THE CULTURE OF DANCE The Power to Create, Connect, and Master
Newly Revised Second Edition
Wendy Guess, PhD Florida International University Bassim Hamadeh, CEO and Publisher Kassie Graves, Director of Acquisitions and Sales Jamie Giganti, Senior Managing Editor Jess Estrella, Senior Graphic Designer Jennifer McCarthy, Acquisitions Editor Natalie Lakosil, Licensing Manager Kaela Martin, Project Editor Christian Berk, Associate Production Editor
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ISBN: 978-1-5165-2042-8 (pbk) / 978-1-5165-2049-7 (br) I AM a peculiar breed of dance … I am tireless …
I AM elemental, springing from the every lives of nameless common people of every land … preserved, perpetuated, relatively unchanged since physiologically man has changed so little … yet I take on the characteristics of the race and conditions through which I pass, partaking of their joys and of their sorrows … expressing the deepest emotions of their lives.
I AM debtor to Greek and Barbarian … to Jew and Gentile … to sinner and saint.
I AM you, as you seek to recapture the essence of understanding of another race as tied up in its rhythm and melody of motion.
I BUILD … I heal … I ennoble … I am that within which unifies all mankind … I am the essence of oneness.
You can misuse and subvert me, yet I will triumph. That which is elemental within me will eventually permeate the whole and lift it. You cannot keep me down. For a short time you can change me, yet I will break out of your bonds.
I AM the spirit of freedom … I sing in the heart of slaves … I raise up to new strength, the fallen … I am the timeless urge of the nameless masses of men seeking expression …
I AM THE FOLK DANCE. —Author unknown
iii Contents Foreword ix By Pierre Dulaine
Acknowledgments xi
Preface xiii By Wendy Guess, PhD
Part One The Power to Create Understanding, Meaning, Purpose
CHAPTER ONE: WHAT IS DANCE? WHY DO WE DANCE? 3
Chapter Terms 5
Studying Dance Cultures Around the World 7 By Pegge Vissicaro
CHAPTER TWO: CREATING UNDERSTANDING 15
Chapter Terms 17
Dance in the Island Cultures 19 By Darlene O’Cadiz
Dance: A Creative Art Experience 29 By Margaret N. H’Doubler
Dancing and Its Relations to Education and Social Life 35 By Allen Dodworth
CHAPTER THREE: CREATING MEANING AND PURPOSE 47
Chapter Terms 49
Dancing: The Pleasure, Power, and Art of Movement 51 By Gerald Jonas
Societies of the Plains Indians 63 By Clark Wissler
African Dance: Bridges to Humanity 77 By Tracy D. Snipe; ed. Kariamu Welsh-Asante Part Two The Power to Connect Communicate, Bond, Heal
CHAPTER FOUR: DANCE AS A COMMUNICATION TOOL 89
Chapter Terms 91
American Ballroom Theater 93 By Pierre Dulaine
Headspin: Capoeira’s Ironic Inversions 95 By Barbara Browning; ed. Ann Dils and Ann Cooper Albright
Dancing at the Crossroads: Memory and Mobility in Ireland 105 By Helena Wulff
Merengue and Dominican Identity 113 By Julie A. Sellers
Sex and Symbol in the Treatment of Women: 119 The Wedding Rite in a Libyan Oasis Community By John P. Mason
CHAPTER FIVE: FUSION—BONDING ACROSS DANCE CULTURES 129
Chapter Terms 131
Vibrant Andalusia: The Spice of Life in Southern Spain 133 By Ana Ruiz
Bhangra: From Farming to Pop Culture 141 By Dr. Wendy Guess
Creole Quadrilles of Guadeloupe, Dominica, Martinique, St. Lucia 147 By Dominique Cyrille
The History of Breakdancing 157 By Mr. Fresh and the Supreme Rockers
Southeast Texas: A Hot House of Zydeco 159 By Roger Wood; ed. Lawrence Clayton and Joe W. Specht
Forró: A Dance for All 167 By Wendy Guess, PhD
vi CHAPTER SIX: HEALING AND FITNESS TOOLS 171
Chapter Terms 173
Harnessing the Healing Power of Movement 175 By Carol Krucoff and Mitchell Krucoff, M.D.
A Therapeutic Dance Program for Parkinson’s Patients 183 By Jennifer Valdes
Zumba Fitness 185 By Bradley George
Yoga and Integrative Medicine 191 By Wendy Guess, PhD
Does Partnered Dance Promote Health? The Case of Tango Argentino 197 By Gunter Kreutz
Somatics: Reawakening the Mind’s Control of Movement, Flexibility, and Health 205 By Thomas Hanna
Part Three The Power to Master Excel, Perform, Compete
CHAPTER SEVEN: DANCE AS A PERFORMANCE ART (FINE ART) 215
Chapter Terms 217
Movement Notation and the Fields of its Applications 219 By Rudolph von Laban
Interesting Moments in the History of Ballet 229 By Anneliese Burns Wilson
Dancing: The Pleasure, Power, and Art of Movement 239 By Gerald Jonas
The Mothers of Invention: Founding Females of Modern Dance 247 By Anneliese Burns Wilson
Dancing: The Pleasure, Power, and Art of Movement 257 By Gerald Jonas
vii CHAPTER EIGHT: DANCE AS A CREATIVE ART 261 (COMPETITIVE AND RECREATIONAL)
Chapter Terms 263
Dancing Till Dawn 265 By Julie Malnig
Introduction: Jazz, the American Soul 283 By Janice LaPointe-Crump and Kimberly Staley
Tap Dance Fundamentals 289 By Colleen N. West
CHAPTER NINE: EDUCATION—PASSING ON THE LEGACIES 295
Chapter Terms 297
Education Through Dance 299 By Margaret N. H’Doubler
A Teacher’s Resource Guide: Addressing Health and Dance Issues 303 By Wendy Guess, PhD
A Career in Dance 311 Institute for Career Research
Index 313
Image Credits 317
viii Acknowledgments
any individuals have influenced me I acknowledge my appreciation to Pierre and have shaped and encouraged Dulaine, John Ross and the Dancing Classrooms my journey to this point. I wish to program. The Dulaine Method is a life-changing Mexpress my gratitude to so many who have been a effort. My thanks also goes to Anneliese Burns part of that journey. First, to my father and late Wilson for her inspiration and contributions, as mother, who instilled in me a passion for learn- well as to David Roberts for his creative genius ing. Second, to my sons, Tavita and Mataio, who and insight. I acknowledge my appreciation constantly inspire me and are the source of my to Anthony Miyazaki at Florida International joy and creativity. University, whose vision for expanding health As a university student, I was privileged to be and fitness marketing has continued to challenge among the Folk and Ballroom dance legacy of me professionally and continue to impact lives. Brigham Young University. There, I was inspired Last, but certainly not least, I am grateful by Mary Bee Jensen, Charles West, and Lee and to Jennifer McCarthy, Acquisitions Editor for Linda Wakefield with their best-practice teaching. Cognella Publishers and the many professionals This is where I discovered the powerful nature of who worked on this book. Now I truly under- dance as a performer and competitor in the U.S. stand why almost every author thanks her/his and Europe. Their influence has impacted the editor. Jennifer has made a reality out of a project world of dance in so many ways. I had only dreamed about! She inspired in me As I continued my professional pursuits, I the confidence to believe that it was a worthwhile was mentored and encouraged by the following project. She researched with me, spent countless professors of Texas Women’s University and the hours on the phone encouraging me, found a way University of North Texas: Gladys Keeton, Janice to connect all the missing pieces, had pictures La Pointe Crump, and Jean Pekara. Their devo- from her own professional collection, and made tion motivated me to continue my own pursuit the daunting task of publishing much less of a of dance knowledge. Under their mentorship, burden. Jennifer, you are the best! I have expanded my teaching, performing, and education while becoming involved with the Texas Association of Health, Physical Education, Recreation, and Dance. This involvement has of- fered many opportunities to interact with excellent professionals for which I am also most grateful.
Acknowledgments xi Preface By WENDY GUESS, PhD
f you ever watched a movie or concert or show with dancing in it, you probably imagined yourself dancing right along with the performers. You would likely feel incredibly vibrant and healthy, Ienjoying the spontaneous thrill of the moment! Getting in touch with spontaneity is one of dance’s healing qualities. Modern day life discourages spontaneity, and the result can be stress and disease. Spontaneous expression and creativity are good for exercising the soul, or nurturing one’s spirit. Spontaneous activity brings an uninterrupted flow back into one’s life, like play in childhood: living on the edge, movement to movement, without fear, just reflex.
—Paul Pellicoro, Dancesport Studio, NYC
Welcome to The Culture of Dance: The Power to Connect, Communicate, and Create!From my experience in studying multiple dance forms, anthropology, and health, I have discovered a universal theme for living. I call this theme the “Elements of Interaction: Create, Connect, and Master,” and it can be found in all positive and successful aspects of the human interaction experience. This anthology is a compilation of this rich history and culture that serves to create, connect, and master the world of dance and has been shared by many exciting dance authors throughout the last century. The purpose of this anthology is to provide a multifaceted resource for exploring the world of dance by experiencing it from a cultural perspective that blends people and their dance. This book assembles a delightful collection of some of the best writings on dance presented in three sections that uniquely guide you through the universal Elements of Interaction.
Part 1—The Power to Create: Understanding, Meaning, Purpose provides an appreciation of the fantastic history and evolution of this phenomenal art form we call dance. This section frames the concept of how we define dance, how we understand and critique dance, and the creative, meaningful qualities of dance. We will explore dance as a creative art and dance as a religious tool providing the meaning and purpose to many parts of life.
PREFACE xiii Part 2—The Power to Connect: Communicate, Bond, Heal shares the universal concepts of con- necting the human experience through the stories and communication that preserves tradition and community, the bond that is enhanced and deepened through dance form, as well as the healing powers found through movement as therapy.
Part 3—The Power to Master: Excel, Perform, Compete will complete your experience with ad- ditional enlightenment into the process of mastering dance. Performing, excelling, and competing have shaped not only dance, but also our experience viewing dance, as the readings will explain. This section shares the qualities that have and continue to make dance the art form that it is. Relish the incredible journey of dancing throughout the world in this book. Allow yourself to discover child-like joy, new feelings of wellbeing, and a fun, relaxing time. All these simple joys can be achieved by gaining a sense of understanding music and movement. As you continue throughout this book, take note of your feelings toward each type of dance and music style. Developing a connection with one of the styles or genres is an awesome experience.
Dancing is about connections … to our friends, to our families, to our neighbors. It is one of the most expressive ways we celebrate and communicate our cultures and communities … and address fundamental issues of mutual respect and self-esteem—issues that social dance puts into practice.
—Pierre Dulaine & Yvonne Marceau of Dancing Classrooms.
Welcome to the world of Dance! Please join me in this exciting journey of discovery!
—Dr. Wendy
The Jabbawockeez featured on America’s Best Dance Crew show great precision. xiv THE CULTURE OF DANCE Part One The Power to Create
Understanding / Meaning / Purpose
ance has a power, like other art forms, to move us to emotion. These emotions provide powerful memories. The movement becomes a symbol that provides a Ddeep meaning and purpose to our history and evolution. This part of the anthol- ogy frames the concept of how we define dance, how we understand dance, and how we create purpose for the creative, meaningful qualities of dance. In the following chapters, we begin to explore dance. We commence the process of defining what dance is and how to discuss it. We then continue the journey by exploring some of the broad perspectives of why we, as humans, chose dance as a tool for spiritual- ity, a form of expressing creative art, and then we move into describing dance in rights of passage, which all assist in providing the meaning and purpose to many parts of life. This part in particular becomes the basis for the conversation on dance. Recognizing that dance is found in virtually every ritual, it is important to explain the symbolic use of dance in the ritual experience.
• What is Dance? Why Do We Dance? • Creating Understanding • Creating Meaning and Purpose What Is Dance? Why Do We Dance?
TERMS PEOPLE, PLACES Humanities Joann Keali’inohomoku Anthropology Katherine Dunham Point of view Ethnochoreology Mary Bee Jensen Multicultural Brigham Young University Bongol Ed Austin Mai Vytes (Vytautus) Beliajus Odori Haka Jonkonnu Sowu Folk dance Choreography Rituals Improvisation
RITUALS Collection of individual actions shaping a cultural event (i.e. morning ritual, Holiday, special date).
RITUAL CATEGORIES: Community Fertility Ceremonial Competitive
ORGANIZATIONS/RESOURCES National Endowment for the Arts www.nea.gov
National Folk Organization www.nfo-usa.org
Brigham Young University Folk Dance www.byu.edu
www.youtube.com/cultureofdance Chapter Two: Creating Understanding
15 Creating Understanding
TERMS PEOPLE Wedding Dances Margaret H’Doubler Captain James Cook King Louis XIV Oro Raoul-Auger Feuillet Kinesthetic awareness Mrs. Alfred Webster Rhythmic Ella Gardner Creativity Cotillion German Etiquette Waltz Galop Polka Dance Manuals
RESOURCES Library of Congress Dance Manuals An American Ballroom Companion www.loc.gov
Flying Cloud Vintage Dance www.vintagedance.net
Vintage Dancers www.vintagedancers.org
www.youtube.com/cultureofdance 3. Dance in the Island Cultures Dance in the Island Cultures By O’CADIZ, DARLENE
Tahiti Cook Islands Hawaii to keep their hundred-foot double canoes afloat in the ever-changing ocean. (Eggleston, 1953) Early in the first centuries CE, the migration moved to Melanesia, an area that was already in- habited when the Austronesian speakers arrived. Initially, these migrants immersed themselves with the indigenous people; they did not attempt to rule or subjugate the native inhabitants. They moved on to Samoa and Tonga, and eventually BoraBora Bora, Bora, Tahiti Tahiti spread to Easter Island and then north to Hawaii (Barcham, Scheyvens, and Overton, 2009). Still, The Migration of the Polynesians with time, more and more migrants traveled to the islands. The Polynesian migration was an he Polynesians are a groupTHE of MIGRATION people who live OFon the THE many islands of the Southexample Pacific. ofMost chain anthro migration- , where families fol- T pologists believe theyPOLYNESIANS came to the Pacific Islands by way of Southeast Asia, lowpredominantly their kin whoTaiwan. have already settled in the new These Austronesian-speaking peoplehe Polynesiansmost likely reachedare a group the islandsof people by boat,who usingterritory. their knowledge As more ofand more Polynesians settled astronomy to navigate. Long beforelive the on European the many sailors islands dared toof venturethe South beyond theamong Strait the of islands,Gibraltar, they began to have an impact these people were exploring the SouthPacific. Pacific Most byanthropologists canoe. They even believe traveled they to theon existingArctic Ocean. island They cultures. They brought with were highly skilled sailorsTcame who to had the a Pacificsophisticated Islands understanding by way of Southeastof nautical exploration.them their ownIt took ideas a and cultural heritage. complex understanding ofAsia, the predominantlydynamics of the Taiwan. sea to keep These their Austronesian hundred-foot- doubleAlthough canoes afloateach island in in the South Pacific has the ever-changing ocean. (Eggleston,1953)speaking people most likely reached the islands unique groups of people, the Pacific Islanders Melanesia Early in the first centuriesby boat, CE, theusing migration their knowledge moved to of astronomy, an area to that sharewas already similarities inhabited in their language, culture, and when the Austronesian speakers arrived. Initially, these migrants immersed themselves with the indig- navigate. Long before the European sailors dared beliefs. For example, there are approximately enous people; they did not attempt to rule or subjugate the native inhabitants. They moved on to Samoa to venture beyond the Strait of Gibraltar, these forty Polynesian languages, but they all have people were exploring the South Pacific by canoe. commonalities, and they all stem from the They even traveled to the Arctic Ocean. They Austronesian-based vocabulary system. The were highly skilled sailors who had a sophisticated immigrants from Southeast Asia also brought understanding of nautical exploration. It took a with them their mythology and deities. The complex understanding of the dynamics of the sea Polynesian belief system was one of man’s oldest, Dance in the Island Cultures | 33
From Dance and Cultural Diversity,Darlene by Darlene O’Cadiz, O'Cadiz, “Dance pp. in 33the - Island43. Copyright Cultures,” © Dance 2013 and Cognella Cultural Academic Diversity, pp.Publishing. 33-41, 43. All Copyright rights © 2013 by Cognella, Inc. Reprinted with reserved. Reprinted with permission.permission.
Dance in the Island Cultures 19 dating back to the Paleolithic age. As they be- follower of the Christian faith. The missionaries came more settled on the island, they adapted believed she would be a temporary ruler, and thus their religious beliefs to suit their new environ- overlooked her “pagan” beliefs. Her rule ended up ment. They reconstructed myths so that they lasing much longer than anyone expected. She emphasized an importance on nature, especially remained in power until the late 1840s, when the the sea. Much like the Native Americans, the French took control of Tahiti in 1846. Polynesians also believed in Animism, in which In 1842, Queen Pomare IV agreed to desig- elements of nature possess spiritual qualities of nate Tahiti as a French protectorate, meaning the Divine. They also believed all things in nature that would be protected militarily by France, contain a supernatural power called mana. It was but would essentially retain its independence, thought these powers could be used for good or with certain obligations. However, on June 29, bad purposes, and the Polynesians’ belief system 1880, King Pomare V was forced to cede the included a complicated set of rules to avoid bad sovereignty of Tahiti. It was not until 1946 that mana, known as tapu or taboo. Dances in the Tahiti officially became French territory, and the island cultures also have similar qualities. All Tahitians were granted French citizenship. But island dances use pelvic-centered movements, they remained under French rule until 2003, which are meant to emphasize the importance of when Tahiti was named a French overseas com- fertility and the natural elements, especially the munity, which allowed the Tahitians almost full wind and the sea. independence and the right to self-govern.
TAHITI CULTURAL INFLUENCE OF THE Tahiti is one of the larger islands in the Pacific and EUROPEAN EXPLORERS was settled by the Polynesians in approximately One of the first explorers to find Tahiti was Samuel 300 ce. Its society was broken up into many small Wallis, an English sea captain who traveled to the Culturalclans, Influence each of which of the ruled European by a chief, Explorers or Ali’I. region in 1767. In April of 1768, Louis-Antoine The chiefs were thought to be descendants of the One ofPolynesian the first explorers gods. As to the find clans Tahiti grew was and Samuel there Wallis,was an English sea captaingreater who competition traveled to thefor regionresources, in 1767. wars In brokeApril of out 1768, Louis- Antoineamong de Bougainville, the chiefdoms. a French These admiral, wars discoveredwent on for the island. A yearmany later, years. the famous When Captain the Europeans James Cook began made to arrive his way to the island.in Each the lateof these 1760s, European the Tahitians sailors realized was shocked the power at the explicit publicof display their of weaponry, sexuality on and the island.one group, Their journalsled by describethe these encounters.prominent Bougainville chief O’tu published, convinced his travel the Europeanslog, Journey Around The World,to help and them told thefight tale their of a beautiful battles. “Venus”O’tu welcomed woman who was escortedthe to London the ship bySociety two men Missionaries in a canoe. inShe 1797 climbed and up the ship and letconverted her clothing to Christianity. fall to the floor, He changed revealing his hername beautiful to naked body. PomareThe Europeans I, and ruledwere shockeduntil his bydeath the inwoman’s 1803. openHis offering of herson, body Pomare for their II, fellpleasure. from powerBut sexuality in1808 wasand hadan everyday to oc- currenceflee on to the Mo’orea,island, an along was viewedwith the as practicalmissionaries means who of seeking enjoyment.had been Because residing of the with explicit his sexualtribe. Inpractices, 1815 Pomare babies were born often. IITo returned control the to population,power, and infanticide made Christianity was a common the practice. The babies who were the victims of infanticide were smothered by April 1768, Louis-Antonie Bougainville, dominant religion. After Pomare II died, a short Aprila French admiral,1768, discoveredLouis-Antonie the island the mother, but if the baby drew his first breath and cried before the reign of Pomare III preceded the rule of Queen Bougainville,of Tahiti a French admiral, mother could get to it, he was allowed to survive. By custom, babies Pomare IV. However, she was not a devout discovered the island of Tahiti who did survive were treated extremely well. It was cultural practice that the new baby became the head of the household, and had to be catered to. Girls were treated with especially complex care, because after weaning, they had to be fed in a different location from her mother. 20 THE CULTURE OF DANCE Their food had to be prepared in different pots and could not touch the mother’s food. The Christian Missionaries were convinced that these complicated rituals and the infanticide were the work of the devil, and these savages needed to be educated and converted to a more “civilized” way of living. (Rye pp. 108–111)
The Missionaries
The London Society Missionaries arrived in Tahiti March of 1797. Although they had the best inten- tions of making life better for the natives, they made no attempt to preserve any rituals or traditions. A new form of worship, that of Christianity, was imposed. Christian ways taught that the ecstatic feeling of sexual release could be experienced in a non-sexual way through prayer and rejoicing in God. Dancing and tattoos were forbidden, clothing covering the whole body was required, sexual practices were to be restrained, and religious idols were destroyed. At first, many of the islanders ignored these ideas, but the Pomares, who were in power, dictated that Christian ethics be enforced. The reputation for elicit sex and infanticide that appalled the Europeans was mainly attributed to the ariori. These were performers who were chosen because they were thought to be the most beautiful and physically perfect members of the tribe. They were usually of royal descent, but had renounced their right to royal inheritance. It was a great honor to be an ariori, and commoners who were chosen to become
Dance in the Island Cultures | 35 de Bougainville, a French admiral, discovered the experienced in a non-sexual way through prayer island. A year later, the famous Captain James and rejoicing in God. Dancing and tattoos were Cook made his way to the island. Each of these forbidden, clothing covering the whole body was European sailors was shocked at the explicit required, sexual practices were to be restrained, public display of sexuality on the island. Their and religious idols were destroyed. At first, journals describe these encounters. Bougainville many of the islanders ignored these ideas, but published his travel log, Journey Around The the Pomares, who were in power, dictated that World, and told the tale of a beautiful “Venus” Christian ethics be enforced. woman who was escorted to the ship by two men The reputation for elicit sex and infanticide in a canoe. She climbed up the ship and let her that appalled the Europeans was mainly attrib- clothing fall to the floor, revealing her beautiful uted to the ariori. These were performers who naked body. The Europeans were shocked by the were chosen because they were thought to be the woman’s open offering of her body for their plea- most beautiful and physically perfect members of sure. But sexuality was an everyday occurrence the tribe. They were usually of royal descent, but on the island, an was viewed as practical means of had renounced their right to royal inheritance. It seeking enjoyment. Because of the explicit sexual was a great honor to be an ariori, and commoners practices, babies were born often. To control the who were chosen to become ariori were given land population, infanticide was a common practice. when they retired. Ariori performed dances that The babies who were the victims of infanticide displayed lascivious sexuality. They lived promis- were smothered by the mother, but if the baby cuously, but any children conceived by them were drew his first breath and cried before the mother not permitted to live. This is because the ariori could get to it, he was allowed to survive. By came mainly from the chiefly class, and only one custom, babies who did survive were treated ex- child could inherit the position. The ariori were tremely well. It was cultural practice that the new servants to the chief, and society was responsible baby became the head of the household, and had for their welfare. They were the key players in to be catered to. Girls were treated with especially religious rituals, and provided popular entertain- complex care, because after weaning, they had to ment. Therefore, they were adored by the people, be fed in a different location from her mother. and were thought to bring the blessings of the Their food had to be prepared in different pots gods to the community. (Lummis, 2005, p. 58) and could not touch the mother’s food. The Christian Missionaries were convinced that these complicated rituals and the infanticide were the work of the devil, and these savages needed to be DANCES OF THE TAHITIAN ISLANDS educated and converted to a more “civilized” way Ori Tahiti is a traditional dance that was an of living. (Rye pp. 108–111) important part of the Tahitians’ everyday life. Dance was seen as a way to worship the gods, and a way to honor nature. Because Tahitian THE MISSIONARIES dance movements reflected work styles, it was The London Society Missionaries arrived in viewed as a healthy emotional release. Some of Tahiti March of 1797. Although they had the the movements were highly sexual, and thus Ori best intentions of making life better for the na- Tahiti was also a means of sensual expression. tives, they made no attempt to preserve any ritu- The early explorers described a common Tahitian als or traditions. A new form of worship, that of dance called the upa’upa as vulgar and indecent. Christianity, was imposed. Christian ways taught They warned that it promoted licentious sex. The that the ecstatic feeling of sexual release could be missionaries convinced Pomare I to prohibit it
Dance in the Island Cultures 21 ariori were given land when they retired. Ariori performed dances that displayed lascivious sexuality. They lived promiscuously, but any children conceived by them were not permitted to live. This is because the ariori came mainly from the chiefly class, and only one child could inherit the position. The ariori were servants to the chief, and society was responsible for their welfare. They were the key players in religious rituals, and provided popular entertainment. Therefore, they were adored by the people, and were thought to bring the blessings of the gods to the community. (Lummis, 2005, p. 58)
Dances of the Tahitian Islands
Orithe Tahiti literal is adefinition traditional danceof the that Aparima was an is impor “kiss- of tantthe part hands.” of the At Tahitians’ the end everyday of a Tahitian life. Dance ceremony was seenof celebration,as a way to worshipa dance the called gods, theand Hivinaua way to is honorperformed. nature. ABecause dancer Tahitian who is gooddance at movements improvising reflectedand performing work styles, solo itleads was it. viewed as a healthy emotionalTahitian release. dancing Some isof performedthe movements to percuswere - highlysion sexual,music, and usually thus Oriat aTahiti fast wastempo. also aThere means are ofmany sensual types expression. of Tahitian The early percussion explorers instruments described a employed,common Tahitian so that dance a variety called of the sounds upa’upa can as be vulgarcreated. and Forindecent. example, They thewarned to’ere that is it apromoted horizontal licentiouslog with sex. a slitThe throughmissionaries it, whichconvinced is struck Pomare with I toone prohibit or two it from sticks. being It performed.is played very Thus, rapidly. the origi The- nalPahu dance is hasa standing been lost, logbut somecovered historians with sharkskin, believe it andcould can be be similar played to with a dance the hands that existsat either today, a fast calledor slow the pace. tamure The, which conch consists is a shell of that hip-shaking is blown to movementsproduce a done low tone,close towhile a partner. a nose flute is played Ote’a is another traditional Tahitian dance. by exhaling through the nose to produce a higher Traditionally, it was only performed by men (a form tone. called ote’a tane), but now women have their own Despite the protest against its explicit sexual version (ote’a vahine), and sometimes they perform practices, Tahiti was an intriguing paradise for the together in what is called ote’a amui. For men, Europeans, and much was written by the sailors, the basic step is called pa’oti where the feet stay flatmissionaries, on the ground and eighteenth-centuryand the knees open Frenchand close. and SometimesEnglish writers. there are Artists also kickssuch as(tu’e), Paul or Gauguin, a running the Tahitian Dancers performing Tamure. Tahitian Dancers performing Tamure. moveFrench (horo). impressionist, Meanwhile, lived the womenin Tahiti shake and createdtheir hipsnumerous fast and worksextend oftheir art arms depicting gracefully. the Anotherlifestyle of dance performed by the women is the Aparima. It is a dancethe natives, that tells fauna, a story and expressing flora. daily life. In the fromTahitian being language, performed. “Apa” Thus, means the kiss original and “rima” dance means hands, so the literal definition of the Aparima has been lost, but some historians believe it could is “kiss of the hands.” At the end of a Tahitian ceremonyTHE of COOKcelebration, ISLANDS a dance called the Hivinau is beperformed. similar to A a dancerdance whothat isexists good today, at improvising called the and performing solo leads it. tamureTahitian, which dancing consists is performed of hip-shaking to percussion move music,- It usually is unknown at a fast exactly tempo. Therewhy Polynesian are many types migrants of mentsTahitian done percussion close to instrumentsa partner. employed, so that a varietymoved of to sounds what canare benow created. called Forthe example,Cook Islands, the Ote’a is another traditional Tahitian dance. but it is theorized that overpopulation from the Traditionally, it was only performed by men (a other Polynesian islands, mainly Tahiti, Samoa, form36 | called Dance ote’aand Cultural tane), butDiversity now women have their and Tonga, led many to migrate to the southeast. own version (ote’a vahine), and sometimes they They are believed to have arrived in approximately perform together in what is called ote’a amui. For 600 CE, bringing with them their culture and men, the basic step is called pa’oti where the feet traditions. The Islands are named after Captain stay flat on the ground and the knees open and James Cook, who visited in 1773 and who is close. Sometimes there are also kicks (tu’e), or a seen as the gateway for European influences in running move (horo). Meanwhile, the women the South Pacific. The Cook Islands have a long shake their hips fast and extend their arms grace- history of European imperialism. They became fully. Another dance performed by the women a protectorate of Britain in 1888, at the request is the Aparima. It is a dance that tells a story of the Queen Makea Takau. By 1900, they were expressing daily life. In the Tahitian language, controlled by New Zealand. It was not until “Apa” means kiss and “rima” means hands, so 1965 that the residents of the Cook Islands were
22 THE CULTURE OF DANCE to’ere is a horizontal log with a slit through it, which is struck with one or two sticks. It is played very rapidly. The Pahu is a standing log covered with sharkskin, and can be played with the hands at either a fast or slow pace. The conch is a shell that is blown to produce a low tone, while a nose flute is played by exhaling through the nose to produce a higher tone. Despite the protest against its explicit sexual practices, Tahiti was an intriguing paradise for the Europeans, and much was written by the sailors, missionaries, and eighteenth-century French and English writers. Artists such as Paul Gauguin, the French impressionist, lived in Tahiti and created numerous works of art depicting the lifestyle of the natives, fauna, and flora. to’ere is a horizontal log with a slit through it, which is struck with one or two sticks. It is played very rapidly. The PahuThe is Cook a standing Islands log covered with sharkskin, and can be played with the hands at either a fast or slow pace. The conch is a shell that is blown to produce a low tone, while a nose flute is played by exhaling throughIt is the unknown nose to exactly produce why Polynesiana higher tone. migrants moved to what dances are performed by men and women who Despite theare protest now called against the Cookits explicit Islands, butsexual it is theorizedpractices, that Tahiti over- was an intriguing paradise for the are highly trained. Performing together, they Europeans, andpopulation much was from written the otherby the Polynesian sailors, missionaries, islands, mainly and Tahiti, eighteenth-century French and English stand in alternating rows, and the men take the Samoa, and Tonga, led many to migrate to the southeast. They writers. Artists such as Paul Gauguin, the French impressionist, lived in Tahiti and created numerous lead in the drum dances, which are athletic and are believed to have arrived in approximately 600 CE, bringing energetic. These dances were originally practiced works of art depicting the lifestyle of the natives, fauna, and flora. with them their culture and traditions. The Islands are named to train warriors and strengthen the men. The after Captain James Cook, who visited in 1773 and who is seen movements are designed specifically for men, as the gateway for European influences in the South Pacific. The and dictate how a man should dance. The The Cook IslandsCook Islands have a long history of European imperialism. They women take the lead in the storytelling dances, became a protectorate of Britain in 1888, at the request of the and they express a more graceful and serene Queen Makea Takau. By 1900, they were controlled by New quality, reflecting femininity. These team dances It is unknown exactlyZealand. whyIt was Polynesian not until 1965 migrants that the movedresidents to of what the Cook are performed for an audience, and successful are now calledIslands the Cook were allowedIslands, to but govern it is themselves theorized in that free over-association choreographers gain great prestige in the com- population fromwith the New other Zealand. Polynesian islands, mainly Tahiti, Postage Stamp from the Cook Islands de- pictingPostage the discoveryStamp offrom the island. the Cook munity. These dances also reflect the emphasis Samoa, and Tonga, led many to migrate to the southeast. They Islands depicting the discovery of on community in the Cook Island society. It are believed toDances have arrived in the Cookin approximately Islands 600 CE, bringing the island. is important to be part of the group and sup- with them their culture and traditions. The Islands are named port each other. “Here, the nuclear family has after Captain JamesThe missionaries Cook, who saw visited the dance in movements1773 and whoas sinful. is seen The allowed dancers demonstratedto govern themselves pelvic-centered in free moveassociation- absolutely no importance. The extended family with New Zealand. is everything” (Jonas, p. 110). But even when as the gateway ments,for European and any display influences of sexuality in the was South not acceptable Pacific. inThe the eyes of the missionaries. They wanted to save the souls of the islanders by converting them to Christianity. The missionaries actually were very couples dance at parties, they avoid touching. Cook Islands have a long history of European imperialism. They Good dancers are those who can contour their successful in convincing the natives to adopt a new ChristianDANCES way IN THE COOK ISLANDS became a protectorateof worship, of but Britain the natives in 1888, were stillat thereluctant request to stop of performingthe bodies’ matching curves but without actually Queen Makea theirTakau. ritualistic By 1900, dances. they were controlled by NewThe missionaries saw the dance movements as touching each other. And unlike in Western Zealand. It was notTraditional until 1965dance that has begunthe residents to be practiced of the again, Cook sincesinful. the The dancers demonstrated pelvic-centered culture, in the Cook Islands, it is the women Islands were allowedban imposed to govern by the New themselves Zealand government in free association was lifted movements,in 1945. and any display of sexuality was not who invite or beckon the men to dance. These dances are performed by men and women who areacceptable highly in the eyes of the missionaries. They with New Zealand. Postage Stamp from the Cook Islands de- wanted to save the souls of the islanders by con- trained. Performing together, they stand in alternating rows, pictingand the discovery of the island. the men take the lead in the drum dances, which are athleticverting and them to Christianity. The missionaries MEN’S DANCE energetic. These dances were originally practiced to train warriorsactually wereTraditional very dancesuccessful in Cook in Islands convincing the Male dancers are very energetic in their move- Dances in the Cook Islands natives to adopt a new Christian way of wor- ments. Similar to the male dances in Tahiti, they ship, but the natives were still reluctant to stop bend their knees and flap their legs together. Dance in the Island Cultures | 37 The missionaries saw the dance movements as sinful. The dancersperforming demonstrated their ritualistic pelvic-centered dances. move- Sometimes they also do kicks and jumps as they Traditional dance has begun to be practiced keep the rhythm to the drumbeat. In the Cook ments, and any display of sexuality was not acceptable in the eyes of the missionaries. They wanted to again, since the ban imposed by the New Islands, dance is part of the school curriculum; save the souls of the islanders by converting them to Christianity.Zealand The government missionaries was actually lifted in were 1945. very These all boys learn how to perform these specific successful in convincing the natives to adopt a new Christian way movements. of worship, but the natives were still reluctant to stop performing their ritualistic dances. WOMEN’S DANCE Traditional dance has begun to be practiced again, since the The women demonstrate a graceful quality as ban imposed by the New Zealand government was lifted in 1945. they sway their hips from side to side. To appear These dances are performed by men and women who are highly especially graceful, the shoulders and feet are kept trained. Performing together, they stand in alternating rows, and perfectly still. Similar to the story-telling dances the men take the lead in the drum dances, which are athletic and in Tahiti, the women’s hand gestures tell stories Traditional dance in Cook Islands energetic. These dances were originally practiced to train warriors Traditional dance in Cook Islands about love and the history of the people. Like the
Dance in the Island Cultures 23 Dance in the Island Cultures | 37 men, women receive dance instruction as part of THE HAWAIIAN MONARCHY the school curriculum, so all girls learn how to Umi-a-Liloa was a king who reigned from 1490 to dance properly. 1521. According to records, he was a peace-loving king. One mele tells how he cared for his people, young and old, and that murder and robbery did HAWAII not exist when he was in power. However, one of It is believed that the Polynesians of the South the most renowned kings was Kamehameha I. He Pacific migrated north to the Hawaiian Islands in was responsible for uniting the islands, establishing approximately 500 ce. They brought with them the Kingdom of Hawaii in 1810. He was careful dogs, pigs, chickens, taro (a starchy plant for to ensure the islands would remain independent making poi), coconuts, bananas, yams, ginger, of colonial powers by setting up a united legal breadfruit, and sugarcane. But more importantly, system and promoting trade with Europe and the they brought their traditions and culture. Most United States. Hawaii did retain its independence of what we know about the early Hawaiian his- until it was annexed by the United States in 1898. tory is found in the mele chant, the Hawaiian When Kamehameha I died, his son, Liholiho, oral storytelling tradition. It is through mele became king Kamehameha II. But he was forced chants that Hawaiian kupuna, or ancestors, to share the throne with Kamehameha I’s favorite passed on their understanding of physical and wife, Queen Kaahumanu. Shortly after Liholiho spiritual life to the next generations. Abraham came into power, he convinced the queen and the Fornander, who traveled to the Hawaiian Islands other chiefs to abandon the ancient kapu system in the 1800s, wrote the book, An Account of the and openly sat down to a feast with the women, Polynesian Race: Its Origins and Migrations, which which had been a taboo until that time. Liholiho documented Hawaiian history and translated brought many changes to Hawaiian culture. But many of its ancient chants into English. not long after the suspension of taboo, the mis- sionaries arrived and brought with them a new religion. Liholiho had reservations, but agreed to HAWAIIAN POLITICS let the American missionaries preach Christianity The early system of Hawaiian law was based on for one year. Liholiho went to England to visit kapu, or taboo. A kapu was something that was King George IV and negotiate a treaty, but while forbidden to do, and if someone broke the kapu, he was there he caught the measles and died. the punishment was death. The only way to avoid He had left a will, however, designating his execution was to find a pi’uhonua, or a place of brother, Kauikeaouli, as his successor. However, refuge, without being caught by the chief’s war- Kauikeaouli was only 19 at the time, so Queen riors. The laws were mostly rational, designed to Kaahumanu served as an interim ruler. Eventually, protect against greed, dishonesty, and pollution. Kaahumanu converted to Christianity, as did They were ultimately meant to instill kindness many of the Hawaiian leaders. and loyalty. There was a type of caste system in early Hawaii. The moi, or king, was the highest rank, next his ministers, or kalaimoku. Under HAWAIIAN HULA DANCE the ministers were the high priests, kahuna nui, The Hawaiian hula has similar characteristics then the teachers, priests, artisans, and craftsmen, to the other Polynesian dance styles, such as collectively known as kahuna. Finally were the movement of the hips and usage of the hands to working class, known as the makaainana, and tell stories. Accompanied by rhythmic percus- the minority outcasts, kauwa, who were at the sive instruments and mele chants, the hula is an bottom of the system. important cultural icon for the Hawaiian people.
24 THE CULTURE OF DANCE the age of spirits, then the arrival of the gods, and finally a complex genealogy relating them to the Hawaiian royalty. The kahiko was a sacred dance to honor the deities and ances- tral spirits. Many hulas honor the volcano goddess Pele, and so the hula dancer moves down into the ground to gain strength from the earth. The hula had to be danced to perfection, because errors were believed to invalidate the performance and anger the gods. During instruction of the dance, an altar dedicated to the hula goddess, Laka, Kahiko hula dancing was maintained to provide protection. The altars were decorated with flowers and sacred objects, along with the favorite foods of the gods. The goal of the kahiko is to preserve the ancient knowledge and retain the favor of the gods. Although the kahiko was an ancient religious ritual, the missionaries who came to Hawaii in the 1820s saw them as obscene and tried to stop them. They convinced Queen Kaahumanu to convert to Christianity, and as a result, a ban was placed on the hula. After her death in 1832, however, Kamehameha III, known for his fun-loving decadence, allowed the hula a brief revival. But once again in 1835, the hula was banned to satisfy the missionaries. Realizing that the government could not totally suppress the dance, in 1852 they once again allowed it to be performed, but a licensing fee was required. Finally, in 1883, a full reacceptance of the hula was allowed, with the exception of the traditional costumes. The dancers had to be covered from neck to knee. The auana is the modern hula, which is typically accompanied by melodic singing and western instru- ments like ukulele and guitars. Like the kahiko, this type of hula dance still employs the story-telling technique of hand gestures the graceful swaying of the hips for the women, and the rhythmic movements of the hips and legs for the men. This newer hula was strongly influenced by the western culture. In the early 1900s, tourists began to visit the Hawaiian Islands, and soon Hollywood incorporated the hula in movies. Louise Leiomalama Beamer was a hula teacher who was hired to be an advisor for the movie industry in the 1930s and 40s. One of the movies she choreographed was Waikiki Wedding starring Bing Crosby. Her choreography was a major influence on the auana. The auana is also part of the entertain- ment at the Hawaiian luaus put on for tourists. Unlike the Kahiko, which is mainly performed to please the gods, the purpose of the auana is to bring happiness and pleasure to an audience.
the age of spirits, then the arrival of the gods, and finally a complex genealogy relating them to the Hawaiian royalty. The kahiko was a sacred dance to honor the deities and ances- tral spirits. Many hulas honor the volcano goddess Pele, and so the hula dancer moves down into the ground to gain strength from the earth. The hula had to be danced to perfection, because errors were believed to invalidate the performance and anger the gods. During instruction of the dance, an altar dedicated to the hula goddess, Laka, KahikoKahiko hulahula dancing dancing AuanaAuana hula hula dance dance was maintained to provide protection. The altars were decorated There are two major categories of hula dancing, withhis flowersfun-loving anddecadence, sacred allowed objects, the alonghula a with the favorite foods of the thegods. kahiko The, which goal is ofthe the ancient kahiko style, isand to the preserve brief revival.the ancient But once knowledge again in 1835, and the retain hula the favor of the gods. 40 | Dance and Cultural Diversity auana, Althoughwhich is the modernthe kahiko style. Thewas hula an wasancient was bannedreligious to satisfy ritual, the missionaries.the missionaries Realizing who came to Hawaii in the originally danced as a religious ritual; it was meant that the government could not totally suppress to honor1820s the saw gods. them The hulaas obscenewas one way and to relate tried theto dance,stop inthem. 1852 Theythey once convinced again allowed Queen it to Kaahumanu to convert to theChristianity, mythology of the and Huna as, aor result, ancient aHawaiian ban was placedbe performed, on the but hula. a licensing After fee her was death required. in 1832, however, Kamehameha religion. A mele chant known as the kumulipo Finally, in 1883, a full reacceptance of the hula is aIII, genealogical known prayerfor his chant fun-loving that documents decadence, in was allowed allowed, with the the hula exception a brief of therevival. traditional But once again in 1835, the hula poeticwas detail banned the Hawaiian to satisfy creation the myth. missionaries. It first costumes. Realizing The dancersthat the had governmentto be covered from could not totally suppress the describesdance, the in age 1852 of spirits, they thenonce the again arrival allowed of the neckit to to be knee. performed, but a licensing fee was required. Finally, in 1883, gods, and finally a complex genealogy relating The auana is the modern hula, which is typi- thema full to the reacceptance Hawaiian royalty. of the hula was allowed,cally accompanied with the by exception melodic singing of the and traditional west- costumes. The dancers hadThe tokahiko be coveredwas a sacred from dance neck to honor to knee. the ern instruments like ukulele and guitars. Like deities Theand ancestralauana isspirits. the modernMany hulas hula, honor which the iskahiko, typically this type accompanied of hula dance bystill melodicemploys singing and western instru- the volcano goddess Pele, and so the hula dancer the story-telling technique of hand gestures the movesments down like into theukulele ground toand gain guitars. strength from Like thegraceful kahiko, swaying this of the type hips offor hulathe women, dance and still employs the story-telling thetechnique earth. The hula of handhad to begestures danced to theperfection, graceful the swaying rhythmic ofmovements the hips of forthe hipsthe andwomen, legs for and the rhythmic movements becauseof the errors hips were and believed legs to for invalidate the men. the per This- thenewer men. hulaThis newerwas stronglyhula was strongly influenced influenced by the western culture. In the formance and anger the gods. During instruction by the western culture. In the early 1900s, tour- of earlythe dance, 1900s, an altar tourists dedicated began to the tohula visit god -theists Hawaiian began to visit Islands, the Hawaiian and soonIslands, Hollywood and soon incorporated the hula in dess,movies. Laka, was Louise maintained Leiomalama to provide protection. Beamer wasHollywood a hula incorporated teacher who the hulawas inhired movies. to be an advisor for the movie Theindustry altars were in decorated the 1930s with andflowers 40s. and One sacred of theLouise movies Leiomalama she choreographedBeamer was a hula was teacher Waikiki Wedding starring Bing objects, along with the favorite foods of the gods. who was hired to be an advisor for the movie TheCrosby. goal of theHer kahiko choreography is to preserve thewas ancient a major industry influence in the 1930s on the and 40s.auana. One ofThe the moviesauana is also part of the entertain- knowledgement at and the retain Hawaiian the favor of luaus the gods. put on forshe tourists. choreographed Unlike was the Waikiki Kahiko, Wedding which starring is mainly performed to please Although the kahiko was an ancient religious Bing Crosby. Her choreography was a major ritual,the thegods, missionaries the purpose who ofcame the to auana Hawaii is toinfluence bring happiness on the auana. and The pleasure auana is also to partan audience.of in the 1820s saw them as obscene and tried to the entertainment at the Hawaiian luaus put on stop them. They convinced Queen Kaahumanu for tourists. Unlike the Kahiko, which is mainly to convert to Christianity, and as a result, a performed to please the gods, the purpose of the ban was placed on the hula. After her death in auana is to bring happiness and pleasure to an 1832, however, Kamehameha III, known for audience.
Dance in the Island Cultures 25
Auana hula dance
40 | Dance and Cultural Diversity PASSING ON THE HULA TRADITION BIBLIOGRAPHY There are many hula halau, or hula schools, whose Barcham, M., Scheyenst, R., Overton, J. (Dec. 2009). goals are to preserve the hula as an art form, and “New Polynesian Triangle: Rethinking Polynesian Mi- to teach the proper techniques to young people. gration and Development in the Pacific.” Asian Pacific In these schools the master teacher is called a Viewpoint, vol. 50, No. 3. pp. 322–337. kuma hula, and is responsible for knowing how Bougainville, L-A. 1729–1811. (1969). A Voyage ’Round to teach the hula and its traditions accurately. A the World. New York: Da Capo Press. true kuma hula must also have knowledge of the Eggleston, G. T. (1953). Tahiti, Voyage Through Paradise: Hawaiian deities and Hawaiian herbal remedies. The Story of a Small Boat Passage Through Society Islands. New York: Devin-Adair Co. Fornander, A. 1812–1887 (1969). “An Account of the SUMMARY Polynesian Race: Its Origins and Migration.” Rutland Each of the island cultures in this chapter had VT, C.E. Tuttle Co. common origins. The ancient navigators who Jonas, G. (1998). Dancing: The Pleasure, Power and Art of discovered their island brought with them a rich Movement. New York: Harry N. Adams, Inc. mythology that strongly influenced cultural prac- Lummis, T. (2005). Pacific Paradises: The Discovery of Tahiti tices. These beliefs were expressed in the music and Hawaii. Stroud: Sutton Publishing. and dance that was incorporated into religious Rhys, R. (June, 2005) “Who Taught Pomare to Read?” Un- rituals and daily life. Today the ancient style of published comments by a missionary surgeon on Tahiti ritual dancing is honored and practiced with the from May 1807 to October 1810, and journal entries intention of appreciating the history. The modern by an able seaman in Tahiti in 1811. The Journal of Pa- western-influenced dance style is also practiced cific History. Vol. 40 No. 1, pp. 105–115. Retrieved Feb and performed to provide pleasurable entertain- 14, 2011 from
26 THE CULTURE OF DANCE