Sofia Nădejde. a Nineteenth-Century Romanian Socialist Feminist

CEU eTD Collection

Sofia Nădejde. In partialIn fulfil ment ofrequirements the for the degree Masterof Artsof Supervisor: Profe Department ofGender Studies Central European University Socialist Feminist A nineteenth Budapest, Hungary Anamaria Devesel Submitted to ssor Francisca Haan de 2012 By

- century Romanian

CEU eTD Collection ăee n e hsoia cnet wih a ta o scait feminism. socialist of that was which context, historical her in Nădeje or feminist the whereas work, her (gender a as her presented and life and work her of aspects socialist the of neglected historiography dimensions feminist the of acknowledgment without to itself limited historiography soc a as communist her identifying The Nădejde. Sofia treat literature scholarly and partial the shown have I question, bu men, with status equal and emancipation Nădejde Sofia that shown has work peri historiography? communist the of historiography Romanian and ideas? social political Nădejde’s Sofia characterize we can how were: questions research My journals. S the been has Nădejde neglected. entirely Sofia almost and feminism socialist of topic the in interest no be to seems there bu 1989 since developed has history feminist Romanian historiography. feminist Romanian current the in studied not is Nădejde Sofia that realized I when topic this in interested became scholarly Romanian s case the a in As literature. presented and not) (or acknowledged been has it which in way

liberal) feminist only. By contrast, my thesis emphasized the importance of regarding Sofia Sofia regarding of importance the emphasized thesis my contrast, By only. feminist liberal) ocial The D

topic of my thesis is socialist feminism in late nineteenth late in feminism socialist is thesis my of topic emocratic

Regarding the first question, my analysis of some of Sofia Nădejde’s journalistic journalistic Nădejde’s Sofia of some of analysis my question, first Regardingthe

eod hw r Sfa ăed’ wiig ad ciiy ecie i the in described activity and writings Nădejde’s Sofia are how Second, W uy fcsd n oi Ndjes (1856 Nădejde’s Sofia on focused I tudy ait a “ciit wo rmtd working promoted who “activist” an ialist, orkers I studied Sofia Nădejde’s work and activity in the socialist circle and and circle socialist the in activity and work Nădejde’s Sofia studied I P arty of of arty in my view view my in

omania was not just a feminist who supported women’s women’s supported who feminist a just not was Abstract as a socialist a also t

and biased ways in which the various bodies of bodies various the which in ways biased

her articles her d n i rcn fmns Romanian feminist recent in and od

- thinker. Regarding the second second the Regarding thinker. in different Romanian socialist Romanian different in 96 wiig ad activity. and writings 1946) - class and peasants’ rights, rights, peasants’ and class -

century Romania and the the and Romania century

I t CEU eTD Collection Romania (SDWPR) inRomania (1879 A ShortHistory ofsocialism Chapter II The ofnineteenth general historical context Chapter I Introduction Table of Contemporanul ideologySocialist innineteenth Introduction Conclusions Romania becomes an The independent kingdom. developmentofindustry A foreign Constitution a new princeand Unification ofand Wallachia Moldavia. economic New and social reforms The andCultural 1848Revolution Change rule The Adrianople(1829) Treaty Introduction Thesis Structure Methods and Research Design BriefDefinitions Main Arguments andQuestions Research Introducing thetopic

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nineteenth century socialist feminists inEurope socialistnineteenth feminists century

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Contents ......

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(The Contemporary) 1881 ......

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Wallachia andaremilitaryRussian Moldavia placed under century Romania. The socialistcentury Romania. circ ......

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- century Ro ...... 1981 ...... - 1900). The Social Dem i

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mania ......

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31 28 27 27 27 25 23 22 20 17 15 14 14 14 13 12

8 3 2 1 1

CEU eTD Collection Sofia Nădejdeas ajournalist Chapter V Sofia Nădejde.A ShortBiography Chapter IV A short thenineteenth history feminism/s in ofRomanian century Chapter III Conclusions Drepturile Omului Sofia Nădejde’s journalistic activity in LateRomania inthe Introduction Conclusion Bucharest andContact ideas. socialist literary with Journalistic activity yearsEarly Introduction Conclusion The(1878 Question” “Woman Wo First Organizations Women’s and Demands (1815 Emancipation for Introduction Conclusion Sofia Nădejdeas of amember SDWPR TheWorkers (1893 Social DemocraticParty Romania of A manifesto for peasants men supporting and unity thestruggles thenation for (1855

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(1885), and(1885), - nineteenth Century: Social and Economic Century:nineteenth Context and Social

...... - ...... Lumea Nouă Literară şi Ştiin şi Lumea Literară Nouă 1900) ......

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...... Femeia Română ...... ii ......

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(1879), - ...... 1899) ......

ț ...... ifică -

1878) ...... Contemporanul Contemporanul ......

(1895) - 1850) ......

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...... (1881 ...... - 1886), ......

72 61 60 58 58 58 57 53 50 49 48 48 48 47 44 42 40 39 39 39 38 36 35 32

CEU eTD Collection Printed Primary Sources Bibiography Conclusion and FeministCommunist Romanian historiographyNădejdeabout Sofia Chapter VI Conclusion Feminist R Communist Romanian Historiography Introduction “History seeks bury it reject” to to what tends

...... omanian Historiography

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88 88 86 84 84 80 75 73 73 73

CEU eTD Collection There well. as problematic is her with deals historiography work and life her in interest of lack a been there has only not 6, chapter in discuss will I as addition, In 1972. in biography her published also He writings. literary her with a Vişinescu, dates her about published book last The neglected. entirely almost been has Nădejde Sofia and feminism socialist of topic the in interest no be to seem there but R current Work), Ştiin as such journals Contemporanul socialist Romanian in wrote She ideas. socialist by influenced highly was the at SDWPR the from resigned them of both Although party. the of head the was Nădejde, Ioan husband, her while Nădejde Sofia liter been has it which in way the topic Introducing tr. s a As ature. ț ifică I beca I in feminism socialist discuss will I thesis my In and omanian feminist historiog feminist omanian

Evenimentul LiterarLiterary (The Event). (N literary scholar and member of the Communist Party of Romania, edited a volume volume a edited Romania, of Party Communist the of member and scholar literary me ew Literay and Scientific world), world), Scientific and Literay ew was a member of the Social Democratic Workers Party of Romania (SDWPR), (SDWPR), Romania of Party Workers Democratic Social the of member a was

ae study case

Te Contemporary), (The interest ed

beginning of the twentieth century, her journalistic and literary work literary and journalistic her century, twentieth the of beginning

in this topic this in wl fo will I acknowledged raphy. Romanian feminist history has developed since 1989 since developed has history feminist Romanian raphy. u on cus

Introduction when I realized that Sofia Nădejde is Nădejde Sofia that realized I when ue Nouă Lumea

o nt and not) (or oi Ndjes (1856 Nădejde’s Sofia 1

rpuie Omului Drepturile

late nineteenth late Nw World) (New

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CEU eTD Collection feminist, socialist a as not but feminist, a or a either socialist isdepicted chapterI 6,she discussin will As described her. and characterized important working meaning rela one dimensions: two has feminist socialist a was she that fact The such. as her acknowledges feminist, socialist a was Nădejde A “work”,and for be should accordingly paid and for women for legislation supportive of topics the addressed she where publications, her of This neglected. happens atthelevelofscholarlyalso but atthe level and publications, ofmedia ever simply or rejected, thus and communism, of form a as labeled immediately in because topic is which context, historical her in Nădejde put Sofia is to thesis this in Mygoal SDWPR. the ofmember and activist journalist, aactivity, as a as only her sees that 1989 after prolific a as her described that historiography rguments and Research Questions Questions Research and rguments working tion to the topics she concentrated on, and on, concentrated she topics the to tion recognition of the housework that women, with a specia with women, that houseworkthe ofrecognition I my thesis I will advance will I thesis my I numbera Istudied work and lifeNădejde’s Sofia of understanding bettera get to In order

journalist and activist. My third argument is that the historiog the that is argument third My activist. and journalist - class Romania there is a constant “harassment” of any socialist orientation, which is which orientation, socialist any of “harassment” constant a is there Romania

- and peasant and class a class nd peasant women. My women. peasant nd

women, - worke three hc nes o e ttd eas tee s o ieaue that literature no is there because stated be to needs which feminist

which included access to basic education and health care, health and education basic to access included which arguments in addressing this topic. The first is that Sofia that is first The topic. this addressing in arguments rs,

. human rights for all members o members all for rights human that of that as I will show in my thesis my in show will I as

and

socialist 2 second

second argument is that, Sofia Nădejde was Nădejde Sofia that, is argument second

socialist feminism. I am also interested in this this in interested also am I feminism. socialist does

in relation to the women, she spoke for, spoke she women, the to relation in

activist and the feminist historiography feminist the and activist not take into consideration her whole whole her consideration into take not oe’ fnnil needne and independence financial women’s al emphasis on peasantdid on women, emphasis al . Therefore, my research my Therefore, . raphy has inadequately inadequately has raphy f s f ociety, in particular particular in ociety, yday life.

an as in

CEU eTD Collection History European II”, War World 1 merch of piece mere Destinies Générales Destinées des et Movements soci all of principle general the is women of privileges the of extensions “the progress, social all of aspects important most the of one is emancipation women’s that writing, in statement, the made was Fourier Marx”. Karl to Tristan Flora “from socialists, later on influence and feminism” and socialism both of theoretician Europe in feminists socialist century Main nineteenth my methods,research design, and thethesis structure. feminism to givedefinitions brief will andcommunist Sofia are are, questions

Charles Sowerwine, “Socialism Sowerwine, Charles al progress”. He wrote this wrote Heprogress”. al The historian historian The centur nineteenth main the describe I will Below ) Fuir lo wrote also Fourier , ăed’ w Nădejde’s

in Renate Bridenthal, Susan Mosher Stuard, Mary E. Wiesner (eds.) (eds.) Wiesner E. Mary Stuard, SusanMosher inRenate Bridenthal, how can we charact we can how , (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1998 (Boston: HoughtonMifflin, , in recent andise displayed for sale to the highest bidder as exclusive property? Is not Is property? exclusive as bidder highest the to sale for displayed andise

hre Swrie listed Sowerwine Charles iig ad ciiy described activity and ritings

feminist , Feminism, and the Socialist Women’s Movement from the French Revolution to Revolutionto French the from Movement Women’s Socialist the and Feminism, ,

hw arae s nlvn wmn “s o a on wmn a woman young a not “Is women: enslaving is marriage how ,

in 1808. in

Romanian historiography? erize , socialism

1 Sofia Nădejde Sofia (

The Theory of the Four Movements and of the General General the of and Movements Four the of Theory The In a chapter on women in his 1808 his in women on chapter Ina ) , , 3 rd 3

ed., 359 ed.,

and socialist feminism andsocialist

said hre Fuir (1772 Fourier Charles

’s social and political ideas political and social ’s

that his writings constituted an important an constituted writings his that

n the in y socialist feminists in Europe and then I then andEurope in feminists ysocialist

oain itrorpy f the of historiography Romanian

Becoming Visible: Women in in Women Visible: Becoming . After that, I present will .Afterthat, - , 1837) as the “first “first the as 1837)

one of the first who who first the of one Théorie des Quatre des Théorie

feminist? How feminist?

CEU eTD Collection 5 35 1983, Press), 4 3 1880 2 equa women’s of vision his if and structures, analysis, “Marx’s that, argued political democraticand industrialization capitalist Sowerwine of world new the to suited well was however, rights. social and political achieving for class the (1818 of Marx Karl half century. nineteenth second the in emerged that world industrialized capitalist new the for important Them andThence inPolitical Sla andDomestic inCivil Retain to Men, Half, Other the of Pretensions the Against Women, Race, Human the Half One the published 1825 in who Wheeler, Anna and Thomson William as such feminists, socialist the in popular became and read Robe families. their for slaves as regarded were women which in marriage, with’. particul ‘a than rather once’, at humanity emancipate…all to ‘claim the thought: utopian all of feature key a as identified later Engels which outlook humanist general the of part Feminis and Socialism feminist”. and socialist both Owen characterizes Sowerwine the of tyranny prejudices from thatobsessher childhood on?” the by her on forced and derisory bond conjugal the to gives she consent the

Sowerwine, “Socialism, Feminism, and the Socialist Women’s Movement” , 359 , Movement” Women’s Socialist the and Feminism, “Socialism, Sowerwine, Taylor, Barbara Movement Women’s Socialist the and Feminism, “Socialism, Sowerwine, Charles Su san Groag Bell and Karen M.Offen, eds., eds., M.Offen, Karen and Bell Groag san , vol. 1, (Stanford ,1, vol. ” 4 Women’s liberation through industrialization and “earning wages for themselves” was was themselves” for wages “earning and industrialization through liberation Women’s it Britain, Great In

Owens’

Eve and the New Jerusalem: Socialism and Feminism in the Nineteenth Century Nineteenth the in Feminism and Socialism the Newand Jerusalem: Eve dsr ws o bls what abolish to was desire s

Calif

m in the Nineteenth Century Nineteenth the in m ornia: Stanf ord University Press, University Press, ord Stanf ornia: was Robert Owen ( Owen Robert was 3

codn t Braa Taylor Barbara to According as “the founder of the first pop first the of founder “the as - Women, the Family, and Freedom: The Debate in Documents in Debate The Freedom: and Family, the Women, 1883) concentrated his efforts on th on efforts his concentrated 1883)

ice. mn hs follow his Among circles. lity was narrower than that of the early socialists, it socialists, early the of that than narrower was lity 1771 2

a udrto a te rdtoa cnet of concept traditional the as understood was - 1983

1858) who 1858) “ the the very ), ), 40 Owenite commitment to feminism was was feminism to commitment Owenite

. 5

in ular socialist movement that movement socialist ular shared ideas similar ideas shared

v ad h Nw Jerusalem: New the and Eve

” , 359 r, e a fn early find can we ers, e struggle of working of struggle e

rt Owen was widely widely was Owen rt ar class ar , (London: Virago (London: Virago ,

to Fourier to Appeal of Appeal to begin begin to : 1750 : was - ’s .

CEU eTD Collection 11 theparty. 10 9 p.86 2004, Books, Resistance St.: Abercombie 8 7 6 “woman was it famous, more became book his question”. “woman the about wrote who and emancipation, women’s supported who socialist male the of read” “widely and popular most the andhelped inturntheir provide them, lowwages kept for them dependent ontheir husbands.” husbands their because low kept were wages their versa: viceand bycapitalists exploitation their t keep to family the on depend and men of wages the half women pay could employers oppression’: ‘double a to time same the at but men as exploitation same the to subjected were “They living. were century nineteenth industrializ the by doubled, was oppression historical proletariat.” the represents wife the and bourgeois, the is he family, the “within in stated of form a incontestably “is marriage that in argued Marx state. capitalist industrialized t and men to relation family,in the within was Onewere subjected. women that oppression”“double the elaboratedon focused.” sharply more was

Charles Sowerwine, Sowerwine, Charles EugenKamenka, Ibid.

Frederick Engels, Engels, Frederick Gregory Claeys, ed., ed., Claeys, Gregory August Bebel (1840 Bebel August

Origin of t of Origin

ugust Bebel’s book Bebel’s ugust question”. h Oii o te aiy Piae rpry n te State the and Property Private Family, the of Origin The he family, Private property and the S the and property Private family, he The Portable Karl Mar Portable The The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State the and Property Private Family, the of Origin The “Socialism, Feminism, and the Socialist Women’s Movement” Women’s Socialist the and Feminism, “Socialism, - 1913) was one of the founders of the Social Democratic Party from Germany and the head of head the and Germany from Party Democratic Social the of founders the of onewas 1913) Encyclopedia of Nineteenth of Encyclopedia

n 81 “ee rvstd his revisited “Bebel 1891, In

he nineteenth century marriage politics, and the other in relation to the the to relation in other the and politics, marriage century nineteenth he Die Frau und der Sozialismus der und Frau Die

hem alive. In this way women’s dependence on men facilitated men on dependence women’s way this In alive. hem ax n hs olbrtr Feeik nes (1820 Engels Frederick collaborator, his and Marx Bebel who first tried answering and providing solutions to the to solutions providing and answering tried first who Bebel x , Penguin, 1983 Penguin, ,

- exclusive private propert private exclusive Century Thought Century His book was book His Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts of 1844 of Manuscripts Philosophic and Economic 5

tate ok o ae con o En of account take to book ed capitalist world in which women of the the of women which in world capitalist ed , published in 1884 in published , , (

New York: Routledge, 2005 New Routledge, York: , first published in 1879 in published first , a source of inspiratio of source a , first published in 1884, this edition edition this 1884, in published first , y.” , 7 frt ulse i 1884, in published first ,

366 Engels, his coll his Engels,

. 11

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gels work”, as as work”, gels This long time long This ) , 272 , p. , 10

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, CEU eTD Collection 15 14 (ed.), 13 12 War. World theori socialist (1857 Zetkin women by biology was notin history.” rooted butin men dominatio the that argued book the (…) families raise to calling” “natural a had women that idea the dismissed it And satisfaction. sexual to right the and freely dress to right the as such e went book “the that, said Sowerwine property. private own to professions, different practice to universities, enter to vote, question”. other. the upon sex one of dependence the includes which another, upon dependent being human one make that barriers all remove to (…) but order, social present the under women and men of equality a to only not is, then goal “Our question: social the of solution the with question woman prol the of is it as general, in women of wo Secondly, in society(…) them to allotted position inferior the and men, upon dependence social their of result a as suffer showed Sowerwine

August Bebel as quoted in Alice S. Rossi, “Working Rossi,S. in Alice as quoted Bebel August Charles Sowerwine, Sowerwine, Charles “Working Rossi,S. in Alice as quoted Bebel August Sowerwine, Charles The Feminist Papers: From Adams to De Beauvoir De to Adams From Papers: The Feminist Another key figure in the history of socialist feminism was the German activist Clara activist German the was feminism socialist of history the in figure key Another to right the including time, that of demands feminist the of most supported book Bebel’s

14 This

Her - 93. h hsoin ihr Eas a caatrzd ekn s h, “ the, as Zetkin characterized has Evans Richard historian The 1933). t n atvs i te il o wmns mniain n uoe eoe h First the before Europe in emancipation women’s of field the in activist and st

ouin f h wmn usin s dnia with identical is question woman the of solution

friend and political ally Rosa Luxemburg has gained more widespread fame,but gained widespread Luxemburg more has political Rosa ally and friend “Socialism, Feminism, and the Socialist Women’s Movement” Movement” Women’s Socialist the and Feminism, “Socialism, “Soc . 12

Bebel argued that women have a double burden to bear: “Firstly, women “Firstly, bear: to burden double a have women that argued Bebel ialism, Feminism, and the Socialist Women’s Movement” Movement” Women’s Socialist the and Feminism, ialism, ven further than did most feminists. It posed radical new demands, demands, new radical posed It feminists. most did than further ven men suffer as a result of their economic dependence, which is thelot which is economicdependence, oftheir result a as men suffer

etarian men.” etarian - - Class Socialist: August Bebel (1840 Bebel August Socialist: Class Class Socialist: August Bebel (1840 Bebel August Socialist: Class , ( 6

Pr NortheasternUniversity 13

In addition, he equals the answer to the to answer the equals he addition, In 15

h slto o te soci the of solution the ess, 1988, 4 ess,1988, , 368 , , 367

- - 1913)” in Alice S. Rossiin Alice S. 1913)” 1913)” 1913)” th

edition , , 502

), ), leading leading 501 chieve chieve n of of n

al CEU eTD Collection 21 20 19 18 (1976) 3/4 17 1987 Martin’sPress, St. and Books Wheatsheaf NewYork: 16 passionate argued Evans death, gro not and diminished had “reputation her why reasons the of One Luxemburg. Alexandr as emancipation”, pamphlets.” and articles majo emphasized emanc women’s for Zetkin, enough for not However, was labor. alone” of independence “economic emancipation the of that was emancipation women’s and m on dependence economic the be to society in position France. in Saumoneau Louise and Russia in Kollontai Alexandra like countries”, other in emancipation women’s of theorists “socialist world.” the throughout women socialist and Germany in working among work organizational her for “acknowledged was Party Democratic society.” women’s or rights women’s of question’s in interest political little had Luxemburg

Ibid. Evans, Honeycutt, Evans, in women’soppression” ofproblem the to approach socialist a Zetkin: “Clara Honeycutt, Karen Evans, J. Richard bo. e ies a Eas said Evans as ideas, Her book. r

Honeycutt Karen Comrades and Sisters and Comrades Comrades a Comrades ept e ulcsece ad “v and speeches public her Despite : 16

131

supporter of thesupporterLenin, Bolshevik of afriend communist.” Revolution, committed a of

“Clara Zetkin: a socialist approach approach socialist a Zetkin: “Clara . 19

Comrades and Siste and Comrades nd Sisters, nd , is that of Zetkin’s “appropriation by orthodox Marxism byorthodox “appropriation Zetkin’s of that is ,

said that Clara Zetkin as a leading figure in the German Social Social German the in figure leading a as Zetkin Clara that said ,16

16 lr Zti dd o develop not did Zetkin Clara a Kollontai, neither died in a “martyr” way as her friend Rosa Rosa friend her as way “martyr” a in died neither Kollontai, a

rs: Feminism, Socialism and Pacifism in Europe 1870 Europe in Pacifism and Socialism rs:Feminism, hv t b “icd oehr rm ctee speeches, scattered from together “pieced be to have , “,

134 18 oluminous writings”, she never gathered them in a a in them gathered never she writings”, oluminous

ekn ecie te as o wmns inferior women’s of cause the perceived Zetkin 7

), 15

an. The connection between socialism between connection The an. ed 17

ter o “eul reo and freedom “sexual of theory a

ekns id Zetkin’s pto, s Honeycutt as ipation, a ifune other influenced eas - Leninism (…) As a As Leninism(…) - 1945 Feminist Studies Feminist , - ( class women class w” after her her after w”

Sussex and lc in place 21 ,

CEU eTD Collection 199 23 22 etc. concerns localized more other with intersect may issues These core. encompassing 1700 Feminisms, European male scope, pos and ideas of spectrum broad a incorporates feminism ideology, an “As follows: as goes feminism of definition The Approach.” Historical comparative A Feminism: throughout anal thesiswhen my use will I that definitions feminism, socialist and feminism (liberal) of definitions some provide Definitions Brief andthe many ambivalencescomplexities her 1917.” theoretical before of position of account take work and life her of accounts of majority great the do Nor 1920s. of movement persi a as out Zetkin marked that speeches and protest resolutions, numerous the all omit carefully work her of selections available The neither. Marxist a as either portrayed anti an

Karen Offen, “Defining Feminism: A Comparative Historical Approach”, Signs, vol. Signs, Approach”, Historical Comparative A Feminism: “Defining Offen, Karen

Evans, - 157, http://www.jstor.org/stable/317664, accessed on 24/01/2012 on accessed http://www.jstor.org/stable/317664, 157, – - etrd oiia ad intellectual and political centered

in complex fashion, producing specific and differently situated exp situated differently and specific producing fashion, complex in one whose develo whose one - In 1988, the historian historian the 1988, In dev to order In or heroine communist a as perceived and seen is Zetkin if even that points Evans Richard feminist/anti Comrades a Comrades

program of sociopolitical critique and remediation, with gender issues at its very its at issues gender with remediation, and critique sociopolitical of program nd Sisters nd

“bourgeo lp y ae that case my elop pment stages have historically been dependent on and in tension with tension in and on dependent been historically have stages pment , 23 , - - Leninist heroine or an anti an or Leninistheroine

90 A Pol A 1950: s fmns se a nihr “a neither, was she feminist is” yzing lifework. SofiaNădejde’s and ae Offen Karen

discourse.” Sofia Nădejde was a socialist feminist, I will now now will I feminist, socialist a was Nădejde Sofia i

ia History tical pub 8

ihd n nleta atce ald “Defining called article influential an lished tnl opstoa fgr i te communist the in figure oppositional stently 23

ln smlr ie, n e 20 book 2000 her in lines, similar Along - feminist villainess, in reality Zetkin was was Zetkinreality in villainess, feminist

se rt ta fmns “is feminism that wrote she , tog se s conve is she lthough

–

class, race, age, religion, age, race, class,

14, no. 1 (Autum, 1988): (Autum, 1988): 1 no. 14, sesses an international international an sesses ressions of feminism of ressions 22

ntionally an CEU eTD Collection 28 27 www.cym.ie/documents/feminism.pdf 26 25 24 24 art, health, education, includes music.” that and conflict, classes of interests the where arena every Ehrenreich, justice. economic and political social, for demand larger a of part is women. for ofoppression society themain source is (1976), herefocusing primarily ason challengingmale domination. 1870s.” the to prior identified been yet have word the feminism dic Féminisme nineteenth late to traced be can terms these of origin the that the and it, realize supp who to individuals attempted that movements the women, of emancipation the advocate that ideas the connote to beyond and world Western the throughout today used are ‘feminist’ and in or time, historical otherwhatever issues.” combination with in situation or location geographical whatever in society, and culture in domination male challenge to primarily and specifically, necessarily, is feminist a be to (…)

Ibid. Ibid. in appeared feminism?”First socialist “Whatis Ehrenreich, Barbara Offen, Karen Offen, tionaries (and many earlier historians) have erroneously attributed the invention of the word word the of invention the attributed erroneously have historians) earlier many (and tionaries

S European Feminisms European sees 28 cait eiim acrig to according feminism, ocialist e

to Charles Fourier in the 1830s, but in fact, its origins remain uncertain. No traces of of traces No uncertain. remain origins its fact, in but 1830s, the in Fourier Charles to class struggle occurs not only in the eco the in only not occurs struggle class

was then commonly used as a synonym for women’s emancipation. French French emancipation. women’s for synonym a as used commonly then was h eooi system, economic the European Feminisms, 1700 Feminisms, European

ort this goal. Few people in the English the in people Few goal. this ort , 1700 ,

- 1950

- 19 1950: A Political History Political A 1950: s h mi suc o oppression, of source main the as

24 abr Ehrenreich Barbara

Karen Offen that alsoKaren wrote 9

26 nomic system, nomic

25 For socialist feminism,women’sFor liberation socialist

Karen O Karen WIN ,

( Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2000 Press, University Stanford Stanford: -

century France political discourse. discourse. political France century - magazine June 3, 1976, retrieved from retrieved 1976, magazineJune3, n “What in speaking world realize, however, however, realize, world speaking ffen, then has defined feminism defined has then ffen,

but,

27 “class struggle occurs in in occurs struggle “class , “the‘feminism’ words, s oils feminism?” socialist is

hrfr t therefore codn t Barbara to According he capitalist capitalist he ) , CEU eTD Collection Press eds., Feminism 32 31 30 Gender, 29 call the in superiors social their of those to voices their add to begun classes working urban new the of women the so century, nineteenth the of course the in America and Europe across spread starte feminism socialist that stated 1977, in published 1840 Australasia, and America, Europe, in Movements Emancipation Women’s Feminists: appeared that capital.” fromlabor of emancipation the onlywith all place take humanity,will of that with together women, of emancipation “the stated, Zetkin Clara socialist feminist (…) edu options, work and economic to access Universal (…) world egalitarian an work.” pr the both from alienation “worker producing is system capitalist that and realities; social through experience individual of explanation socialization.” role and reproduction bodies, of women’simpact the (3) patriarchy; by shaped is control this which of in manner the and sexuality control the (2) capitalism; and class production, of feminis socialist 2002,

Marylin J. Boxer, “Rethinking the Socialist Construction and International Career of the Concept Bourgeois Bourgeois Concept ofthe Career International and Construction Socialist the“Rethinking Boxer, MarylinJ. Ibid. Worell, Judith Worell, Judith Women, the Family, and Freedom: The Debate in Documents Debate The and Freedom: Family, the Women, , 1983 , and child care is essential.”and child care is

30 ( I San Diego and London: AcademicPress London: San and Diego In the the In n the nineteenth century, at the anniversary of the French Revolution in 1889, German 1889, in Revolution French the of anniversary the at century, nineteenth the n ”

In opportunitylead feministsbelieveindividual will not to alone addition, that “socialist ), ), i n 87 American Historical Review Historical American -

90 and and 90 Encyclopedia of Women and Gender and Women of Encyclopedia Impa the and Differences Similarities and Sex Gender: and Women of Encyclopedia Encyclopedia of Women and Gender and Women of Encyclopedia n oi Ndjes rtns a I il hw ae. ihr J Eas in Evans J. Richard later. show will I as writings, Nădejde’s Sofia in 29 Clara Zetkin: Selected Zetkin: Clara

m is described as attempting to integrate “(1) an analysis of the structure the of analysis an “(1) integrate to attempting as described is m te caatrsis f oils feminism socialist of characteristics Other

, (February 2007): (February ,

Writings ), 2002, 2002, ), ,473 , ed. Philip S. Foner, Foner, S. Philip ed. , 10

473

131; see also Susan Groag Bell and Karen M.Offen, M.Offen, Karen and Bell Susan Groag also see 131;

, edited by Judith Worell and published in published and Worell Judith by edited , d to develop “as the industrial revolution industrial the “as develop to d

1750 - 1880, vol. 1, Stanford: Stanford University Stanford: Stanford 1, vol. 1880, (New York, 1984), 1984), (NewYork,

oduct and process of their their of process and oduct etoe here mentioned

at that fact 32

This is a statementa is This 45 cation, housing housing cation, - 50

ct of Society on ct Society of work in the the in work

r the are gender - 1920 The

CEU eTD Collection 34 1920 33 mentioned above was indemonstrating thatSofiaNădejde a usi am I work”). equal for wage “equal professions, different and care health education, to access their women, of independence economical sexes”, “both of (th citizens century nineteenth the in similar were goals their of most but argues, feminism and socialism.” centur the of half second the In workers. of and women of problems the conflated socialism, as known increasingly concern, social general century, nineteenth the of half first the During revolutions. French and industrial cruc the of out together, originated concerns: socialism and and “Feminism demands similar their of because also but period, same the in originated they to ani society agrarian an from Romania of transformation the with came that changes the emphasizes NădejdeSofia example, For important. are differences the and times, different in forms,different addressetopics are these All oppression. working and system capitalist wealth, and poverty rights.” women’s for

Richard J.Evans, Richard Sowerwine, “Socialism, Feminism, and the Social the and Feminism, “Socialism, Sowerwine, ,( London: Croom Helm Ltd., 1977), 144 1977), Ltd., ,(Helm London: Croom ndustrialized one.ndustrialized because only not related, were socialism and feminism that argued Sowerwine Charles I do not know if socialism and women’s emancipation originated together, as Sowerwine as originatedtogether, emancipation women’sand socialism if know Inot do

The Feminists: Women’s Emancipation Movements in Europe, America, and Australasia, 1840 Australasia, and America, Europe, Movementsin Emancipation Women’s Feminists: The

33 oils fmns se te ol a a ore f naoim, between antagonisms, of source a as world the sees feminism Socialist

y, these two concerns were articulated in the distinct movements of movements distinct the in articulated were concerns two these y,

d by Sofia Nădejde in her writings. Oppression can take take canOppression writings. her Nădejdein Sofia by d ist Women’s Movement Women’s ist 11

- class, male domination and women’s women’s and domination male class,

socialist ible of the new world built on the on built world new the of ible ”, 360 360 ”,

feminist. g l tee definitions these all ng rgt o oe for vote to right e

CEU eTD Collection April 2012. in mywhenresearch was me, doing I gave to fromBucharest 35 NationalBucharest. Archives in nineteenth to dedicated above mentioned journals the were one sources primary contemporary the from different bit a is that language Romanian a in written were Rights) Ştiin şi Literară Contemporanul from newspapers neither ofthe the mainnineteenth personal founds addition, In collections. the from vanished “mysteriously” the they because Bucharest, in in Archives National lectures/meetings), Club Workers the of minutes correspondence, public and private wel as research Design Research and Methods

These were the answers that the responsible archivist for that period of time gave me,in the National Archives Archives National the me,in gaveoftime period that for archivist responsible that werethe theanswers These . I transla I . I The

the documents regarding the constitution of SDWPR were not available for research, research, for available not were SDWPR of constitution the regarding documents the ae read have ehd ta I il use will I that methods l as textual analysis textual as l

ț ted myself parts from Sofia Nădejde’s journalistic work, although most of them of most although work, journalistic Nădejde’s Sofia from parts myself ted (The Contemporary), Contemporary), (The ifică the nineteenth century and beginning of the twentieth century, such as as such century, twentieth the of beginning and century nineteenth the

Sofia Nădejde’s articles in different socialist Romanian journals and and journals Romanian socialist different in articles Nădejde’s Sofia Nw ieay n Sinii Wrd, and World), Scientific and Literary (New - century publications in the Central University Library and in the the in and Library University Central the in publications century

I could not consult all the primary sources (Sofia Nădejde’s Nădejde’s (Sofia sources primary the all consult not could I

in my thesis are that of historical and historiographical historiographical and historical of that are thesis my in eea Română Femeia 12

- century socialists. , which can be found in the special se special the in found be can which ,

Rmna Woman), (Romanian

35 rpuie Omului Drepturile

Lumea Nouă Nouă Lumea

(Human My . ction CEU eTD Collection Ithesis endwith a shortconcluding answer chapterquestions will inwhich my main The history? feminist recent more the in and and period communist the of historiography writings Romanian Nădejde’s Sofia are how question: the answer to try will I work. Nădejde’s Sofia regarding historiography feminist the and communist the with deal jou these in about write Nădejde Sofia did topics which are: here answer to try will I that questions Română ana will I In five 1972. chapter in published Nadejde, Sofia of biography his in Romanian included the Visinescu that Victor scholar information the on based largely Nădejde, Sofia of biography a present what innineteenth types offeminisms existed is, answer to try will chapter this that question main The century. nineteenth the in feminism/s third the In member. a was Nădejde Sofia which of Romania), of Party Workers Democratic Social (The SDWPR the of creation the and ideology, socialist Romanian the as well as active were husband her and Nădejde Sofia where 1 to 1879 from Romania in socialism of historyshort apresent will en cultural T hesis rnals and how can we characterize her political ideas in these writings? The sixth chapter willchapter sixth The writings? these in ideas political her characterize we can how and rnals In order to better understand her ideas and ideasIn her tobetterunderstand order and InI socialfirst chapters.howthe chapter, political, the show ofsix consists My thesis ,

Contemporanul Structure vironment in Romania developed in the nineteenth century. In the second chapter, I chapter, second the In century. nineteenth the in developed Romania in vironment

ye oe f oi Ndjes oraitc ok in work journalistic Nădejde’s Sofia of some lyze ,

rpuie Omului Drepturile chapter, I will provide a short overview of Romanian of overview short a provide will I chapter, and , - century Romania? 13

writings, but also her life, in chapter four I four will also but inchapter her life, writings,

ue Nu Ltrr ş Ştiin şi Literară Nouă Lumea

899, the socialist circle in Iaşi circlein socialist the 899, activity depicted in the the in depicted activity

h journals the . ț

ifică

Femeia The . CEU eTD Collection capital its with Moldavia, Romania, of part eastern the that mention to important is It in. wrote poli and society of kind the of and Romania in appeared feminism which in context the of understanding better a to contribute will history Romanian women’s human of rightseve were allthis part and men’s for struggle the and class, working the of creation the and industry of development the nation, a of making the peasants, of emancipation the legislation, modern Constitution, new Romania, of state one into Moldavia and Wallachia of Unification The 1878. in independence country’s the was time that in Romania for achievements political important Ha and nineteenth of situation historical The century. nineteenth of end the at industry Romanian of development Ru under placed were Moldavia and Wallachia when (1829), Adrianople of treaty the from starting order chronological in context, Introduction T bsburg Empires all occupied parts of the Romanian territory. This is why one of the most most the of one why is This territory. Romanian the of parts occupied all Empires bsburg My short presentation of the most important dates, actions, and social stratification in the in stratification socialand actions,dates, important most the of presentation Myshort Romanian nineteenth a ofthe shortdescription IpresentIn chapter, this he general historical contextof nineteen - century Romania was marked by different foreign occupations; the Ottoman, Russian Russian Ottoman, the occupations; foreign different by marked was Romania century

ssian military rule, until the country’s independence and the the and independence country’s the until rule, military ssian Chapter I ntful century.ntful 14

tical ambiance Sofia Nădejde lived and lived Nădejde Sofia ambiance tical

th -

century Romania a foreign prince, a prince, foreign a - century historical

CEU eTD Collection 1774 Românii KeithHitchins, Papacostea, Şerban 37 foreignaffairs. except aspects Ottoman underformal became twoThe provinces (Moldavia). 1359 and (Wallachia) in 1330 independence until their this remaindlike 36 both in Constitution, a as served which Regulations), Organic (The Organcice” “Regulamentele ca 1834, in law”, “fundamental a of introduction the was aspect important An Principalities. prince. Constantinople, to tribute Principalities the within consolidated was Russia possible. now was Empire Ottoman the beside countries, cer with Constantinople auto administrative the Principa the of life economical Empire, Ottoman the and Russia between Russian (1829) Treaty Adrianople The natural oil resources of Iaşi,

Keith Hitchins, “The beginnings of the modern state” in Mihai Bărbulescu, Dennis Deletant, Keith Hitchins, Hitchins, Keith DennisDeletant, Bărbulescu, in modernMihai state” ofthe beginnings “The KeithHitchins, Keith Hitchins, to According

had fewer resources, besides wood and forests, while Wallachia, had (and has) important has) (and had Wallachia, while forests, and wood besides resources, fewer had 37 (1829) Treaty Adrianople The The Russian occupation brought about radical changes in the political life of these two two these of life political the in changes radical about brought occupation Russian The

military rule military Istoria României Istoria

suzerainty in 1476 (Wallachia) and 1538 (Moldavia), but t (Moldavia), 1538 and (Wallachia) 1476 in suzerainty

. nomy of Wallachia and Moldavia and t and Moldavia and Wallachia of nomy

eals and other goods was end was goods other and eals

- 1866 (Romanians 1774 1866

Wallachia and Wallachia

and the sultan confirmed every year the election of a Romanian Romanian a of election the year every confirmed sultan the and

(History of Romania), Romania), (History of lities, Wallachia and Moldavia. T Moldavia. and Wallachia lities, -

Moldavia were at the beginning vassals of the Hungarian Crown, and and Crown, Hungarian ofthe vassals theat beginning were Moldavia wih ocue te Russo the concluded which , Wallachia and Moldavia and Wallachia was a moment of greatof moment a was - 1866), (Bucharest: Editura Enciclopedică, 1997),76 Enciclopedică, Editura (Bucharest: 1866), 15 .

( Bucharest: Editura Editura Bucharest: Wallachia and Moldavia had to pay an annual annual an pay to had Moldavia and Wallachia ed

and free trade and commerce with other with commerce and trade free and 36

Through this treaty the position of position the treaty this Through he Principalities duty to provide provide to duty Principalities he

significance in significance he Ottoman sultan recognized sultan Ottoman he Enciclop hey preserved theirself heypreserved

- are placed under placed are uks Wr (1828 War Turkish edică, 1993), 358; see also also see 358; 1993), edică,

the political andpolitical the - rule in all rulein

- 1829) 1829) lled CEU eTD Collection 42 41 40 39 2007 Publishing, 38 W both from population the of most constituted peasants” “dependent the Hitchins, to According its to had in who was areas urban to rural from beginnings. migration The number. its doubled Moldavia and what they pleased. could who boyars, the of property the were and status, were category lowest the and peasants”, though,“dependent peasants, the among differences were there order, botto the at were peasants the that clear, then be must It Ottoman. the and Russian the foreignoccupations, two also but one, not to also but boyars, the of rule onlythe to having from their by expressed domination boyars These exploited they elite, century nineteenth the as influence great gained and lands village best the over took who leaders village acquisitive “from soc present the of consolid maintaining the objective primary as had Organice” a had Moldavia nor Wallachia Neither them. of

Ibid., 362 Ibid., Ibid. Ibid., modernstate” the of beginnings “The Hitchins, Turnock, David allachia and allachia

360 At the beginning of the nineteenth century, in 1834, the urban population from Wallachia from population urban the 1834, in century, nineteenth the of beginning the At ation of the “boieri” (boyars) “boieri” the of ation

41 pay monthly taxes to the boyars the to taxes monthly pay

) A contra A

4 Moldavia. Aspects of Independent Romania’s EconomicHistory Romania’s Independent of Aspects pay, pay,

40 exclusive

and the and

sting lo called also

Another aspect was the heavy social contrast that began to appear in appear to began that contrast social heavy the was aspect Another h pltcl ie truh t through life, political the

fact ownership presence in the central the in presence

was that of the growing number of number growing the of that was

rmn” “veci “rumâni”,

privileges. The privileges. of the whole land whole the of , 359

, the peasantry according to the Ottoman model Ottoman the to according peasantry the 42 16

and the decreasing number of “free peasants”. “free of number decreasing the and

Cnttto” eoe T before. “Constitution” i, ibg” n “ămş” had “pălmaşi”, and “iobagi” ni”,

administration and through their exemption their through and administration er xlsv rgt s ues which rulers, as right exclusive heir se boyars were landowners, who evolved evolved who landowners, were boyars se sell them at any time and do with them with do and time any at them sell . 39 , (

Hampshire and Burlington: Ashgate Burlington: and Hampshire The peasants were subjected to not to subjected were peasants The

the m of of m

“dependent peasant “dependent the Romanian social social Romanian the he “Regulamentele “Regulamentele he a odr n the and order ial

no legal legal no .” was was s”,

CEU eTD Collection 46 45 44 43 middle new a for place making decreasing, was boyars class upper and middle of percentage The 1830. a supported who education, two the of “westernization” Principalities. the opposed and Empire Ottoman the supported who boyars, political realms. and social cultural, the in French), (mainly ones western with cohabitation strong in and present change. to began society Romanian the Revolution, Change and Cultural Revolution The 1848 was pushedintothe process ofsecularizati w state the of spheres civil and political the into intrusion its and role Clergy’s Church. Orthodox over control the and authority, state of strengthening initiated they because was class, rural composed of inhighlyan teachers numbers middle of form a area, rural the from class social Another workers. factory mig to began who peasants, poor the and village, a of class ruling the were who peasants, rich few notice can we peasants”, “free of category the In word. rural the

Hitchins K NeaguDjuvara, Ibid. eith Hitchins, eithHitchins,

- Another element made its entrance in this period: a public that could read, with a basic basic a with read, could that public a period: this in entrance its made element Another 1 the of beginning the and occupation Russian the of end the between period the In modernization the of part were whole, a as Organice”, “Regulamentele The class (not the same as the western bourgeoisie) constituted of teachers, priests and pu and priests teachers, of constituted bourgeoisie) western the as same the (not class ,

“The beginnings of the modern state”, 360 modernstate”, the of beginnings “The 46 Românii 1774 Românii

Intre Orient si Occident si Orient Intre 45

The rulers, called “domni” or “domnitori” “domni” or called rulers, The

as eadn te icl ytm te lnig f an of planning the system, fiscal the regarding laws - 1866 nd was interested journals and newspapers that began to appear after after appear to began that newspapers and journals interested was nd

, (Bucharest: Editura Enciclopedică, 1997), 1997), Enciclopedică, (Bucharest: , Editura

(Between Orient and Occident), (Iaşi: Junimea, 2004), 24 2004), Junimea, (Iaşi: Occident), and (BetweenOrient on, a “heavy” of state and separation d priests.

h oriental The

ere diminished. Society, as a whole, whole, a as Society, diminished. ere

were in permanent conflict withthe conflict were inpermanent

rate in the cities and became and cities the in rate ottoman

96 - 98

traditions were still still were traditions annual

church.

ugt the budget, 44

pro

cess, blic 848 CEU eTD Collection 1998), Humanitas, (Bucharest: 49 48 Identity 47 world”constructed intheimaginary times. as was it ofthose civilized the of “borderland the East, the from, came they where place the understood better the adapted they so work, not would it Moldavia or Wallachia in practice, in that knew they civilization, Western the was ideal their eighters) cal was generation new This civilization”. of “ideal the became language literat enlighte providing in as market commercial a developing in interested as were works literary French access to translation of conduit Ro Culture Modern Romanian bu Romanian, longer no was home, t constituted one, French the were especially and culture, This culture. people” its quickly adopted and word, “new western the by fascinated these lifestyle, ottoman oriental, an supported who families, their with Fran whom for and Paris, in studies their completed read that class the was class middle newspapers and journals. “new” This areas. rural from them of most notaries,

AlexDrace Lucian Boia, LucianBoia, AlexDrace ain public manian ure.”

(London and New York: IB Tauris,2006), 121 Tauris,2006), IB York: New (London and mn te nelcul o te ie w fn sn ad fw agtr o byr who boyars of daughters few a and sons find we time, the of intellectuals the Among

and was the one that brought the brought that one the was and 48 - - Franci Francis, Francis,

Istorie si mit in constiinta românească constiinta si in mit Istorie ot intellectuals Most s, – The Making of Romanian Modern Culture Modern Romanian of Making The The Making of Romanian Modern Culture Modern Romanian of Making The

goig ubr ol aray pa Fec ad ol nt ed the need not would and French speak already could number growing a heir lifestyle model; even the language they spoke, when they returned returned they when spoke, they language the even model; lifestyle heir 47 10

(2006), “o (2006),

ee let n uks, usa ad emn bt h French the but German, and Russian Turkish, in fluent were t French. As Alex Drace Alex As French. t ir western ideas to local realities. Knowing the West, they they West, the Knowing realities. local to ideas western ir ne most not mistake this for the average level of the entire entire the of level average the for this mistake not most ne

spirit of the revolution to revolution the of spirit

(History and myth in the Romanian consciousness), consciousness), Romanian myththe (Historyin and 18

ce becomes their second home. In contrast In home. second their becomes ce , 121 , : Literacy and the Development of National National of Development the and Literacy –

it certainly shows that the publishers publishers the that shows certainly it 49 -

Francis showed in showed Francis

all social classes. Even if if Even classes. social all led “paşoptistă” led The Making of Making The nment through through nment

(forty - CEU eTD Collection 52 51 50 succeed emancipatio the as well as bondage, from peasants of emancipation the Constitution, and legislation new a sexes”, “both for suffrage universal women), (including everybody for education to “Proclama ca every for freedom individual demanded entitled they which in Proclamation), proclamation a a of elaborated form They the revolution. in own their manifesto, make to eager Romanians intellectual the made G the and Budapest, Vienna, to rebellion the of spread fast the and 1848, February were themselves fromas thebondage, and live they which in subjugation general the against and them to requested boyars the that taxes, high the against fight to decided were peasants The parties. and organizations political forming of possibility the and vote to right the demanding middle the administration; public and agriculture in reforms moderate wanted Others diminish. would power own their that afraid methods authoritarian the with agree not did boyars Many lived. they which in conditions economical social, and the political against rebelling were Principalities both from classes social all when moment a

“Both sexes”, re “Bothsexes”, Hitchins, modernstate”, the of beginnings “The Hitchins, h eet fo Wsen uoe te vrun f Louis of overturn the Europe, Western from events The “paşop new the and Revolution 1848 The ed “The beginnings of the modern state”, 368 modernstate”, the of beginnings “The .

o women. of n ferred to men and women and men to ferred

used by the “domnitori”, the rulers of the Principalities, because they were they because Principalities, the of rulers the “domnitori”, the by used 52

hs rmie on remained Those

- ls poetd gis te ih ae rqie b required taxes high the against protested class .

free people. 365

19 tist” generation who made it possible, arrived in in arrived possible, it made generationwho tist”

y ead, eas te eouin i not did revolution the because demands, ly 50

iig Te wne t emancipate to wanted They living. - ț hlpe te rnh ig in king, French the Philippe, ia de la Islaz” (The Islaz Islaz (The Islaz” la de ia tegory of people, access access people, of tegory erman cities, erman 51 y the state, state, the y

free press, free CEU eTD Collection 54 53 government, his mo a into society Romanian Conference.Constantinople t recognized officially the at sultan Ottoman elec double the approved France, and Britain Great like powers, and Ottomans the sovereignacknowledged attheBerlin in1878.” Congress status wasby thepowers of by revolt of suppression the following Bulgaria, in intervention Russian j suzerainty the of time Ottoman the at 1877 in However, independence its gained expansion. country the until continued Russian against bastion a as state larger the for whe 1859 of decision inspired the and (1856) War Crimean the after protection Russian of ending the with Principalities separate formerly the of union the through made was progress political and changes political the to belonged middle and upper the by them, of both in Ioan Alexandru because, happened This Romania. reforms social and economic New Moldavia. and Wallachia of Unification

Turnock, Hitchins, n Prince Cuza was elected in both Moldavia and Wallachia combined with Western support Western with combined Wallachia and Moldavia both in elected was Cuza Prince n During his seven years of ruling of years seven his During of state new the formed Wallachia and Moldavia of Principalities two the 1859, In The Habsburg and Ottoman Empires did not support the new prince, new the support not did Empires Ottoman and Habsburg The

Aspects of Independent Romania’s Economic History, History, Economic Romania’s Independent of Aspects Românii the “paşoptist” generation, involved in the 1848 revolution. 1848 the in involved generation, “paşoptist” the

the first Romanian Universi Romanian first the , 88 ,

54 rges ht hs no md psil, run ta, “important that, arguing possible, made union this that progress dern one, working with the with working one, dern

Nevertheless,country st thewas

from 1859 to 1866 to 1859 from t - y was founded, in 1864, at Iaşi. at 1864, in founded, was y ls byr. rne Cuz Prince boyars. class 20 e nt o 2 o Nvme 16 a the at 1861 November of 22 on unity he

Cuza (1859 Cuza 6

Liberal and Conservative parties. Under Under parties. Conservative and Liberal

Prince - ill underill Ottoman suzerainty. 1866), was elected as “domnitor” “domnitor” as elected was 1866), tion, on tion,

Cuza tried to transform the transform to tried Cuza

David Turnock points to points Turnock David suid n ai, and Paris, in studied a August

However, this was was this However, but other Western Western other but oint Romanian oint

26, 53

1859. The The 1859.

CEU eTD Collection 58 57 56 55 the in conditions living better and change about bring will that reforms make to attempted Cuza, dangerforgetting of any they literacy skills lear have may end the attend) to failed (or failed pupils all of half those enroll“nearly ninety percent of was there (Putna) another in while (Suceava), county Moldavian one in schools 57 were there 1865 “In areas, different between discrepancies and paper’, on only advocated of abolition many the sc primary obligatory is ‘education that frankly admitted successor Conservative schoo a without commune single a remain not should ‘there that ideal the pursued and drum’, the of beating leaflets, placards, ‘with publicized massively be should Law the that 1866 in proposed Rosetti C.A like minister applied not was law this parties, the of because Nevertheless, age. of years twelve and eight between female, and male Romania, of inhabitants obliga made was education Britain), before years six (and time first the “For says, Drace as Romania, of inhabitant every for obligatory became education law this With peasantry,curre period the of reforms fundamental the Among 1860s. the during system political entire the of transformation the of aspect “one just

Ibid. 149 Ibid., Drace Drace

- - Regarding the emancipation o emancipation the Regarding wi resolved not was illiteracy of situation The Francis, Francis, Francis,

The Makin The Culture Modern Romanian of Making The

ncy amodern constitution reform, ideological

g of Romanian Modern Culture Modern Romanian of g

divergences

l not a single boy or child who lacks sainted book sainted lacks who child or boy single a not l

niey Drace entirely. ed nationally were in the first or second year, andthan second more were inthe first or ed nationally – f peasantry and their economical and social status, prince status, social and economical their and peasantry f

euaiain f h mnseis eacpto o the of emancipation monasteries, the of secularization ht existed that hools.” 21 ny one.” only

, , 148 148 , 56 – - was the LawInstructionwas of of the1864.” Public

Franci -

of between the Liberal and the Conservative Conservative the and Liberal the between

- year examination, and were therefore in therefore were and examination, year ned.” nte, “w notied, s 57 th this law and there were many many were there and law this th

lx Drace Alex 58

ie Lbrl education Liberal a hile - rni described Francis - learning’, his learning’, oy o all for tory - Francis

that 55

CEU eTD Collection 61 60 59 Ottoman Empire. under Romani of (1839 Sigmaringen prince the as down step to coalition, new a Constitution and prince A foreign sufficient econ towithstand politicalpower inequ political against up stand to strength “economic having not were peasants the only’).” hands of palms with ‘those (none, pălmaşi and middle’) owned, into divisions creating they oxen of number the to according calculated was which wealth, their to relation mona of secularization the included also 1864 of law exporter.” wheat largest r estates the fourth world’s the Romania made that system farming a of basis social the was of This landowners. respect in arrangements) sharecropping (or contracts labor oppressive highly into enter to obliged were peasants the and farms family as viable not were by 1864 ru

Fox, KatyFox, Turnock, ral world. David Turnock noticed that, “p that, noticed Turnock David world. ral

Peasants into European Farmers European into Peasants h cniin ht h Uie Picplte (oai) remain (Romania), Principalities United the that condition the n h ya 16 Aeadu on ua was Cuza Ioan Alexandru 1866 year the In giving land to the peasants and abolishing their feudal obligations, but smallholdings but obligations, feudal their abolishing and peasants the to land giving

Aspects of Independent Romania’s Economic History Economic Romania’s Independent of Aspects Peasants into European Farmers? European into Peasants

- 1914), was a foreign prince from from prince foreign a was 1914),

fruntaşi 59

Katy Fox said Fox Katy

(four oxen, ‘those at the fore’), fore’), the at ‘those oxen, (four , 56 ,

(Zürich and Berlin: Lit Verlag, 2011) Lit Verlag, Berlin: (Zürichand

in omic oppression.” Peasants into European Farmers? European into Peasants rince Cuza attempted to modernize landholding in landholding modernize to attempted Cuza rince 22

Prussia , 8 ocd b a liberal a by forced, . h nw ue, ao Hohenzollern Carol ruler, new The a. stic domains”. stic

. The O The . 61

mijlocaşi

This “reform” failed, because failed, “reform” This ttoman sultan accepted him, him, accepted sultan ttoman Peasants received land “in “in land received Peasants , 55 ,

ed (two oxen, ‘those in the the in ‘those oxen, (two - - 56 osraie political conservative

the of part integral

that “the agrarian “the that etained by the the by etained ality, neither neither ality, - CEU eTD Collection 65 64 63 62 cehigh ofprogress,because good ofdecade representeda oil).” (especially minerals and wealth forest materials, raw agricultural T David kingdom, Hohenzollern 1878. in sta sovereign its and state of industry development The kingdom. independent an becomes Romania to offic 1866 of while boyars), (the owners Agrarian 1864 the respect not the parties, two only were There more. expression f in equality full the as well as guaranteed, were of liberties The monarchy. constitutional a into Romania transformed which stru social andrealities loca the of consideration any without Romania, in introduced were laws and values western one. Belgian the of copya was

Ibid., 9 Ibid., Turnok, Ibid. Hi the ethnic Romanian boyar (upper tchins, “Inceputurile statului modern”,368 statului “Inceputurile tchins,

n 87 atr h Romanian the after 1877, In importa most The

Aspects of Independent Romania’s Economic History Economic Romania’s Independent of Aspects 64

expression. The powers of the prince were diminished, while the Parliame the while diminished, were prince the of powers The expression. n 81 Rmna s fiily kndm Rgt, ue b te ig Carol king the by ruled (Regat), kingdom a officially is Romania 1881, In ially accorded civic rights to “all Romanians”, but Romanians”, “all to rights civic accorded ially - Sigmaringen, who becomes Carol I. In terms of industrial development, the the development, industrial of terms In I. Carol becomes who Sigmaringen, urnock argues, “Had considerable potential for industry by virtue of its its of virtue by industry for potential considerable “Had argues, urnock

ctures. As Hitchins showed Hitchins As ctures. nt law that the new prince abrogate was the Constitution (1866), which (1866), Constitution the was abrogate prince new the that law nt tus was acknowledged by the western powers at the Congress of Berlin of Congress the at powers western the by acknowledged was tus

the property was declared sacred declared was property the

This was the first modern Constitution of Romania. Constitution modern first the was This a, tpltn ta te amn ln blne t te former the to belonged land farming the that stipulating Law, - - class landownin class Russian

Liberal and the Conservative. The new Constitution did Constitution new The Conservative. the and Liberal - Ottoman war, Romania becomes an independent independent an becomes Romania war, Ottoman 23 ront of th of ront

, this Constitution was in essence a liberal one, liberal aessence in was Constitution this , , 4 g), intelligentsia. and

e laws, and freedom of freedom and laws, e realprices”.

and inviolable. and

in reality citizenship was citizenship reality in

Nevertheless, 65

In addition, “the 1890s “the addition, In

the male citizens citizens male the The

th 62 e press and of and press e

“in the earlythe “in Constitution Onceagain, nt gained gained nt limite

d l

CEU eTD Collection 2003) Press, ofCalifornia University Angeles: Los 68 67 66 the and “backwardness”, of fear a but entirely, Romania century nineteenth to applies says nat the of ‘extinction’ final the of fear a danger, military slow showed Berend as extinction, and laws, food processing suppo Bucharest (…) 1884 in Iaşigeneratorsthe firstin1884,andCraiova supplyingBucharest1882, electric andTimişoara in hand from came oil Romanian of cent nineteenth the of into Shell end Dutch Royal brought the century at discovery, oil new a an and industry, represented whole Romanian the of of part industry important oil The investment. foreign to opened was industry 1886 in and and their employment sector. the industrial into peas the of because also part, in developed, industry we artisans based urban and craftsmen village the but slow, was development industrial the century nineteenth

Tibor Iván Tibor Turnock, Ibid. - moving countries, causing a frightening feeling of stagnation, ‘backwardness’, and even even and ‘backwardness’, stagnation, of feeling frightening a causing countries, moving

h mdriain f h cuty a hpeig riiily w artificially, happening was country the of modernization The w legislation protective A Aspects of Independent Romania’s Economic History Economic Romania’s Independent of Aspects , Berend , ihu ay osdrto fr h lcl elte. hs a, fa o s of fear a was, This realities. local the for consideration any without - 1887, for industry as a whole. In addition, in 1895, through 1895, in addition, In whole. a as industry for 1887, .” 67 re numerous.” re

History Derailed: Central and Easte and Central Derailed: History

rted a wide range of activities, including engineerin including activities, of range wide a rted ,

66 “t

as developed in 1881 in developed as he broadening gap in economic development challenged the the challenged development economic in gap broadening he In the second half and at the end of the nineteenth century the century nineteenth the of end the at and half second the In - dug wells. Oil and lignite supplied boilers and powered and boilers supplied lignite and Oil wells. dug

Romania. David T David Romania. , 89 ,

rn Europe in the Long Nineteenth Century Nineteenth Long in the Europe rn

ant’s migration from rural to urban areas, urban to rural from migration ant’s , 10 , - 1882, for the paper and sugar industries sugar and paper the for 1882,

ion.” urnock said that, “u that, said urnock 68

I do not know if what Berend what if know not do I ith western ideas and and ideas western ith a Mining Law, the oil oil the Law, Mining a ntil 1900, 80 per 80 1900, ntil g, textiles and textiles g, tagnation

(Berkeley and (Berkeleyand of , - , CEU eTD Collection 69 stratificatio social and actions, important dates,most in the history short presentation century ofnineteenth Romania. ofthe This and organizations existed prior they tothat, but n were such with countrya for late 1893, onlyin class social of problems the addition, In century. twentieth the of beginning the in population the conditions, living poor illiteracy, The enough. was generation “French” new the and boyars “oriental” rich poor, very them of most peasants, local between contrast The country. independent an formed they it of end the at occupation, Habsburg or Ottoman Russian, uni which Transylvania, (without Romania form t century, nineteenth the of beginning the at If ideologies. new This the independence, Constitution, eman the and problem agrarian new the commerce, and industry of development a prince, foreign a unity, the elections, conventions, Conclusion discourse of the time. intellectual and political the among predominantly was West the with up” “keeping of necessity

Tibor Iván Tibor century brought about change, revolution, the struggle for emancipation and human rights, rights, human and emancipation for struggle the revolution, change, about brought century In this chapter, I tried to map the most important political, social and economical events economical and social political, important most the map to tried I chapter, this In was Romania century nineteenth of context historical The , Berend , – s

the workers workers the

History Derailed: Central and Eastern Europe Eastern and Central Derailed: History

huge. It needed a century for this contrast to diminish, but it was not was it but diminish, to contrast this for century a needed It huge. –

were not on the Parliamen the on not were

n in the Romanian history was needed for a better understanding understanding better a for needed was history Romanian the in n

big

social problems as Romania. The socialist ideologysocialist The Romania. as problems social

25 and social inequalities social and

e wt te onr i 11) wr under were 1918), in country the with ted ot organized as a legal party.ot organized as alegal t agenda. A socialist party socialist A agenda. t , , 89

he two Principalities that Principalities two he

marked by different wars, wars, different by marked were still present among present still were cipation

was of peasants. of later

the new new the form will will ed

CEU eTD Collection and society of kind which in political ambiance Nădejde didSofia lived and wrote. and Romania in appeared feminism which in context the of

CEU eTD Collection in said 70 Manifestul pentru peasants of importance the highlight will 189 journal monthly the Speran Theodor GheorhgheNădejde, newspaper a socialist 1879 first in The appeared appeared. first socialism where Romania, of part eastern the Moldavia, of capital the (Iassy), Iaşi from circle socialist the present will I First, 1900. to 1879 this developme the In on be to going is demanded. focus my chapter, was emancipation women’s and public, made explicitly was oppression for struggle initiated the program political core The emancipation. its at has history This century. Introduction A ShortHis

This 1, and was the main socialist and one of the most popular journals of that time. After that, After time. that of journals popular most the of one and socialist main the was and 1,

Sofia Nădejde Sofia was a

This chapter will provide will chapter This pseudonym; tory of socialism inRomania (1879

, (Bucharest: Editura Politică, 1976), 23 1976), Politică, Editura (Bucharest: , ț ărani ărani Iş, entitled Iaşi, t

Contemporanul h e was the Russian emigrant Russian thewas e Workers Party ofRomania (SDWPR) (A Manifesto for Peasants), published published in1 (A for Manifesto Peasants),

a short history of Romanian socialism in the late nineteenth nineteenth late the in socialism Romanian of history short a Be ț (The Contemporary), which appeared between 1881 and and 1881 between appeared which Contemporary), (The ia, their cousin and “Dr. N. Russel”. “Dr.N. and cousin their ia, sarabia Chapter II

n h Rmna s Romanian the in

Nikolai Konstantinievi Nikolai

(Bessarabia), edited by the brothers Ioan and and Ioan brothers the by edited (Bessarabia), y oilss a te is i which in first the was socialists by

nt of the socialist ideology in Romania, from Romania, in ideology socialist the of nt

- 1900). The Social Democratic peasants, cait oeet ilsrtd by illustrated movement, ocialist ci Sudzilovski ci 891 by Ioan Nădejde, Vasile Ioan Vasile 891 byNădejde,

workers 70

as Victor Vişinescu Vişinescu as Victor Then, Idiscuss Then,will

and women’s women’s and

women’s women’s

I CEU eTD Collection 14 (February1935): 671, 72 71 Besarabia interestedcausemost inthe socialist the fact in were who workers, the illuminate to wanted others while youngsters, the of sympathy [socialists] them of some (…) elaborated was program of pages the in (1935) later years it recalled Nădejde Gheorghe and socialist the were present (Iassy) in ideology Socialist by peasants. mostly populated region agrarian an was Moldavia that consideringnormal, thus is emancipation interes The Bucharest. in not and Iaşi movementsocialist important An Wallachia.areas than rural more had Moldavia, Nădejde’sactivity init. the Social Democratic Workers Pa will I events, the of order chronological the Following workers. Mor

Sofia Nădejde, “Amintiri. Mişcarea socialist “Amintiri. Mişcarea SofiaNădejde, Vişinescu, Victor ț un and Constantin Mille, where the socialists presented their political program to the rural the to program political their presented socialists the where Mille, Constantin and un The first socialist newspaper appeared in the same year, 1879, and it was called called was it and 1879, year, same the in appeared newspaper socialist first The 1879, In import is What

Bsaai) Is edit Its (Bessarabia).

Nădejde, Sofia Nădejde Sofia h frt oils conference socialist first the

ant to emphasize in the in emphasize to ant

s Zamfir Arbore, Văleanu, Arbore, Zamfir s nine and , (Bucharest: Editura Politică, 1972), 97 1972), Politică, Editura (Bucharest: ,

osatn Dobrogeanu Constantin teenth ors were the brothers Ioan and Gheorghe Nădejde, Theodor Theodor Nădejde, Gheorghe and Ioan brothers the were ors rty in Romania (SDWPR) rty inRomania . ” 72 t that the socialist circle in circle socialist the that t ă - ” (Memories. The socialist movement) socialist The (Memories. ”

century Ro century

28 introduction n Romania in

Lupu, mania. The socialist circle in in circle socialist The mania. - Gherea. Adevărul

wanted to work in schools, to earn to schools, in work to wanted Theodor Theodor

, in1894,

is took place in Iaşi. Among those those Among Iaşi. in place took

that the eastern part of Romania, Romania, of part eastern the that

71 then discuss the establishment the discuss then

(The Truth), when “a socialist socialist “a when Truth), (The Iaşi had regarding peasantry’s regarding had Iaşi t a te oet a Sofia as moment, the was It Speran

its shortits history, and Sofia , in , Adevarul ț ia, the brothers Ioan Ioan brothers the ia,

will develop indevelop will , y ear 49, no.15, no.15, 49, ear

Iaşi Iaşi

the of CEU eTD Collection 75 74 73 Nă t against ideas offensive with students young corrupting Romania Gheorghe brother his death.” Tsar’s Therefore, assassination. the the in complicity of them accused of Iaşi in Consulate celebration the and revolt Parisian the of anniversary C Paris the from years ten celebrating Mil Dinu (1861 Mille Constantin as which, II, Alexander Tsar revolutions,but aboutwritten and spoken propaganda.” p a year the in addition, In Movement). National newspaper the in 1880, during disseminated socialism, regarding healthy for comments some by followed s ideilor asupra comentarii cateva de urmat psihiatric, studiu Un int brought socialists class “i that, theystatededitorial, Speran

Constantin Mille, Mille, Constantin 3 socialistă”, “Amintiri. Mişcarea SofiaNădejde, Vişinescu, dejde is accused of propagating in Iaşi’s student’s clubs and colleges ideas that will will that ideas colleges and clubs student’s Iaşi’s in propagating of accused is dejde rogram, as Sofia Nădejde recalled Nădejde Sofia as rogram, . In order to reach this goals we goals this reach to order In . ț

A year later, in 1881, the members of the organizati the of members the 1881, in later, year A a ter osn ad D. usl ( Russel” “Dr. and cousin, their ia, Ia Ndje a acsd b te ietr f h Ntoa Clee n ai of Iaşi, in College National the of director the by accused, was Nădejde Ioan . ian Sofia Nădejde Sofia

18) ws momen a was (1887), Dinu Milian Dinu

o existence their own printery own their existence o

, were arrested, accused of of accused arrested, were

, (Iaşi: Tipografia Lupta, 1887), 379 1887), Lupta, (Iaşi: , Tipografia n this life, we would not have any goal then e goalthen anyhavenot would we life, this n

o get satisfaction, great of t

developed this developed

it: “The it: mue te also they ommune,

da) i wih e contradicted he which in ideas), ioa Kntniivc Sudzilovski Konstantinievici Nikolai

1880 socialists also began to diffuse their ideas in in ideas their diffuse to began also socialists 1880 29 Program

atheism , where “Dr. Russel” published the brochure: the published Russel” “Dr. where ,

journal.” - 74 87 rmmee i hs autobiography his in remembered 1827)

was not about bombes, nor assaults or assaults nor bombes, about not was e rsn odr f h society. the of order present he

and the spread of socialist ideas in in ideas socialist of spread the and as they (the socialists in Iaşi) were were Iaşi) in socialists (the they as on “Narodnaia Volea” assassinated assassinated Volea” “Narodnaia on

73 eertd h assiain “t assassination the celebrated

In the following year, 1880, Iaşi 1880, year, following the In ănătoase icra Na Mişcarea mpowering the working working the mpowering (A psychiatric study, psychiatric (A

the liberal theories theories liberal the Ioan Nădejde and Nădejde Ioan 75 ț ). h Russian The

ională n h first the In

“Ioan (The he he

CEU eTD Collection 79 78 77 76 Contemporary human.” were they that “ was hoping and condemnation arguing, their socialists, of cause true the that stated they where brochure, published brothers Nădejde teaching his at from position suspended be will guilty, less as Nădejde, Gheorghe Mr. Iaşi. in National at College position teaching his from dismissed is and guiltiest, the found is Nădejde, Ioan s fa class throug poverty Nădej Gheorghe and Ioan the from banished and Bessarabia with Romanian Kin frontier the at escorted were them of some while Ia of University the by trial on put were Nădejde “Garan Răreu, Alex. Mille, Constantin University: the from dismissed were supporters and contributors editors, Its Besarabia order.” present the and property private society, our destabilize ociali

Victor Vişinescu, Victor National Archives Iaşi, Ds. 2/1881 quoted in Victor Vişinescu, Vişinescu, in Victor quoted 2/1881 Ds. Archives Iaşi, National Vişinescu, Victor i quoted 2/1881 Ds. ArchivesIaşi, in National sm in schools, participating in participating schools, in sm In July 1881, the first number of the socialist monthly journal journal monthly socialist the of number first the 1881, July In iy s pottto’ disregard ‘prostitution’, as mily 79

newspaper h eodr col n ai for Iaşi in School Secondary the ) was published in Iaşi by the same socialist circle, in Ioan and Sofia Nădejde’s Sofia and Ioan in circle, socialist same the by Iaşi in published was ) gdom h class inequality, defining inequality, class h Sofia Nădejde Sofia Sofia Nădejde Sofia . In 5,1 June .

in 1881, with the same explanation that it “dissemi it that explanation same the with 1881, in ” Tedr Speran (Theodor ă” de took place. They were accused of “spreading atheism, explaining atheism, “spreading of accused were They place. took de , 102 , , 101 , oilsu îane justi înainte Socialismul

881, the lawsuit 881, the o a a wh day a for working n Victor Vişinescu, nVictor

ț property as theft, considering the upper and middle and upper the considering theft, as property the paternal authority in the family, propagating propagating family, the in authority paternal the

) “. aa (on ăed) Ia ad Gheorghe and Ioan Nădejde). (Ioan Cara” “I. ă), - an undetermined period. undetermined an class meetings.” class 30 n h hmn will human the en

that the that

şi. The local authorities searched their homes, homes, their searched authorities local The şi. ț Sofia Nădejde Sofia iei Sofia Nădejde Sofia University

Scaim n rn o the of front in (Socialism 77 76

The law court stated that, “m that, stated court law The , 101 , The

o more no

, 100 , initiated

authorities suppressed the suppressed authorities ” 78

nated subversive ideas”. subversivenated

fe h rcs, the process, the After Contemporanul

be against the brothers

nlvd b enslaved

utc) a justice),

the y ( The The r. -

CEU eTD Collection withNădejde. Ioan together movement socialist the Romanian formed first and 1875, 82 Identity 81 Contemporanul 80 w which an monthly appeared Dobrogeanu socialist Constantin criticized by the be later would which art’, stake of c of fields the Literare smaller of reviews.” host a and Commerce; of Chamber local the of Bulletin a 1880’s the from court; “ that, nat truly “became and centers, provincial smaller in spread printing Franci Romania, Contemporanul the fifth chapter. rights and emancipation women’s demanded she which in Women), entitled article an published Nădejde Sofia number, first this In literature. attic.

He AlexDrace Aprinter small was 80 each county town generally had at least a least at had generally town county each in s

(London and New York: IB Tauris, 2006), 173 2006), Tauris, IB York: New (London and Its main aim wa aim Itsmain h ms iprat ieay ora ta apae atr h Uin was Union the after appeared that journal literary important most The de Hohenzollernelection Caroland theof After Unionin1859 the

born as born (Literary Conv (Literary s composed as 81

periodicals, journals, m journals, periodicals,

- h Mkn o Mdr Rmna Culture Romanian Modern of Making The

Francis, Francis,

wasprinted. ultur

was located in So in waslocated Solomo

al theory “radical innovations”, such as the aestethic concept of “art for the the for “art of concept aestethic the as such innovations”, “radical theory al The Making of Modern Romanian Culture Romanian Modern of Making The (The Contemporary) 1881 Contemporary) (The

d was the organ of of organ the was d nKatz s to enlighten readers’ minds, through contemporary theories, science and science theories, contemporary through minds, readers’ enlighten to s

ersations), which was published was which ersations), of ,

in Yekaterinoslav, Ukraine, then a part of the Russian Empire. He came to Iaşi in came in He Iaşi to Empire. Russian the of then part a Ukraine, inYekaterinoslav, s Drace as fia and Ioan Nădejde fiaIoan and

agazines and newspapers increased their numbers their increased newspapers and agazines - rni said Francis Junimea

’shouse 31 Bulletin

(the Y (the , - 1981 “boyars, intellectuals, political, legal and and legal political, intellectuals, “boyars, , in their attic. This was the place where place was the This attic. in , their :

Literacy and the Development of National National of Development the and Literacy

oungsters)

between 1867 and and 1867 between issued by the local pre local the by issued tts ht oraim n i general in and journalism that states

, a group established in 1864, 1864, in established group a , . I will come back to this to back come will I . ional phenomena”. He says says He phenomena”. ional

- Sigmarin 1944. It proposed It 1944. ăr Femei Către fecture or county or fecture . Alex Drace Alex . gen Prince of gen Prince of -

Gherea. Convorbiri

82 (To

in in It -

CEU eTD Collection 85 84 83 peasants for Manifesto Nouă Lumea when 1891, year the In Roma from movement socialist the about Engels, with correspondences Nădejde Ioan 1889, the authoritiesPeasants ofduring committed 1888.Between atrocities Rebellionsin 1888and the the in deputy as elected peasants for A manifesto popularthe 1880s,witha intheprintrunof country over in 3,000 copies.” Nădejde Sofia by theme this on articles numerous published journal the emancipation: feminist of ideas to attention serious “ word wh started Dobrogeanu Constantin education. Literare Western Convorbiri a had and tradition Western the by influenced wer They year. same the in established Iaşi, of University new the on centered men military ieay criticism literary

Nicolae Iorga quoted in Drace quoted Iorga Nicolae Drace

Drace c mas h same the means ich for

- Contemporanul - Francis, Francis, In 1888, because of his activity among the peasants, Ioan Nădejde candidates and is is and candidates Nădejde Ioan peasants, the among activity his of because 1888, In Francis, Francis, Contemporanul Contemporanul

Nw ol) Ia Ndje VG Mor V.G Nădejde, Ioan World), (New The The The Making of Modern Romanian Culture Romanian of Modern Making The . Al ”. Making of Modern Romanian Culture Romanian Modern of Making

ee h scait paper socialist the were

x Drace ex Te dtr of editor The . Te aiet started manifesto The . after the example and name of the Russian Russian the of name and example the after Contemporanul - third College in Iaşi. He will give speeches in the Parliament, accusing Parliament, the in speeches give will He Iaşi. in College third hra H arvd n h Rmna Kingdo Romanian the in arrived He Gherea. - Francis, Francis, a “cetfc a opsd to opposed as “scientific” was .”

84 -

rni points Francis Contemporanul The Making of Modern Romanian Culture Romanian Modern of Making The Contemporan ceased to exist, being replaced with the monthly journal, journal, monthly the with replaced being exist, to ceased 32

ih h floig od, “ words, following the with u “i out a Ni as , Contemporanul

, 175 , , , 174 ul

ws h frt ae i Rmna o give to Romania in paper first the was t

ț was oa Ira said Iorga colae n n Cntni Mle pbihd a published Mille, Constantin and un

I ovrii Literar Convorbiri a Nădejde. oan

(1881 narodnik , 175 , ” fo Bessarabia from m - , 83 81 ad t theorist its and 1891)

85 “w

h mi rvl of rivals main The

h ms important most The

paper paper Workers! The king king The Workers! s n o te most the of one as e’s Sovremennik

an word main

nia. and e ,

CEU eTD Collection commune. a formed together and 89 88 Radicals. withinthe it called newfraction a and Youngsters), 87 18 Goldner, LitografiaH. 86 6. wishes; inspector or prefect boyar, the as place, another in them move or position their from out them throwing not meaning teachers, urban with teachers rural for rights equal demand We 5. write; and read well the for Itis food. and books commune every in build to state the for ask We 4. punished; severely being without people, terrorizing and beating the want ho their and harassing people stop to police the want We 3. army; the of abolishment We 2. women. and men everybody, for vote universal want We “1. following: the are of classes?” all members theupper an represent parties these when condition slavery their from emancipate workers peasant the could How vain! in their ease and interests their defend to order in parties, ruling the in hopes “u that, stating program, and for order u in to everybody manner, simple a in parties other of ideology and ideas the summarized briefly they manifesto, the in why, is this benefit, their in not were elections these that understand and them gave and Parliament the dissolved king The slaves. as peasant ‘uneducated’ the treat could they when days, old good the of nostalgic are who boyars, old the government country’s the at called

Nădejde, Mor Nădejde, In the rural areas s areas rural the In The other parties and ideologies were The Conservative Party, the Liberal Party represented by represented Party Liberal the Party, Conservative The were ideologies and parties other The on ăed, aie Mor Vasile Nădejde, Ioan

[the boyars] [the The s The ocialist vision of emancipatin of vision ocialist ț un, Mille, “Manifest către un, către “Manifest Mille, nderstand.

everal villages were (and still are) grouped under the administrative unity of a bigger village, village, bigger a of unity administrative the under grouped are) still (and were villages everal the power to make elections. make to power the 89 d defend the boyar the defend d All the land that now belongs to the Crown and to the state (the Monarchy), Monarchy), (the state the to and Crown the to belongs now that land the All

91), 5 91), col bg nuh n po cide t rcie rm h sae clothes, state the from receive to children poor and enough big schools ț 87

un, Constantin Mille, Mille, Constantin un,

At the same time, they presented their political group, their ideolo their group, political their presented they time, same the At ntil know the workers did not have their own party, and put their their put and party, own their have not did workers the know ntil

- being of the countr the of being ț 88 s interests? How could they help the peasantry, when they they when peasantry, the help they could How interests? s ărani”, 8 ărani”,

g the peasantry was illustrated was peasantry the g

“ Manifest către către Manifest 33 ” 86

The socialists were calling the peasants to act to peasants the calling were socialists The y and the state, that all citizens know how to to how know citizens all that state, the yand ț ărani” (A manifesto for peasants), (Iaşi: (Iaşi: peasants), for manifesto (A ărani” , in their manifesto by manifesto their in ,

pains. Thus, this was this Thus, pains. Junimea uses, to stop to uses,

(The gy CEU eTD Collection 93 directly, indi voted have been thosethat could wegather If directly. voted have would cent per the of population only 1.9 reduced, been the gradually census had Although1919, vote. in to inorder to corresponded colleges These 92 population. cent the of total per were80 theycentury 91 90 circle. ț centers. correction free commun people, the arming and army permanent the of abolishment the sex), and collegesthrough not (and suffrage universaldirect aim main socialists’ Romanian the as expressed he which in want?) socialists program his published Gherea nineteenth in important most the of one it read priest) the (or teacher local the that was time that of practice common the case, this In manifesto. own their read the able been have not fact the consideration into take more pay should more.” should taxes the All 15. goods; luxury on put a be should objects basic and food on taxes the All 14. (…) peasantry; the to prices, minimal with back, sold be to Constitution, the respecting without King the to given was which

A “college” was an electoral organizati anwas electoral “college”A Ştefania to According population. more halfofthe than constituted Who Constantin Dobrogeanu Constantin Mor Nădejde, ărani educational system, magistrates elected by by elected magistrates system, educational

we have 17.6 percent the of total we17.6 have This and was popular with the various category of people who attended Nădejde’s house and and house Nădejde’s attended who people of category various the with popular was and Manifesto for Peasants for Manifesto ț un, Mille, 93

- Gherea, Gherea, e o scaiti români socialiştii vor Ce Manifest către către Manifest 90

18 the -

Ce vor socialiştii români? socialiştii Cevor 22 different amou

that only a small part of the peasantry was literate. They could They literate. was peasantry the of part small a only that - manifesto manifesto on. After 1866 in Romania were in Romania After1866 on.

population. population. ț

s t nm hw was shows name its as ărani nttaxe of - , 18 , etr Romania. century

e o scaiti români? socialiştii vor Ce

- 22 be calculated according to according calculated be

to them. The problem of peasants’ of problem The them. to 34

s (census) that needed to be pai be to needed that s(census) , dmne smlr things similar demanded , h pol, h rpaeet f rsn with prisons of replacement the people, the 92

(Iaşi: Tipografia Lupta, 1886), 10 Lupta,1886), Tipografia (Iaşi:

as it was the custom, or according to wealthaccording to or custom, the was it as rectly, 1,139, 30 1,139, rectly,

four, and then three colleges (1884). (1884). colleges three then four, and elaborated for peasants. One mu One peasants. for elaborated

n 86 Cntni Dobrogeanu Constantin 1886, In Mihăilescu, at the end of the nineteenth nineteenth ofthe end the at Mihăilescu, 1 with those that voted with voted 1 that those

wealth, those who ha who those wealth,

Wa d Romanian do (What d

by the male population malebypopulation the

as - 11 s the following: following: the s

illiterac aiet către Manifest a autonomy, al bolished, and and bolished, y 91

was ve ve st st - CEU eTD Collection 1 1894): April,24 ( 9, nr. V, year in April 1894) Romania, Partyin Workers Democratic Social ofThe Congres second program the (The of 94 thei that This revolution. the option for not and way, reformist the democracy, social for opted activist and reformis a or revolutionary a follow, working and peasants trie and people gathered that organization an as popular were they Government, the not did theyAlthough Iaşi. in house Nădejde’sIoan and Sofia in organized then,invillages,ofthem wereTheybut most existed intheorganized few meetings that factories a is It form. “Protective workers lawsinfactories for and manufactures civil wome of emancipation Social where Bucharest, P Workers Democratic Social amo and (Iaşi) city the of outskirts the in clubs, students (1893 Romania of Party Workers Democratic Social The

“Mo

n pltcl ihs; Acs t al iea poesos; Fr qa wr, qa wage”; equal work, equal “For professions”; liberal all to “Access rights”; political and ț

is one of the reasons why the party ceased to exist in 1899. Nădejde and Mor and Nădejde 1899. in exist to ceased party the whyreasons the of one is iunea celui de celui iunea This moment was moment This Democrat ewe 18 ad 83 t 1883, and 1882 Between r vision (and reforms) could be made possible inside the “leftist” or radical wing of the the of wing radical or “leftist” the inside possible made be could reforms) (and vision r paradox that they did not succeed as a party, in an agrarian country like Romania. like country agrarian an in party, a as succeed not did they that paradox as to pae hi frt fiil congress. official first their place took also , c okr Pry in Party, Workers ic - al doilea Congres al P.S.D.M.R dina P.S.D.M.R al Congres doilea al

- class class n. T n. important, because they were finally organized in an official political official an in organized finally were they because important, he party asks for “Absolute equality of women with men regarding regarding men with women of equality “Absolute for asks party he - 5 rights. Inside the party, there were conflicts, regarding the tactic to tactic the regarding conflicts, were there party, the Inside rights.

ry f oai was Romania of arty e oilss ee iig pehs n working in speeches giving were socialists he t one. Ioan Nădejde, the leader, and Vasile Mor Vasile and leader, the Nădejde, Ioan one. t

pi 1894, April 35

prilie 1894” în 1894” prilie salse, t h Wres lb from Club Workers the at established, ng peasantry. In 1893, on 1893, In peasantry. ng appeared .” 94

Munca n t In

s h sca polm the problem social the as , -

e eod oges f the of congress second he anul V, nr.9, 24 aprilie aprilie 1894; 24 anulnr.9, V, 1899)

occupied functions in functions occupied

March 31, the 31, March d to fight for for fight to d ț ț - un, hoped un, un, writer writer un, class and and class

Work ,

CEU eTD Collection 98 97 96 “Al.I.Cuza” in Authenticity) ofthe and Issue temaautenticită 95 universal were themes debate main the congress, this In congress. the of president as elected meetings deeperwith the working toestablish connections and tried syndical in participated years, ten those during who Bujor Gheorghe Mihail Gheorghiu, Ştefan It functioned. longer no party the 1910 must there times new In moment’. the of ‘man the be longer no can I but tactic, future his establish and again, itself organize to has party The (…) party the of fights everyday’s governing of burden heavy this else someone give to moment am I that th I and say party, the of service the in been could have I years twenty for because retiring, “I stated, he which in rethreat), (My mea” “Retragerea entitled 1899, from rethread liber with “infusion his of because Nădejde, Ioan leader party’s bio Nădejde’s Sofia of introduction case,Nădejd as Sofia the not was which century, twentieth the of beginning the at entered they which in Party, Liberal Sofia Nădejde as a member of member a as Nădejde Sofia

Vişinescu, Vişinescu, Ioan Nădejde, “Retragerea mea” (My retreat) in (My mea” retreat) “Retragerea Nădejde, Ioan Vişinescu, “Social Proca, OvidiuGherasim In 1897, at the fourth congress of SDWPR, held at Bucharestat held SDWPR, of congress fourth the at In1897, a more was SDWCPR the 1899, In , vol. V (2010): V vol. , Sofia Nădejde Sofia Sofia Nădejde Sofia ț

the party in an article published in published article an in party the ii” (The Social Democracy in Pre in Democracy Social (The ii”

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, , 116 28

Ştiin - Democra

ț e Politice e 95 graphy in 1972, that guilty that 1972, in graphy

SDWPR

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(Political Sciences) (Political was reunited in 1910, by the activists Ioan C. Frimu, Frimu, C. Ioan activists the by 1910, in reunited was Lumea Nouă Lumea - communist Romania. The Beginning of the Political Movement Movement ofthe Political Beginning The Romania. communist nd more disorganized. Victor Vişinescu noted in the in noted Vişinescu Victor disorganized. more nd

36 be new people.” new be

Lumea Nouă Lumea e , vol.15, no.4, no.4, vol.15, , - comunistă: geneza mişcării politice socialiste şisocialiste politice mişcării geneza comunistă: , AnaleleŞtiin

(New World), in 21 of February, of 21 in World), (New for this disorganization was the the was disorganization this for ( 1889 al ideas.” al 97

- class. to 1900 from years, ten For ț in ): ): ifice al ifice 10 April, Sofia Nădejde was was Nădejde Sofia April, - 98 12 96

e Universită e

Nădejde singed his singed Nădejde ink, now, is the the is now, ink, ț ii CEU eTD Collection 100 517 1969), Politică, Editura (Bucharest: movement), workers Romanian 99 future developed research be direction. should inthis in involvement her as also, ema but their socialism, about of cause noticed, the biographer about talk and gather could for just they clubs where 1886, women, in establishing clubs, peasantry and workers the in active was but did, debat Parliamentary official an in participate not did Nădejde speeches.” gave she party, the of events and meetings every in and party, the of leaders the by appreciated, and listened were words Her movement. in active intensively class was working she Nădejde, the Ioan husband, in her listened “Alongside meetings: and respected was she and important, was movement/party ( Party.” Democratic Social the of members the all between love brotherly the solidified which congress, this in here decided we to decide to have all we (…) over, Congress the of end the At factories. within activity syndical of problem the and question” peasantry “the clubs, peasants and workers propaganda socialist the improving finances, party’s the suffrage, The Socialist Movement) published in 1932 said about Sofia Nădejde that her activism in the in activism her that Nădejde Sofia about said 1932 in published Movement) Socialist The

on oec Pu Popescu Ioan Ion C.Atanasiu, Ion

hs oe’ cus s iie, eas te rhvl ouet ae missing are documents archival the because limited, is clubs women’s this Mişcarea Socialistă Mişcarea ț uri (ed.), (ed.), uri

ouet dn soi mişc istoria din Documente

( , (Iaşi: Tipografia Lupta, 1932), 45 1932), Lupta, Tipografia (Iaşi: , The historian historian The

begin the fight with bravery, in order to make happen all that all happen make to order in bravery, with fight the begin ’s session, Sofia Nădejde said, “n said, Nădejde Sofia session, ’s ncipa tion. 37 Ion C. Atanasiu in his book his in Atanasiu C. Ion h inf The

ri uctrşi i România din muncitoreşti ării

ormation 100

s mme o te at, Sofia party, the of member a As

e, as neither her fellow colleagues colleagues fellow her neither as e,

that we have regarding her her regarding have we that

in cities, reorganizing the the reorganizing cities, in ow, when the congress is congress the when ow, Mişcarea Socialistă Mişcarea , (Documents from the the from (Documents , the socialist socialist the

CEU eTD Collection wasthem, it on by attention public into brought was question”, “woman the women, of emancipation The time. that in anything then empowering more was did they what but time, that of history Romanian wanted and question” “peasantry the understood really they that chapter, this in it said I as think, I context. proper the in them to adapt time same the in but politics, or literature science, in theories new and ideology, new this countries, surrounding the in happening was what to realities Romanian the adapt to wanted constantly they that seems if Actually, this. of middle the in were socialists ideas as and liberals well as West, between from capital of infusion wanted liberals sphere; debate public the animated conservatives The social. nor cultural neither political, neither progressive, to Bucharestofcapital Wallachia, and (the Romania). Moldavia) of city capital (the Iaşi from spread organization and concept ideology, as Socialism, Moldavia in that prole in point certain a at twenti the of half first the in happen will it as developed, yet not was industry the and Transylvania), in more were (there Conclusion few were there century nineteenth of end the At

Maybe what happened in the in happened what Maybe and civilization, while the conservative wanted to “preserve” them, as Romanian. The Romanian. as them, “preserve” to wanted conservative the while civilization, and

their politicalLiberal agenda,and thatof notin the orConservative parties. there were considerable more peasants then in the southern part (Wallachia). part southern the in then peasants more considerable were there tarians, thus in factory workers. In addition, it is good to keep in in keep to good is it addition, In workers. factory in thus tarians, eth century. eth

Romanian Kingdom in the late nineteenth century, was not was century, nineteenth late the in Kingdom Romanian

They knew that Romanian peasantry will transform itself, transform will peasantry Romanian that knew They o ov i. d nt at o ae hm hre” f the of “heroes” them make to want not do I it. solve to 38

factories in the Romanian Kingdom Kingdom Romanian the in factories to make people aware of of aware people make to

mind mind

CEU eTD Collection nineteenth of history the feminism, in periods three These question’”. ‘woman socialists Differentwomen.for rights civil economicand social, political,program official its demandedin the visibility period the was This 1900. to 1879 from years the with personalities, unity” for struggle the and nation the supporting “Women section women towards demands its and revolution 1848 for demands and fir organizations the women’s as well as organizations, women’s “First Romanian first the present section will I where emancipation”, the in events those grouped women’s the in involved personalities and associations nineteenth in chapterthiswill that question main century.The Introduction st journals edited by men, in which in men, by edited journals st

A short history of Romanianfeminism/s in the nineteenth century ege f Romanian of League This chapter will provide a short overview of of overview short a provide will chapter This

in Romania in

rt i junl demanding journals in wrote as I constructed them, constructed I as -

magazines century Romania? In order to answer this question, first I will present the events, events, the present will I first question, this answer to order In Romania? century

and was debated in various publication various in debated was and

and associations and

oe ws constituted was Women

correspond largely to the political events that the country was was country the that events political the to largely correspond

wom Chapter III

oe’ eacpto. This emancipation. women’s active between 1855 and 1878. The 1878. and 1855 between active en’s en’s 39 emancipation was demanded. In this In demanded. was emancipation

tryto

srgt wl eas discussed also be will rights ’s n te oil eortc okr Party Workers Democratic Social the and

answer is what types of feminisms existedfeminisms of types what answeris

oain eiims n h ninete the in feminism/s Romanian

when “woman question” gained more more gained question” “woman when oeet ewe 11 ad 80 I 1850. and 1815 between movement s, newspapers and journals. In 1894 In journals. and newspapers s, wl peet h events, the present will I

sect - o i nmd “The named is ion etr Romanian century

third section deals section third . Then, .

section, the the section, n the in

enth enth

CEU eTD Collection 104 i Romania” 103 102 1838 ofdocuments: Collection feminism. Romanian 101 literatură World), the Rădulescu, Heliade Ion r writings interest women’s in emancipation. Hungar the organization’s this of proof no is there that argues Feminism” Historical of Romanian “Reclaiming territory the in schools Romanian the Orthodox support to aims, its of because gathering, this of character” “nationalistic the Ştefania Hungary”. in schools Orthodox Romanian “national the financially Macedonian wealthy Pometea, Iuliana Papacostea, Pelaghia Gabrovsky, Elena was Buda) Fir international charact ch cultural and economic social, the to also but facing, ights.”

Ibid., 259 Ibid., Feminis Historical Romanian “Reclaiming Cheşchebec, Roxana 10 Ibid., Mihăilescu, Ştefania st Women’s Organizations st Women’s 104 Demands for Demands In1815, Mihăilescu n women’s for demands first the accept to opinion public Romanian the prepared

(A Journal for mind, heart and literature). Ion Heliade Rădulescu in Rădulescu Heliade Ion literature). and heart mind, for Journal (A

Aspasia These publications were publications These established Gazeta de Transilvania de Gazeta the , volume 1, 2007: 255 2007: 1, volume ,

Din istoria feminismului românesc: an românesc: feminismului istoria Din Societatea Femeilor Române din Buda din Române Femeilor Societatea er that Romanianfeminism/shad that er “the first women’s association of our nation.” nation.” our of association women’s first “the

- w Romanian merchant families. T families. merchant Romanian

omen’s emancipation emerged, emancipation omen’s in the Hungarian Kingdom. It was composed of 33 members, including including members, 33 of composed was It Kingdom. Hungarian the in Albina Românească Albina

103

Curier de ambe sexe ambe de Curier Demands and 265

(Transylvania’s Gazette), (Transylvania’s

, doi: 10.3167/asp.2007.010119 doi: –

1929), (Iaşi: Polirom, 2002), 8 2002), 1929),Polirom, (Iaşi: (The Romanian Bee), Bee), Romanian (The 40

tologie de texte 1838 de texte tologie

he aim of this organization was to support to was organization this of aim he for Emancipation (1815 Emancipation for in its demandsin its and synchronicity.

a Kndm Rxn Cecee in Cheşchebec Roxana Kingdom. ian in 1837, when “various publications and and publications “various when 1837, in m anges. However, one can notice also the also notice can one However, anges.

. History Writing and Feminist Politics in Politics Feminist and Writing History . (A magazine for both sexes), edited byedited sexes), both for magazine (A

and Maria Nicolici, who belonged to belonged who Nicolici, Maria and ( Romani

and

Icoana Lumii Icoana 102 Foaie pentru minte, inimă şi inimă minte, pentru Foaie an -

However, one can point to point can one However, 1929 Women’s Organization in Organization Women’s 101

((From the history of history((Fromof the t a, codn to according was, It

Curier de ambe ambe de Curier (The Portra (The - 1850)

it of of it

CEU eTD Collection Opere Dannubiennes. Principautes “Le Românilor in Mişcarea said Michelet newspaper French Jules the in as published atrocities 1848”, Rosetti. the Madame of aftermaths the in captivity, ottoman 109 108 107 106 105 well. as theirs became which revolution, brothers” and “husbands their supported well.” publically and as present were emancipation women 1849, your and 1848 demand Between everybody, for equality and liberty demand who life your for [woman], you for important not is which revolution no revoluti the support ac demands all atandfullRomanians 16“Equal instructionfor ofbothsexes.” point and Bessarabia Wallachia, Bukovina, the of Moldavia, modernization the and empires, foreign (Wallachia, the of independence Transylvania), provinces Romanian the between demands women.” of emancipation “ that, stated he where in article an wrote Bălcescu, Nicolae women by formed is humankind sexe

iit f h 14 rvlto, osdrd ht h “oain oe’ mi dt” a to was duty” main women’s “Romanian the that considered revolution, 1848 the of tivist C.A Rosetti quoted in Mihăilescu, in Mihăilescu, RosettiC.A quoted Otilia Dra Mihăilescu, in quoted Bălcescu Nicolae in Mihăilescu, quoted Rădulescu Heliade Ion o eape Mra oet, h wf o atvs CA oet, epd ebr o te revolu the of members helped Rosetti, C.A activist of wife the Rosetti, Maria example, For

motivated his initiative for establishing a j a establishing for initiative his motivated , (Writings), vol. I, Bucharest, 1940. 1940. Bucharest, I, vol. (Writings), , In Revolution, 1848 Romanian the of leader future and activist and writer male Another wom 89 in 1849, gomir, Mihaela Miroiu Mihaela gomir, Proclama ns emancipati en’s

din Ardeal la 1848 1848 la Ardeal din on as their own cause. He stated He cause. own their as on n open an

ț real progr real i a de la Islaz la de a 106

etr adesd o oe of women to addressed letter,

, Lexicon Feminist Lexicon , h poaoit of protagonists The on, Din istoria feminismului românesc feminismului istoria Din ess in the Romanian society, would not be not would society, Romanian the in ess alongside with the emancipation of the peasantry, the union union the peasantry, the of emancipation the with alongside ,

Din istoria feminismului românesc feminismului istoria Din

(The Romanian Movement from Transylvania in 1848), published in in published 1848), in Transylvania from Movement Romanian (The (The Islaz (The h ne t dmn ter ua rgt i society.” in rights human their demand to need who Foaie pentru Foaie

Din istoria feminismului românesc feminismului istoria Din

(Feminist Dictionary), (Iaşi: Polirom, 2002), 137 2002), Polirom, (Iaşi: Dictionary), (Feminist 41 Proclamation), of June 1848, included among its its among included 1848, June of Proclamation), ournal for ournal

the Evenement that minte, inimă şi literatură şi inimă minte, 109

1848 , “t , Those Those here is no political and social change, social and political no is here “both sexes”, by stating that “half of of “half that stating by sexes”, “both

, 14 , h upr lse, .. oet, an Rosetti, C.A. classes, upper the

, Paris, 1851. See also Nicolae Bălcescu, Bălcescu, Nicolae also See 1851. Paris, , eouin ttd s n o their of one as stated Revolution

oe were women , 13 13 , and happiness (…) the ones ones the (…) happiness and

, 12 12 ,

possible without the without possible

, in January in , ln Cz, Ana Cuza, Elena 107 tion escape from from escape tion

society.

1846, 1846, 108 105 In

CEU eTD Collection 115 13 1862, 114 Romanian) 113 of 112 111 movement) emancipation 110 eman at referred to state a for possible demo women in published unity for struggles the and thenation supporting Women Nicolau, Maria Datcu, Anastasia Iuga, Elena Secăreanu, Maria were members its Among girls. Romanian Romanian of Organization Maria Eliade Rădulescu. Caracaş, Catinca Ipătescu,

Sofia Cocea Chrisoscoleu SofiaCocea Such Ibid. 26 Ibid., Câncea, Paraschiva This is the name that Ştefan Rasidescu use Rasidescu Ştefan that name the is This Lady cipation. rtzto o te oain s Romanian the of cratization

journals were journals -

I Transylvania, Braşov, of city the in 1850, March In C 18 185 n

h o upr te nt. She unity. the support to and .

risoscoleu, born Cocea), published in Bucharest, 1862. inpublished Bucharest, Cocea), born risoscoleu,

ces o edu to access

Seva 115 journals 5 Sofia ,

In 1859, the year of the unity she wrote, wrote, she unity the of year the 1859, In stia Mureşan. Reforma Mişcarea pentru emanciparea femeii înfemeii România emanciparea pentru Mişcarea

, (B evolve when women’s rights are rights women’s when evolve

that supported the unity between Wallachia and Moldavia and Wallachia between unity the supported that

ucharest: Ed. Politica,1976), Politica,1976), ucharest:Ed. quoted in Ştefan Rasidescu, in ŞtefanRasidescu, quoted 110 Cocea

(The (The

cation. Pelaghia Roşu, Roşu, Pelaghia

Women)

Reform),

111 Chrisoscoleu

n diin se eadd ihs o peasan for rights demanded she addition, In cey n wmns mniain saig that stating emancipation, women’s and ociety

d Steaua Dunării Steaua was established, with the aim of helping poor orphan orphan poor helping of aim the with established, was ae oncin between connections made

in his, in Maria , Operele doamnei Chrisoscoleu,născută Cocea Chrisoscoleu,născută doamnei Operele 112 42 Operele doamnei Chrisoscoleu,născută Cocea Chrisoscoleu,născută doamnei Operele 25

Rosetti, Zoie Gloescu, Sevastia Bălcescu, Sevastia Gloescu, Zoie Rosetti,

ece ad journalist and teacher

(Danube’s Star), Dacia (Dacia), (Dacia), Dacia Star), (Danube’s

not respected. not

1848 Reuniunea Femeilor Române Femeilor Reuniunea Cte omee oâe (For Române” Doamnele “Către - 1948, 1948, te union, the , ” (1855 114 (The Romanian woman’s Romanian (The

truh e articles her through , B y women rights, she rights, women y - Românul Românul 1878) , s ad their and ts, 113 reforms and and reforms

(The writings (The

, Bucharest, Bucharest, ,

(The (The addressed i is “it

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and and not

CEU eTD Collection 119 the in Countries communist (eds.), Frysak Elisabeth Lanzinger, Margaret Sauer, Edith in 118 117 116 ach families poor from girls “help to was aim main Its Braşov). of of Iaşi, in sex. or wealth class, matter no suffrage, wri the 1866, year the in Sigmaringen, o consequences as “seen were which family, in women of status lower the and sexes of inequality magazines, chi the and magazine the Bucharest at edited, Rosetti Maria 1866, and 1865 Deputy Constan 1863, Familiei t the of direction the under established was 1865 something country for our Ladies). Romanian f inadequate education.” and superficial

Dragomir, Miroiu, Miroiu, Dragomir, Mihăilescu, 77 Ibid., Roxana Cheşchebec in in Cheşchebec Roxana Reuniunea Femeilor Române din Braşov din Române Femeilor Reuniunea

n sec delivered speech a In Reuniunea Femeilor Române Femeilor Reuniunea hme, poet for project a Chamber,

The magazine The rsne t te ulc ruet i fvr f oe’ euain and education women’s of favor in arguments public the to presented

ld), in which aspects of women’s emancipation were mentioned. In this two two this In mentioned. were emancipation women’s of aspects which in ld), mcl familiei Amicul Din istoria feminism istoria Din ț a Lexicon Feminist Lexicon

uc S Dunca In this appeal she stated that, “t that, stated she appeal this In

“Toward a Romanian’s Women’s Movement: An Organizational History (1880s History Organizational An Movement: Women’s Romanian’s a “Toward 19 Amicul familiei Amicul th .”

and 20 and 116 ha, rsne bfr te rne Alex Prince the before presented chiau,

ului românesc ului

and

, 137 137 , th h rognzto o te girls the of reorganization the o h Deputy the to

Centuries aa i copilul şi Mama

(The Organization of Romanian Women), after the model the after Women), Romanian of Organization (The

(T 119 118 , 21 , , he family’s friend), which appeared between 1863 and and 1863 between appeared which friend), family’s he

e ad ciit ea Bolliac Cezar activist and ter

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Köln: Böhlau Verlag, 2006 Verlag, Köln: Böhlau

In the In

(The Organization of Romanian Women in the city the in Women Romanian of Organization (The 43

next year, 1867, Cornelia Emilian Emilian Cornelia 1867, year, next hme ad rne ao Hohenzollern Carol Prince and Chamber Women’s Movements: Networks and debates in post in debates and Networks Movements: Women’s he moment has come for u for come has moment he

ahr Constan eacher ee rsn dsusos eae t the to related discussions present were

dctoa system. educational Mama şi copilul şi Mama ) , , 441 ieve a profession, in order to order in profession, a ieve ț andru Ioan Cuza and the the and Cuza Ioan andru Dna Schiau. Dunca a

eadd universal demanded s [women] to do to [women] s ntuto. In instruction.

(The Mother Mother (The 117 established

Between Amicul - 1940)” 1940)” - - CEU eTD Collection 123 122 121 120 n could who minors, as women married saw that rights civil regarding “Cestiunea of pages the in debut journalistic her made Nădejde belonged products work women’s class working where women), class working of associations (cooperative muncitore” femeilor ale He advocated pay. equal for argue not did but wages, in inequalities the on commented and aware was t condition) Febru in published Xenopol, Adela Nădeje, Sofia Dobrogeanu Flechtenmacher. Constantin Maria writer and actress of direction the Bucharest in appeared The CentralIaşi), Committee Women’s Roznoveanu. in Rosetti lead by Maria orphans helping direction of Matilda Sihleanu. the under members, 12 of committee a by lead was organization This existence.” own their gain

Câncea, Mihăilescu, Câncea, Mihăilescu, “Woman Question” (1878 Question” “Woman uig h yas 88 n 1881, and 1878 years the During (1877 War Independence the During Mişcarea pentru emanciparea femeii emanciparea pentru Mişcarea femeii emanciparea pentru Mişcarea

for the emancipation of working of emancipation the for he socialist Paul Scor Paul socialist he Femei Din istoria feminismului românesc feminismului istoria Din românesc feminismului istoria Din

and soldiers, coordinated by the the by coordinated soldiers, and o” Te Woma (The lor” r 17, nild Sae eooiă fmi” Wmns economic (Woman’s femeii” a economică “Starea entitled 1879, ary

the the - Gherea, Paul Scor Paul Gherea, bi - 120

weekly journal weekly

ț eanu, argued for for argued eanu, n -

1900) Question , 39 , 30 , , 26 , 25 ,

o hm entirely. them to ț hn oai bcm idpnet n kingdom, a an independent became Romania when

class women, and proposed “asocia proposed and women, class eanu, were among its collab its among were eanu,

- eea Română Femeia 88, hr hv be cetd omtes for committees created been have there 1878), 44 . n hs ril, h ciiie te legislation the criticized she article, this In ).

Comitetul Central al Femeilor din Iaşi din Femeilor al Central Comitetul Femeia equality between men and women. He also He women. and men between equality

123 Română

(The Romanian Woman), under under Woman), Romanian (The n h sm ya, 89 Sofia 1879, year, same the In

as a feminist, in the artic the in feminist, a as ot be legal owners of their their of owners legal be ot 121 orators.

ț 122 ii cooperative ii

In an article an In

(The (The le -

CEU eTD Collection 126 125 124 speeche publ defeated.” be will ‘monster’ this joinin be will they When cause. common socialist their join to “Work women movement: asked they where editors, collective the by signed Capital), journal the in to according emancipation, freeand men.” with equal be will woman disappear,the will inequalities economic and political the all and fall, will classes “only of proletarians, when because emancipation asemancipation linkedtothe women of emancipation. women’s of favor in argued Omul Drepturile Contemporanul in published who feminist socialist only the not was she However, thesis. this of chapter fifth regardin articles various published Nădejde educa al for education to access demanded and possessions, own

“Femeia şi Capitalul” in in Capitalul” “Femeiaşi SofiaNădejde, Popescu Pu Popescu se tasain o Ags Bebel’s August of translations ished tion law. tion fe wres lb wee initiated, where clubs workers After . t h wres lb n Bucharest in club workers the At s. ț uri, 124 Munca “Cestiunea femeilor” in “Cestiuneafemeilor”

or in other socialist journals like socialist journalsor like in other ui

Documente din istoria mişcării muncitoreşti din România din muncitoreşti mişcării istoria din Documente In the pages of the of pages the In

(Human Rights). Her male male Her Rights). (Human ers and comrades, one of our duties is to bring women to fight for our our for fight to women bring to is duties our of one comrades, and ers

( Munca Work) appears the article “Femeia şi Capitalul” (The Woman and the the and Woman (The Capitalul” şi “Femeia article the appears Work) 125

histori

, vol. 2, no.1, 2, vol. ,

an 126 Femeia Română Femeia

socialist

Paraschiva Câncea, began to widespread. In January 1891, 1891, January In widespread. to began Câncea, Paraschiva n ifrn bohrs n i te journal the in and brochures different In (1891): g us, in this fight between fight this in us, g i Fa ud i Sozialismus die und Frau Die g women’s emancipation that will be discussed in the in discussed be will that emancipation women’s g

The socialists, in their 1886 program presented program 1886 their in socialists, The

monthly journal monthly

conferences 14 n 1890, in 45 Lumea Nouă

oils friends socialist , year II, year ,

, h scait rpgna o women’s for propaganda socialist the no.11, March March no.11,

ok place took l women, as well as changes in the the in changes as well as women, l

( Contemoranul The The , , 371 published articles where they they where articles published New World), World), New , 1879): , 177 1879):

wee oilss debated socialists where , work

n o Caa Zetkin’s Clara of and ing class and class ing

(1881 - 179 Munca

- Munca 1891), Sofia 1891),

( capital, capital, Work),

all the all the

were

the the CEU eTD Collection 130 129 in 128 127 and Alexandrescu Virginia Arbore, Ecaterina of initiative the under Help) (The “Sprijinul” cen the of turn the At women. of emancipation juridical and politic economic, the aims main as had which 1896, in appears Xenopol, Adela Parliament, Romanian the to status women’s married of change the for petition a sent League the 1896, In Status time.” that of parties political the of any with comparison by nation, the of concept their broadening non other and Bulgarians, Hun presumably category this in included but Romania, of R survival.” their ec achieve women help to humankind; of educator the as deserve, they level the at society in women place ceased League the when 1899, until it, of part was Nădejde Sofia Emilian. Cornelia by Iaşi in founded emancipation the onlyaccording under possible socialism. tothem was and authors, socialist foreign ideas, socialist scientific egarding this, Maria Bucur showed that, “i that, showed Bucur Maria this, egarding

Aspasia “Statutele Ligii Femeilor din România”, 1894 in Mihăilescu, in Mihăilescu, 1894 dinRomânia”, Ligii Femeilor “Statutele Ibid 1880 Romania, in Nationalism Feminism and Citizenship. Republican and Liberal “Between Bucur, Maria Câncea, ., ., 93 ), 129 to exi to

The first number of the magazine the of number first The the League had branches in dif in branches had League the , Volume 1, 2007: 84 2007: 1, Volume , n 1894, In

Mişcarea pentru emanciparea femeii emanciparea pentru Mişcarea codn to According nmc self onomic

but did notreceivebut did an st. Its main goals were “t were goals main Its st. 128

the ebrhp n h League the in Membership

- ia eelr i România din Femeilor Liga sufficiency;

“ Statutel - 102 doi:10.3167/asp.2007.010105 102 - ethnic Romanians, they were certainly one step ahead in terms of of terms in ahead step one certainly were they Romanians, ethnic

yanswer. Lgi eelr i România din Femeilor Ligii e

o ie oe a rae fed o ter actio their for field broader a women give to aking women from the category of minors and outlaws; to outlaws; and minors of category the from women aking ferent Romanian cities, and held a congress a held and cities, Romanian ferent , 54 54 ,

Dochia

f the group defined itself as representing the women women the representing as itself defined group the f 46 tury, in 1900 at Iaşi was established the Society the established was Iaşi at 1900 in tury, nldd al oe, eades f ethnicity”. of regardless women, “all included

(Dochia) edited by the writer and journalist journalist and writer the by edited (Dochia)

127 Din istoria feminismului românesc feminismului istoria Din (The Women’s League of Romania) was was Romania) of League Women’s (The

garians, Ruthenians, Jews, Russians, Jews, Ruthenians, garians, ”

Rmna Wmns League Women’s (Romanian f oe, that women, of , 84 , every year. every s t ensure to ns,

- 1918” 1918” 130

CEU eTD Collection 131 and “answers” sphere,giving politic rights. andwomen’s demanding social journalistic, the in active most the was movement socialist Romanian the period, third this In emancipation. women’s of problem the presented newspapers and magazines journals,various because widely more discussed liberal character predominantly a having institutions, modern of development the and unity country’s 18 from period, second The Revolution. 1848 economic and social Th events. political, local the with also but movement, feminist international the relatio strong in them of all feminism, of evolution the in periods chronological three nineteenth Conclusion unawareness.” working “awakening of aim the with Sadovean Izabela

Mihăilescu, Mihăilescu, n t In . In the third period, from 1878 to 1900 to 1878 from period, third the In . - e first period, from 1815 to 185 to 1815 from period, first e etr Rmna wmns oeet ad eiims I itnuse between distinguished I feminism/s. and movements women’s Romanian century his chapter, I presented the most important dates, events and personalities of the the of personalities and events dates, important most the presented I chapter, his Din istoria feminismului românesc feminismului istoria Din

131

f h dvlpet f h witn rs, n mr atce, in articles, more and press, written the of development the of , 43 , 5, was linked to the first women’s organization and the and organization women’s first the to linked was 5,

56 to 1878 to 56 47 , answers to the “woman question”, started to be to started question”, “woman the to answers,

, was the time of the struggles for the the for struggles the of time the was - ls wmn from women class

goac and ignorance nship with nship CEU eTD Collection of emancipation the and all for traditions and language rights Romanian the archaic promoting by component nationalist strong a had peasants; it voting promoted and 1890s in Stere Constantin by founded was movement 132 chapter. my when year biographical a for important the them considered I because is ends, Nădejde Sofia which about investigation 1899, after happened that events some chapter this in include her generalabout in and childhood her about information enough posses beca content, in limited is biography short This life. of years last her in activity the encoun the and Bucharest describe, will I then and Nadejde, Ioan husband, her with encounter the and years early her of aspects same present Viş Victor that information Introduction

The word “poporanism” is derived from “popor” which means people in the Romanian language. The P The language. Romanian the in people means which “popor” from derived is “poporanism” word The n hs hpe, wl peet sot bio short a present will I chapter, this In

inescu

the Romanian Romanian the , rt i hs igah o Sfa aed, ulse i 17. is, will I First, 1972. in published Nadejde, Sofia of biography his in wrote

hoooial hr ieay n junlsi atvt, h mvmn to movement the activity, journalistic and literary her chronologically ter with a new ideology called P called ideology new a with ter Sofia Nădejde.A ShortBiography

literary scho Chapter IV lar

48 and member of the Romanian Communist Party, Communist Romanian the of member and

rpy f oi Nadejde, Sofia of graphy

oporanism. 132

In the end, I will present will I end, Inthe private life. I decided to I decided life. private

based on the the on based use I do not not do I use . oporanist oporanist

CEU eTD Collection 133 their saw Vişinescu Victor point, this At dreams. their about ideas, and lectures their about exchan payed not his forcouldparents his andIaşi, near village small a in family peasant’s a in born was He school. boys the at fees own his pay (1859 NădejdeIoan Nădejde Sofia therefore she littl eyes, her in tears “With fees. the for pay to money no had but pension, a in education, good a daughter his for wanted Băncilă Vasile problem. true the was family co a to listening old) youngerfour brothers. th assume only can we occupation, mother’s her know not do we but merchant, a was father her that biographer, Nădejde’s Sofia Vişinescu, Victor from know We propereducation. a childrentheir giveall to resourcesmaterial no had andrich not theywere boyar a in work not did who “răzeşi”, cal peasants freed from descended family Her Băncilă. Vasile and Profira of child first the as yearsEarly

Victor Victor

wants to study, more than any than more study, to wants thought that her father did not want her to study further. However, she will find out, out, find will she However, further. study to her want not did father her that thought ge letters, in which they would talk about the injustice of the political system in Romania, in systempolitical the of injustice the about talk would they which in letters, ge Vişinescu wrote in wrote Vişinescu wa Băncilă Sofia Vişinescu,

nversation between her father and her uncle, that the financial situation of the the of situation financial the that uncle, her and father her between nversation Sofia Năd Sofia - 1928),

s born in the town of Botoşani, in Moldova on 14 on Moldova in Botoşani, of town the in born s i study did ejde

Sofia Nădejde Sofia her future hus future her , (Bucharest: Editura Politică, Editura (Bucharest: ,

thing”.

t t at he girls pension Glowanska, in Glowanska, pension girls he

household, but had their own house and land. Even land. and house own their had but household, 133 band, who teach who band, , that for a long period, little little period, long a for that ,

ucation. Sofia and Ioanand Sofia ucation. Her uncle Her 49

1972 , the priest, Ioan Băncilă, pai Băncilă,Ioan priest, the ,

) Greek and Latin lang Latin and Greek , , 15 . at she was a housewife. Sofia had had Sofia housewife. a was she at

became friends and started tostarted and friends became

Botoşani. Here, she met met she Here, Botoşani. Sofia (she was 13 years 13 was (she Sofia th e Sofia, cried out that out cried Sofia, e

of September 1856, 1856, September of uages, d for the fees,the for d

in order to order in girl’s led led so, so,

CEU eTD Collection withoonly get married to civil, couple a for proper” 136 135 134 she translations, the in and writings, literary and journalistic her in reflected is knowledge Her It specialization. particular intersected as“destiny” national with socialist theiractivists feelings. youngst these to speaking were they high and students amongst famous become Nădejde, Ioan and Sofia studies. her marri finish to managed she wasHowever, she although baccalaureate, her take to decided gethigh decision society, oftheir to areligious because marriedonlycivil, without ceremony. critique and analyzed again, were They degree. no had not and university, did any he attended although study, of areas different from knowledge vast his of because monster”, call hat men’s wearing of habit unusual her of because ladies, local the by on commented was Nădejde Sofia and “strange”, as seen was couple young the city, the In boys. profe as position teaching a ideas socialist Contact with Theywereof socialism”. “the pioneers two between union a as “camaraderie”, of form a as relationship

Ibid.,26 Vişinescu, For the Romanian society of that time, this was an offensive act. Even today it is regarded as strange and “not “not and as strange Evenit isregarded today act. wasoffensive an this time, that societyof the Romanian For

d “ ed Sofia Nădejde did not attend university; therefore, she did not have any degree in a a in degree any have not did she therefore, university; attend not did Nădejde Sofia Sofia When time; that for couple a as were they controversial how interesting is It marriage,Aftertheir h cay woman”. crazy the

Sofia Nădejde Sofia - school teenagers from Iaşi and they formed the Socialist club/ circle in which which in circle club/ Socialist the formed they and Iaşi from teenagers school

, , 15

is proper t proper is ssor of Latin and Romanian Language at the local high school for for school high local the at Language Romanian and Latin of ssor 135 in 1874, 1874, in

nta, on ăed, s iiec si, a “h sciences “the was said, Vişinescu as Nădejde, Ioan Instead, . Journalistic and literary activity and literary . Journalistic they settled in the city of Iaşi, where Ioan Nădejde acquired NădejdeIoan Iaşi,where of city the in theysettled 134 a ht she that say o r. hl Vco Vşnsu ecie toe ie, he times, those described Vişinescu Victor While ers.

having having 50

religious ceremony. religious educated herself, reading foreign authors. authors. foreign reading herself, educated ed, the critiques started again. again. started critiques the ed,

peop

le aimed by similar ideals. similar by aimed le s. This is why she was was she why is This s.

, y Iaşi by d, 136

CEU eTD Collection 138 137 and this, all knows She men. pleasing for fashion certain a in act and look to meaning them, for this demanded that society the but this, for responsible truly women finds never fact, in Nădejde, th was it Ido notthink but critique, a moral as understood could be please This men. to order in good, look to how and fashion about only preoccupied being themselves, by nothing “attacks” find we articles, her of many In statement. a this, from made she that think I but true, probably is which eve did discussio passionate and meetings of environment H and 1885 in born Elena 1882, in born Ioan 1878, in born journal, printed they where “building”, circle socialist’s the was Iasi in house Nădejde’s Ioan and Sofia career? writi her not are but profession, no had she that argued Vişinescu, Victor biographer, Her degree. university a without even sphere, public the in succeed to managed who people educated tea Greek and Latin a as him qualified that baccalaureate his only had he then Until old. years forty was he when University, Iasi in Law of Faculty the attended Nădejde, Ioan Ukraine). in Odessa, at family the d once, only country left she universities, foreign inte of generation new the to opposition In Russian. and Italian French, English, German, from made

Ibid. 76 76 Ibid. Vişinescu, llectuals, whose representatives were from the upper classes of the society, and attended attended and society, the of classes upper the from were representatives whose llectuals, rything related to the house the to related rything Sofia and Ioan had five children, five had Ioan and Sofia Contemporanul as we have seen in chapteras we seen two, have

Sofia Nadejde Sofia

to the upper the to cher.

, th , , , 67 137

eir attic was a “mini printer “mini a was attic eir

hs s ab nt n motn tig bt s n xml o self of example an is but thing, important an not maybe is This

- and middle and

by themselves. by which had subsc which had

three girls and two boys, two and girls three - class families, where women, who had servants, did did servants, had who women, where families, class 51 uring the First World War (when she went with with went she (when War World First the uring

138 ns. The family did not have servants, so they so servants, have not did family The ns.

One can argue that Sofia was a housewife, a was Sofia that argue can One ”. Contemporanul ribers country. inthewhole ra n 1888, in oria Sonia born in 1876, Victoria Victoria 1876, in born Sonia functioned as a monthly monthly a as functioned

h lvd n that in lived who e case; Sofia e

ngs her her ngs -

CEU eTD Collection 142 141 140 139 reply (A “Prostitu marriage), “Educa emancipation), (For Femei” in published he insulted various po feminist and socialist a from written were and Romania, of structure social the in also but family, the in both oppression, women toemancipate. nee that problems important most the of one as education stating K Romanian the in oppression women’s mouse). a to birth gave mountain (The şoarece” un născut emancipation), their of means the and condition (Women’s emancipa” putea “ bi journal, structured men. tofavor s elite, the from women criticizes she if even hsina eelr Te Woman (The Femeilor Chestiunea -

“Muntele a născut un şoarece” in şoarece” unnăscut a “Muntele “Sta in “Catre Femei”, SofiaNadejde, weekly magazine “Femeia Română” (The Romanian Woman), three articles entitled entitled articles three Woman), Romanian (The Română” “Femeia magazine weekly “Chestiunea Femeilor” (The Woman Question) Woman (The Femeilor” “Chestiunea rea femeilor şi mediul prin care se vor putea emancipa” in emancipa” putea vor se mediulcare prin şi femeilor rea e ltr rils in articles later Her socialist first the when time same the in 1879, year the in occurred debut journalistic Her Besarabia Romanian intellectual men, members of the Parliament and/or of the Academy, who who Academy, the of and/or Parliament the of members men, intellectual Romanian to Mr. Maiorescu regarding the question of women’s brains), “Observări asupra căr asupra “Observări brains), women’s of question the regarding Maiorescu Mr. to r activity and in general women’s general in and activity r

Contemporanul Women), “Femeia şi legea” ( legea” şi “Femeia Women), , lead by her husband, published its first number. In 1879, she published she In1879, number. first its published husband, her by lead , ț

ia” (Prostitution), “Răspuns d “Răspuns (Prostitution), ia”

139 ț int of view. In the articles published there, she en there,she published articles Inthe view. of int ue fmi (oa’ Euain, Dsr cstre ( căsătorie” “Despre Education), (Woman’s femeii iunea

that Contemporanul Femeia Română Femeia Contemporanul

focused on the “woman question” were in 1881 in were question” “woman the on focused

Question), ingdom

in , year , (1881 I Woman and law), “Emanciparea femeii” (Woman’s (Woman’s femeii” “Emanciparea law), and Woman , 1879, no. 131, August 26, p.430 p.430 August 131, 26, no. , 1879, Femeia Română Femeia struggle for emancipation. Some of the of Some emancipation. for struggle eeoe frhr n h polm f women’s of problem the on further developed he never blames them, but the whole society as as society whole the but them, blames never he 52 . Her arguments are rather liberal, than socialist, than liberal, rather are arguments Her . 140

- Sae fmio ş mdu pi cr s vor se care prin mediul şi femeilor “Starea lui Maiorescu în chestia creierului la creierului chestia în Maiorescu lui Femeia Română Femeia - 1882), no.1, p.2 no.1, p.2 1882), , no.111, (March 1879): 177 1879): (March , no.111, 142

h frt w atce exposed articles two first The , no. 122, (May 1879): 287 122, no. (May , 1879): d to be solved in order for for order in solved be to d

gaged in debates with debates gagedin 141 and “M and - 178 - 1882 “Către 1882

her untele a untele

articl femei”

About - in thein 198 198 ț es es ei ei

CEU eTD Collection 144 143 for conferences the with in 1884“Evolu one and going) we are (Where “Undemergem” 1893 in one articles, two science) (Literatureand 1893 between stories short published sociology,religious anthropology, belief M Stuart John and Letourneau, in published be), was meant to “ (The in Contemporanul published she when 1885, in occurred debut literary Her living. was she which in society socialist movement). 1884 in rights?); political their for work to need women (Do politice?” drepturile pentru femeile lucreze să “Trebuie women), 18 in book); Mill’s regarding observations (Some Mill” lui Bucharest Mama

Ibid. Ibid. Visinescu, end), 157 ” a In literary her In In1894,

(The Mother), Mother), (The i o codntn te Worker the coordinating of aim

nother monthly journal, called journal, monthlynother “ Sofia Nadejde Sofia Schi Contemporanul

h sot story short the

ț ia familiei” (Theevol peasants and workers, and peasants the Nădejde family left Iaşi and settled in Bucharest. They moved to Bucharest, to Bucharest.They moved in Iaşisettled and leftNădejde family the Căpitanul StănciulescuCăpitanul i via din e 143

writings novels and short stories, she developed a feminist critique of the the of critique feminist a developed she stories, short and novels writings

, , 154.

“

O iubire la iubire O

a number of translations from foreign authors like, HerbertSpencer, like, foreigntranslationsfromofauthors number a

a de la la de a - “ l, hc have which ill, 86 Rll eei n icra oil”Wmns oe n the in role sociala”(Women’s mişcarea în femeii “Rolul 1886 oă mame Două ț ț ution ofution thefamily). ară

in ară s, polygamy, and women’s rights. s, polygamy, and rights. women’s and 1894, and in the magazine magazine the in and 1894, and

” (A country (A ” ( Evenimentul literar Evenimentul general Capitan Stănciulescu).Capitan ” s Club activity in Bucharest, to give lectures and and lectures give to Bucharest, in activity Club s

(Scheches from a rural life), life), rural a from (Scheches ” To ohr) Atr ht followed that After mothers). (Two 53

s an ujc’ polm fo te ils of fields the from problems subject’s main as

to propagate the “cause of socialism”. It is in is It socialism”. of “cause the propagate to side love), love), side

(The literary event), Sofia Nădejde Sofia event), literary(The 83 144 Aşa a fost să fie să fost a Aşa - 84 Dsr fmi (About femei” “Despre 1884

Between 1884 and 1886, sheBetween 1884and 1886, ieauă i ştiin şi Literatură

“ Tatăl ”

(This is how it how is (This

(The Father), (The “ n sfârşit Un ț a ”

CEU eTD Collection 148 147 146 148 Romania), in movement workers 145 were articles her of Some journal daily socialist the of supplement the was which World), magazine the of pages the Bucharest In recorded. cities. Romanian various F men?” 1894. in pol of lectures holding Romanians. of history social the about lecture a with acco and history, language, French sciences, natural economics, of fields the in courses short and lectures with peasants and workers 1894. in strikes pe and worker emancipation, women’s socialism, scientific newspaper weekly the in articles Here law. in intense, and more became activity socialist the and established was SDWPR the when time of period this

Craiova, Gala Craiova, Vişinescu, Ibid. istoria din Documente itical economics. In total, as Victor Vişinescu said Vişinescu Victor as total, In economics. itical

It was in Bucharest that Bucharest in was It 147 r pro o fv years, five of period a or

One of the lectures the of One Sofia Nădejde Sofia

more Marxist in orientation.more in Marxist they both participated in meetings at the Bucharest Worker Bucharest the at meetings in participated both they ț i, Bârlad, Iaşi, Ploieşti, Iaşi, Tulcea Ploieşti, Bârlad, i,

145 about the Romanian socialist tact socialist Romanian the about

The

mişcării muncitoreşti din România, din muncitoreşti mişcării

, , 159. her literary activity continued activity literary her uhrs Wre’ Cu had Club Worker’s Bucharest 148 , in 1895 “Instruc 1895 in ,

Unfortunately, the content of these conferences was not written or written not was conferences these of content the Unfortunately, ue nu şt nouă Lumea

, held by Sofia Nădejde, was “Are women intellectu women “Are was Nădejde, Sofia by held ,

Ioan Nădejde finished his studies and earne and studies his finished Nădejde Ioan unting. In 1895, Sofia Năde Sofia 1895, In unting.

Munca Munca rm 84 o 89 h held she 1899 to 1894 from

ț iin ( iunea rurală” (Rural education), “Criminalii” (The “Criminalii” education), (Rural rurală” iunea Work). The Club organized conferences about about conferences organized Club The Work). 54 ț fc ş literară şi ifică

ics and Ioan Nădejde gave Nădejde Ioan and ics vol.I1890 ,

she published she

146 , there were 55 such lectures such 55 were there , sca s social a

- osatn Dobrogean Constantin 1900 (Documents from the history of the history of from (Documents the 1900 a jde began there, her lecture her there, began jde ats ihs spotd worker supported rights, sant’s

(New Literary and Scientific Scientific and Literary (New ine bac ta provided that branch ciences

Lumea Nouă Nouă Lumea lect

articles and short stories in stories short and articles ures and conferences in in conferences and ures s Club, and published published and Club, s d his doctoral degree doctoral his d lectures in the field the in lectures ally inferior to inferior ally (New u - hra was Gherea

at the Club the at World). World).

series, series, s

CEU eTD Collection 151 150 149 this that followed. and be life, to rural path the the and was peasant appropriation the appropriate to had century nineteenth late the in Romania that considered Poporanism, behind “ideologist” the Stere, Constantin values. and inauthentic considered civilization, urban the with opposition in authentic as Romania, of civilization archaic rural the exalting was it because different, also new this mov embraced she that of instead but way”, “Marxist more a in developed writings have her should Therefore, intense. became activity political the and established, was party the wa This proletarians. the and factories more Second, with Iaşi. than and workers industry developed more a with city, bigger a was Bucharest as served that buil husband her and she that house the developed, had friendships socialist the all where house, beloved her behind left she Kingdom, Romanian the of capital the in family her all with common groundssameand goals. the Socialism), and (Poporanism cal in movement cultural and politic social, new a is which “poporanism”, in interest her with 1895, in began vremea“Pe Assasins),

Vişinescu, Vişinescu, Zigu Ornea, ZiguOrnea, SofiaNăd the journal “Lumea Nouă” (New World) an article entitled “Poporanismul şi Socialismul” Socialismul” şi “Poporanismul entitled article an World) (New Nouă” “Lumea journal the ement called Poporanism, which was indeed close to the socialist ideology. However, it was it However, ideology. socialist the to close indeed was which Poporanism, called ement This phase in Sofia Nădejde’s life is inte is lifeNădejde’s Sofia in phase This ejde, ejde, Sofia Nădejde Sofia Poporanismul

a printer a “Poporanismul şi Socialismul” in in şiSocialismul” “Poporanismul

lui Cuza (“In Prince Cuza’s time). (“In Cuza’s Cuza Prince lui , , 170

translated in Engli in translated for , s important, bec important, s ( Bucharest

the socialist movement found there its battlefield, and its “people”, its and battlefield, its there found movement socialist the Contemporanul 150

hr se re t aporae h to doois a having as ideologies, two the appropriate to tried she where : Ed. Minerva, Ed.

ause there she held lectures held she there ause sh language with “populism with language sh Lumea Nouă Lumea . She .

1972), 1972), 55 resting for resting 151

aet Bcaet o anwlf.O course, Of life. new a for Bucharest to came

Cons

23 , no. 412, (January 1896): 412, no. (January , 1896):

149 atn Dobrogeanu tantin

a number of numbera

A next phase in Sofia Nădejde’slife in Sofia phase next A

for working for oeg t te Romanian the to foreign reasons. First, she moved she First, reasons. .”

She published in 1896 1896 in published She 2

- hra a also was Gherea - class women, women, class t, and t, led led CEU eTD Collection 155 154 153 socialists. Romanian amongthe ideas narodniki spread and empire), the of Russian part (then from Ukraine Moldavia to whenhe come narodnik a was ent and development capitalist ofphase “skip”the could Russia that thought they Inaddition, would flourish. weresocialism places villagesthe as N 152 11 June on died Nădejde Sofia Victoria. and Amelia daughters two her with lived she life, of years last the In colleagues. former and friends her as well as movement, socialist the of beginnings journal the in published e articles of series a with 1935, in end will activity journalistic and literary Serano, EdmondodeAmicis. Jules of writings language Romanian journal democratic monthly the in 1907 and 1906 1904, in education, and emancipation peasants’ to related articles publish with dealing were stories, peasant lifeoppression. and women’s short her in more much but articles, in addressed she that topics Poporanism. Romanian the for term exact the “populism”, ideology. means English, in translated Narodnik Narodnism Actually, Russian the to much resembled that movement the with sympathetic arodniks saw the peasantry as the “revolutionary class” that will overthrow the monarchy, and perceived the perceived and monarchy, will the overthrow that class” “revolutionary the as thepeasantry sawarodniks . Victor Vişinescu, Victor , 1946at the age of90. Ibid., 247 Ibid., Mihailescu Stefania Narodni due exist to ceased SDWPR the when 1899, After sm

- husband Her 251

was a social movement, influenced by socialist ideas, that developed in nineteenth that developed ideas, socialist by influenced movement, social a was 153

Sofia Nădeje became interested in this movement and ideology. After 1896, the 1896, After ideology. and movement this in interested became Nădeje Sofia Sofia Nădejde Sofia , Poporanismul şi mişcarea socialistă din România din socialistă şimişcarea Poporanismul

die er straightsocialism. into er

Adevărul d

, 154

n 98 a wl as well as 1928, in ( Albina Bucharest: Ed. Politica, 1972 Politica, Ed. Bucharest:

Te Truth). (The Verne, Henryk Sienkiewicz, Camille Flammarion, Matilde Matilde Flammarion, Camille Sienkiewicz, Henryk Verne, Te Bee). (The

It is worth mentioning that Constantin Dobrogeanu Constantin that mentioning worth is It 56

Between 1908 and 1915, she translated in in translated she 1915, and 1908 Between 155 e to sons two her

n the In ) ,255 to Ioan Nădejde’s rethread, Sofia will will Sofia rethread, Nădejde’s Ioan to

s , (Bucharest: Ed. Politica 1988), 15 1988), Politica (Bucharest: , Ed. e

. After these tragic events, her her events, tragic these After . rtns se eebrd the remembered she writings, ntitled “Memories” ntitled - century Russia. century - Gherea, Gherea,

152

CEU eTD Collection 156 journalistic work. major her of some analyze now will I 5, Chapter in First, 6. Chapter in back come will I which novelist. SDWPR, of member director, spokes a journalist, socialist a was She socialists. Romanian first the amongst spoke the Victor “avant biographer, an was she her Vişinescu, to According Nădejde? Sofia was Who time. the of intellectuals the capitalist the world, system, whi in the world oppressive the of domination male the criticized she which in novels, and articles Conclusion

Vişinescu, Vişinescu, of lots published She husband. and and sons her wars, world two survived Nădejde Sofia n word, and with the written word. She was in the first lines of the socialist battle, battle, socialist the of lines first the in was She word. written the with and word, n Sofia Nădejde Sofia

, , 21

garde socialist activist [who] fought with thought and facts, with facts, and thought with fought [who] activist socialist garde ch she, as a woman waschwas she, woman living, as soonforgotten butshe a by ” 156 He does not mention her feminism, feminism, her mention not does He 57

- person, magazine magazine person, oehn to something CEU eTD Collection in 79 158 year1888. inthe Parliament Romanian deputyin the 157 Contemporanul, Woman) World), Scientific Rights), Ştiin were: articles published Nădejde Sofia which in journals socialist sixty published Ju between Mor G. Vasile and husband Nădejde’s Sofia Nădejde, Ioan by (Iassy) Iaşi was journal socialist important most Romania Journalism Introduction

Contemporanul itr iiec, h woe oi Ndjes igah i 17, rvds l a provides 1972, in biography Nădejde’s Sofia wrote who Vişinescu, Victor

aie . Mor G. Vasile Gheorghe Nădejde, Theodor Speran Dimitrie Theodor GheorgheNădejde, ț ifică My focus in thi in focus My t In

Lumea Nouă Lumea ,

used to advance their advance to used Albina i catr I il present will I chapter, his ly 1881 and May 1891 and amongst the edit the amongst and 1891 May and 1881 ly a oe f h “aia” om o poet ht socialists that protest of forms “radical” the of one was

Te e Ltrr ad cetfc World), Scientific and Literary New (The . ț

ih articles eight Drepturile Omului Drepturile n (1860 un (The Bee),

vnmnu Literar Evenimentul

(The New World), New (The s chapter is on the articles Sofia Nădejde Sofia articles the on is chapter s - 99 ws Rmna jou Romanian a was 1919)

Universul Sofia Nădejde as journalista

in cause, in order to popularize their opinions and ideology. The The ideology. and opinions their popularize to order in cause,

Contemporanul , and ,

Contemporanul

(The Universe),(The and

Lumea Nouă Literară şi Ştiin şi Literară Nouă Lumea Te ieay Event) Literary (The Lumea Nouă Literară şi Ştiin şi Literară Nouă Lumea ChapterV ia, Constantin Mille Constantin ia, analyze

rnalist and politician; also, he became the first socialist socialist first the became he also, politician; and rnalist

uig t tn er o existence of years ten its during

oe of some

(The Contemporary), established in 1881 at at 1881 in established Contemporary), (The

Adevărul ors,

we find Sofia Nădejde, Sofia find we oi N Sofia Femeia ,

(The Truth),

published in published

rpuie Omului Drepturile ădejde’s journalistic work. work. journalistic ădejde’s

ț ț ue Nu Literară Nouă Lumea Română ifică ifică

ist of all her publications publications her all of ist n nineteenth in ț .

Munca

(New Literary and Literary (New T u Femeia Română Femeia he question he n.

Te Roma (The 157 158

( t appeared It Work). .

159 who also who

- (Human (Human century

O s

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CEU eTD Collection activity. see will we now influenced background and life Nădejde’s how seen have we work journalistic Nădejdes ştiin şi nouă literară Omului Drepturile in commodity) a is of 18,1882),June in Contemporanul femei” la supunerea in marriage) (About casatorie” regarding Maiorescu Mr. Română Femeia are, articles These above. listed journals rece were writings her we characterize her politicalwritings? ideas inthese will I

woman as seen byMr.seen Misir),woman in as

try to answer are answer to try y i i aim My

n the n

chapter (1882

ti chapter this n (1879); (1879); Contemporanul (1885); how Contemporanul ț - 1883); Osrain regardin (Observations , ifică

e ideas her vd ad fe te, discuss I then, after and ived, I will present will I which topics did So did topics which

and lastly and “Raspuns d “Raspuns the problem of women’s brains) women’s of problem the

, and I will illustrate them with her writings. In the previous chapter previous the In writings. her with them illustrate will I and , (1895). “Un articol din articol “Un Contemporanul

(1882 s o hglgt and highlight to, is

Contemporanul bu wmns mniain r rfetd in reflected are emancipation women’s about

“Căutarea paternită “Căutarea (1884

- - lui Maiorescu in chestiunea creierulu chestiunea in Maiorescu lui aspects of the social and economical conditions in whic in conditions economical and social the of aspects 1883); “Libertatea femeii prelegereaîn d - 1885);

Timpul Csina eelr (h “oa Qeto” in Question”) “Woman (The Femeilor” “Cestiunea Ml’ bo aot h sbeto o wmn in women) of subjection the about book Mill’s g fia Nădejde write about in the in about write Nădejde fia

59 (1881 Fmi ş scaiml Wmn n scaim in socialism) and (Woman socialismul şi “Femeia

(1882

de la 18 iunie 1882” iunie 18 la de

- xoe h ms imp most the expose 1882); 1882); - ț

1883); 1883); oe rils ht h pbihd n the in published she that articles some ii” (Se ii”

in in “Observari asupra cartei lui Mill despre Mill lui cartei asupra “Observari Contemporanul “Azi totul e marfă” (Todaye marfă”totul“Azieverything her activity as a as activity her eking for the paternity) in paternity) the for eking

(An article in “The Time”of “The in article (An

rat ois n Sofia in topics ortant journals and how can can how and journals i la femei” la i - (1881 lui Misir” (Thelui liberty feminist

- e journalistic her 1882); 1882);

(Reply to to (Reply socialist, “Despre Lumea Lumea s, h

CEU eTD Collection 1838 ofdocuments: Collection feminism. Romanian 161 60 160 to day one from survival their was thing somet of dreaming even not were they own; their of land of piece a someday possess to hope no had who peasants of composed areas. rural the in especially conditions, political equal achieving country industrialized an of period hard the was It institutions. political new of creation the emancipation moveme social the a kingdo state. modern the Romanian event thehistory of in important an marked also 1881, appeared, number first the when year The rights. women’s and so Romanian 1891. embr who Romania and in socialism first the amongst were Nădejde Ioan husband chapter second the Late the in Romania

Ştefania Mihăilescu Ştefania României Enciclopedia

Through this publication, as well as through other socialists newspapers and journals, the the journals, and newspapers socialists other through as well as publication, this Through In order to better understand Sofia Nădejde’s writings, is necessary to take into account into take to necessary is writings, Nădejde’s Sofia understand better to order In the that understand to important is It m and a consm and cialists from Iaşi and Bucharest and Iaşi from cialists

was happening at the at happening was Contemporanul , aoe n h ery hs o the of phase early the in arose , Din istoria feminismului românesc feminismului istoria Din t/hne ta ocre in occurred that nts/changes

titutional monarchy.titutional

(The Encyclopedia of Romania), vol.III, vol.III, ofRomania), Encyclopedia (The - Te problem The . nineteenth Century: Social and Econ and Social Century: nineteenth ihs ih e, u ta the that but men, with rights

was the official jou official the was hing hing

same time with the development the with time same called “the right to vote.” to right “the called

160 for

h nx. hs s h Sfa ăed i hr writings her in Nădejde Sofia why is This next. the

– In 1900, appro 1900, In 1929),

, de , the majority of Romanian women was not that of of that not was women Romanian of majority the Romanian 60 manded universal suffrage, democratic reforms, reforms, democratic suffrage, universal manded . Antologie de texte: texte: 1838 de Antologie .

(

rnal of t of rnal It is the yearIt becamewhen istheRomania Iaşi: Polirom,2002 Iaşi: ae nineteenth late nwon state. “newborn”

(Buchar socialist movement, as I as movement, socialist he Romanian socialists, from 1881to from socialists, Romanian he y ximately 80% of the population the of 80% ximately

ee lieae n lvd n poor in lived and illiterate were est: Imprimeria Na est:Imprimeria ),16 161 - expansion expansion etr Romania century

For them, the most urgent most the them, For omic Context omic –

of Romanian in Romanian of 1929

oi Ndje n her and Nădejde Sofia ( aced and supported supported and aced From the from an from ț ională, ională, have shown in in shown have history of history .

agrarian to agrarian

dustry and and dustry 1937), 1937),

Women’s officially officially 49 was -

CEU eTD Collection 165 N problem; Sofia “ce 164 boyar, the landowner, paythe to 163 381 1993), Enciclopedică, Papacostea, Şerban Hitchins, Keith Deletant, 162 emancipation,my whichin rather reflecting is article belief socialist change social achieving for collectivity the to linked was word this of usage her that is explanation of time that at customary is interesting Que “Woman (1895) (1881 in activity journalistic Nădejde’s Sofia any possessed they cattle’s of percentage the in measured was which wealth, their to according land of piece a state the from received indu the oppression. women’s rural of that solved be to problem important most the as identifies Sofia Nădejde, “Cestiunea femeilor” in “Cestiunea femeilor” SofiaNădejde,

The piece of land that the freed peasants received from the state was in fact rented to them; they weresupposed theythem; to wasfact rented in state from the peasantsreceived freed thatofland the piece The Keith Hitchins “Inceputurile statului modern” statului “Inceputurile Hitchins Keith woman stiune/chestiune” which cannot be cannot which stiune/chestiune” hs s y translation, my is This

land - h frt ril sge b Sfa Nădejde Sofia by signed article first The stry 1886), .

163 bt bu wmn rm aiu sca cass n ee eth even and classes social various from women about but ,

began to develop, a part of part a develop, to began the fact the stion” ădejde did not say “femeie” (woman) at singular, but femei (women) at plural. at femei (women) but singular, at “femeie”didnot say(woman) ădejde Drepturile Omului Drepturile )

and appeared on appeared and that Nădejde used the term “women” in t in “women” term the used Nădejde that

t s ovninly rnltd y h “oa question”, “woman the by translated conventionally is it . 165

This may indicate indicate may This ana oi Nădejde’s Sofia view arecharacteristicview for ideas her earlier period. inthis

mountd money of

translated from Romanian language in English language as question, but as as but question, as language English in language Romanian from translated Femeia Română Femeia . 162

March

(1885), and (1885),

Isto the rather than focusing on focusing than rather If

(The beginnings of the modern state) modern the of beginnings (The they i României ria peasants were freed from bon from freed were peasants iea/eortc conceptions liberal/democratic 25, 1879 25, uring ten years. ten uring

the fact that she thought not of a pa a of not thought she that fact the

61 Femeia Română Femeia did not posses any cattle, they cattle, any posses not did , year II, year ,

was

Lumea Nouă Literară şi Ştiin şi Literară Nouă Lumea in the journal the in Romania), of History (The (1879), no.11: 177 no.11: (1879),

entitl he plural and not singular as singular not and plural he

the ed “Cestiunea Femeilor” (The (The Femeilor” “Cestiunea ed

(1879), (1879),

individual person. individual Femeia Română Femeia

- u here but

179 in in dage only in 1864 in only dage Mihai Bărbulescu, Dennis Dennis Bărbulescu, Mihai

eadn wom regarding Contemporanul Contemporanul

would not receive not would

the exact words are are words exact the ( icities. Another Another icities. uhrs: Edi Bucharest: n h force the in

rticular kind rticular

. 164

This first first This

What is What ț Even if Even ifică , and and ,

en’s en’s was tura tura

of of to

CEU eTD Collection 168 167 166 not and universal be re to has education to access that stated she because feminist, socialist a with working wereNădejde concerns minority a f financ to allowed were formally to legislation the because intelligence, women’s about talking 1869 his in argued we body,height, the scienti affirmat intel of level same the achieve asp all in in published in published article an against revolted soc and sexual political, women’s of size or school; there is a need for need a is there school; or strictedclass. toaparticular

Ibid. Ibid., 178 Ibid., SofiaNăde many forms of education and education of forms many ial resources, “w resources, ial

fic works of the time and stated and time the of works fic The main theme of the article was article the of theme main The ions and demonstrated that demonstrated and ions ects and ects

. ” jde, “Cestiunea Femeilor”, 177 “Cestiunea Femeilor”, jde,

168 Le Liberté Le

On brains in comparison with men’s brains and the male’s explanation of women’s women’s of explanation male’s the and brains men’s with comparison in brains

that cn notice can e Subjection of Wome of Subjection ight and not to the “idea” of being men or women or men being of “idea” the to not and ight

no matter no omen from rural areas and working and areas rural from omen

entitled “Women’s Brains” “Women’s entitled ial inferiority due to these smaller brains. smaller these to due inferiority ial otne hi euain eve education, their continue

special legislation regarding education, regarding legislation special

how hard women tried to change to tried women hard how

that many iec a me as ligence they while , -

cla

that the skull must be measured accordingly to the size of of size the to accordingly measured be must skull the that

Le Nord Le profession n were ss and peasant women peasant and ss .

the contemporary debate around the alleged smaller smaller alleged the around debate contemporary the She also accuse also She h tpc was topic the

just aberra just 62

on March 15, 1879, a reproducti a 1879, 15, March on n.

s. In addition, she addition, In s. 166

which stated that woman was inferior to ma to inferior was woman that stated which

ăed begun Nădejde tions. In doing this, she quoted she this, doing In tions. at n - , made by men, denied men, by made ,

class famil class d women’s

men of hypocrisy when they were they when hypocrisy of men the . From this point ofview point From this .

this situation they could they situation this secondary level, they they level, secondary

Sofia Nădejde Sofia

, but for everybody, not just not everybody, for but

ces o dcto Sofia education to access ies will not be able to pay pay to able be not will ies 167 noted plmc gis these against polemic a

as John Stuart Mill had Mill Stuart John as

that

on of an article an of on even if even women

in particular in

, different different

she was was she women need acce

never ed ss ss n

CEU eTD Collection Imperialism 170 169 have will we until men, than intelligent less being of women accuse to anybody to permit not “slavery” by theemerging in out pointed in slaves. asseen women all about mothers, talked Nădejde Feminism’”, generations various women the slaves in understood her in did Wollstonecraft ex of “reason important moth of “role the choosing in freedom more have slavery?” not this is say, you can What (…) sacrificed! ( that! for up give we things many how And nights! sleepless many How life! of adversities and works hardest the through children our raise and givebirth We birth? giving of role the to reduced slaves some just but we, are what “So, women:

Claire Midgley, “ Midgley, Claire “Cestiunea Fem Nădejde, Romania, there were still “dependent peasants”, “dependent still were there Romania, The problem of a proper education proper a of problem The talked she addition, In pointing to the control the to pointing – ,

( - no ri no as Manchester slave comparison/identification was used in the nineteenth century by feminists of of feminists by century nineteenth the in used was comparison/identification slave 170

and it was not particular for particular not was it and combination of socialist and feminist thinking. She saw She thinking.feminist and socialist of combination gh n atclr bu mtes who mothers about particular in h frt chapter first the Anti t to choose regarding their own bodies. T bodies. own their regarding choose to t ,

- as Claire Midgley has shown in her “Anti her in shown has Midgley Claire as

slavery and the and R slavery and New York: Manchester NewYork: and eilor”, 178 178 eilor”, istence”

Vniain f h Rgt o Woman of Rights the of Vindication A omanian

about the “role of mothers” that society and men and society that mothers” of “role the about It is important to r to Itimportant is society that

as fr h SWR te working the SDWPR, the for also ; n oe. h ue te od lvs for slaves word the used She women. on oots of ‘Imperial Feminism’ “ in Claire Midgley (ed.), (ed.), Midgley “Claire in ‘ImperialFeminism’ of oots

capitalist state. capitalist is also present in her writings, when she stated, she when writings, her in present also is /the state had over had state /the

University Press University socialist 63

lived in poverty and about their “burden” as as “burden” their about and poverty in lived emember that at the end of end the at ememberthat

r” that ers” …) whose situation whose

feminist thinking. My point is point My thinking. feminist

169 Happy should be the mother who is not is who mother the be should Happy , 1998), 1998), ,

Here, she stated she Here, his kind of discourse, which evoked evoked which discourse, of kind his

ae oit imposed society male -

slavery and the roots the and slavery their bodies, and not necessarily not and bodies, their 161

was 179 19) T (1792).

- in mothers in

class was subjected to to subjected was class

a form of slavery of form a

that women should women that

nineteenth women, as Mary Mary as women, his

had imposed on imposed had Gender and and Gender , too, can be be can too, ,

what she saw she what

of ‘Imperial of s h most the as

that Sofia that century

“I will “I

as I as

CEU eTD Collection 173 women’sbrains theof problem 172 which in poverty of 171 complexities the understand will women] [bourgeois they Until men. a is working “ that. for them criticizes and degrading, something as work on view their as well as men, pleasing of aim the with fashion regarding habits women” “bourgeois analyzing is of lack their for women and society husbands. their alongside live they which forced are they because are, men than stronger and attentive more of amount same the do even and children th of care take to household, the in work to also but families, their sustain to order in work to relied she intelligent menwere, than inferio nineteenth present be reacted also will education, (Reply to access equal in and independence economical decided be conditi same the have will we until schools, t e orei wmn ok t ok s oehn degra something as work at look women bourgeois he

Ibid. SofiaNădejde Contemporanul N ădejde, “Cestiunea Femeilor”, 179 “Cestiunea Femeilor”, ădejde, , , p.874 iy ht e advocated he that rity

to Mr. Maiorescu regarding the problem of women’s brains) women’s of problem the regarding Maiorescu Mr. to o iu aoec, n o te ot aos nelcul ad ieay rtqe of critiques literary and intellectuals famous most the of one Maiorescu, Titu to -

.” cen her examples her - 876 171 crime. Their only aim is to dress up according to fashion, in order to please their please to order in fashion, to according up dress to is aim only Their crime. , “ uy oai, regar Romania, tury

t wr more work to , Raspunsd h mi tee o ti atce fo 1879, from article, this of themes main The

in the article entitl article the in

understanding the true the understanding - lui Maiorescu in chestiunea creierului la femei la creierului in chestiunea Maiorescu lui were ) in ) 172

Contemporanul

Satn fo the from Starting . h referred She always about always , to take care of the children, household and work in the field field the in work and household children, the of care take to ,

ig h agmn of argument the ding

on examples of the workinof the examples on ed “Răspuns d “Răspuns ed , year , I

ons as men have; and then only after ten years it can can it years ten after only then and have; men as ons phys

o t to th

e 64 problems that poor women were women poor that problems , no. 24, (1881/1882): 873 (1881/1882): 24, no. , ical work as men. “Peasant women have women “Peasant men. as work ical lower in facing were women that burden double he

- argument that, in fact women were more more were women fact in that, argument lui Maiorescu în chestia chestia în Maiorescu lui - class

women’s

ding; pleasing men is ‘noble’, but but ‘noble’, is men pleasing ding; women. g ”

class and rural women who h rural who women and class (Reply to Mr. Maiorescu regarding regarding Maiorescu Mr. to (Reply h sz o a oa’ brain, woman’s a of size the

ytesca conditions social the by lee smaller alleged

She from 1881 from

crit creierului la femei” la creierului icized 173

- facing. Nădejde Nădejde facing. She stated that, stated She 1882.

midd

brains and and brains

Nădejde le

- o be to class

ad in e

CEU eTD Collection 178 177 “Aglaia.” pseudonym wrotethe under Sofia Nădejde, even time, that for was common pseudonym a under writing 176 Contemporanul 175 174 or men it be it, for pay to money have who those to limited not and universal, be to has vote to important at important, suffrage for ask that women the with level activit “emancipatoare term A.Teiulescu this by misunderstood noted. she answer”, like journal prestigious a in published not was it “if because journal the in published and Năde Sofia din articol “Un entitled The marriage be should all freethis of is highest the beads who one the where house’ ‘auction an is it because marriage, about horrible something is It be? to supposed is how and marriage is “what child t about was Nădejde Sofia by again working

Sofi woman.” “an emancipated “emancipated”, with into English translated wordbe could This SofiaNă SofiaNădejde, I do not know who this man was; it is possible, as Sofia as possible, is it was; man this who know not do I

a Nă a that y. n nte atce pbihd n h sm journal, same the in published article, another In “ article The 177 - ls ad esn wmn r l are women peasant and class . , her socialist dejde, “Un din articol dejde, dejde, “Un din articol dejde, ”

jde responded jde Nădejde explained Nădejde 178 , year II, no. 1 1 yearno. (1882 , II, ht oet fr oe’ eacpto () i (…) emancipation women’s for moment, that

She argues that, “f that, argues She “Despre casatorie” (About marriage) (Aboutin casatorie” “Despre 175 Despre casatorie Despre

”,

feminist ht h ml ato attached author male the that Sofia Nădejde was Nădejde Sofia Timpul

to an article written by an “intellectual” man of that time, A. Teiulescu, A. time, that of “intellectual”man an by written article an to Timpul Timpul

Timpul

he problem of marriage, of problem he 1883): 1883): that Teiulescu used this word, this used Teiulescu that

de la 1 la de ideas came tosurface. or such a long time now, I am constantly arguing that the right the that arguing constantly am I now, time long a such or

de la 18 iunie 1882”, iunie 1882”, 18 la de in 1882) 18, Time”June “The in (Anarticle iunie 1882” 18 la de . 176 ” 21

(The Time). In fact, this is the reason she answered to it, it, to answered she reason the is this fact, In Time). (The

.” (About marriage) (About

8 Iunie 1882” (An article in “The Time” “The in article (An 1882” Iunie 8 T 174 he first thing that she responded to was to responded she that thing first he vn, hy il o b ‘emancipated’.” be not will they iving,

, although this is not what I consider I what not is this although , reacting to reacting 65 Co

ntemporanul

Nădejde, argues, to be a pseudonym. The practice of practice The pseudonym. a be to argues, Nădejde, 21

writings her to way, negative a in ,

this article, because she felt she because article, this

published in published and

Timpul the situation of the mother and the the and mother the of situation the

, year , I, Contemporanul and tried placing tried and i t iprat bt not but important, s

I no. 18 (1881 18 no.

Contemporanul would not have bothered to bothered have not would

the buyer of the woman. woman. the of buyer the fo 1881 from ,

1882): 1882): her on her

June 1 June

to be the most most the be to the use of the of use the Thus, we see see we Thus,

insulted and insulted , 1881 , 626 626 “ 8, 1882), 8, the the same the

- 1882, 1882 most

and

CEU eTD Collection 1894 April from 183 Romania in Party Workers Democratic Work Social The of Congress second the of program The 182 24 181 180 179 peasants the poor, the helping of general, in humans, emancipation She demanding. were feminists liberal the as partial, not but suffrage, them like not am I and suffrage, want that women that like am I women. for wage feminism, described Offen Karen as society”, and culture in domination “male challenged that feminist, a working and peasant that, stated she when article, this were She time. that of was Nădejde how understand, t socio of because freed, not are and suffering still are women the and happened had this where world, the in countries are there approved, be will vote the if even However, class. social every tal to possible not is It women.

Sofia Nadejde, “Un din articol SofiaNadejde, Ibid., Ibid. “Mo Karen Offen, Karen , year V, nr. 9, April 24, 1894). April 24, year9, nr. V, ,

- not economical conditions economical , ț 24 23 Nădejde did Nădejde 182 iunea celui de celui iunea

yet equal work, protective laws for workers, equal civil and civil equal workers, for laws protective work, equal 181

clear devel clear intersects what with just for so for just European Feminisms, 1700 Feminisms, European

positioned

- not al doilea Congres al P.S.D.M.R din ap din P.S.D.M.R al Congres doilea al -

class women, wil women, class want me women and people, but she was she but people, and women me oped in that sense yet. S yet. sense that in oped Timpul

herself on the on herself to be called “ema called be to in which they live. they which in

drawing a drawing k about ‘equality’ if there is no universal vote, for everybody, for for everybody, for vote, universal no is there if ‘equality’ about k

“

Romanian de la 18 Iunie 1882 18 la de rights for women, without women, for rights - 1950: A Political Political History A 1950: l not solve the ‘woman question’ ‘woman the solve not l

soft

ground of socialist of ground socialists want socialists

line betw line ncipatoare”, because, she argued she because, ncipatoare”, 66 ”

he made a clear socialist feminist statement in statement feminist socialist clear a made he 179 ”, 22 ”,22

This is one of the moments, when on when moments, the of one is This rilie 1894” în 1894” rilie , and the w the and , een herself and the “bourgeois feminis “bourgeois the and herself een

, Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2000, 2000, University Press, Stanford Stanford: , ed dreaming of the emancipation of the of emancipation the of dreaming

, meaning equal suffrage, universal the

ideol

orking Munca

economic emancipa economic . political rights for men and and men for rights political ogy ” 183 , anul V, nr.9, 24 aprilie 1894( 1894( aprilie 24 nr.9, V, anul , - . class. “I am dreaming of of dreaming am “I class. ”

, even though her ideas ideas her though even ,

180 was was

h w She

What she wantedshe What not “dreaming” of of “dreaming” not , “this means that that means “this , anted tion of the of tion

universal e can e

, as , m”

he he in

CEU eTD Collection 187 women)in of thesubjection about book 186 wastheory his which on framework political the not but emancipation, women’s towards concerns Mill’s appreciated Nădejde libe utilitarian his in published were 185 184 “question” this women?” for important is that all this Is solved? be question’ ‘woman the would women, of part a just a she However, men. book. Mill’s Stuart John about i from especially critiques, many problems the all with of aspects ma of problem the and independence, financial access equal as such before, mentioned topics same the find can book Mill’s about during material and pregnancy, their for unpaid recognitionfor work interms workers, i economical the seems rights’ ‘human

“Observari as SofiaNădejde, Ibid. Sofia Nădejde translated fragments and a summary of summary a and fragments translated Nădejde Sofia Nădejde, “Observări asupra cărtei lui Mil cărtei “Observări asupra Nădejde,

to be present every wasto bepresent she time In the article the In

based. 187 u i te ae ie Ndje argued Nădejde time, same the in but

Mill’s book published in 1869 in published book Mill’s

For Nădejde, there are other impor other are there Nădejde, For

ralism was not a subject of debate in the socialist circles from Romania, at least not publicly. publicly. not least at Romania, from circles socialist the in debate of subject a not was ralism Contemporanul for all humankind all for o e nwrdsle, ie h polm o po wmn their women, poor of problems the like answered/solved, be to ndependence of women; on their rights as citizens, on their recognition as as recognition their on citizens, as rights their on women; of ndependence

“Observări asupra căr asupra “Observări

sked

raised by the author. Sh author. the by raised the Subjection of Women of Subjection the , “i , upra cartei lui Mill despre supunerea la femei” (Some observations regarding Mill’s regarding observations (Some femei” la supunerea lui despre Mill cartei upra

in the years 1882 years the in f this is going to happen, equal political rights, the right to vote for for vote to right the rights, political equal happen, to going is this f

” 186 . Contemporanul ” ntellectual men, but I am decided to tell what I really think think really I what tell to decided am I but men, ntellectual 184

Sofia Nădejde agreed Nădejde Sofia l”, l”,

In the writings I presented so far, I identified a pattern that pattern a identified I far, so presented I writings the In

talking about women. Her focus is not on the vote, but on onthe vote,buton focusisnot women.Her about talking 510 , 185 ț

- 1883. The whole book was not translated. John Stuart Mill and and Mill Stuart John translated. not was book whole The 1883. ei lui Mill despre supunerea la femei” (Observations femei” la supunerea despre Mill lui ei

and said and e stated e , year II, no. no. 13,(1882 II, year , 67

) On the Subjection of Women of Subjection the On

tant aspects that need to be solved be to need that aspects tant

published in published

o lw ta protect that laws for rriage.

, “I know “I , from the beginning that, she did she that, beginning the from

oi Ndje cmetd n some on commented Nădejde, Sofia that women need women that Contemporanul

th - 1883): 1883): at this statement will bring me bring will statement this at to education for women, the the women, for education to 510 ed

into Romanian language that that language Romanian into

hi wr, especially work, their ed

of raising

in 1882 in

to be equal wit equal be to

in economical -

1883, children. not agree not order for order we h

CEU eTD Collection 191 190 189 188 wome regard would that men, Women of Subjection would notpayfor thei why education, children’s for pay dutyto its is it that recognizes today society the if and society; that finding rising child and pregnancy during assistance financial with women provide should state the and work’ hard ‘as work, as state the by recognized be should children of rising and Pregnancy work. to where has and work can woman a that way a such be to has societythe man, a from independent financial trulybe to woman Foraher. chil with widow the possible; not is this that, was this of favor in stopped be to has and true, not is this but family, the ofonlyproviders arethe they say that Men paid. be to needs‘work’ that aswork, of kind this Soci house. the of and children the of care take to has also she women “i argued, Nădejde Sofia women. appear from and independence,

Nă Ibid. Ibid. 511 Ibid., dejde, “Observari asupra cartei lui Mill”, 511 511 lui Mill”, cartei “Observari asupra dejde, the things do,because this we

ed , because they need special conditions of work. After that, even if a woman could work, work, could woman a if even that, After work. of conditions special need they because , Regarding John John Regarding burden, double the of that and pregnancy during especially women, of protection The

n hs ril a wl, n ls rltosi wt te cnmcl independence economical the with relationship close in well, as article this in

as a paradox, because “a woman is not raising the children for herself, but for the for but herself, for children the raising not is woman “a because paradox, a as

freedom from freedom

, the ideas that he promotes would reach just some hundreds of intellectual of hundreds some just reach would promotes he that ideas the , r food andr food clothesthey until towork?” are able

tat ils da, h sae that, stated she ideas, Mill’s Stuart “ the society needs people to work, but wants to have them for free, and free, for them have to wants but work, to people needs society the

n as equal to them in intelligence and rights, but what about the the about what but rights, and intelligence in them to equal as n

t is known that bearing that known is t the superstitions, the

is how it should bed should is howit dren is left alone, and nobody [the state] state] [the nobody and alone, left is dren

68 .”

189

the “things that our parents say is best for us, us, for best is say parents our that “things the

Another argument which Nădejde brought Nădejde which argument Another one children is a problem for working for problem a is children . . ” ”

190 188 ety and the state do not recognize not do state the and ety “

Sofia warned Sofia i w sek f Mill’s of speak we f

191

the readers the takes care of of care takes organizedis

On the the On

in - class

not of of CEU eTD Collection 196 Contemporanul 195 194 193 192 said and question this necessary?” really this Is men? to equal as seen were women if happen his with “disgust” her expressed She article. this through speech, chil the and house the of care take to has she because career, a have cannot woman a does; man a as education same the receive argued Misir, sp l women hadwithmen and rights equal concluded stat the by exploitation, female and prostitution of problem the towards was book, Mill’s to relation in discussed she that aspect a important an rights Nădejde equal of speak can we then abolished, be would women about stereotypes the allage, early an fromfamily. “If their receive from should men educationthat the children are they since rights women’s about men that important is it vanish, to prejudices this all For did. always they as women regard would Theyprejudices? of full still are that men, other bry s en y r Msr from Misir) Mr. by seen as iberty

eh ht M. ii” gave Misir” “Mr. that eech Nădejde, “Libertatea femeii”, “Libertatea femeii”, Nădejde, d prelegerea “Libertatea femeiiîn SofiaNădejde, căr “Observări asupra Nădejde, 512 Ibid., Ibid.

n another In , by saying “I cannot understand how this problem (the prostitution) could be solved if solved be could prostitution) (the problem this how understand cannot “I saying by ,

, yearn , II,

against women’s emancipation, women’s against

ril ette “ietta eei n rlgra onli ii” (Woman’s Misir” domnului prelegerea în femeii “Libertatea entitled article

o. 18 (1882 18 o.

t sp hat, “ hat, c o wmns mniain was emancipation women’s of ect 714 ț

ei lui Mill”, 512 luiei Mill”, t

he first thi first he - bu “oa’ lbry n eult wt mn. n i speech his In man”. with equality and liberty “woman’s about 1883): 712 1883):

was was opinions. One of Misir questions was “And, really, what will what really, “And, was questions Misir of One opinions. dren.”

Contemporanul shocked by t by shocked some

195 ng that will happen if women have women if happen will that ng -

lui Misir” (The liberty of woman as seen by Mr. Misir), in Misir), Mr. by womanas seen ofliberty (The Misir” lui of them the rightof them vote to Of course, Nădejde was vigilant and reacted and vigilant was Nădejde course, Of .

” and stated and 69 192

Sofia Nădejde, emphasized Nădejde, Sofia

he ideas that Misir pr Misir that ideas he rm l cass n sca categories social and classes all from

1882

that that of that - 1883, ,

“it is not poss not is “it h “dcto o men”. of “education the

the total silence that Mill had Mill that silence total the oi Ndje ciiie the criticizes Nădejde, Sofia . ” 194 196 e, and by the men. She men. the by and e,

omoted publically, and publically, omoted . ”

193 Nădejde answerd to answerd Nădejde to woman a for ible

the same liberty as as liberty same the

the importance of importance the t em ta for that seems It

nother nother

to his to l earn earn ,

CEU eTD Collection 1886): 201 200 marriage. 199 198 197 proportions, class the in changes “the that, affirmed she article this in addition, In weak”. the for protection “a as not and system, capitalist terms antagonist in lived, them.” from money more gain and colonies protectio the for not are wars “the said, she conflicts, militaryAbout wars. and politics religion, art, to society Contemporanul specific tonineteenthcentury feminism. socialist husbands.” w chil raise stated She society. workers,“t sam the on men men?” born are they because just women… than ‘better’ be to themselves consider men do why (…) years of hundreds for lasted that inequality an fixing be would men, mn ht o ohn, rocpe ol b ter perne ad h weal the and appearance, their by only preoccupied nothing, do that omen

Ibid., Ibid., Sofia Nădejde, “Azi totul e marfă” (Today everything is a commodity) in commodity)in a is marfă”everything (Today “Azi e totul SofiaNădejde, “Libertatea femeii SofiaNădejde, by the as oppressed language English in treanslated be could căsniciei” jugul “duc Romanian expression This 715 Ibid.,

76 716 n h atce Ai ou e marfă e totul “Azi article the In W

dren and are ‘subjugated by ‘subjugated are and dren

omen emancipation of women is possible only through the fight of fight the through only possible is women of emancipation

200 he state is like anhe ‘owner’, state islike n of the weak, not for the nation, but a tool for the wealthy, in order to make new new make to order in wealthy, the for tool a but nation, the for not weak, the of n

n cn oie ee o se mhszd rbes f ls srgl ta were that struggle class of problems emphasized she how here notice can One s emancipation ’s , 1886 Sofia Nadejde saw everything as a commodity; from the structure of the of structure the from commodity; a as everything saw Nadejde Sofia 1886 , e level with the “owner”, the “boyar” that controlled the controlled that “boyar” the “owner”, the with level e ,

“one part of the society is composed by women that work from day to night, night, to day from work that women by composed is society the of part “one

ewe te or n te ih ad ecie wr s to fr the for tool a as war perceived and rich, the and poor the between

in prelegerea d prelegerea in fr oi Ndje en as eul biain i wr, in work, in obligations equal also meant Nădejde Sofia for ,

n through and

marriage’ ( marriage’ like oppresses a man, that women (oa eeyhn i a omdt) ulse in published commodity) a is everything (Today ” - 201 lui Misir”, Misir”, lui

Here, Sofia Nădejde s Nădejde Sofia Here, 70

“

duc jugul casniciei jugul duc the 716

elcmn o the of replacement

Contemporanul ” aw the society in which she which in society the aw ), . 199 ”

sla working 198

and ves, the peasants, the peasants, the ves, 197

, capitalist mode of of mode capitalist year IV, no. 2(1884 year no. IV,

the other part are part other the Later she Later - class, through through class, h f their of th

placed -

CEU eTD Collection 206 10, no. 1895, 205 204 203 202 (…)it the donotmake women, laws justice arethe old,and for for justice men.” is just raise to means the not has she if child, her abandoning for mother single the blames that system, injustic of cause “another women, of oppression the for system way.” decent a in living their earn cannot and disadvantaged, than their of endure arebecause must ştiin şi literară nouă right.” most then the important have is we It side poverty. other unbelievable the on and more, and more accumulates which bourgeoisie, all for work to right the assure will that emancipation, economic for fighting are “socialists added, work.” its of fruits the of deprived be to has nobody that principle the after a socialists “the because force, social their understand to and movement, socialist the in journalmonthly woman, changing bu the production, in changes the production;

“Căutarea paternită SofiaNădejde, N in socialism) and (Woman “Femeia socialismul şi SofiaNădejde, 78 Ibid., Năde citizens and for a new social organization (…) (…) organization social new a for and citizens ădejde, “Femeia şi socialismul”, 1 “Femeiaşi socialismul”, ădejde, working 204 jde, “Căutarea paternită jde, n h atce Cuae paternită “Căutarea article the In “ article the In

- class Drepturile Omului Drepturile this system will bring will system this emancipation.” her

ț e. seily working Especially men. Femeia şi socialismul şi Femeia ifică ț , in 1895 Sofia Nădejde argued that, “all the sufferings that women that sufferings the “all that, argued Nădejde Sofia 1895 in , ii”, ii”,

ț 8

way of living, for example for living, ofway ii” (Seeking for the paternity) in thefor in paternity) (Seeking ii” , Sofia Nădejde invited women to fight for their emancipation emancipation their for fight to women invited Nădejde Sofia , ț i (ekn fr h paternity) the for (Seeking ii” ”

ht working that (Woman 71 lig f ses ae ruh te subje the brought have assets of ilding

- class and peasant women are the most most the are women peasant and class at one side we have the luxurious live of the the of live luxurious the have we side one at

and S and Drepturile Omului Drepturile - 202 Lumea nouă literară şi ştiinliterară nouă Lumea working ls wmn work women class ocialism),

205 e towards women is the justice the is women towards e

- h bae as te justice the also blamed She class class

published in 1885 in the in 1885 in published , no. 873 ( 1885 ): ): ( 1885 873 no. , women are paid lesser lesser arepaid women

ulse in published 203

In addition, she addition, In ln fr their for alone ț ifică 206 re driven re 1 , year I, , ction of of ction

Lumea Lumea CEU eTD Collection Indeed, has it in Romania,and de whowas movement socialist the about wrote who thinker, socialist a also but men, with status equal and emancipation women’s supported who feminist a just not was Nădejde Sofia shown, has chapter “quarrels” These emancipation. and against articles wrote rights women’s and ideas, who feminist denigratedfrom her Romania,who subject did women, peasant what on emphasis special a with women, that housework the of recognition care, health and education soc women for legislation Conclusions

ey i priua fr esn ad working and peasant for particular in iety, /s

Sofia

that

appeared become clear that these two streams of thatthinking thesecannot clear separatedwork.become twostreams inher be Nădejde

- ’s

workers, especially during pregnancy, human rights for all members of of members all for rights human pregnancy, during especially workers, in her journalistic work were work journalistic her in

main

s wr” and “work”, as epl concern y concern occupy an imp an occupy s

were women’s financial independence and supportive supportive and independence financial women’s were ed withthe rights ofworking

hud e ad o accordingly. for paid be should 72 - ls women, class

ortant part of her of part ortant

the debate/deba the

hc icue acs t bas to access included which tes with various intellectualsvarious with tes

journalist writings. As this this As writings. journalist - class and peasant women. and peasantclass women. Another important important Another

ic ic

CEU eTD Collection scattered the together put to hard was It mentioned. are implications activist and journalistic her where e book theof exception the with activity, literary her about them of most works, other in mentioned also is She 1972. in biography her published and 1976 in writings literary her of collection a edited Roma the activity; her in interest some was there regime, communist the during 1970s, the In historiography. Romanian contemporary the in Nădejde the feminist and communist the in described activity and writings question the answer to try will I activity. and writings Nădejde’s Sofia Introduction Communist andFeminist acpto movement mancipation

beginning, I want say want I beginning,

icra pentru Mişcarea hs hpe wl da wi deal will chapter This

nomto aot e atvt, n h cniin i wih h ws pasd a an as “praised” was she which in conditions the in activity, her about information

mniae fmi î România în femeii emanciparea witn y h hsoin aacia Câncea, Paraschiva historian the by written )

that there is no monograph or extensive study published about Sofia about published study extensive or monograph no is there that

h h cmuit n te feminist the and communist the th Romanianhistoriography about Sofia Nădejde ChapterV 73

nian literary scholar Victor Vişinescu Vişinescu Victor scholar literary nian 1848

Romanian hist Romanian - 1948

historiography regarding regarding historiography how are Sofia Nă Sofia are how Te oain woman Romanian (The

n pbihd n 1976, in published and oriography? From From oriography? dejde’s dejde’s

CEU eTD Collection public and private lea 2002; in published româneşti Miroiu Mihaela Bucur, Maria (188 History Organizational An Movement: Women’s Romanian’s 19 Europe, Eastern Ann feminisms Daskalova, and movements Krassimira women’s of Dictionary Haan, Biographical de Francisca in Nadejde” “Sofia fem Romanian of history N Sofia about something Mihăilescu, said about/that historiography, contemporary Sociali and (Poporanism 1848 România în femeii emanciparea ( mo Pu Vişinescu, Victor authors: subsequent the of writings Nădejde’s stories as “socialist butneglected realist”, writings. journalistic her short and novels her appreciated which literaryhistorians, communist the by extraordinarywriter rtns rm h Contemporary) The from Writings ț ite ulc i privat si public intre : vement between 1893 between vement uri - 1948) In this chapter, I will examine first the communist historiography regarding Sofia Sofia regarding historiography communist the first examine will I chapter, this In (ed.)

Ptirht ad mniain n h hsoy f oain oiia thought political Romanian of history the in emancipation and (Patriarchate

published in 1976 in published i itra eiimli românesc. feminismului istoria Din icra uctrac dn oâi 1893 România din muncitorească Mişcarea )

published in 2003 in published Alin Ciupală, Alin th

and 20 and sm in Romania), published in 1988. in published Romania), in sm - ns. olcin f documents: of Collection inism. 1990

Te oa i te Romanian the in woman (The th

and Ştefania Mihăilescu, Mihăilescu, Ştefania and ) Centuries,

published in 1965 in published 1848 ( Femeia în socie în Femeia eds.

, and , ulse i 1961 in published - ) 1948 , araht i mniae n soi gnii politice gîndirii istoria în emancipare şi Patriarhat

ulse n 2006; in published the most recent mention of Sofia Nădejde’s feminism Nădejde’s Sofia of mention recent most the

(The Romanian woman’s emanciapation moveme emanciapation woman’s Romanian (The 74

tatea românească a secolului al secolului a românească tatea ; Nicolae Sorin, Nicolae ; nooi d txe 1838 texte: de Antologie Poporanismul şi socialismul în România în socialismul şi Poporanismul ;

aacia Câncea, Paraschiva

ieenh century nineteenth 1838

Then, I will explore the Romanian Romanian the explore will I Then,

- 1900 oaaCecee, Twr a “Toward Cheşchebec, Roxana – : Central, Eastern, and south south and Eastern, Central, : 1929)

0s oi Nădejde Sofia Din proza Contemporanului proza Din - 1940)”, Te oain workers Romanian (The pbihd n 2002 in published , a Loutfi (eds.), (eds.), Loutfi a

– published in 2006; in published

1929 society: between between society: Mişcarea pentru pentru Mişcarea ădeje, ădeje, , thought o Popescu Ion ,

Fo the (From Ştefania Ştefania

XIX

and and nt A ) - ,

CEU eTD Collection 210 Partydirectives. fit to theCommunist order in reality ofvisionthe an“alterate” 209 208 207 working towards rights women’s for support Nădejde’s the socialist, a as activity her emphasizing is he although and activity, and life her regime, communist the under living was he although but was objective main her emancipation, that women forget not did he hand, other the On socialist. a as activity her place first the in putting perspective, subjective communist a from 1972, in writing is Vişinescu exploitation.” capitalist the against emancipation, of her cause by the all, to confidence of with first forgotten, deliberately directed where life entire was her animated that ideals and ideas “the “she because was contemporaries”, why reason the that mentioned m the of “one was she and said Vişinescu Victor History “T Daskalova Krassimira in Communist Romanian Historiography Romanian Communist

The official histo official The Vişinescu Victor Vişinescu is Vişinescu Ibid.

Her entire activity was directed to the goal of goal the to directed was activity entire Her , vol.1(2008)

never using never , 7 riography and in general the literary production in the communist times of Romania, constructed constructed ofRomania, times the communist in production literary the in general and riography - ls wmns mniain h ne he emancipation, women’s class

from a socialist perspective. I do not want to “defend” Victor Vişinescu, Vişinescu, Victor “defend” to want not do I perspective. socialist a from “feminist” or “feminism” to describe SofiaNădejd describe “feminism” to or “feminist”

e akn” in Balkans” he

h woman the

is also mentioned. also is h Ofr Eccoei o Wmn n World in Women of Encyclopedia Oxford The 75

208 - ost interesting women interesting ost okr ofrn spot o hr ie and life her for support offering worker,

From these words, one can understand, that understand, can one words, these From e mnind e spot to support her mentioned ver working 210 209

Though, he mentioned her support her mentioned he Though, he is the only one that truly studied truly that one only the is he - class women;s emancipation women;s class e’

s activity and writings. sactivityand -

citizen.” 207 i mportance of mportance

The author The women’s women’s as as CEU eTD Collection 214 1894. Nădejde, Ioan by tactics revolutionary revolution and about withintroduction and an 213 7. 1965, Politica, 212 211 Conservativ Craiova. of city the in Therefore, isn it 1895, in edited was men?” to inferior women “Are entitled and her România ideology. communist in name its changing deliberately of Marx’s 1894, in reediting when accused, is and elements”, bourgeois Po Ioan byperceived is He 1900. in Party Liberal the of wing The movement. “liberal ‘opportunists’.” this for dogma a was The legalism reforms. social and political possible make to order in Parliament the in enter and way’ ‘liberal the by hostile o elements as seen was movement workers of the creation However, the SDWPR. after especially achievements, important obtain and successful was century the introduction 1893 between movement workers wereweakand any without aim. articl journalistic her that stated and general, in emancipation

Puturi, “Cuvant înainte”, “Cuvant Puturi, in (Introduction) înainte” “ Cuvânt Puturi, Popescu Ion “Anti Vişinescu,41 Victor - - n h vlm ta h edited, he that volume the In junimist” refers to the “quarrel” between the socialists and the junimist (the youngsters). youngsters). (the the and junimist socialists between the “quarrel” the to refers junimist” orei eeet” f h pry ee lmd o nt uprig nuh h workers the enough supporting not for blamed were party the of elements” bourgeois , once at page 181, when the author says that an “anti an that says author the when 181, page at once , f the party, who were in great positions of power. They wanted to follow the ‘legal the follow to wanted They power. of positions great in were who party, the f e Party, called Junimisti (The Y (The Junimisti called Party, e

“ ot seen as a brochure about women’s emancipation, but against the branch of the the thebranch of against emancipation,but women’s about abrochure as ot seen olwn “h Rmna wres oeet t h ed f h nineteenth the of end the at movement workers Romanian “The following traitor

213

48 and K. Marx, F. Engels, Engels, andF. Marx, K. 48 ”

of the “revolutionary way” was Ioan Nădejde, who entered the radical radical the entered who Nădejde, Ioan was way” “revolutionary the of oi Nă Sofia

211 -

1990

dejd The Socialist Manifesto Socialist The icra uctrac dn România din muncitorească Mişcarea i mnind wc in twice mentioned is e ), published in 1965, Ioan Popescu Puturi states, in the the in states, Puturi Popescu Ioan 1965, in published ), oungsters), where, the advocate of women’s “smaller women’s of advocate the where, oungsters), Manifestul Socialist Manifestul 76 Mişcarea muncitorilor din Romania, Romania, din muncitorilor Mişcarea

212

rm hs ttmn, e a se can we statement, this From , and thus delimiting itself from the from itself delimiting thus and , es, where she advocates this cause, this advocates she where es, pescu Puturi as one of the “liberal the of one as Puturi pescu -

junimiust” (Th e Socialist Manifesto), translated translated Manifesto), Socialist e icra uctrlr din muncitorilor Mişcarea The Communist Manifesto Communist The 214

brochure written by written brochure Bucharest: Ed. Ed. Bucharest:

( h Romanian The

- bourgeois’ bourgeois’ hw the how e - - , CEU eTD Collection 1999. Humanitas, Bucharest: mythology), 1999; Humanitas, Bucharest: communism), Buchares consciousness), 1995; Universitatii, Ed. Bucharest: 216 215 lifepeasant the how [and] tragic of full was “that world, rural the emphasize to tried writings her he not studied 1961 in published werecommunist and “constructing” legitimized. developme linear the in fit not “liberal having as perceived then was she actions, husband’s her of Because “neglected”. was Nădejde Sofia reasons the of one be may this but problems, such regime. communist the legitimatizing and preceding as seen strong a with thus way, this In movement. and workers class, working strong a with country, industrialized an as Romania nineteenth late the of image an construct to way a such in position, political subjective ( book this that, forget not must One further. developed not but activity, journalistic her as well as recognized, is party socialist party’.” for isthesocialist women vo universal wants that party only ‘The that stating party, socialist the in rights, political and civil their for fight to women called she articles, her In emancipation. women’s of field the in Roma the of presentation that, stated He movement. women’s short a made author the where 195, page on was mentioned pla other The activated. Maiorescu Titu intellectual the inferiority, and brains”

Ioan Popescu Puturi, Popescu Ioan On this topic see Lucian Boia, Boia, Lucian see topic this On ioa Srn in Sorin Nicolae “Cuv

t: Humanitas, 1997; 1997; Humanitas, t: ânt înainte”, înainte”, ânt i poa Contemporanului proza Din

iuie ouimli românesc comunismului Miturile soi s mt n osina romaneasca constiinta in mit si Istorie Mişcarea muncitorilor di muncitorilor Mişcarea

r journalistic writings, but her lite her but writings, journalistic r the strong influence of socialism and the industrialization were industrialization the and socialism of influence strong the t f h scait huh ad cin n oai, ht the that Romania, in action and thought socialist the of nt 215 195

“Sofia Nădejde developed an important journalistic activity journalistic important an developed Nădejde “Sofia Here her role as a promoter of women’s emancipationwomen’s the a of in promoter as role Here her

oa eoe e iooi nationala mitologie de secole Doua iooi siniia comunismului a stiintifica Mitologia 77

n România n

( (The myths of the Romanian communism), communism), Romanian the of myths (The rtns rm h Contemporary The from Writings 216

It is not the place to discuss here discuss to place the not is It -

bourgeois” sympathies, and did did and sympathies, bourgeois” (History and myth in the Romanian Romanian the in myth and (History rary writings. He showed He writings. rary ) was written from a certain a from written was )

(The scientific mythology of of mythology scientific (The (Two centuries of national national of centuries (Two ce where she was she where ce - century

how how nian te ) CEU eTD Collection 1976 221 220 and 1906) money, of servitude banului (The 219 218 217 that mentioned Câncea Paraschiva However, representative. more where ideas liberal the where per first the about talked she although feminist” “socialist term system.” of educational the broadening of changing the the and means emancipation educational civil for means a as proposed and men, to inferior women women’ exposed journal her made Nădejde Sofia Woman) a as more even emancipation woman’s Romanian was of realities the about w who writer, socialist a as her portrayed Sorin Nicolae such. as her see to want not did or pub she stories short saw activity didnot thefact feminist her thatTherefore, of he isanindicator total silencing of the the with just whole, a as activity her with literaryworks. wom addressed she where topics the and change not did event this after writings her though Even Party. Liberal the of wing radical the in enter and SDWPR, the leave to decision Nădejde’s Ioan to according apparently opinion, my in measured, w and “bourgeois” as 1934 and illiteracy”. and famine inequality, of one was Ibid. Paraschiva Câncea, Câncea, Paraschiva Sorin, Nicolae Sorin, Nicolae See her novels novels her See

) acknowledged as a socialist until 1899,when until Ioanasacknowledged asocialist Nădejde left the SDWPR. , 38 ,

Paraschiva Câncea in Câncea Paraschiva - 39

219 p. proza Din “socialist feminist”. She stated, “i stated, She feminist”. “socialist Patimi 20

ifro cvl iuto, rtqe te orei lgsain ht maintained that legislation bourgeois the critiqued situation, civil inferior s However, this seems to be of no interest for Nicolae Sorin. He is not concernednot is He Sorin. Nicolae for interest no of be to seems this However,

Mişcarea pentru emanciparea femeii înfemeii România emanciparea pentru Mişcarea

Romania (Passions,1903) which was awarded first prized in a literary competition in 1903, Robia 1903, in competition literary a in prized first awarded was which (Passions,1903) Contemporanului

Mişcarea pentru emanciparea femeii în România în femeii emanciparea pentru Mişcarea n society and criticized the power structure of that moment. S moment. that of structure power the criticized and society n ithout any literary, political or social value. social or political literary, any ithout

movement 1848 movement Parinti sicopii , ( Bucharest: Editura Politică, 1961 Politică, Editura Bucharest: si etac a a eiit T feminist. a as entrance istic 217 78

The author identified her activity between 1900 between activity her identified author The

n the pages of of pages the n

(Parents and chil and (Parents - 1948) saw Sofia Nădejde as a feminist, and feminist, a as Nădejde Sofia saw 1948) en’s emancipation en’s

1848 iod in Sofia Nădejde’s feminism, feminism, Nădejde’s Sofia in iod dren, 1907) dren, Femeia Română Femeia - 1948, 221 )

, Paraschiva Câncea used t used Câncea Paraschiva 15 ihd in lished (Bucharest: Editura Editura (Bucharest: -

20 were still present in her her in present still were

e oils feminist socialist he 218

This “value” was “value” This

1848

Contemporanul 220 (The Romanian (The

- 1948

Politica,

( The The rote

he he .

CEU eTD Collection 224 25 223 222 from articles Nădejde’s Sofia of two 2002 Contemporanul in documents, of collection a in publish will Mihăilescu Ştefania although feminist, a as activity her neither developed, not are poporanism Evenimentul Literar journal the in articles Stere’s Constantin published and poporanism of ideas democratic general “t stated, Mihailescu comparat a in ideology the investigates poporanist then and movement, poporanist the of ideologist the Stere, Constantin with of theories democratic “general a as Nădejde portrayed Mihăilescu There, “poporanism”. called movement the in implication Nădejde’s Sofia about Romania), in movement Socialist in wrote who Sofia Nădejde’s work mentione are thingsother no but emancipation, women’s towards supportive as it labeled provide Câncea exploitation.” against fight their of necessity the understood and men, and women movement, workers supported Nădejde] [Sofia development economic insufficient “freed” Nădejde Sofia

Stefania Mihailescu, Mihailescu, Stefania Ibid, 24 Ibid, , 39 Ibid.

tfna iălsu s hsoin rocpe wt te top the with preoccupied historian a is Mihăilescu Ştefania

1988, , and label will a her feminist. as d about Sofia Nădejde. She described the socialist movement as a a as movement socialist the described She Nădejde. Sofia about d Poporanismul si miscarea socialista din Romania din socialista simiscarea Poporanismul

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he well known socialist activist, Sofia Nădejde, was influenced by the the by influenced was Nădejde, Sofia activist, socialist known well he . ooaiml i icra socialist mişcarea şi Poporanismul

herself

from the “bourgeois” idealist conceptions and understood that the the that understood and conceptions idealist “bourgeois” the from poporanism”. The author mentioned author The poporanism”. 222

These affirmations are the only information that Paraschiva that information only the are affirmations These of a society was the cause of women’s oppression. “She “She oppression. women’s of cause the was society a of v prpcie ih h scait ideology. socialist the with perspective ive . ” 224

Other suspects of Sofia Nădejde’s conections Nădejde’s suspectsOther ofSofia 79

socialist activist, influenced by the the by influenced activist, socialist i România din , (Bucharest:Edi

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with - CEU eTD Collection 225 is Then, emancipation. women’s regarding conceptions democratic and liberal by inspired was that feminism Nădejde’s journal monthly reply (A femei“ la weeklymagazine r to documents decided Mihăilescu Ştefania that socialist articles a as The Nădejde feminist. saw not did and whole a as movement socialist the in her integrated notice in Scor Paul Mille, Constantin Moşoiu, Panait Nădejde, occidental vast regardin literature the Knowing century. nineteenth the of decades two last the in associations and organizations women’s the of maturingthe in had movement socialist the that part important 1838 in published she which archives, from t which in journals the from them of most Romania, in emancipation Mi years? Ştefania 20 last the of historiography feminist the in portrayed been Feminist

Ştefania Mihăilescu, Ştefania Munca –

1929 how Sofia Nădejde was acknowledged as being part of the socialist group, socialist ofthe part being as acknowledged was SofiaNădejde how The question that this part of the chapter will try to answer is how was Sofia Nădejde Sofia was how is answer to try will chapter the of part this that question The ,

Drepturile Omului Drepturile Romania r “hsina eelr ( Femeilor” “Chestiunea are in 2002. in h iec, ulse a olcin of collection a published ăilescu, Contemporanul g women’s place in society, the followers of the socialist ideas (Sofia and Ioan and (Sofia ideas socialist the of followers the society, in place women’s g Femeia Română Femeia

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, Lumea Nouă Lumea

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, Lumea Nouă Ştiin Nouă Lumea 80 es, “Multiple documents of that time certify the the certify time that of documents “Multiple es,

omen’s brains), originally published in the the in published originally brains), omen’s ț

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in her collection of of collection her in ( Iaşi: Polirom, Iaşi: Antologie de texte: texte: de Antologie but Mihăilescu, but Mihăilescu, n ) .” ț 225 a creieruluia

One can One 2002 ) , or or ,

CEU eTD Collection 2006 Press, University European Central Budapest: and York 19 Europe, Eastern south and Eastern, feminisms: Central, and movements women’s of 226 She circle. socialist the in activity her be to normal been have would it although biography, her of center the at was Maiorescu Titu with debate Nădejde’s Sofia how notice can one here Again, larger actually were brains women’s , proportionally that demonstrated Nădejde anthropology, and anatomy biology, in discoveries scientific latest the of reading sophisticated particularly a Nădejdepolitics). had in notparticipate should and thatthey planesattain spiritual unable high to were women that ‘prove’ to (used brains’ ‘smaller alleged women’s of argument widespread Nădejde which in arena the became newspaper the published 1891, and 1881 between who, Iaşi in was socialist activesocialistintellectualsgroup movement.“Sofiawasof of Nădejde a inthe part published who journalist, active an as Nădejde Sofia presents she feminisms and movements (eds.), Loutfi Anna Daskalova, Krassimira Haan, neither her activity socialist movementand SDWPR. inthe writings, whole her define not do “liberal” as labeled are that ideas Those feminist. socialist a as constructed is Nădejde ce a at Sofia had she which ideas, liberal with feminist” “bourgeois if better is it like seems It visible. is feminism socialist Drept example, a two this reproduce to decided but movement, socialist the of influenced/part

Ştefania Mihăilescu in Francisca de Haan, Krassimira Daskalova, Anna Loutfi (eds.), (eds.), Loutfi Anna Daskalova, Krassimira Haan, de Francisca in Mihăilescu Ştefania urile Omului urile In the short biography “Sofia Nădejde” that Ştefania Mihăilescu wrote in wrote Mihăilescu Ştefania that Nădejde” “Sofia biography short the In h atce Fmi ş Scaiml (h Wmn n Scaim pbihd in published Socialism) and Woman (The Socialismul” şi “Femeia article the

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: Central, Eastern, and south Eastern Europe, 19 Europe, Eastern south and Eastern, Central, :

launched a veritable feminist campaign against the the against campaign feminist veritable a launched 81

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Ibid. Roxana Cheşchebec in Cheşchebec Roxana Ibid. y (1880s ry

Roxana Cheşchebec in Cheşchebec Roxana , mentioned that Sofia Nădejde’s writings “inspired a subsequent gener subsequent a “inspired writings Nădejde’s Sofia that mentioned ,

227

229 This seem This -

90” ulse i Eih ae, agrt azne, lsbt Fya (eds.), Frysak Elisabeth Lanzinger, Margaret Sauer, Edith in published 1940)” From my perspective, the ideas of John Stuart Mill are not so present in Sofia in present so not are Mill Stuart John of ideas the perspective, my From ngs.

“Toward a Romanian’s Women’s Movement: Romanian’sWomen’s a “Toward upon had ideas socialist that influence the of acknowledgment an be to s th

and 20 and

“Toward a Romanian’s Women’s Movement: An Organizational An Movement: Women’s Romanian’s a “Toward th

Centuries , 228 ( Köln: Böhlau Verlag, 2006 Verlag, Köln: Böhlau

n diin se cnwegd oi Nădejde’s Sofia acknowledged she addition, In 82 uh tfna iălsu setd “fe 1886, “After asserted, Mihăilescu Ştefania ough

Women’s Movements: Networks and debates in post in debates and Networks Movements: Women’s - communist Countries in the 19 the in Countries communist porary study regarding Sofia Nădejde as a poraryregardingas a Nădejde study Sofia

An Organizational History(1880s AnOrganizational ) , 442

liberalism of John of liberalism ation of women women of ation th

and 20 and - 1940)” 1940)” - th

CEU eTD Collection 76 2003), Meridiane, 231 2002 Polirom, 230 demonstratingprofund while inferioras women regardingprejudices Nădejdecondemned 1880s, development. Română History World in Women addressed during h she that topics “liberal” the to relation in only to referred is Nădejde Sofia more, Once women. working classes, other from women mentioned not did and classes, middle o directed wasinterest His society.Romanian public and private between society: XIX al secolului the with mentioned, not are exception of Constantin Dobrogeanu century nineteenth late the of democrats social the thought”, “patr Romanian the with deals that bo for vote universal the was agendapolitical their althoughon SDWPR, the Nădejde,neither Sofia mention not century’s,did presents which 2002, in româneşti

Maria Bucu Maria Alin Ciupala, AlinCiupala, rsiia aklv i te nr aot Blas in “Balkans” about entry the in Daskalova Krassimira Alin Maria Bucur and Mihaela Miroiu in, Miroiu Mihaela and Bucur Maria

plmcl et hr se rtczd h oiin ht oe ae inc are women that opinion the criticized she where text polemical a

(Patriarchate and emancipation in the history of Romanian political thought) thought) Romanian political thehistory emancipationof (Patriarchate and in ),90 r, Mihaela Miroiu (eds.), (eds.), Miroiu Mihaela r, Ciupală, a Romanian historian historian Romanian a Ciupală,

Femeia in societatea romaneasca a secolului XIX al secolului a romaneasca societatea in Femeia The debate with Titu Maiorescu in also mentioned. Daskalova stated that stated Daskalova mentioned. also in Maiorescu Titu with debate The

- - lea 77 er activity.er

privat si public intre :

the idea of women’s emancipation during emancipation women’s of idea the peetd oi Ndje s fmns wo ulse in published who feminist a as Nădejde Sofia presented , 231 th women and men, rich or poor. or rich men, and women th

Patriarhat şi emancipare în istoria gîndirii politice româneşti politice gîndirii istoria în şiemancipare Patriarhat iarchal society” and emancipation in the “Romanian political “Romanian the in emancipation and society” iarchal ) -

Gherea. about the general conditions in which women lived in the the in lived women which in conditions general the about wrote in his book his in wrote

230 ( Patriarhat şi emancipare în istoria gîndirii politice gîndirii istoria în emancipare şi Patriarhat nly in investigating women’s lives of lives investigatingwomen’s in nly h wmn n h Romanian the in woman The 83

- lea : intre public si privat, (Bucharest: (Bucharest: si privat, public : intre

Femeiaî

It is rather strange that in a book a in that strange rather is It h Ofr Eccoei of Encyclopedia Oxford The the nineteenth and twentieth and nineteenth the n societatea românească a românească societatea n

ieenh century nineteenth - class or peasant peasant or class the upper and and upper the , ( Iaşi: apable of of apable published published , “in the “in , Femeia

CEU eTD Collection Smith G. Bonnie 232 discussed, not were articles her of many and works literary her historiography, feminist the In “forgotten”. be to had she so Party, Liberal the of wing radical the entered husband her because Inand writings. notonher a or journalistic way, activity literary her on concentrated historiography communist the why reasons the of one is this opinion, my In Romania. in Party Communist the support not did and revolution” “the embrace be. to seem things how is this hand, other the on but activity, and life her on study extensive no is there why or socialist, than “liberal” rather as presented is Nădejde lib a towards is regime communist the of collapse the after Romania of orientation contemporary The explored. not are and inthe SDWPR thesocialist movement views membership her arewhereas in highlighted, of feminist important an as remembered is she historiography contemporary the in novelist, “great” a as and 1899) until (only activist socialist a If ideology. a of aspects or conditions the the fit both to in historiography contemporary constructed the and was communist “image” Nădejde’s Sofia that is opinion, my in question, this describe “History tends to bury what seeks it to rejec Conclusion time.” her seen/presented socialist feminist,butasa as Romanian aRomanian feminist. of debates scientific the of knowledge

Kras simira Daskalova, “Balkans” in “Balkans”in Daskalova, simira h catr a bify xlrd o Sfa ăed’ wiig ad ciiy were activity and writings Nădejde’s Sofia how explored briefly has chapter The d in the communist and recent feminist Romanian historiography. The best answer to answer best The historiography. Romanian feminist recent and communist the in d

in the communist time, the attention was, as this chapter argued, on her portrayal as as portrayal her on argued, chapter this as was, attention the time, communist the in

, (New York: Oxford University Press, 2008), 190 2008), Press, University Oxford (New , York:

eral ideology. I do not want to suggest this is an explanation of why Sofia Sofia why of explanation an is this suggest to want not do I ideology. eral

The Oxford Encyclopedia of Women in World in History Women of Encyclopedia Oxford The t” 84

, in their view, she “betrayed” the socialist cause, their“betrayed” view, thesocialist she , in the late nineteenth century, and her “bourgeois” her and century, nineteenth late the

232

ee agai Here Sfa ăed i not is Nădejde Sofia n

Sofia N Sofia , volume 1, ed. By ed. volume1, ,

ădejde, did not did ădejde,

specific specific CEU eTD Collection cannot one husband, her alongside movement socialist the of member a was she because and emancipation, women’s supported Nădejde Sofia which in time of period the to Due century. nineteenth the of feminists sourc archival more posses we and century, twentieth the in appeared organizations feminist the of most that true is it nineteenth course, Of the century. neglects movement women’s about Romania in published scholarship the of additio In ideas. socialist some with feminist “bourgeois” a as cases, most in or, “radical” as either described was She neglected. are views socialist her but feminist, inthe generalthat donotfit liberal post trend of but 1883, after writings journalistic and literaryher both in place important occupyan that topics ac her and

a as her mentions writings Nădejde’s Sofia regarding historiography feminist The tivity after 1883 has been neglected. In this case, the reason seems to be the socialist the be to seems reason the case, this In neglected. been has 1883 after tivity ipy ae hr s oils fmns o a a bugos feminist. “bourgeois” a as or feminist socialist as her label simply s bu ter tutr ad ciiy hn about than activity and structure their about es 85 -

communist Rom communist

ania. n, it is interesting how most most how interesting is it n,

CEU eTD Collection whichwasNădeje historical thatofsocialist feminism. inher context, Sofia regarding of importance the emphasized thesis my contrast, By only. feminist liberal) or feminist the whereas work, her aspec socialist the of neglected historiography dimensions feminist the of acknowledgment without working promoted who “activist” an socialist, a as her identifying communist The Nădejde. Sofia treat literature scholarly of bodies various the which in ways biased and partial the shown have I question, second the Regarding working of rights the with concerned deeply was who and Romania, socialist a also but men, with status equal Nădejde Sofia that shown has feminist recent in and Romanian historiography? period communist the of historiography Romanian the in described ideas? political and social Nădejde’s w questions research My journals. socialist different in Romanian addressed she that topics the and SDWPR the and circle socialist the in activity and femiwork Nădejde’s Sofia studied I socialist literature. scholarly Romanian the which in such as acknowledged in ways the and Nădejde, Sofia of case the on focus Regarding the f the Regarding nineteenth late in feminism socialist discussed has thesis This irst question, my analysis of some of Sofia Nădejde’s journalistic work work journalistic Nădejde’s Sofia of some of analysis my question, irst

was not just a feminist who supported women’s emancipation and and emancipation women’s supported who feminist a just not was

eod hw r Sfa ăed’ wiig ad activity and writings Nădejde’s Sofia are how Second, Conclusion

ts of her work and life and presented her as a (gender (gender a as her presented and life and work her of ts thinker, who wrote about the socialist movemen socialist the about wrote who thinker, 86

ere: how can we characterize Sofia Sofia characterize we can how ere: historiography limited itself to itself limited historiography - -

class and peasant women.. peasant and class class and peasants’ rights, rights, peasants’ and class - century Romania, with a with Romania, century im a ad is and was nism t in t

CEU eTD Collection t the of Europe in feminists socialist known better of those Nădej Sofia whether of question the discuss also might research further That here. include to able not Furtheri.e., as feminist. research asocialist might activiti and ideas her of fullness the in known be to deserves who feminist, socialist century Gherea, orVasile Mille Constantin Mor reco the personal with fonds regarding the were nor research, documents for available not the were SDWPR the addition, of constitution In collections. the from vanished “mysteriously” Club Workers the lectures/mee of minutes correspondence, public and private Nădejde’s (Sofia sources primary the all consult not could I that second and novels, her of none and articles published

rds of the main nineteenth main the of rds de was an exception or part of part or exception an was de hp nntees o ae hw ta Sfa ăed ws n motn nineteenth important an was Nădejde Sofia that shown have to nonetheless hope I ofthisre Some thelimitations tings), in the National Archives in Bucharest, because, I was told, they they told, was I because, Bucharest, in Archives National the in tings), - century socialists such as such socialists century

broader movement movement broader ț search were, first, that I part that ofher onlya were,analyzed small search first, un.

deal with some of the sources and issues Ideal some oftheissues with was sources and in Romania, a Romania, in Ioan Nădejde, Constantin Dobrogeanu Constantin Nădejde, Ioan nd compare her ideas with ideas her compare nd ime. es, - -

CEU eTD Collection 1885). - IV, no.2(1884 - Mr. Misir). - no. 13(1882/1883). in women) of subjection the about book Mill’s regarding observations - 18, 1882). - (1881/1882), - brains). women’s of problem (1881/1882). the regarding Maiorescu - 25, 1879). Nădejde,S - - peasants).Ia - Party1894). inRomania,April aprili 24 -

Bibiography PrintedPrimary Sources Nădejde, Ioan.Nădejde,“Retragerea mea” Nădejde, “Mo Nădejde, Sofia. “Libertatea femeii în prelegerea d prelegerea în femeii “Libertatea Sofia. Nădejde, Nădejde, Sofia. “Un articol din articol “Un Sofia. Nădejde, Nădejde, Sofia. “Azi totul e marfă” (Today everything is a commodity). a is everything (Today marfă” e totul “Azi Sofia. Nădejde, Nădejde, Sofia. “Femeia şi socialismul (Woman and socialism). and (Woman socialismul şi “Femeia Sofia. Nădejde, ăed. Sofia. Nădejde. ăed, Sofia. Nădejde, Sofia. Nădejde, ț

iunea celui de celui iunea e 1894 (The program of the second Congress of The Social Democratic Working Democratic Social The of Congress second the of program (The 1894 e

Sofia. Contemporanul on Vsl Mor Vasile Ioan, ofia. Contemporanul şi: Litografia şi: H.Goldner, 1891.

- “Chestiunea Femeilor”“Chestiunea 1886). “Cat

Rsus d “Raspuns

re Femei”.re Osrai asupra “Observari că “Despre -

al doilea Congres al P.S.D.M.R din aprilie 1894” aprilie din P.S.D.M.R al Congres doilea al

, year, II, 1,(1882/1883) no. , year, II, 18(1882/1883). no. ț n Cntni Mle “aiet către “Manifest Mille. Constantin un, -

Munca u Mirsu n hsina rirli a femei” la creierului chestiunea in Maiorescu lui Contemporanul sat

Timpul

(My retreat).(My orie”

(The Woman Woman (The year 9,(April, 241894). V, nr.

de la 18 iunie 1882” (An article in “ in article (An 1882” iunie 18 la de Aot arae in marriage) (About ati u Ml dsr spnra a femei” la supunerea despre Mill lui cartei

88 , Lumea Nouă Lumea yearI,(1881 no.2,

- lui Misir” lui Question).

, vol.15,no.4,(1899).

Contemporanul

(

The liberty The Femei Contemporanul

- Drepturile Omu Drepturile 1882).

a Română a

Contemporanul ărani” în

Munca

Contemporanul of woman as see as woman of , year I, no. 24 24 no. I, year , The Time” of June of Time” The

(A manifesto for for manifesto (A yea , , no.111, (March (March no.111, ,

, anul V, nr. 9, 9, nr. V, anul , (

Reply to Mr. Mr. to Reply

lui r I, no.18 no.18 I, r , no.873 ( no.873 , , year II, year ,

( - , year , Some Some Class Class n by by n CEU eTD Collection Djuvara, World History ed. Smith, G. Bonnie “Balkans”. Krassimira. Daskalova, 2005. Gregory, Claeys, Meridiane, 2003. nineteenth in (Woman Alin. Ciupală, Verlag, post in debates and Networks (1880s “T Roxana. Cheşchebec, inRomania”.Politics Cheşchebec, “Reclaiming Roxana. History Historical Writing and Romanian Feminism. Feminist Romanian woman Paraschiva. Câncea, 2002. Polirom, eds. Miroiu româneşti Mihaela Maria Bucur, Fe Citizenship. Republican Romania, 1880 and Liberal “Between Maria Bucur, BourgeoisFeminism”. Concept the CareerInternationalof and Construction Socialist the Marilyn“Rethinking J. Boxer, consciousness).Buch Lucian Boia, Ion.Atanasiu, C. Secondary Literature ye - ştiin -

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