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WR-26 Tiina Lammervo THE UNIVERSITY OF QUEENSLAND Language and culture contact and attitudes among first generation Australian Finns Tiina Lammervo School of Languages and Comparative Cultural Studies The University of Queensland Thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy February 2005 Statement of originality I declare that the work presented in this thesis is, to the best of my knowledge and belief, original and my own work, except as acknowledged in the text, and that the material has not been submitted, either in whole or in part, for a degree at any other university. Tiina Lammervo I ABSTRACT Language and culture contact and attitudes among first generation Australian Finns Language and culture studies of émigré communities in Australia have grown steadily over the last thirty years. Within this body of research Finns emerge as a distinctive group. Finnish language and culture appear atypically well preserved compared to other Northern European groups. Studies on Australian Finns have concentrated on demography or language maintenance and interference. Much less has been done on attitudes and language and culture contact. No study has concentrated on the connection between language factors and the attitudes of Australian Finns in the immigrant context. The present study contributes to the underdeveloped areas of study on Finnish outside Finland, and particularly in Australia, and to the study of the relationship between attitudes and language and culture contact. People of Finnish origin have been relocating to Australia ever since early colonial times. The largest immigrant groups arrived during the passage assistance schemes between the late 1950s and 1960s, when Finns were among the groups recruited by the Australian government. The number of Finland-born people in Australia has not exceeded 10,500. The 2001 Australian census recorded 8,259 Finland-born people. The numbers are declining as new migration is minimal. The central question of the study is to examine if and how, in an immigrant context, language maintenance and language contact phenomena correspond to the language attitudes and background factors of first generation Australian Finns. The study investigates the connection between the language the immigrants speak (language contact phenomena), and the immigrants’ attitudes and background information such as language choice, maintenance efforts and contact with Finland and the local Finnish community. Profiles of typical Finnish maintainers or shifters are distinguished among the informants. The study concentrates on the relationship of different language and culture contact attitudes, and the correlation between these attitudes and behaviour. The data was collected during informal meetings with thirty-one first generation Australian Finns in the Brisbane area. Informants completed a questionnaire on attitudes, language II use and socio-economic background factors. Conversations were recorded to collect data on language contact and attitudes. The data was analysed by means of a combination of descriptive statistical tools and qualitative analysis. The results show that the overall attitudes towards Finnish language maintenance were positive. However, the positive attitudes did not correlate with high scores of Finnish use or good self-evaluated Finnish skill scores. Attitudes towards mixing English with Finnish were neutral. Among informants who had the most language contact phenomena (LCP) in their speech, disapproving attitudes towards the mixing of English with Finnish correlated with increasing numbers of LCP, i.e. mixing the languages. Among the group whose LCP were mostly items assimilated to Finnish both morphologically and phonetically, the negative attitude towards mixing correlated with higher numbers of LCP. Positive attitudes towards language maintenance correlated with positive attitudes towards bilingualism, and positive attitudes towards bilingualism also correlated with good English skills and more frequent English use. However, Finnish skills and Finnish use correlated negatively with attitudes to bilingualism: the more positive the attitudes towards bilingualism, the less use of Finnish and the weaker the self-evaluated Finnish skills. The research contributes to the study of the most significant group of Finnish migrants in Australia. Reporting their experiences in relation to their language is important and timely as the community is rapidly losing members through natural attrition. The study contributes to the study of Finnish in the diaspora, languages in Australia, the immigrant experience, and the connection between attitudes and behaviour in members of émigré communities. III Table of Contents Statement of Originality……………………………………………………….. I Abstract………………………………………………………………………… II Table of contents……………………………………………………………….. IV List of tables and figures……………………………………………………….. VIII Acknowledgements…………………………………………………………….. XIII 1. Introduction ………………………………………………………………. 1 1.1. Scope of the study……………………………………………………... 1 1.2. Language in emigration……………………………………………….. 2 1.3. Language attitudes…………………………………………………….. 4 1.4. Finnish……………………………………………………………….... 6 1.5. Finnish outside Finland………………………………………………... 8 1.6. English use in and influence in Finland……………………………….. 12 1.7. Languages in Australia………………………………………………... 13 1.8. Finns and Finnish in Australia………………………………………… 15 1.9. Organisation of the thesis……………………………………………… 17 2. Literature review…………………………………………………………. 19 2.1. Attitudes……………………………………………………………….. 19 2.1.1. Measuring attitudes………………………………………….. 21 2.1.2. Language attitudes…………………………………………... 24 2.1.3. Attitudes towards immigrant languages and their speakers in Australia………………………………………… 28 2.2. Cultural identity……………………………………………………….. 34 2.2.1. Culture………………………………………………………..35 2.2.2. Cultural difference…………………………………………... 35 2.2.3. Ethnic, racial or cultural identity……………………………. 41 2.2.4. Ethnolinguistic identity……………………………………… 45 2.3. Languages in contact…………………………………………………... 48 2.3.1. Bilingualism…………………………………………………. 48 2.3.2. Code-switching……………………………………………… 49 2.3.3. Language maintenance or language shift……………………. 55 IV 2.4. Attitudes, culture, identity and language contact with reference to Finns in Australia, North America and Sweden………………………. 62 2.4.1. Finns in Australia……………………………………………. 62 Ethnolinguistic environment……………………………….. 62 Australian Finnish………………………………………….. 65 2.4.2. Finns in North America and Sweden………………………... 67 Finnish in North America………………………………….. 68 Finnish in Sweden………………………………………….. 69 2.5. Summary………………………………………………………………. 71 3. Methodology and data sources…………………………………………... 73 3.1. Informants……………………………………………………………... 73 3.1.1. Time of arrival………………………………………………. 74 3.1.2. Age on arrival……………………………………………….. 77 3.1.3. Family in Australia………………………………………….. 77 3.1.4. Education……………………………………………………. 78 3.1.5. Occupation…………………………………………………... 78 3.1.6. Place of residence in Finland………………………………... 79 3.1.7. Citizenship…………………………………………………... 80 3.2. Data……………………………………………………………………. 80 3.2.1. Questionnaire………………………………………………... 80 3.2.2. Questionnaire data analysis………………………………….. 84 3.3. Conversation data………………………………………………………86 3.3.1. Recording the conversations………………………………… 87 3.3.2. Analysis of recorded data…………………………………… 89 Transcribing and coding…………………………………… 89 Concordance analysis……………………………………… 94 3.4. Memoing………………………………………………………………. 100 3.5. Summary………………………………………………………………. 100 4. Finnish Language maintenance: data and analysis ……………………... 102 4.1. Concordance data ……………………………………………………... 102 4.1.1. General concordance statistics………………………………... 102 4.1.2. Language contact phenomena………………………………… 107 4.1.3. Attitude data from recorded conversations…………………… 115 Attitudes to migration and Australia……………………….. 118 V Attitudes towards language issues…………………………. 124 Attitudes towards Finland………………………………….. 130 Attitudes towards the Finnish community in Australia…..... 134 Attitudes towards culture maintenance…………………….. 136 Australians’ attitudes as reported by informants…………... 139 4.2. Finnish and English language skills…………………………………… 139 4.2.1. Evaluations of Finnish skills………………………………… 139 4.2.2. Evaluations of English skills………………………………… 146 4.3. Use of Finnish and English……………………………………………. 150 4.3.1. Language use at home and with the family…………………. 152 4.3.2. Language use with relatives…………………………………. 155 4.3.3. Language use with friends…………………………………... 155 4.3.4. Language use in the work domain………………………....... 159 4.3.5. Language use with different tasks……………………………160 4.3.6. Individual language use profiles…………………………….. 163 4.4. Language maintenance…………………………………………………166 4.4.1. Attitudes to language maintenance………………………….. 167 4.4.2. Action taken to maintain Finnish……………………………. 173 4.4.3. Correlation of language maintenance attitudes to other data... 177 4.4.4. Profiles of maintainers and shifters………………………….. 186 4.5. English influence in Australian Finnish……………………………… 188 4.5.1. Questionnaire data and comments from conversation………. 189 4.5.2. Language contact phenomena from recorded conversations... 193 Individual profiles of language contact phenomena……….. 201 4.5.3. Correlation of LCP and attitudes expressed in the questionnaire………………………………………………… 211 4.5.4. Summary…………………………………………………….. 215 4.6. Bilingualism…………………………………………………………… 216 4.6.1. Attitudes to bilingualism…………………………………….. 216 4.6.2. Bilingualism attitude scores and bilingual behaviour……….. 226 4.7. Summary and discussion……………………………………………….230 5. Culture maintenance and identity:
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