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Seafarers or war sailors? Bjørn Tore Rosendahl Seafarers or war sailors? The ambiguities of ensuring seafarers’ services in times of war in the case of the Norwegian merchant fleet during the Second World War Doctoral Dissertation for the degree of Philosophiae Doctor (PhD) University of Agder Faculty of Humanities and Education 2017 Doctoral Dissertations at the University of Agder 176 ISSN: 1504-9272 ISBN: 978-82-7117-873-4 Bjørn Tore Rosendahl, 2017 Printed by Wittusen & Jensen Oslo Abstract During the Second World War, the merchant fleet and its seafarers represented Norway’s most significant contribution to the Allied war effort. The seafarers constituted a considerable, heterogeneous workforce and they were mobilised to work in a dangerous situation. Ensuring the service of the merchant seafarers became a crucial task for the exiled Norwegian Government in London, which had requisitioned all available ships into one state-owned shipping company: Nortraship. This PhD thesis covers the following overall questions: With what means were the services of the seafarers in the Norwegian merchant fleet ensured in the Second World War, and what consequences did those efforts have for different groups of nationalities onboard Norwegian ships? These questions are discussed through three separate articles alongside an introductory section. The three case studies show how strongly the changing historical circumstances throughout the war influenced how the different groups of nationalities employed in the Norwegian fleet were mobilised. The first article explores the mobilisation of Norwegian seafarers and concludes that their service was ensured through a wide range of means, including both push and pull measures. The second article concerns the general use of foreign seafarers and finds that few war-related measures were proactively taken to mobilise foreign seafarers. In the third article, the large and atypical group of Chinese seamen on Norwegian ships is explored. They achieved higher salaries and better conditions because of their protests during the war. As a consequence, the Norwegian merchant fleet nearly stopped hiring Chinese seafarers, despite the increasing need to recruit foreign crews. This study concludes that the British influence on the mobilisation and management of seafarers on Norwegian ships was more profound than previous research would indicate. The United Kingdom was both setting the premises for and making a direct impact on the Norwegian policy. British support was also crucial to be able to enforce the increased control over seafarers. The increased state control in the Second World War politicised the shipping economy and the use of seafarers, and their conditions became diplomatic issues. The seafarers’ civilian status came under pressure in various ways during the war and this contributed to an ambiguous Norwegian policy towards them. They were sometimes treated like “seafarers” and at other times like “war sailors”. This is a 5 constructed dual terminology, used to explore the complex and shifting relationship between normality and war in the case of the Norwegian merchant fleet. 6 Acknowledgments Looking back, there are several people who in various ways and in different phases of this study have provided me with their help and support. I would like to take this opportunity to express my gratitude and thanks to everyone who has helped and inspired me along the way. First, I would like to thank my two supervisors. Professor May-Brith Ohman Nielsen has been my main supervisor through the entire PhD project. She has been instructive in developing my thinking and writing as a historian, as well as providing me with valuable advice on the various preliminary texts. My co-supervisor professor Finn Olstad has also been important throughout my study, with his constructive comments and suggestions on structure, literature and arguments. I am also indebted to Professor Tony Lane who has provided me with numerous and valuable advice and references to relevant literature and archival sources. Moreover, our many in-depth discussions via e-mail have been of great help and inspiration. My research stay in China was both productive and a great experience. I am very grateful to Han Qing, the director of the Maritime History & Culture Research Center, Dalian Maritime University for inviting me, sharing his material and knowledge on Chinese maritime history – and for being such a great host. I am indebted to Charles and Yvonne Foley for sharing their yet unpublished works and for putting me in contact with Han Qing. I am very grateful to my employer, Stiftelsen Arkivet, for giving me the opportunity to do this PhD as a part of my job. Aslak J. Brekke was my director when I started up, and I thank him for encouraging me to do so. I am likewise grateful to my current director Audun Myhre, for being equally enthusiastic and supportive towards my project. My colleague at Stiftelsen Arkivet, historian Thomas V. H. Hagen, has been an excellent and invaluable companion throughout the PhD program. It would have been much harder and considerably less fun without his company. Other former and current colleagues at Stiftelsen Arkivet have also provided different types of valuable help: Saskia Klooster by reading texts and updating me on Dutch historiography, Ingvild Ruhaven by improving my English, and Simen Zernichow for helping me with both small and big things. Many thanks also to: Ingrid Næser, Idunn Sem, Mirjam Kristensen, Knut Flovik Thoresen, Kjetil Grødum, Arno Larsen, Lasse Laudal and 7 Eystein Ellingsen. And many thanks to all my colleagues for their continuous support and encouragement. This PhD project has been a part of the PhD programme “Specialisation in religion, ethics, history and society” at the Faculty of Humanities and Education at the University of Agder. Many thanks to all the academics and fellow PhD students who commented different texts in the PhD seminars, in particular Harald Rinde, Paul Leer- Salvesen, Pål Repstad, Jan Olav Henriksen, Sivert Skålvoll Urstad, Eirik Wig Sundvall, Vidar F. Kalsås, Jan Magne Stensrud and Anne Tove Austbø. I am also grateful to Hans Hodne, Head of Department of Religion, Philosophy and History, for providing me a quiet office at the university in periods during the last year. I am grateful for the friendly and efficient assistance from all the different archives and libraries I have visited: the Norwegian National Archives, the Norwegian Labour Movement Archives and Library, the Norwegian Shipowner Association, the Modern Record Centre (University of Warwick), the National Archives in Kew, the British Library and the Regional State Archives in Kristiansand. I am in particular indebted to Jørgen Engestøl who did a great job in giving me access to sources at the Norwegian National Archives. I am also grateful to Director Kjetil Reithaug at the Regional State Archives of Kristiansand, for lending me an office in the closing stages of my thesis. I am indebted to Professor Tom Kristiansen who provided me with valuable advice in my so-called 90 % seminar. Many more people have helped me by sharing sources, information and views on different issues. Among those I am grateful to, are William McGee, Thorbjørn Solberg Andersen, Lars Chr. Jenssen, Leif Thingsrud, Øyvind Andreas Gausemel, Sindre Weber, Kjetil Henriksen, Guri Hjeltnes, Atle Thowsen, Bjørn Basberg, Lauritz Pettersen, Tore L. Nilsen, Elisabeth S. Koren and Arvid Hoel. Many thanks also to my wife and kids for their patience and understanding, and for helping me focus on other things than this thesis, throughout these last four years. However, I guess I’ll still be hearing: “Don’t (always) mention the war” from time to time. Finally, I am very grateful to author Jon Michelet for our discussions and productive co-operation on different side projects related to the PhD project. Likewise, it has been very educative for me to speak with and listen to the war experiences from the seafarers themselves. I am particularly indebted to Kåre Aarseth, Edvard Trevland, Anker E. Borøy, Søren Brandsnes and late Aksel Remøe. You have been a great inspiration to me. 8 Table of Contents Abstract ..................................................................................................................................... 5 Acknowledgments ..................................................................................................................... 7 List of Illustrations ................................................................................................................. 11 1. The research project and its overall questions ............................................................ 13 2. Historical background to the general topic area ......................................................... 17 Exposed seafarers in times of war ........................................................................................ 17 Norway’s merchant fleet under the control of the government in exile ............................... 17 Chartered by the Allies ......................................................................................................... 20 A dangerous job ................................................................................................................... 21 A multitude of actors ............................................................................................................ 22 Economic motives ...............................................................................................................
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