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Download File Cosmopolitan Encounters: Sanskrit and Persian at the Mughal Court Audrey Truschke Submitted in partial fulfillment of the Requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of Arts and Sciences COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY 2012 © 2012 Audrey Truschke All rights reserved ABSTRACT Cosmopolitan Encounters: Sanskrit and Persian at the Mughal Court Audrey Truschke In this dissertation, I analyze interactions between Sanskrit and Persian literary cultures at the Mughal court during the years 1570-1650 C.E. During this period, the Mughals rose to prominence as one of the most powerful dynasties of the early modern world and patronized Persian as a language of both literature and empire. Simultaneously, the imperial court supported Sanskrit textual production, participated in Sanskrit cultural life, and produced Persian translations of Sanskrit literature. For their part, Sanskrit intellectuals became influential members of the Mughal court, developed a linguistic interest in Persian, and wrote extensively about their imperial experiences. Yet the role of Sanskrit at the Mughal court remains a largely untold story in modern scholarship, as do the resulting engagements across cultural lines. To the extent that scholars have thought about Sanskrit and Persian in tandem, they have generally been blinded by their own language barriers and mistakenly asserted that there was no serious interaction between the two. I challenge this uncritical view through a systematic reading of texts in both languages and provide the first detailed account of exchanges between these traditions at the Mughal court. I further argue that these cross- cultural events are central to understanding the construction of power in the Mughal Empire and the cultural and literary dynamics of early modern India. TABLE OF C ONTENTS INTRODUCTION, 1 Literary Cultures and Imperial Narratives, 3 New Methodologies: Sanskrit, Persian, and Multilingualism, 4 Imperial Culture: The Mughal Court 1570-1650, 9 Connected Histories in the Center of an Empire, 13 Historiography on Sanskrit and Persian in Mughal India, 15 Premodern Contexts: A Brief History of Cross-Cultural Encounters, 18 Mughal Contexts: Materials and Chapter Outline, 23 1. SANSKRIT LITERATI AND LITERATURE AT THE MUGHAL COURT, 29 Patronage, Associations, and Textual Sources, 30 A Social History of Sanskrit Intellectuals at the Mughal Court, 32 Establishing Relations: Jain and Brahmans Enter the Mughal Milieu, 33 Sanskrit Literati as Politicians, Intellectuals, and Religious Guides, 37 Divergent Paths: The Conclusion of Jain Imperial Relations, 46 Brahmans Flourish in Imperial Environs, 48 Sanskrit Literary Production for the Mughal Court, 56 Praising the Mughals in Sanskrit Muktakas and Dedications, 57 Independent Sanskrit Panegyrics for the Mughals, 63 Enlightening Akbar in Śānticandra’s Treasury of Compassion, 64 Rudrakavi’s Poems to Khān-i Khānān and Jahangir, 72 Jagannātha’s Play of Asaf [Khan], 81 i Sanskrit Grammars and Lexicons of Persian, 85 Kṛṣṇadāsa’s Illumination of Persian for Akbar, 87 Kavi Karṇapūra’s Light on Sanskrit and Persian Words for Jahangir, 92 Multilingual Titling Practices, 95 Conclusion: Multicultural Mughals, 105 2. JAIN ACCOUNTS OF THE MUGHAL COURT, 108 Historical Background and Nature of the Materials, 108 Representing Mughal Culture in Sanskrit, 113 Rewriting the Mughal Conquest in Padmasāgara’s Jagadgurukāvya, 115 Imperial Milieus: Persianate, Islamicate, and Sanskrit, 129 Devavimala Allows Islam to Enter Sanskrit Discourse, 130 Siddhicandra’s Vision of Sanskrit Culture at the Mughal Court, 135 Courtly Religious Practices Beyond Islam, 140 Sun Worship and Sectarian Gains, 141 Status and Power in a Jain Rite at Court, 145 Representing Themselves: Religious and Secular Authority, 151 Finding Authority for Jain Leaders in the Mughal Context, 152 Erudition and Flexibility in Jain Defenses Against the Charge of Atheism, 157 Religious Anxieties: Jain Asceticism within the Comforts of Court, 168 Conclusion: Beyond History, 175 ii 3. IMPERIAL TRANSLATION: THE PERSIAN M AHĀBHĀRATA, 181 Centrality of the Razmnāmah and Previous Scholarship, 182 Translation Infrastructure and Social Collaboration, 186 Multiple Sanskrit Sources for the Strange Tale, 190 Making a Mughal Epic through Translation Practices, 200 Cultivating an Indo-Persian Register, 200 Acculturation and Anxieties in a Crowded Divine Landscape, 204 Introducing Poetry and Persian Aesthetics, 213 Rewriting the Rules of Politics and Kingship, 217 The Imperial Reception of the Razmnāmah, 227 Power Politics in Abū al-Faz̤l’s Preface to the Razmnāmah, 227 Aesthetic Revolution in Fayz̤ī’s Mahābhārat, 239 Rewriting History in Ṭāhir Muḥammad Sabzavārī’s Abridged Mahābhārat, 244 Conclusion: Politics and Aesthetics, 250 4. INDO-PERSIAN RECEPTIONS: COURTLY TREATMENTS OF SANSKRIT KNOWLEDGE AND LITERATURE, 253 Learning of India: Abū al-Faz̤l’s Formulation of Sanskrit Knowledge Systems, 254 Previous Scholarship on Ā’īn-i Akbarī, 255 Contexts and Predecessors of the Account of India, 257 Framing the Account of India and Learning of India, 261 Content and Analysis in the Learning of India, 265 Elusive Sanskrit Sources, 266 iii Nine Philosophical Schools, 269 Sanskrit Aesthetic Theory in Persian, 273 Abū al-Faz̤l’s Political Project, 277 Many Mughal Rāmāyaṇas, 279 Problems with Akbar’s Rāmāyan: Authorship and Access, 280 Imperial Reactions to Akbar’s Rāmāyan, 284 That Black Book: Badā’ūnī’s Objection, 285 Getting it Wrong: Raḥīm’s Take on Rāma’s Story, 291 A Marvelous Tale: Jahangir’s Interpretation of Akbar’s Rāmāyan, 294 Later Mughal Rāmāyans, 297 The Impact of Sanskrit Literature and Knowledge Beyond Akbar’s Court, 301 Firishtah: A Deccani Perspective on Sanskrit Learning in Indo-Persian Texts, 302 Firishtah on the Mahābhārata as a Source for India’s Pre-Islamic Past, 303 Islamic Links: Firishtah’s Version of Pre-Islamic Indian History, 307 Integrated History: Counting Kings in Shah Jahan’s Court, 310 Conclusion: Incorporating Sanskrit Knowledge, 314 CONCLUSION, 317 The End of Sanskrit and Persian Encounters in the Mughal Milieu, 317 Beyond Legitimation: The Political Aesthetic in the Mughal Empire, 322 Building an Indo-Persian Polity, 327 Writings and Reticence in Multiple Sanskrit Traditions, 328 Internal Frontiers: The Intersection of Culture and Power in Mughal India, 335 iv World Frontiers: New Methods for Imperial History, 340 BIBLIOGRAPHY, 344 APPENDIX: FOUR S ANSKRIT VERSES TRANSLITERATED IN THE RAZMNĀMAH, 369 v ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I stand on the shoulders of many dedicated advisors, and my initial thanks are due to my dissertation committee members. First and foremost I thank Sheldon Pollock, who has challenged and supported me at every step of my academic work. I am profoundly grateful for his time, criticisms, and advice over the years. Allison Busch has likewise been formative to my work through countless enlightening conversations, her close attention to detail, and constant support. Muzaffar Alam patiently taught me to read Persian manuscripts and has always been eager to engage with my work. Sudipta Kaviraj and Rachel McDermott have provided me with valuable feedback, helpful questions, and encouragement. In addition, I thank the many scholars, both near and far, who have helped at various stages of my research. At home, I am grateful to Hossein Kamaly for reading Indo-Persian texts with me, usually on his own time, and to Somadeva Vasudeva for his assistance with Sanskrit materials. Jack Hawley and Frances Pritchett have provided constructive feedback on my work over the years. Bindu Bhatt, the former South Asia librarian at Columbia, helped me procure certain elusive texts. From further afield, I thank the following scholars for providing materials, engaging in many fruitful discussions, and always being ready to field tough questions: John Cort, Paul Dundas, Francesca Orsini, S.R. Sarma, John Seyller, and Sunil Sharma. I am honored and grateful to have received a Fulbright-Hays Doctoral Dissertation Research Abroad grant that funded my international research. During my year of research abroad (2009-2010), many people assisted with both the academic and practical aspects of my work. In India, I particularly thank Najaf Haider and Heeraman Tiwari for generously hosting me at Jawaharlal Nehru University and also Gulfishan Khan at Aligarh Muslim University for vi her enthusiasm and support. S.K. Bharathi and the entire staff at the United States-India Educational Foundation were invaluable in facilitating my research. Surendra Bothra and Vipin Baj helped me track down bhandars in Jaipur, and Yatin Shah ensured a smooth and productive visit to Patan. Suzanne Slesin and Michael Steinberg provided me with quite comfortable accommodations in Paris. During my archival work in India, many institutions, temples, and libraries gave me access to their manuscript archives. Special thanks are due here to the Birla family in Kolkata for allowing me to view their Razmnāmah manuscript and the Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts in Delhi. I also gratefully acknowledge the following institutions in India for allowing me access to their manuscript collections: Acharya Shri Kailasasagarsuri Gyanmandir in Koba, Allahabad Municipal Museum, Anandasrama in Pune, Anup Sanskrit Library in Bikaner, Asiatic Society of Calcutta, Asiatic Society of Mumbai, Baroda Oriental Institute, Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute in Pune, Bharatiya Itihas Samsodha Mandal in Pune, Cama Institute in Bombay, Deccan College, Digambara Jain Bada Terapanthi
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