disturbed context S - Selected sherds were collected for particular purposes Column D : This designates the type of site unit present. 0 - No architecture, sherds only 1 - Circular depression 2 - Rectangular depression 3 — Cobble outlines - suspected pueblo 4 - Rock shelter 5 - Categories 1 and 2 above 6 - Categories 1 and 3 above 7 - Categories 2 and 3 above 213 Column E :. The numbers in this column refer to the area in square meters of pueblo-like structures. Column F: The numbers in this column refer to the type of stone materials present at units that appeared to be used in construction. Blank - None present 1 - Igneous cobbles 2 - Conglomerate cobbles 3 - Conglomerate slabs 4 - Categories 1 and 2 above 5 - Categories 1 and 3 above 6 - Categories 2 and 3 above 7 - Categories 1 and 2 and 3 above Column G : The numbers in this column refer to the extent of vandalism that appears to have occurred on architectural units. 0 - None apparent 1 - 1% - 25% 2 - 26% - 50% 3 - 51% - 75% 4 - 76% - 100% Column H : The numbers in this column refer to the topographic form upon which a site is located. 1 - Bench 2 - Ridge spur 3 - Mesa 4 - Isolated hill or knoll 5 - Slopes on mesa or hillsides 6 - Low ridges, points in lightly dissected areas 7 - Flood plains 8 - Rock shelters Column I: The numbers in this column refer to the vegetation zone immediately surrounding each site. 1 - Ponderosa pine forest 2 - Mixed forest A 3 - Mixed forest B 4 - Mixed forest C 5 - Mesa woodland A 6 - Mesa woodland B 7 - Scrub cover 8 - Grassland 215 Column J : The numbers in this column refer to the vegetation group in the bottom area of the North Fork, East Fork, and Upper Mimbres for sites in those areas while it refers to the vegetation in the channel bottom nearest each site in the West Fork drainage. 1 - Group A 2 - Group B 3 - Group C 4 - Group D Column K: The numbers in this column refer to the nature of the alluvium - colluvium in channels near sites by drainage in the same manner described above for vegetation under Column J. 1 - Soil I 2 - Soil II 3 - Soil III 4 - Soil IV Column L: The numbers in this column refer to the actual drainage rank of the North Fork, East Fork, or Upper Mimbres nearest each site on those drainages, while in the West Fork area the number refers to the rank of the drainage nearest each site. 216 Column M: The numbers in this column are the actual shortest horizontal distance in meters from a site to the edge of the flood plain of the channel noted in the previous category. This measurement treats the site and the channel as if they were end points of one horizontal line in each case. Column N : The numbers in this column are the actual shortest vertical distance in meters from a site to the edge of the channel noted in Category L and M above. This measurement treats the site and channel as if they were end points of one vertical line in each case. Column 0 : The numbers in this column refer to the actual drainage rank of the tributary to the North Fork or Upper Mimbres that is nearest each site. This was not coded for the East and West Fork areas. Column P : The numbers in this column are codes for the horizontal distance from each site to the mouth of the tributary channel of Column 0. Each value must be multiplied by 24 meters to obtain the linear - horizontal distance in meters. 217 Column Q : The numbers in this column refer to the actual drainage rank of the tributary to the North Fork or Upper Mimbres that is the second nearest tributary of that nature relative to each site location. This data was not coded for the East and West Fork areas. Column R : The numbers in this column are codes for the horizontal distance from each site to the mouth of the tributary channel of Column Q. Each value must be multiplied by 24 meters to obtain the linear - horizontal distance in meters. SITES WITH PERIOD A OCCUPATIONS SITES WITH PROBABLE GEORGETOWN PHASE OCCUPATIONS A B CD E F G HI J K L M N O P Q R 9 X 5 1 2 R 0 0 3 6 1 1 4 20 0 30 36 X4 2 3 R 0 0 3 4 1 1 4 50 20 43 X073R 0 0 2 4 1 2 4 15 15 62 X 5 8 6 R 1 0 3 6 1 1 4 40 22 62 X7 3 6 R 1 0 2 6 1 1 4 40 22 64 X273R 0 0 2 4 1 1 4 200 45 113 X 7 9 9 R 1 0 3 5 2 2 2 150 15 128 X 8 1 6 R 1 0 3 5 1 1 3 120 20 129 X 8 1 7 R 1 0 3 5 1 2 1 192 25 130 X 8 1 8 R 1 0 3 5 2 2 2 80 15 152 X848R 1 0 3 7 1 1 5 480 150 SITES WI T H 1PROBABLE THREE: CIRCLE PHASE OCCUPATIONS 30 X436R 0 0 5 5 1 1 4 2 6 35 X 7 0 4 R 3 1 0 2 4 1 1 4 170 35 35 X8 1 9 R 2 1 0 2 4 1 1 4 170 35 65 X262R 1 0 3 3 1 1 4 360 50 66 X2 7 4 R 0 0 5 8 1 1 4 50 5 67 X275R 0 0 2 8 1 1 4 50 5 68 X276R 0 0 2 4 1 1 4 320 55 79 X 4 3 4 R 1 0 2 6 2 2 2 125 25 79 NOH X8 0 7 R 1 0 2 6 2 2 2 125 25 79 SOH X 8U 8R 0 0 2 6 2 2 2 125 25 127 X815R 1 0 3 4 2 2 2 120 30 162 X863R 3 53 1 0 2 3 3 4 2 100 20 SITES WITH PERIOD B OCCUPATIONS SITES WITH PROBABLE PUEBLO ARCHITECTURE 1 X913R 3 30 1 0 13115 10 12 2 12 1 19 2 X 7 4 8 R 3 213 1 2 17 115 50 7 2 2 1 19 3 X6 1 0 R 3 1525 1 4 13115 50 82 2 1 16 3 SW X749R 3 426 1 4 13115 50 82 2 1 16 3 SE X 7 5 0 R 3 343 1 4 13115 50 82 2 1 16 3 NW X 7 5 1 R 3 445 1 4 13115 50 8 2 2 1 16 3 NE X752R 3 311 1 3 13 115 50 8 2 2 1 16 4 X 5 8 9 R 3 33 1 0 13 115 5 20 1 5 2 17 5 X571R 3 38 J 1 3 13 115 50 8 1 11 2 20 6 X725R 3 128 1 4 13114 20 6 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R 219 A B C 0 E F G H I J K LM N 0 P Q R 7 X 7 3 0 R 3 250 1 4 5 1 1 1 4 100 10 7 X747B 3 250 1 4 5 1 1 1 4 100 10 11 X7 2 7 R 3 249 1 3 1 6 1 1 4 5 10 12 X7 2 8 R 3 67 1 0 1 3 3 1 4 2 5 13 X7 2 9 R 3 26 1 0 1 3 1 1 4 2 10 14 X714B 3 55 1 4 1 3 1 2 4 2 10 15 X731R 3 86 1 3 1 4 3 2 4 5 8 15 X796B 3 86 1 3 1 4 3 2 4 5 8 16 EA X7 3 2 R 3 193 1 4 1 2 3 2 4 5 6 16 ME X 7 3 3 R 3 150 1 4 1 2 3 2 4 5 6 16 EA X771B 3 193 1 4 1 2 3 2 4 5 6 16 WE X772B 3 150 1 4 1 2 3 2 4 5 6 17 X 7 3 4 R 3 55 1 0 1 2 4 3 4 3 5 18 X735R 3 57 1 0 1 2 4 3 4 20 6 19 X439R 3 90 1 4 1 3 1 1 4 3 6 5 15 2 18 20 X700R 3 50 1 2 5 4 1 1 4 250 35 1 18 1 18 21 X 7 0 2 R 3 95 1 3 1 3 1 1 4 15 3 1 9 1 17 22 X426R 3 114 1 1 2 4 1 1 4 20 25 1 9 1 14 26 X820R 3 90 1 0 1 3 1 1 4 15 10 1 4 1 11 28 X754R 3 80 1 0 1 3 1 1 4 15 ID 1 9 1 12 29 X8 2 1 R 3 60 1 0 1 3 1 1 4 5 3 1 15 1 16 31 X5 4 4 R 3 150 1 2 2 4 1 1 4 10 0 23 1 14 1 17 32 X 4 3 3 R 3 71 1 1 2 4 1 1 4 30 15 1 12 1 15 32 X913S 3 71 1 1 2 4 1 1 4 30 15 1 12 1 15 33 X568R 3 49 1 2 2 4 1 1 4 10 u 20 1 13 1 13 37 X425R 3 128 6 3 3 3 1 1 4 50 20 1 5 1 11 37 X701S 3 128 6 3 3 3 1 1 4 50 20 1 5 1 11 38 X520R. 3 416 1 4 1 5 1 1 4 3 5 2 6 2 10 39 X7 0 5 R 3 54 1 4 2 3 1 2 4 10 10 1 5 1 19 41 SW X7 0 6 R 3 72 1 3 1 4 1 2 4 10 8 1 3 2 15 41 NE X7 0 7 R 3 589 1 4 1 4 1 2 4 10 8 1 3 2 15 45 X7 0 8 R 3 64 1 4 1 3 1 2 4 25 10 2 13 3 21 46 X70 9R 3 164 1 2 1 1 1 2 4 15 4 2 2 2 12 47 X 7 1 0 R 3 294 1 2 1 3 1 2 4 25 15 1 4 2 12 48 X7 1 1 R 3 64 1 1 1 3 1 2 4 20 15 1 10 2 19 49 X 7 1 2 R 3 43 1 0 1 3 1 2 4 80 18 1 17 2 27 50 X713R 3 246 1 1 1 3 3 2 4 5 3 1 7 2 27 52 NOE AH X 7 1 5 R 3 651 1 4 5 2 3 2 4 30 20 2 6 1 7 52 NOWEH X 7 1 6 R 3 651 1 4 5 2 3 2 4 30 20 2 6 1 7 52 SO X717R 3 144 1 1 5 2 3 2 4 30 20 2 6 1 7 52 SO X719B 3 144 1 1 5 2 3 2 4 30 20 2 6 1 7 53 X 7 5 3 R 3 155 1 0 1 2 3 2 4 2 2 1 1 2 2 54 X718R 3 82 1 0 5 3 3 2 4 150 12 2 13 1 13 55 X 7 2 0 R 3 161 1 2 1 1 3 2 4 5 8 1 10 1 13 56 X 7 2 1 R 3 148 1 3 1 1 3 2 4 5 5 1 10 1 13 58 X 7 4 0 R 3 41 1 1 1 4 3 2 4 15 6 1 4 1 19 60 X723R 3 268 1 0 1 2 3 2 4 20 7 1 15 2 43 61 X 7 2 4 R 3 592 1 1 1 2 3 2 4 5 10 1 19 2 39 A B C 0 E F G H I J -K- 1 M N 0 P Q R 220 A B C 0 EFG H I JK LM N 63 X 7 3 7 R 3 103 1 1 1 3 1 1 4 5 5 69 X 7 3 8 R 3 155 1 3 3 6 1 1 4 250 55 71 X064R 3 30 0 1 4 2 1 2 4 1 ICO 10 71 X 7 8 6 R 1 300 0 2 1 2 4 1 100 10 71 X789S 3 300 1 4 2 1 2 4 1 10 0 10 73 X 7 3 9 R 3 6 1 0 6 8 1 1 1 5 2 75 X072R 3 24 1 1 6 8 1 1 3 130 10 75 X435R 3 24 1 1 6 8 1 1 3 100 10 76 X 0 9 7 R 0 18 1 0 2 5 1 1 3 40 18 77 X742R 3 33 1 2 6 1 2 4 2 10 3 80 X7 4 4 R 3 35 1 0 6 3 3 4 2 30 2 80 NO 3 12 1 0 6 3 3 4 2 30 2 80 EA 3 8 1 0 6 3 3 4 2 30 2 80 SO 3 15 1 0 6 3 3 4 2 30 2 81 X 7 4 5 R 3 84 3 0 3 3 2 4 1 264 15 83 X757R 3 65 1 1 2 3 1 1 4 200 30 84 X 7 5 8 R 3 20 1 0 1 1 1 1 4 40 25 85 X 7 5 9 R 3 29 1 0 1 1 1 1 4 40 25 86 X 7 6 0 R 3 24 1 0 1 3 3 1 4 30 20 87 X761R 3 49 1 1 1 3 3 1 4 150 50 86 X 7 6 2 R 3 46 1 0 5 4 1 1 4 215 30 89 X767R 3 20 1 4 1 3 1 1 4 20 10 92 X766R 3 52 1 0 1 4 3 2 4 10 30 93 X763R 3 42 1 3 1 4 4 3 4 20 15 94 X 7 6 8 R 3 119 1 4 1 4 4 3 4 100 30 94 X769B 3 119 1 4 1 4 4 3 4 100 30 95 X770R 3 52 1 0 2 4 4 3 4 150 30 96 X773R 3 33 1 2 1 4 4 3 4 80 15 97 X 7 7 4 R 3 76 1 0 5 4 4 3 4 250 30 97 X 7 7 5 R 0 76 0 5 4 4 3 4 250 30 98 X776R 3 39 1 0 i 4 4 3 4 20 5 99 X 7 7 7 R 3 62 1 0 5 4 4 3 4 20 0 30 100 X 7 7 8 R 3 45 1 0 5 4 4 3 4 40 40 101 X779R 3 74 1 2 1 4 4 3 4 60' 20 101 X 7 8 0 B 3 74 1 2 1 4 4 3 4 60 20 102 X7 8 1 R 3 123 1 2 1 4 4 3 4 20 15 102 X782B 3 123 1 2 1 4 4 3 4 20 15 103 X 7 8 3 R 3 51 1 0 1 3 3 2 4 5 10 104 X 7 8 4 R 3 81 1 0 1 4 3 2 4 50 30 105 X7 8 5 R 3 25 1 0 2 1 2 4 1 75 5 106 X 7 8 7 R 3 170 1 1 2 1 2 4 1 200 25 106 X788B 3 17 0 1 1 2 1 2 4 1 200 25 107 X790R 3 21 1 0 2 1 3 4 1 120 15 108 X 7 9 1 R 3 18 1 0 2 1 3 4 1 25 5 109 X 7 9 2 R 7 238 1 2 2 2 2 4 1 20 7 109 X793B 7 238 1 2 2 2 2 4 1 20 7 110 X 7 9 5 R 6 52 1 0 2 2 2 4 1 30 7 110 NOSL X794R 1 0 2 2 2 4 1 30 7 A B C 0 EF G H IJKLM N 221 A c 0 EF GHI J K LM N 0 P Q R 111 X797R 3 14 1 0 3 5 1 1 3 175 35 112 X 7 9 8 R 3 27 1 1 3 5 2 2 2 200 30 114 X8 0 0 R 3 108 1 1 2 4 2 2 2 50 7 115 X801R 3 20 1 1 5 5 1 1 3 480 30 116 X 8 0 2 R 3 11 1 1 2 5 2 2 2 25 2 117 X8 0 3 R 3 40 1 0 2 5 2 2 2 90 8 118 X804R 3 18 1 3 2 5 2 2 2 50 2 119 X 8 0 5 R 3 139 1 4 1 5 2 2 2 25 2 120 X8 0 6 R 3 31 1 0 2 5 2 2 2 90 3 121 X809R 3 10 1 0 2 5 2 2 2 25 4 122 X 8 1 0 R 3 23 1 0 2 3 3 4 2 50 10 123 X811R 6 45 1 0 2 4 2 4 1 255 20 126 X814R 3 23 1 C 4 8 1 1 3 120 7 131 X 8 2 2 R 3 31 1 0 2 5 2 2 4 120 20 1 8 2 30 132 X823R 3 96 1 4 1 3 3 3 4 15 15 1 6 1 27 132 X824B 3 96 1 4 1 3 3 3 4 15 15 1 6 1 27 133 X825R 3 193 1 4 1 3 3 3 4 15 15 1 7 1 28 133 X8268 3 193 1 4 1 3 3 3 4 15 15 1 7 1 28 134 X 8 2 7 R 3 1015 1 4 2 2 3 2 4 15 20 1 5 2 7 134 X828B 3 1 4 2 3 3 15 20 1 5 2 7 134 X829B 3 1 4 2 2 3 3 4 15 20 1 5 2 7 135 X 830 R 3 95 1 0 1 2 4 3 4 15 15 1 9 1 23 137 X831R 3 33 1 0 1 3 4 3 4 25 10 1 22 1 36 138 X 8 3 2 R 3 128 1 0 1 3 4 3 4 75 10 2 33 1 34 139 X833R 3 65 1 0 5 3 4 3 4 100 25 2 27 1 37 140 X 8 3 4 R 3 27 1 0 3 5 2 2 1 120 35 141 X835R 3 28 1 0 2 3 2 2 1 150 25 142 X836R 7 75 1 1 2 5 2 2 1 95 30 143 X837R 3 30 2 0 2 5 2 2 2 312 40 144 X838R 3 63 1 0 1 4 1 1 5 200 25 1 1 1 15 145 X839R 3 35 1 0 5 4 1 1 5 350 30 1 1 1 17 146 X840R 3 33 1 1 4 3 2 2 2 5 2 147 X841R 3 24 1 0 4 3 2 2 2 5 2 150 X846R 3 49 1 0 3 6 3 2 4 600- 137 151 X847R 3 62 1 0 3 6 3 2 4 960 90 153 X849R 3 44 1 0 3 6 3 2 4 650 165 154 X8 5 U R 3 247 1 3 5 2 4 3 3 50 20 155 X 8 5 1 R 3 50 2 0 6 4 2 4 1 75 5 156 X852R 3 18 2 0 6 4 2 4 1 75 5 157 X853R 3 77 2 0 6 3 3 4 1 75 5 158 X854R 3 110 4 0 4 3 3 4 2 145 18 159 X 86CR 3 36 2 0 6 5 2 2 2 216 30 160 X861R 3 62 2 u 6 3 2 4 1 10 0 5 180 X881R 3 40 1 0 1 2 A 3 4 30 15 2 5 1 19 181 X8 8 2 R 3 216 1 0 1 2 4 3 4 10 15 2 14 3 18 182 X 8 8 3 R 3 20 1 0 1 4 4 3 4 15 15 3 15 2 39 183 X 8 8 4 R 3 300 1 0 1 2 4 3 4 80 15 3 5 2 35 184 X 885 R 3 195 1 0 1 2 4 3 4 15 10 2 4 1 16 A C 0 EF G H I JK L M N 0 P Q R 222 A B C 0 E F G H I J K L M NOP Q R 185 X 886R 3 210 11 1 2 4 3 4 30 10 2 5 1 12 186 X887R 3 194 1 0 1 4 4 3 4 40 20 1 3 1 14 SITES WITH QUESTIONABLE PUEBLO ARCHITECTURE 3 EA X912R 3 38 7 4 1 3 1 1 5 50 8 2 2 1 16 161 X862R 3 90 1 0 6 3 2 2 2 75 30 8 EA X755R 3 75 1 4 5 1 1 1 4 120 12 8 WE X756R 3 75 1 3 5 1 1 1 4 120 12 10 X726R 3 189 1 0 5 6 1 1 4 10 8 23 X608R 3 60 1 0 1 3 1 1 4 15 4 1 1 1 13 24 X703R 3 55 1 0 1 3 1 1 4 1 1 1 1 1 10 34 X576R 3 25 1 0 2 4 1 1 4 150 35 1 8 1 12 74 X741R 3 8 1 0 5 3 1 1 3 100 10 78 X743R 3 30 1 2 5 1 2 4 2 5 2 90 X 7 6 4 R 3 13 1 0 1 3 1 1 4 20 10 148 X842R 3 14 2 0 3 4 2 4 1 290 55 SHERD SCATTERS 125. X813R 0 036342 220 45 91 X 7 6 5 R 0 114114 20 10 SITES WITH OCCUPATIONS NOT ALLOCATED TO PERIOD A OR B 25 3 18 1 0 7 3 1 1 4 0 0 27 3 9 1 0 7 3 1 1 4 0 0 40 X 8 44R 4 0 8 3 1 2 4 0 0 42 X845R 4 4 8 4 1 2 4 1 1 44 X 0 99R 4 0 8 4 1 2 4 3- 3 51 X914R 0 0 9 2 4 3 4 2 2 57 3 5 1 0 7 3 3 2 4 0 0 59 X722R 4 0 8 2 4 3 4 6 4 70 X080R 0 0 6 6 1 1 3 20 20 72 X 0 8 7 R 0 0 6 4 1 1 3 25 5 124 X812R 0 0 3 6 2 2 1 100 30 136 3 49 1 0 1 1 4 3 4 100 30 149 X843R 0 0 3 4 2 4 1 480 55 A B COE F G H I J K LM N P Q R APPENDIX II CERAMIC COLLECTIONS The following pages list the sherd counts for each ceramic collection made during the survey. The first number in each column is the site number from which the collection was made. This is referenced on both sides of each page by "SN." The second item in each column referenced by "UA" refers to the unit or area within each site from which the ceramic collection was made. The abbreviations are the same as those in Column B in Appendix I. Blank spaces in this position indicate that the collection was made over the entire site. The third item in each column designated by "CN" is the col lection number of the ceramics per unit or site. The letter designa tions surrounding each collection number were explained in Appendix I under Column C. ' The items numbered 1 - 25 in each column refer to the number of sherds of particular ceramic styles or types per collection in accordance with the following list: 1 - Plain Brown 2 - Alma Scored 3 - Alma Incised 4 - Alma Punched 223 5 - San Francisco Red 6 - Alma Neck' Banded" 7 - Clapboard Corrugated 8 - Clapboard Corrugated, smoothed variety 9 - Clapboard Corrugated, indented variety 10 - Clapboard Corrugated, smoothed and indented variety 11 - Clapboard Corrugated, incised variety 12 - Patterned Corrugated 13 - Mogollon R/B 14 - Three Circle R/W 15 - Mixed Mogollon R/B, Three Circle R/W 16 - Mimbres Boldface B/W 17 - Mimbres Classic B/W 18 - Mixed Boldface B/W, Classic B/W 19 - Mimbres Polychrome 20 - Reserve Smudged 21 - Reserve Indented Corrugated 22 - Reserve Indented Corrugated, smudged interior variety 23 - Reserve B/W 24 - Sikyatki Polychrome 25 - Unclassified The final item in each column referenced by "SM" is the sum sherds per collection. / SN 3 3 3 3 3 3 4 5 6 7 SN UA SWSE NW NE EA UA CN CN X913R X748R X610R X749R X750R X751R X752R X912R X589R X571R X725R X730R 1 1 120 120 77 109 48 101 126 143 167 53 125 6 3 13 2 2 5 2 3 2 8 6 9 3 3 1 1 1 1 4 4 1 3 1 1 3 2 3 1 5 5 5 3 3 4 4 2 4 - 11 1 6 6 6 1 2 7 7 1 31 27 19 15 11 17 9 10 16 10 10 8 8 49 43 51 30 22 21 27 11 54 30 26 9 9 7 2 14 1 6 10 2 10 10 25 9 6 3 8 10 11 1 11 12 1 12 13 13 14 14 15 15 16 16 7 26 14 8 1 3 28 36 38 50 17 17 1 86 83 138 48 55 40 30 25 18 18 3 16 18 15 8 23 14 21 27 15 6 21 19 19 1 1 20 20 2 1 2 1 21 21 22 22 1 23 23 24 24 25 25 7 256 SM SM 3 5 4 338 351 230 193 223 30 7 225 t SN 7 8 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 15 16 SN UA EAME EA UA CN X7478 X7 5 5 R X756R X512R X726R X727R X72 8R X729R X7148 X731R X796B X732R CN 75 178 28 15 126 13 7 72 10 21 9 16 1 2 1 1 2 3 2 2 4 1 5 10 14 16 1 7 13 15 14 24 16 1 31 . 10 8 1 52 34 1 4 20 1 4 vDOoNONUI-Src^POh* 8 10 10 6 11 11 12 12 13 13 14 14 15 15 16 16 4 1 17 17 4 83 54 14 99 1 46 18 1 23 16 14 2 18 19 19 20 20 21 21 22 22 23 23 24 24 25 25 SM 110 351 209 30 30 310 25 4 61 29 81 1 to to ON SN 16 16 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 2b SN UA HE EA HE UA CN CN X733R X771B X772B X734R X735R X439R X700R X702R X426R X608R X703R X820R 47 1 1 63 30 47 26 193 6 42 102 1 2 2 5 1 3 1 1 1 4 10 3 1 3 4 4 4 5 5 3 6 6 7 7 15 11 1 2 8 7 2 8 8 23 46 8 3 21 57 11 45 5 9 9 3 1 1 2 5 3 2 10 10 1 21 1 1 15 1 11 11 12 12 5 13 13 14 14 15 15 16 16 1 2 1 4 h* 04 h* 17 17 48 28 20 14 51 10 18 35 1 18 18 5 5 15 1 12 19 4 12 19 19 20 20 1 21 21 22 22 1 23 23 24 24 25 25 SM SM 170 338 25 SM 24 22 23 21 20 17 19 13 18 16 14 12 15 10 11 N 74 X2R 46 X4R X433R X544R X436R X821R X754R CN UA N 8 9 0 1 32 31 30 29 28 SN <0O9-NGnvJ1.PWI\)H' 255 124 161 51 424 24 24 16 1 4 6 2 3 5 3 1 38 328 328 19 2 2 12 1 1 186 37 12 1 4 197 36 29 (ji cn tD -n h* ro 5 X913S 18 12 32 2 3 2 2 1 212 130 X568R 210 12 12 919 39 33 4 9 8 1 1 2 8 1 24125 4 32 244 56 X704R X576R 8 . 28 34 3 1 113 02 10 35 1 1 89 X423R X819R 10 35 8 9 325 191 6 19 0 165 18 36 1 1 6 1 5 1 R 5 2 4 X 80 14 26 37 7 1 SM 25 23 24 22 20 21 17 14 19 18 16 15 13 10 12 11 CN SN UA 00 N M r SN 37 38 39 40 41 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 SN UA SW NE UA CN CN X701S X520R X705R X844R X706R X707R X845R X073R X099R X708R X709R X710R 1 1 7 146 17 20 43 161 2 66 31 34 2 2 9 1 13 5 3 19 3 3 4 4 5 5 4 2 27 6 6 7 1 5 7 5 11 1 36 7 46 23 50 8 8 12 63 3 9 45 in N. 9 9 13 5 3 cn 13 3 10 10 04 5 1 11 11 12 12 13 13 14 14 15 15 16 16 11 1 17 17 2 58 6 2 17 70 6 16 46 18 18 35 3 5 1 7 9 21 19 19 1 20 20 2 1 21 21 22 22 23 23 24 24 25 25 1 3 1 SM SM 31 350 34 2 58 182 2 201 2 148 87 219 f SN 48 49 50 51 52 52 52 52 53 54 55 56 SN UA NOEAH NOWEH SO SO UA CN X711R X712R X713R X914R X715R X716R X717R X719B X753R X718R X720R X721R CN 1 9 109 2 44 33 55 14 2 118 12 1 2 2 7 7 14 11 2 3 3 4 1 1 4 5 1 1 2 7 5 6 6 7 1 2 28 9 12 19 3 11 6 7 8 4 23 3 41 44 42 2 3 3 33 20 8 9 1 5 2 8 9 1 8 4 9 10 3 1 6 3 10 11 1 1 11 12 12 13 13 14 14 15 15 16 16 17 8 3 61 25 51 34 1 88 9 17 18 2 9 13 6 6 11 1 24 7 18 19 19 20 20 21 21 22 22 23 23 24 24 25 1 25 SM 12 28 246 5 16 161 1 1 3 18 11 305 58 SM SN 58 59 60 61 62 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 SN UA UA CN X740R X722R X723R X724R X586R X736R X737R X273R X262R X274R X275R X276R CN 1 89 89 201 92 23 171 225 248 19 239 2 2 7 1 1 4 1 1 3 3 4 1 1 2 1 5 3 3 23 17 1 79 78 29 9 6 1 7 15 23 10 12 12 16 8 55 66 2 3 13 34 9 5 5 1 8 10 3 7 1 10 11 11 12 12 13 13 14 1 14 15 15 16 2 3 24 8 4 9 16 17 78 54 1 2 43 15 1 4 17 18 14 16 2 8 9 15 1 15 18 19 19 20 20 21 1 2 21 22 2 1 22 23 23 24 24 25 1 1 1 25 SM 2 268 233 352 342 339 $5 SN 69 70 71 71 71 72 73 74 75 75 76 77 SN UA UA CN X738R X080R X064R X786R X789S X087R X739R X741R X072R X435R X097R X742R CN 160 1 78 2 18 4 140 29 36 7 11 1 6 3 1 2 3 2 3 1 2 1 13 1 4 8 2 5 52 114 3 2 1 1 17 9 6 7 7 2 4 vjOC»-N(yiui4r SM 432 3 292 8 61 26 11 8 215 53 79 14 SM to LOto M 59 SM 25 24 23 21 22 20 19 16 17 15 12 13 13 14 11 10 UA N 73 X434R X743R CN N 78 SN v£>c®Ncr>vn.ruf\}h-* 12 0 9 117 298 30 3 8 2 3 18 3 1 2 4 1 1 3 18 3 12 11 2 352 7 1 5 17 980 79 5 7 7 5 150 O SOH NOH 87 X0R X744R X808R X807R 5 6 5 16 15 9 79 79 103 2 24 12 68 105 265 87 2 6 555 106 227 X745R 47 84 18 12 38 81 5 1 1 1 4 2 1 8 77 X75R 79 X6R 71 X6R CN X762R X761R X760R X759R 58R 7 X X757R 3 2 2 0 7 SM 37 10 2 6 72 83 26 26 10 4 1 2 12 2 2 41 44 83 1 5 2 12 485 84 6 5 2 1 2 1 17 17 1 2 4 86 87 6 1 1 88 16 5 2 SN 25 24 22 20 23 21 19 13 18 15 10 12 14 11 UA W W NJ SN 89 90 91 92 93 94 94 95 96 97 97 98 SN UA UA CN X767R X764R X765R X766R X763R X768R X7698 X770R X773R X774R X775R X776R CN 1 4 73 31 92 14 96 24 18 11 12 2 5 3 6 1 3 k 5 10 2 41 33 6 7 12 7 4 13 2 - 11 1 2 8 18 11 41 7 62 49 18 11 1 9 3 6 2 4 1 10 3 10 11 11 12 12 13 103 107 13 14 3 15 14 15 15 16 3 16 17 35 26 12 2 80 10 17 18 19 18 12 6 18 19 1 19 20 20 21 2 21 22 22 23 23 24 24 25 25 SM 7 159 102 183 28 269 88 39 37 15 SM fo £ SM 25 22 24 23 21 20 18 19 17 16 13 12 14 15 11 10 CN UA SN u>oe-Na'vn**ojiMh* 6 19 165 X777R 415 24 13 33 113 71 99 1 7 4 9 7 3 / X778R 0 101 100 1 2 2 1 2 4 0187 30 244 X779R 14 16 38 66 85 1 7 ' X780B 101 * 2 3 9 9 X781R 102 0 102 102 06 10 40 12 1 5 4 5 3 X782B 22 1 3 1 1 3 7 73 X784R X8R 7 X8B CN R 0 9 7 X X788B 87R 7 X X785R R 4 8 7 X X783R 0 14 0 16 0 17 SN 107 106 106 105 104 103 16 51 2 2 51 16 21 32 1 53 53 1 32 21 7 3 2 1 3 21 42 3 2 47 6 3 5 5 1 3 2 3 1 0 6 3 2 4 24 130 6 106 11 5 2 24 24 8 1 1 2 1 SM 25 24 22 23 19 21 20 18 16 12 10 17 14 13 11 15 UA V) N) M 253 5 SM 24 25 23 21 22 15 20 18 15 14 13 19 17 12 11 10 UA NX791R CN SN ttiOe-NOtui-PGJrMH 108 55 2 3 y 73 X794R X793B R 2 9 7 X 109 7 8 4 14 14 58 97 6 9 4 1 39 16 0 48 10 0 11 1 3 10 55 1 9 7 2 4 25 70 i 109 49 1 75 216 NOSL 110 40 2 1 3 SO 110 X795R 29 5 R 7 9 7 X 111 27 4 78 X799R X0R 81 X0R 83 CN X803R X802R X801R X800R R 9 9 7 X X798R 1 13 1 15 1 17 SN 117 116 115 114 113 112 6 26 4 7 7 17 14 236 64 9 2 42 1 6 9 2 99 62 5 4 1 4 1 2 67 67 15 1 8 8 3 4 1 1 5 6 4 SM 20 25 24 23 15 13 22 21 18 10 19 17 12 16 14 11 Ufl vDooSO'vJi-poaroh^ & M SM 25 24 23 22 21 20 19 17 16 15 18 14 13 11 12 10 N 84 X805R X0R 80 XQ11R 1 1 Q X X810R R 9 0 8 X X806R R 5 0 8 X X804R CN UA N 1 19 2 11 2 123 122 121 120 119 118 SN v0O9Nanvn.poji\)h* 5 5 17 119 8 4 4 107 4 2 y 65 80 80 3 1 9 2 1 3 23 13 4 81 17 13 18 8 3 1 1 1 37 1 1 5 63 5 2 1 4 2 1 260 2 1 6 6 X812R 124 19 oo N oo 83 X1R 85 86 X1R CN X817R X816R X815R X814R X813R 2 16 2 19 SN 129 128 7 2 1 126 125 14 2 ro u 1 8 17 43 7 80 4 1 24 1 3 2 4 1 3 24 4 1 8 1 SM 23 24 21 20 16 25 22 14 13 19 18 17 15 11 10 12 UA vD'^»Na>ai4^CAir\)H> / SN 130 131 132 132 133 133 134 134 134 135 137 138 SN Ufl WEH FAH UA CN X818R X822R X823R X8248 X825R X826B X827R X8288 X329B X830R X831R X832R CN 1 26 5 51 5 150 21 25 16 3 14 2 10 8 9 3 2 2 3 1 1 4 2 5 2 1 6 1 7 3 8 8 25 3 2 15 8 60 24 71 64 .139 28 71 6 6 11 9 1 1 1 2 2 2 10 1 29 4 16 10 11 11 12 2 1 1 1 12 13 13 14 14 15 15 16 16 17 112 8 1 2 1 17 18 4 1 3 2 1 18 19 19 20 20 21 21 22 22 23 23 24 24 25 25 SM 443 ro w oo / SN 139 140 141 142 143 144 145 146 147 148 149 150 SN Ufl UA CN X833R X 8 34R X835R X836R X837R X838R X839R X840R X841R X842R X843R X846R CN 1 103 2 5 204 6 31 8 1 19 4 50 2 11 9 2 1 3 4 5 5 3 3 6 7 17 2 2 4 8 59 3 38 1 4 1 3 9 6 1 1 2 vOOO*^Oivn4^ojrOH^ 10 2 1 10 11 11 12 12 13 13 14 14 15 15 16 16 17 36 7 52 25 11 1 1 17 18 17 6 12 15 6 1 2 18 19 19 20 20 21 ’l 21 22 22 23 23 24 24 25 25 SM 256 2 23 322 32 69 8 9 2 24 4 56 SM M a r SN 151 152 153 154 155 156 157 158 159 160 161 162 SN UA UA CN X847R X 8 4 8 R X849R X850R X851R X852R X853R X 8 5 4 R X860R X861R X852R X863R CN 1 143 7 35 62 203 20 131 94 192 250 1 10 2 16 3 5 5 10 6 4 3 1 1 4 5 4 . 1 3 3 6 2 7 4 21 8 5 5 3 1 8 35 14 58 85 3 . 46 48 72 112 9 4 4 9 3 2 2 7 2 v0c»*>ia>vn.FG4r\)h* 10 1 7 6 6 10 5 10 11 11 12 1 12 13 13 14 14 15 15 16 2 16 17 32 6 28 91 78 35 152 1 0 7 3 17 18 19 4 37 16 52 21 1 18 19 1 19 20 20 21 4 21 22 22 23 23 24 24 25 25 SM 409 310 483 502 SM N> s SN 162 180 181 182 183 184 185 * 186 SN UA UA CN X863R X881R X882R X883R X884R X885R X 886R X887R CN 1 1 10 57 136 18 169 138 85 63 2 6 7 2 6 5 2 2 3 3 4 1 2 4 5 3 1 2 1 5 6 1 6 7 7 1 1 7 35 16 15 6 8 4 76 3 123 112 82 38 8 9 3 22 6 4 9 10 8 9 2 5 2 10 11 11 12 4 6 12 13 13 14 14 15 15 16 3 16 17 14 39 6 47 126 44 18 17 18 7 3 2 22 25 12 18 19 3 19 20 20 21 5 1 4 7 21 22 2 1 22 23 23 24 24 25 25 SM 13 92 281 32 441 439 259 141 SM 241 LIST OF REFERENCES ACKOFF, RUSSELL LINCOLN 1962 Scientific method; optimizing applied research decision. John Wiley and Sons, New York. ANDERSON, EDGAR, and HUGH C. CUTLER 1942 Races of Zea mays: I. Their recognition and classification. Missouri Botanical Gardens Annals 29:69-86. ARMITAGE, P. 1971 Statistical methods in medical research. Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford and Edinburgh. BAILEY, VERNON 1913 Life zones and crop zones of New Mexico. United States Department of Agriculture, North American Fauna 35. 1931 Mammals of New Mexico. United States Department of Agriculture, North American Fauna 53. BAKER, P. T., and J. S. WEINER 1966 The biology of human adaptability. Oxford University Press, Oxford. BANDELIER, ADOLPH F. 1884 Report on investigations in New Mexico during the years 1883-1884. Fifth Annual Report of the Executive Committee, Archaeological Institute of America. John Wilson and Son, University Press, Cambridge. BANNISTER, BRYANT, JOHN W. HANNAH, and WILLIAM J. ROBINSON 1970 Tree-ring dates from New Mexico M-N, S, Z. Laboratory of Tree-Ring Research. 242 243 BARTLETT, J. R. 1854 Personal narrative of explorations in Texas, New Mexico, California, Sonora, and Chihuahua. Appleton and Company, New York. BLALOCK, HUBERT M. 1960 Social Statistics. McGraw Hill, New York. BLUHM, ELAINE I960 Mo golion settlement patterns in Pine Lawn Valley, New Mexico. American Antiquity 25:4:538-546. BORTON, ROBERT L., and EARL F. SORENSON 1967 Settlement, development, and water use. In Water resources of New Mexico, compiled by New Mexico State Engineer Office, pp. 265-276. State Planning Office, Santa F e . BRADFIELD, MAITLAND 1971 The changing pattern of Hop! agriculture. Royal Anthropolog ical Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, Occational Paper 30. BRADFIELD, WESLEY 1923a Summary of work on Cameron Creek Site, Mimbres section. El Palacio 15:4:53-54. 1923b Preliminary report on excavating at Cameron Creek Site. El Palacio 15:5:67-73. 1927 Notes on Mimbres culture. El Palacio" 22:26:550-559. 1928 Mimbres excavation in 1928. El Palacio 25:8-11:151-160. 1929 Cameron Creek village. El Palacio Press, Santa Fe. BRADFIELD, WESLEY, L. B. BLOOM, and K. M. CHAPMAN 1928 A preliminary survey on the archaeology of Southwestern New Mexico. El Palacio 24:6:99-112. BRAND, DONALD D. 1935 The distribution of pottery types in northwest Mexico. American Anthropologist 37:287-305. 244 BRAND, DONALD D. 1936 Notes to accompany a vegetation map of Northwest Mexico. University of New Mexico Bulletin, Biological Series 4:4. BRETERNITZ, DAVID A. 1959 Excavations at Nantack Village, Point of Pines, Arizona. Anthropological Papers of the University of Arizona 10. 1966 An appraisal of tree-ring dated pottery in the Southwest. Anthropological Papers of the University of Arizona 10. BRYAN, BRUCE 1927a The Mimbres expedition. The Masterkey 1:3:21-24. 1927b The Galaz Ruin in the Mimbres Valley. El Palacio 23:12:323- 337. 1931a Excavation of the Galaz Ruin. The Masterkey 4:6:179-189. 1931b Excavation of the Galaz Ruin. The Masterkey 4:7:221-226. 1931c Excavation of the Galaz Ruin, Mimbres Valley, New Mexico. Art and Archaeology 32:1:35-42. 1961 Initial report on Galaz sherds. The Masterkey 35:1:13-18. BULLARD, W. R. JR. 1962 The Cerro Colorado site and pithouse architecture in South western United States prior to A.D. 900. Papers of the Peabody Museum of American Archaeology and Ethnology, Harvard University 44:2. BURNS, BARNEY T., and WILLIAM J. ROBINSON 1972 Crop yields, tree-rings, and climate, 1970-1971 Annual Report to the National Park Service, Department of Interior, Washington, D.C. Laboratory of Tree-Ring Research, The University of Arizona, Tucson. CASTETTER, E. F. k 1935 Ethnobiologlcal studies in the American Southwest I: unculti vated native plants used as sources of food. University of New Mexico Bulletin, Biological Series 4:4. 245 COHEN, YEHUDI A. 1968 Culture as adaptation. In Man in adaptation, the cultural present, edited by Yehudi A. Cohen, pp. 40-60. Aldine, Chicago. COLTON, H. S. 1956 Pottery types of the Southwest: wares 5A, 5B, 6A, 6B, 7A, 7B, 7C, San Juan Red Ware, Tsegi Orange Ware, Homolovi Orange Ware, Winslow Orange Ware, Awatovi Yellow Ware, Sichomovi Red Ware. Museum of Northern Arizona, Ceramic Series 3C. COOK, S. F., and R. F. HEIZER 1965 The quantitative approach to the relation between population and settlement size. University of California Archaeological Research Facility, Archaeological Survey Report 64. COSGROVE, C. B. 1947 Caves of the Upper Gila and Hueco areas in New Mexico and Texas. Papers of the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, Harvard University 24:2. COSGROVE, C. B. JR., and W. E. FELTS 1927 At work on the Mini)res. The Mas terkey 1:3:21-24 ♦ COSGROVE, H. S., and C. B. COSGROVE 1932 The Swarts Ruin. Papers of the Peabody Museum of American Archaeology and Ethnology, Harvard University 15:1. CUTLER, HUGH C., and THOMAS W. WHITAKER 1961 History and distribution of the cultivated cucurbits in the Americas. American Antiquity 26:469-485. DANE, C. H., and G. 0. BACHMAN 1961 Preliminary geologic map of the southwestern part of New Mexico. United States Geological Survey Miscellaneous Geologic Investigations Map 1-344. 246 DANSON, EDWARD BRIDGE 1957 An archaeological survey of West Central New Mexico and East Central Arizona. Papers of the Peabody Museum of American Archaeology and Ethnology, Harvard University 44:1. DAUBENMIRE, R. F. 1959 Plants and environment. John Wiley and Sons, New York. DICE, L. R. 1943 The biotic provinces of North America. University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor. DICK, HERBERT W. 1965 Bat Cave. The School of American Research, Monograph 27. DICK-PEDDIE, W. A. 1965 Changing vegetation patterns in Southern New Mexico. In Guidebook of Southwestern New Mexico IT, edited by J. P. Fitzsimmons and C. Lochman-Balk, pp. 234-235. New Mexico Geological Society, Albuquerque. DI PESO, C. C. 1969 Director, Amerind Foundation, Dragoon, Arizona. Personal communication. DOTY, GENE C. 1967 Geography, geology, and hydrology. In Water Resources of New Mexico, compiled by New Mexico State Engineer Office, pp. 251-261. State Planning Office, Santa F e . DUFF, V. F. 1902 The ruins of the Mini)res Valley. Antiquarian 24:397-400. ELSTON, WOLFGANG E. 1965 Volcanic rocks of the Mi nib res and Upper Gila drainages, New Mexico. In Guidebook of Southwestern New Mexico II, edited by C. Lochman-Balk, pp. 167-174. New Mexico Geological Society, Albuquerque. 247 EMORY, W. H. 1848 Notes of a military reconnaissance, from Fort Leavenworth, in Missouri, to San Diego, in California, including part of the Arkansas, Del Norte, and Gila Rivers. Thirtieth Congress, First Session, Ex. Doc. 41. ERICKSEN, G. E., H. WEDOW, G. P. EATON, and G. R. LELAND 1970 Mineral resources of the Black Range Primitive Area, Grant, Sierra, and Catron Counties, New Mexico. United States Geological Survey, Bulletin 1319-E. FENNEMAN, N. M. 1931 Physiography of Western United States. McGraw Hill, New York. FEWKES, JESSE W. 1914 Archaeology of the lower Mimbres Valley, New Mexico. Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections 63:10. FIELD, J. G. 1969 The use of the information statistic in the numerical classi fication of heterogeneous systems. Journal of Ecology 57:565- 569. FRITTS, HAROLD C. 1965 Tree-ring evidence for climatic changes in Western North America. Monthly Weather Review 93:7:421-443. FRITTS, HAROLD C., DAVID G. SMITH, and MARVIN A. STOKES 1965 The biological model for paleoclimatic interpretation of Mesa Verde tree-ring series. American Antiquity 31:2:2:101-121. GALINAT, WALTON C. 1965 The evolution of corn and culture in North America. Economic Botany 19:350-357. ^ GALINAT, WALTON C., and JAMES H. GUNNERSON 1963 Spread of eight-rowed maize from the prehistoric! Southwest. Botanical Museum Leaflets, Harvard University 20:5:117-149. 248 GARCIA, FABIAN 1917 New Mexico beans. New Mexico College of Agriculture and Mechanical Arts Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 105. GARN, S. M. 1954 Cultural factors affecting the study of human biology. Human Biology 26:2:77-79. GLADWIN, W . , and H. S. GLADWIN 1934 A method for designation of cultures and their variations. Medallion Papers 15. 1935 The eastern range of the red on buff culture. Medallion Papers 26. G00DALL, D. W. 1964 A probabilistic similarity index. Nature 203:1098. GRAYBILL, DONALD A. n.d. Notes from preliminary analysis of archaeological survey data collected in.Southwestern New Mexico. MS. Department of Anthropology, University of Georgia, Athens. GROVE, DOUGLAS RUDDELL 1969 Yield and various agronomic characteris of Indian c o m (Zea mays L.) cultivars in the southwestern United States. Master's thesis. Department of Agronomy, The University of Arizona, Tucson. HACK, J. T. ' 1942 The changing physical environment of the Hopi Indians of Arizona. Papers of the Peabody Museum of American Archaeology and Ethnology, Harvard University 44:1. HARGRAVE, LYNDON L. \ 1970 Mexican macaws. Anthropological Papers of the University of Arizona 20. HARMANN, H. H. 1961 M o d e m factor analysis. University of Chicago Press, Chicago. 249 HASTINGS, J. R., and R. M. TURNER 1965 The changing mila. University of Arizona Press, Tucson. HAURY, E. W. 1936a Some Southwestern pottery types, series IV. Medallion Papers 19. 1936b The Mogollon culture of Southwestern New Mexico. Medallion Papers 20. 1956 Speculations on prehistoric settlement patterns in the South- west. In Prehistoric settlement patterns in the New World, edited by Gordon R. Willey, pp. 3-10. Wenner Gren Foundation for Anthropological Research, New York. 1957 An alluvial site on the San Carlos Indian Reservation, Arizona American Antiquity 23:1:2-27. 1962 The greater American Southwest. In Courses toward urban life, edited by Robert J. Braidwood and Gordon R. Willey, pp. 106- 131. Aldine, Chicago. 1973 Professor, Department of Anthropology, The University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona. Personal communication. HAWLEY, F. M. 1936 Field manual of prehistoric Southwestern pottery types. The University of New Mexico Bulletin, Anthropological Series 1:4. HORTON, R. E. 1945 Erosional development of streams and their drainage basins. Geological Society of America, Bulletin 56:275-370. HOUGH, WALTER 1907 Antiquities of the Upper Gila and Salt River Valleys in Arizona and New Mexico. Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 35. HOWELLS, W. W. 1966 Population distances: biological, linguistic, geographical, and environmental. Current Anthropology 7:5:531-540. 250 JELINEK, ARTHUR J. n.d. Field notes from an archaeological survey in Southwestern New Mexico. MS. Department of Anthropology, The University of Arizona, Tucson. KAPLAN, LAWRENCE 1965 Archaeology and domestication in American Phaseolus (beans) . Economic Botany 19:358-368. KELLEY, V. C. 1955 Regional tectonics of the Colorado Plateau and relationship to the origin and distribution of uranium. University of New Mexico Publications in Geology 5. KEMRER, MEADE F., WILLIAM J. ROBINSON, and JEFFREY S. DEAN 1971 Tree-rings as indicators in intra-annual climate. 1968-1969 and 1969-1970 Annual Reports to the National Park Service, Department of Interior, Washington, D.C. Laboratory of Tree- Ring Research, The University of Arizona, Tucson. KIDDER, A. V. 1932 Introduction. In The Swarts Ruin by H. S. Cosgrove and C. B. Cosgrove, pp. xv-xxiii. Papers of the Peabody Museum of American Archaeology and Ethnology, Harvard University 25:1. KIDDER, A. V., H. S. COSGROVE, and C. B. COSGROVE 1949 The Pendleton Ruin, Hidalgo County, New Mexico. Contribu tions to American Anthropology and History 50. Carnegie Institute of Washington, Publication 585. KRAMER, P. J., and T. T. K0SL0WSKI 1960 Physiology of trees. McGraw Hill, New York. KRUSKAL, J. B. \ 1964 Multi-dimensional scaling by optimizing goodness to a non metric hypothesis. Psychoroetrika 29:1-27. KUCHLER, A. W. 1964 Potential natural vegetation of the coterminous United States. American Geographical Society, New York. 251 KUELLMER, F. J. 1954 Geologic section of the Black Range at Kingston, New Mexico. State Bureau of Mines and Mineral Resources, Bulletin 33. LAMBERT, MARJORIE F., and J. RICHARD AMBLER 1961 A survey and excavation of caves in Hidalgo County, New Mexico. The School of American Research, Monograph 25. LANCE, G. N., and W. T. WILLIAMS 1967 A general theory of class!ficatory sorting strategies. Computer Journal 9:373-380. LEHMER, DONALD J. 1948 The Jornada branch of the Mo go lion. University of Arizona Social Science Bulletin 17. LITTLE, ELBERT L. 1950 Southwestern trees. United States Department of Agriculture Handbook 9. LOCHMAN-BALK, C. 1965 Lexicon of stratigraphic names used in Southwestern New Mexico. In Guidebook of Southwestern New Mexico II, edited by J. P. Fitzsimmons and C. Lochman-Balk, pp. 93-111. New Mexico Geological Society, Albuquerque. LOEW, OSCAR 1875 Report upon mineralogical, agricultural, and chemical condi tions observed in portions of Colorado, New Mexico, and Arizona. In Report upon geographical and geological explora tions and surveys west of the one hundredth meridian, under charge of G. M. Wheeler 3:6. LOWE, CHARLES H. \ 1961 Biotic communities in the sub-Mogollon region of the inland Southwest. Journal of the Arizona Academy of Science 2:1:40- 49. 1964 Arizona landscapes and habitats. In The vertebrates of Arizona, edited by Charles H. Lowe, pp. 10132. University . of Arizona Press, Tucson. 252 MAC NEISH, R. S. 1958 Preliminary investigations in the Sierra de Tamaulipas, Mexico. Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, N.S. 48:6. MC CLUNEY, EUGENE B. 1962 Clanton Draw and Box Canyon. The School of American Research, Monograph 26. MADGWICK, H. A. I., and R. A. DESROCHERS 1972 Association-analysis and the classification of forest vegeta tion of the Jefferson National Forest. Journal of Ecology 60:285-292. MAKER, H. J., R. E. NEHER, and J. U. ANDERSON 1971 Soil associations and land classification for irrigation Grant County. New Mexico State Agricultural Experiment Station Report 200. MANGELSDORF, P. C., and R. H. LISTER 1956 Archaeological evidence on the evolution of maize in North western Mexico. Botanical Museum Leaflets, Harvard University 17:6:151-178. MARTIN, PAUL S., and JOHN B. RINALDO 1947 The SU Site: excavations at a Mogollon village. Western New Mexico. Field Museum of Natural History, Anthropological Series 32:3. 1950 Sites of the Reserve Phase, Pine Lawir Valley, Western New Mexico. Fieldiana: Anthropology 38:3. MARTIN, PAUL S., JOHN B. RINALDO, and ERNST ANTEVS 1949 Cochise and Mogollon sites, Pine Lawn Valley, Western New Mexico. Fieldiana: Anthropology 38:1. X MARTIN, PAUL S., JOHN B. RINALDO, and E. R. BARTER 1957 Late Mogollon communities. Four sites of the Tularosa Phase, Western New Mexico. Fieldiana: Anthropology 49:1. 253 MARTIN, PAUL S., JOHN B. RINALDO, ELAINE BLUHM, HUGH C. CUTLER, and ROGER GRANGE JR. 1952 Mogollon cultural continuity and change: the stratigraphic analysis of Tularosa and Cordova caves. Fieldiana: Anthro pology 40. MARTIN, PAUL S., JOHN B. RINALDO, ELAINE A. BLUHM, and HUGH C. CUTLER 1956 Higgins Flat pueblo, Western New Mexico. Fieldiana: Anthro pology 45. MARTIN, PAUL S., JOHN B. RINALDO, WILLIAM A. LONGACRE, LESLIE G. FREEMAN JR., JAMES A. BROWN, RICHARD H. HEVLY, and M. E. COOLEY 1964 Chapters in the prehistory of Eastern Arizona, II. Fieldiana: Anthropology 55. MARTIN, PAUL SCHULTZ 1963 The last 10,000 years: a fossil pollen record of the American Southwest. University of Arizona Press, Tucson. MERRIAM, C. H. 1890 Results of a biological survey of the San Francisco Mountains region and desert of the Little Colorado in Arizona. United States Department of Agriculture, North American Fauna 5:1-127. NAROLL, RAOUL 1962 Floor area and settlement population. American Antiquity 28:587-589. NESBITT, PAUL H. 1931 The Ancient Minibrenos. Logan Museum Bulletin 4. 1938 Starkweather ruin. Logan Museum Publications in Anthropology, Beloit College Bulletin 6. NEW MEXICO COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AND MECHANIC ARTS 1957 Vegetative type map of New Mexico. Agricultural Experiment Station, Department of Agricultural Economics, Las Cruces. NIE, NORMAN H . , DALE H. BENT, and C. HADLAI HULL 1970 Statistical package for the social sciences. McGraw Hill, New York. 254 ODUM, EUGENE P. 1971 Fundamentals of ecology. W. B. Saunders Company, Philadelphia. OLSON, ALAN P. 1962 A history of the phase concept in the Southwest. American Antiquity 27:4:457-472. ORLOCI, L. 1967 An agglomerative method for classification of plant communities Journal of Ecology 55:193-206. PEARCE, T. M. 1965 New Mexico place names. University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque. REEVE, C. C. JR. 1965 Pluvial Lake Palomas, Northwestern Chihuahua, Mexico and Pleistocene geologic history of South-central New Mexico. In Guidebook of Southwestern New Mexico II, edited by J. P. Fitzsimmons and C. Lochman-Balk, pp. 199-203. New Mexico Geological Society, Albuquerque. RINALDO, JOHN B., and ELAINE A. BLUHM 1956 Late Mogolion pottery types of the Reserve area. Fieldiana: Anthropology 36:7. RITCHIE, NORMAN 1972 Precipitation storage gauge data for McKnigJit station. Gila National Forest Administrative Offices, Silver City, New Mexico. ROBBINS, W. W., J. P. HARRINGTON, and B. FREIRE-MARCO 1916 Ethnobotany of the Tewa Indians. Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin 55. ROBINSON, W. S. 1951 A method for chronologically ordering archaeological deposits. American Antiquity 16:293-3-1. 255 ROBINSON, WILLIAM J., and JEFFREY S. DEAN 1969 Tree-ring evidence for climatic change in the prehistoric Southwest: A.D. 1000 to A.D. 1200. Annual Report to the National Park Service, Department of Interior, Washington, D.C. Laboratory of Tree-Ring Research, The University of Arizona, Tucson. SAUER, C. 0., and DONALD BRAND 1930 Pueblo sites in Southeastern Arizona. University of California Publications in Geography 3:7:415-458. SAYLES, E. B. 1936a An archaeological survey of Chihuahua, Mexico. Medallion Papers 22. 1936b Some Southwestern pottery types, series V. Medallion Papers 21. 1945 The San Simon Branch, excavations at Dave Creek and in the San Simon Valley. I: material culture. Medallion Papers 34. SCHULMAN, EDMUND 1954 Dendroclimatic changes in semi-arid regions. Tree-Ring Bulletin 20:3-4:26-30. , 1956 Dendroclimatic changes in semiarid America. University of Arizona Press, Tucson. SHREVE, F. 1915 The vegetation of a desert mountain range as conditioned by climatic factors. Carnegie Institute of Washington, Publica tion 217:1-112. ’ SNEDECOR, GEORGE W., and WILLIAM G. COCHRAN 1967 Statistical methods. Sixth edition. The Iowa State University Press, Ames. " STEVENSON, M. C. 1909 Ethnobotany of the Zuni Indians. Thirtieth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology 31-102. 256 STOCKTON, CHARLES W. n.d. Climatic data for Mimbres Ranger Station, New tfexico on punched cards. Laboratory of Tree-Ring Research. The University of Arizona, Tucson. STRAHLER, ARTHUR NEWELL 1961 Physical geography. Second edition. John Wiley and Sons, New York. TRAUGER, F. D. 1965 Geologic structure pattern of Grant County, New Mexico. In Guidebook of Southwestern New Mexico II, edited by J. P. Fitzsimmons and C. Lochman-Balk, pp. 184-187. New Mexico Geological Society, Albuquerque. TREWARTHA, G. T. 1968 An introduction to climate. McGraw Hill, New York. TUAN, YI-FU, CYRIL E. EVERARD, JEROLD G. WIDDISON, and J. BATEMAN 1969 The climate of New Mexico. State Planning Office, Santa Fe. VON ESCHEN, G. F. 1961 The climate of New Mexico. Business Information Series 37. College of Business Administration, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque. WENDORF, FRED 1956 Some distributions of settlement patterns in the pueblo southwest. In Prehistoric settlement patterns in the New World, edited by Gordon R. Willey, pp. 18-25. Viking Fund Publications in Anthropology 23. Wenner Gren Foundation for Anthropological Research, New York. WHEAT, J. B. 1955 Mogollon culture prior to A.D. 1000. American Anthropological Association, Memoir 82. WHITE, LESLIE A. 1959 The evolution of culture. McGraw Hill, New York. 257 WHITING, A. E. 1937 Hop! Indian agriculture 2, seed source and distribution. Museum of Northern Arizona, Museum Notes 10:5:13-16. 1939 Ethnobotany of the Hopi. Museum of Northern Arizona, Bulletin 15. WILLEY, GORDON R. 1953 Prehistoric settlement patterns in the Viru Valley, Peru. Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 155. WILLEY, GORDON R., and PHILLIP PHILLIPS 1958 Method and Theory in American Archaeology. University of Chicago Press, Chicago. WILLIAMS, W. T., and J. M. LAMBERT 1966 Multivariate methods in plant ecology: V. Similarity analyses and information-analysis. Journal of Ecology 54:427-445. WISHART, D. 1969a An algorithm for hierarchical classifications. Biometrics 25:165-170. 1969b Clustan 1A user manual. Computing Laboratory, University of St. Andrews, Fife, Scotland. 1969c Mode analysis: a generalization of nearest neighbour which reduces chaining effects. In Numerical Taxonomy, edited by A. J. Cole, pp. 282-308. Academic Press, London. YORK, J. C., and W. A. DICK-PEDDIE 1969 Vegetation changes in Southern New Mexico during the past hundred years. In Arid lands in perspective, edited by W. G. McGinnies and B. J. Goldman, pp. 157-166. University • of Arizona Press, Tucson. 5 7 5 7 4