Cambridge University Press 978-1-108-41909-3 — Islam, Authoritarianism, and Underdevelopment Ahmet T. Kuru Index More Information

Home , Mehmed the Conqueror

Index

El-Abbadi, Mostafa, 131 Ali (Caliph), 44–5, 71 Abbas, Shah, 170 Ali, Syed Ameer, 124 Abbasids, 3–4, 70 Almohads, 133–4 iqta during, 98–9 Almoravids, 133 religious diversity during, 74–5, 86 American Revolution, 213 ulema during, 71–5 analogical reasoning. See qiyas Abdel Razek, Ali, 11–12 Andalus, 77, 133–43, 167 Abduh, Muhammad, 17, 219 Anderson, Benedict, 188 Abdulhamid II, 218–19, 221–4 Angenendt, Arnold, 191 Abdul-Wahhab, Muhammad, 17 anti-colonial approach, xv, 16–20, 33–4, 57–8, Abou El Fadl, Khaled, 22 194–5, 213–14 abrogation, 26–7 anti-intellectualism, in Muslim world, 6–7, 54, Abu Hanifa, 3, 72–3, 232 232–3 on jurisprudence, 7, 94 anti-Westernism, xv, 20 on Quran translations, 210–11 apostasy Abu-Lughod, Janet, 123 Ghazali and, 110–11 Abu Yaqub, 135, 137 violence as result of, 23–4 Abu Yusuf, 72–3, 211 Aquinas, Thomas, 93, 160 Abu Zayd, Nasr, 47 Ardashir I, 9–10, 113–14 Acemoglu, Daron, 64 Aristotle, 78–9, 135, 148–9 Adonis, 20, 84 Arslan, Alp, 101 al-Afghani, Jamal al-Din, 219 asabiyya (group feeling), 139–41, 150 agricultural production Asad, Muhammad, 26, 235 in Muslim world, 83–4. See also iqta Ashari (theologian), 95 in Western Europe, 91–2 Ashari (theological school), 59–60, 108, Ahmad, Barakat, 24 137 Ahmad, Mumtaz, 45 Ashraf, 131 Ahmed, Munir-ud Din, 73 Askari, Nasrin, 113 Akbar, 170 al-Assad, Bashar, 29 Akçura, Yusuf, 220 al-Assad, Hafez, 29 Alberuni’s India, 79 Atatürk, Mustafa Kemal, 12, 29, 220 Algeria, French colonialism in, 16 Augustine, 93 Algerian War, 18 Aurangzeb, 170, 177–8, 206

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294 Index

authoritarianism Bin Laden, Osama, 18 constitutions and, 40–2 Biruni, 79–80, 100–1 economic underdevelopment and, 52–3 Black, Antony, 139 in East Asian states, 62–3 Black Death, 153 Islam and, 34–42, 54 Blaydes, Lisa, 197–8 essentialist arguments for, 34–5 Bloch, Marc, 90, 157 in Islamic states, 37–42 Boix, Charles, 52 Islamization and, 41–2 Book of Advice on the Merits of Commerce in secular states, 37–42 (Dimashqi), 81–2 in Muslim-majority countries, rates of, 1–2 Book of Counsel for Kings ([pseudo] Ghazali), patriarchy and, 35–7 115 property ownership and, 49 Book of Government (Nizam al-Mulk), 115 in rentier states, 48–52, 55 Book of Ingenious Devices (Banu Musa government revenues in, 51 brothers), 78 regional diffusion in, 51 Book of Kings (Firdawsi), 100–1, 114 tax rates in, 49–50 Book of Knowledge of Ingenious Mechanical socioeconomic underdevelopment influenced Devices (Jazari), 130 by, 61–3, 229–32 Book of Navigation (Piri Reis), 173 vicious circle and, 61 book production, 188, 209–10 Sufi shaykhs and, 48 Bosker, Maarten, 90 ulema and, 42–8 Botticini, Maristella, 83 medieval influences on, 45–8 Boulakia, Jean, 152 ulema–state alliances, 42–5 bourgeoisie. See also merchants, Muslim violence and, 28–30 defined, 6 sectarian conflicts as result of, 29–30 in French Revolution, 213 terrorism as result of, 29 Islamic actors and, 6–7 Western colonization/occupation and, 33–4 in Ottoman Empire, 222–3 Ayoob, Mohammed, 16 secularist politicians and, in Muslim world, 6 Ayyubids, 120–1 socioeconomic underdevelopment and the Al-Azhar, 12, 44, 223 lack of, 232–3 al-Azmeh, Aziz, 78 in Western Europe, 186–7, 193–4 Bourguiba, Habib, 29 Bacon, Francis, 192 Brahe, Tycho, 174 Baghdad, as center of scholarship, 77–9 Braudel, Fernand, 157, 159 al-Baghdadi, Abd al-Latif, 128 Brentjes, Sonja, 105 The Balance of Truth (Katip Çelebi), 176–7 British colonialism, 214 al-Banna, Gamal, 11–12, 94 Bryson, 112 al-Banna, Hassan, 10–11 Bukhari, 95 Banu Musa brothers, 78 Bulliet, Richard, 74–5, 80, 98, 114 Barani, Ziauddin, 149–50 Buringh, Eltjo, 90 Barthold, Wilhelm, 100, 121–2 Bush, George H. W., 33 Battle of Ain Jalut, 122–3 Buyids, 70, 96–7 Battle of Ankara, 165 iqta during, 99 Beg, Ulugh, 171 Byzantine Empire, 70, 165 Bellah, Robert, 89 Muslims institutionally influenced by, 114 Berke, 122–3 Bey, Kochi, 178–9 Cahen, Claude, 99 Bey, Seyyid, 11–12 Carolingian Empire, 157, 185 Bey, Tughrul, 101 Casale, Giancarlo, 183 Bhatti, Shahbaz, 24 Catholic Church, 158–9, 193 Bible, 22–3 Çelebi, Katip (Haji Khalifa), 176–80 Bibliotheca Universalis (Gesner), 76 Çelebi, Mehmed, 209

Index 295

Cevdet, Abdullah, 220 Decisive Treatise: Determining the Connection Chamberlain, Michael, 130 between Islamic Law and Philosophy Chandler, Tertius, 90 (Ibn Rushd), 135 Chaney, Eric, 190 decline thesis, 104–12 Charles V, 190 Ottoman Empire and, 179–81 China Deliverance from Error (Ghazali), 109 economic development in, 62–3 Demirel, Ahmet, 221 Ming Dynasty in, 186, 189 democracy Mongol invasion of, 121 bourgeoisie and, 55 violence in, 21 contract rights and, 61 Chirot, Daniel, 186 economic development and, 52–3 Christensen, Peter, 98 famine and, 61–2 Circle of Justice, 172–3 Freedom House index for, 32 The Civilizing Process (Elias), 88 in Muslim-majority countries, 1–2 Çizakça, Murat, 181–2 regional diffusion in, 51, 55 Cohen, Hayyim, 73 democratic peace theory, 28 Collins, Randall, 108 dependency theory, 57–8 colonialism, Western, 214 Descartes, Rene, 191 authoritarianism after, 33–4 Dimashqi, 81–2 Ottoman Empire and, 17–18, 206–7, 215, din wa dawla. See religion and the state 224–6 Diner, Dan, 58–9 secular states after, 40 Dols, Michael, 153 slavery and, 214 Duby, Georges, 93 in Southeast Asia, 4–5 Dunn, Ross, 126 underdevelopment inﬂuenced by, 57–8 Dunning, Thad, 51 violence as result of, 16–20 Durkheim, Emile, 220 Committee of Union and Progress, 221–2 Durrani, Ahmad Shah, 206 consensus (ijma), 7, 94–5, 232 Dutch Revolt, 191 constitutions in Muslim-majority countries, 40–2 contracts in Quran, 201 East Asia Cook, Michael, 58, 89 economic development and authoritarianism Copernicus, Nicolaus, 174–5 in, 62–3 Corbin, Henry, 106 regional peace in, 28 corruption, 61 Eastern Europe, Mongol invasion of, 119–20 Crompton, Samuel, 212 Eckstein, Zvi, 83 Crone, Patricia, 71 economic development Crusaders, 120–1, 124–38, 156–7 democracy and, 52–3, 61–2 cultural determinism, 194 in England, during eighteenth and nineteenth Curtin, Philip, 214 centuries, 212–13 gross national income (GNI) Dabashi, Hamid, 177 in Muslim-majority countries, 1–2 Dallal, Ahmad, 105 in oil-rich countries, 52 Damad, Mir, 177 education. See also madrasas; universities, in Dante, 160 Western Europe dar al-harb (abode of war), 27 in Ottoman Empire, Westernization reforms dar al-Islam (abode of Islam), 27 of, 217, 223 Darling, Linda, 172 PISA scores, in Muslim-majority and East Dawani, 172–3, 180–1 Asian countries, 63 Daya, Najm al-Din Razi, 144–5 Edwards, Jeremy, 156 The Decisive Criterion for Distinguishing Egypt Islam from Masked Inﬁdelity (Ghazali), drafting of constitution for, 7 110–11 Islamization of, 43–4

296 Index

Egypt (cont.) Ghazali, 4, 10, 46–7, 103–12, 234–5 Muslim Brothers in, 44 on apostasy, 110–11 Westernization reforms in, 217–19 on decline of Muslim intellectualism, 85, Elias, Norbert, 88 104–12 Ellenblum, Ronnie, 98 on jurisprudence, 8, 109–10 Ellethy, Yaser, 22 on manners, 87–8 Emre, Yunus, 143 on Sufism, 10, 109 England, 192 on ulema–state alliance, 9–10, 103–12 Enlightenment philosophers in, 212 Ghaznavids, 4 Glorious Revolution, 196 Glorious Revolution, 196 intellectual, economic, and political Goitein, Shelomo, 74, 82–3 development in, 212–13 Gökalp, Ziya, 220 Ephrat, Daphna, 102 Golden Horde, 123 The Epistles of the Brethren of Purity Goodrich, Thomas, 174 (Ikhwan al-Safa), 78–9 Grabar, Olga, 81 Erdoğan, Tayyip, 42–3, 231 Gregory VII, 120, 158–9 An Essay Concerning Human Understanding Greif, Avner, 155–6 (Locke), 192 Griffel, Frank, 111 essentialist approach, xv, 20–3, 34–5, 58–9, Grotius, Hugo, 191 105, 158 Gülen movement, in Turkey, 43 Gutas, Dimitri, 79–80, 179–80 Fancy, Nahyan, 132–3 Gutenberg, Johannes, 187 Fanon, Frantz, 16 Farabi, 78, 85, 136 al-Habashi, Bilal, 88 Fatawa al-Hindiyya, 177–8 Habsburgs, 166–90 Fatih. See Mehmed the Conqueror Hacib, Yusuf Has, 107 Fatimids, 96–7, 120–1 hadiths, 7, 94–5 financial institutions, in Muslim world, codification of, 95 199 Hakam II, 77 fiqh. See jurisprudence al-Halibi, Suleiman, 156–7 Firdawsi, 100–1, 114 Hallaq, Wael, 72 Fish, Steven, 35–6 Halpern, Manfred, 151–2 Foda, Farag, 24 Hanifa, Hasan, 47 Four Caliphs, 70, 89 Hanson, Hamza Yusuf, 109 Freedom House index, 32 ul Haq, Zia, 45 French colonialism, 16, 40 Harrison, Lawrence, 58 French Revolution, 213 Harvey, William, 192 bourgeoisie, intellectuals, and, 213 al-Hashimi, Tariq, 30 Fukuyama, Francis, 150–1 Hayy bin Yaqzan (Ibn Tufayl), 134 Henry the Navigator, 185 Galileo, Galilei, 174–5 Hierarchy and Egalitarianism in Islamic Gama, Vasco da, 189–90, 195 Thought (Marlow), 89 Gandhi, Mahatma, 19 High Ethics (Kinalizade), 172–3 Gaspιralι, İsmail, 219 Hill, Donald, 78 Geertz, Clifford, 86 Hilmi, Tüccarzade, 222 Gellner, Ernest, 139 Hinds, Martin, 71 gender equality. See patriarchy History of Islamic Philosophy (Henry Corbin), Genghis Khan, 121–3. See also Mongol 106 invasion The History of West Indies, 173–4 geographical determinism, 194 Hobbes, Thomas, 179, 212 Gesner, Konrad, 76 Hobsbawm, Eric, 6 Ghannouchi, Rachid, 44 Hocazade, 180

Index 297

Hodgson, Marshall, 123, 143, 181 The Infamies of the Batinites and the Virtues of House of Wisdom, 76–7 the Mustazhirites (Ghazali), 103 Hulagu, 122–3 Inglehart, Ronald, 35 human capital, 63 inheritance laws, 198–9 Huntington, Samuel, 20, 38 Innocence III, 127–8 Hussein, Saddam, 30 inquisition Hussein, Sharif, 17–18 mihna, 75 Spanish, 190–1 Ibn Abd al-Aziz, Umar, 71 intellectuals Ibn Adi, Yahya, 74 in French Revolution, 213 Ibn Arabi, 59–60, 138, 143–4 Islamic actors and, 6–7, 54, 232–3 Ibn al-As, Amr, 131 in Muslim world, early achievements of, Ibn Bajja, 134 75–80 Ibn Battuta, 126–7 in Muslim world, decline of, 104–12, 179–81 Ibn Fadlan, 90 secularist politicians and, in Muslim world, Ibn Hanbal, Ahmad, 3, 16, 72–3, 75 6, 54, 232–3 text-based approach of, 94–5 socioeconomic underdevelopment and the Ibn al-Haytham, 79 lack of, 232–3 Ibn Jamaah, 147 in Western Europe, 193 Ibn Khaldun, 85–6, 138–43, 150–1, 156–7 invasions, of Muslim lands on asabiyya, 139–41, 150 by Crusaders, 120–1 on philosophy, 143 destruction of urban life, 124 on Sufism, 144 Islam’s expansion after, 125 Ibn al-Nafis, 127, 131–2 by Mongols, 119, 121–3 Ibn Rushd, 126–7, 134–8 Battle of Ain Jalut, 122–3 Aristotle’sinfluence on, 135, 148–9 as divine punishment, 127 on gender equality, 147–8 of Khwarazm Shahs, 121–2 on Ghazali, 136–7 Muslim scholarship after, decline of, 123–7 Plato and, 147–8 Muslims’ geopolitical recovery after, 125 on Quran, 135–6 iqta (land revenue assignment system), 4, 98–9 Western Europe influenced by, 160 during Abbasids, 98–9 Ibn Saud, 17–18 during Buyids, 99 Ibn al-Shatir, 131 in Mamluk Sultanate, 152 Ibn Sina, 79–81, 84–5, 136, 180, 186 in Ottoman Empire (timar system), 178, 181 Ibn Taymiyya, 26, 132–3, 146–7, 234–5 in Seljuk Empire, 4, 102 Salafism and, 16, 146 systemization of, 102 Ibn al-Tilmidh, 133 types of, 99 Ibn Tufayl, 134–5 Iran. See also Khomeini, Ruhollah Ibn Zuhr, 86, 107 Islamization of, 44–5 ijma. See consensus Iranian Revolution, 19 ijtihad (interpretation), 24–5 Iraq Ikhwan al-Safa, 78–9 Arab Socialist Baath Party in, 30 Ilkhanate, 123 sectarian violence in, 29–30 İnalcık, Halil, 168, 185 US occupation of, 19 The Incoherence of the Incoherence (Ibn Islahat Edict, 216–17 Rushd), 137, 176 Islam The Incoherence of the Philosophers (Ghazali), authoritarianism and, 34–42, 54 104, 108, 134 as civilizing process, 87–90 Index of the Sciences (Nadim), 75–6 egalitarianism as result of, 88–9 India. See also Mughal Empire expansion of, after invasions of Muslim British colonization of, 206, 214 lands, 125 Industrial Revolution, 212 rationality as incompatible with, 58

298 Index

Islam (cont.) Karimi merchants, 153–4 socioeconomic underdevelopment and, 58–60 Kay, John, 212 violence and, 20–3 Kayaoğlu, Turan, 205–6 abrogation and, 26–7 Keddie, Nikki, 162 Quran and, 22–3, 26 Kemal, Namιk, 124, 218–19 suicide bombings and, 22 Kennedy, Paul, 186 Islam Is Religion and Community, Not Religion Kepler, Johannes, 174–5 and the State (G. Al-Banna), 11–12 Keykubad, Alaeddin, 144 Islamic Intellectual History in the Seventeenth Khan, Syed Ahmad, 19, 219 Century (El-Rouayheb), 180 Khayyam, Omar, 107 Islamic law. See sharia Khomeini, Ruhollah, 10–11, 44–5 Islamic states, 37–42 Khwarazm Shah, Jalal al-Din, 122 Islamic State of Iraq and Syria (ISIS), 17, 19 Khwarazm Shah, Muhammad, 121–2 Islamicate, 86 Khwarazm Shahs, 121–2 Islamists, 6, 10, 19, 37–42, 86, 229–30 Khwarazmi, 77 Islamization Kilgour, Frederick, 76 authoritarianism and, 41–2 Kinalizade, 172–3, 180 of Egypt, 43–4 Kindi, 77 of Pakistan, 45 kizilbashs, 165–6 of public life, in Muslim-majority countries, Klein, Herbert, 214 6, 8 Kunduri, 101 of Turkey, 42–3 Kuran, Timur, 154, 198–201 Ismail, Shah, 165–6 Kurdistan Workers’ Party (PKK), 19 Issawi, Charles, 57 Kushji, Ali, 5, 171, 180

Jabir, 76 Lacoste, Yves, 141 al-Jabri, Mohammed Abed, 8, 134 Laffer, Arthur, 151–2 Jahiz, 81 Lambton, Ann, 80, 99 Jalalean Ethics (Dawani), 180–1 Land Law of 1858, 222 Janissaries, 165, 198, 216 Lapidus, Ira, 11, 103 Japan, 63–5, 213, 223–4 Lewicka, Paulina, 87 al-Jawziyya, Ibn Qayyim, 25, 132–3 Lewis, Archibald, 125–6 Jazari, 130 Lewis, Bernard, 20, 37–8, 88, 131, 156–7 Jefferson, Thomas, 213 Limongi, Fernando, 49 John of Damascus, 74 Linberg, David, 79 jurisprudence (fiqh), 3, 7 Locke, John, 192, 212–13 five higher objectives of Islamic law, 8, 138, The Long Divergence: How Islamic Law Held 232 Back the Middle East (Kuran), 198–201 Ghazali on, 8, 109–10 The Long Road to the Industrial Revolution of Hanifa, 7, 94, 232 (Van Zanden), 187 of Ibn Hanbal, Ahmad, 72, 94–5 Lost in the Sacred: Why the Muslim World of Malik, 94, 133 Stood Still (Diner), 58–9 of Shafii, 7–8, 94–5 Luther, Martin, 188 Shatibi on, 138, 232 Shii schools of, 94–5 Maalouf, Amin, 124 Sunni schools of, 3, 95 Machiavelli, Niccolo, 179 Jurjani, 5, 129 Mackensen, Ruth, 130–1 Maddison, Angus, 194 Kadivar, Mohsen, 24 madrasas, 102–7, 129–30, 149, 161, 175, Kant, Immanuel, 212 177–8, 217. See also Nizamiyya Karakaya, Süveyda, 30 madrasas Karaman, Hayrettin, 43 Maghribi traders, 155–6

Index 299

al-Mahdi, Muhammad, 17 of Muslim lands, 119, 121–3 Mahdi, Muhsin, 143 Battle of Ain Jalut, 122–3 Mahmood, Saba, 47 as divine punishment, 127 Mahmud II, 216–17 of Khwarazm Shahs, 121–2 Mahmud of Ghazni, 96, 100–1 Montesquieu, 212 Mahmud of Kashgar, 107 Moosa, Ebrahim, 59 Maimonides, 107, 128, 138 Morony, Michael, 86–7 Majlisi, Muhammad Baqir, 207 Morsi, Mohammed, 44 Malik, 3, 72, 94 Mottahedeh, Roy, 74 al-Maliki, Nouri, 30 Muawiya, 71 Malikshah, 107 Mubarak, Hosni, 44 Mamluk Sultanate, 122–3, 154 Mughal Empire, 4–5, 166 iqta during, 152 dissolution of, 206 merchants in, trivialization of, 152–5 madrasas in, 177–8 natural science and philosophy in, 131–2 ulema–state alliance in, 170 ulema–state alliance in, 146–7 Muhammad (Prophet), 70, 88–9, 94 Mamun, 75–7 mujahideen (in Afghanistan), 18 manners, 87–8 Mukhtar, Omar, 17 Mansur (tenth-century ruler), 133 Muqaddimah (Ibn Khaldun), 139–41, 156–7, 176 al-Mansur, Yaqub (twelfth-century ruler), 137 Murad III, 174 Mardin, Şerif, 198, 225 Muslim Brothers, 7, 34, 44 Marlow, Louise, 89, 115 H. al-Banna on, 10 Marx, Anthony, 33 Muslim Discovery of Europe (B. Lewis), 156–7 Masudi, 9–10, 172 Muslim-majority countries Mattson, Ingrid, 97 authoritarianism in, rates of, 1–2 Maturidi (theologian), 95, 129 military conﬂicts in, rates of, 1–2 Maturidi (theological school), 129 socioeconomic underdevelopment in, rates Maududi, Abul Ala, 10 of, 1–2, 56 Mawardi, 46–7, 89, 97, 115, 234–5 trust, low levels of, 61 McAuliffe, Jane, 26 violence in, rates of, 15–16 McCloskey, Deirdre, 194 Muslim minorities, 20 Medicis, 186–7 in Myanmar, 21 Mehmed the Conqueror (Fatih), 165, 171–2 Mustazhir, 103 merchants, Muslim, 80–4 Mutawakkil, 75 agricultural productivity and, 83–4 Muteferrika, İbrahim, 123–4, 173–4, 209–10 in Mamluk Sultanate, trivialization of, 152–5 in Ottoman, Safavid, and Mughal Empires, Nadim, 75–6 trivialization of, 181–5 Nasir, 144 as patrons of arts and philosophy, 81 Nasirean Ethics (Tusi), 149–50 religious legitimacy of, 80–1 Nasr, Seyyed Hossein, 135–6, 175–6 trade routes for, 80–1 Nasser, Gamel Abdel, 43–4 Mercia, 2 natural philosophy, 76 Mez, Adam, 74 Needham, Joseph, 194 Migdal, Joel, 140 Neo-Platonism, 135 mihna (inquisition), 75 Netherlands, 191–2 Milestones (Qutb), 25 new institutionalist approach, 64, 195–7 Ming Dynasty, 186, 189 Newcomen, Thomas, 212 Miskawayh, 78–9, 149–50 Newton, Isaac, 192 Mokyr, Joel, 64 Niche of Lights (Ghazali), 109 Mongol invasion Nicomachean Ethics (Aristotle), 78–9 of China, 121 Nishapuri, 128–9 of Eastern Europe, 119–20, 124–5 Nizam al-Mulk, 101–3, 107, 115

300 Index

Nizamiyya madrasas (Nizamiyyas), 4, 101–2, Pasha, Hayreddin, 220 104–7, 130. See also madrasas Pasha, İbrahim, 209 Norris, Pippa, 35 Pasha, Mehmed Ali, 205, 217, 225 North, Douglass, 64, 195–6 Pasha, Mustafa Reshid, 217 Nursi, Said, 86 Pasha, Said Halim, 222–3 Nuwayri, 132 Pasha, Sokollu Mehmed, 174 Pasha, Ziya, 218 Obama, Barack, 33–4 patent system, development of, 192 Ogilvie, Sheilagh, 156 The Path of God’s Bondsmen from Origin to oil, authoritarianism inﬂuenced by. See rentier Return (Daya), 144–5 states patriarchy, 35–7, 147–8 Olson, Mancur, 196 patronage Ordinances of Government (Mawardi), 46–7, for Muslim philosophers by merchants, 81 97 for Muslim philosophers by rulers, 76–7 Organization of Islamic Cooperation (OIC), 56 Pax Mongolica, 119 Ottoman Empire Philip II, 191 bourgeois class in, 222–3 philosophers and scientists Circle of Justice and, 172–3 in early Islamic history, 75–80 decline thesis and, 179–81 between the twelfth and fourteenth centuries Islahat Edict in, 216–17 in Andalus and Northwest Africa, 133–43 Janissaries in, 165, 198, 216 in Central Asia, Iran, and Iraq, 127–9 Land Law of 1858 in, 222 in Egypt, Syria, and Anatolia, 130–3 literacy rates in, 207 in Ottoman, Safavid, and Mughal Empires, merchants in, trivialization of, 181–5 171–9 natural sciences in, 171–9 Piketty, Thomas, 64 philosophy in, 171–9 Plato, 78, 147–8 physicians in, 175 Pococke, Edward, 192 printing presses in, slow development of, political thought, in Muslim world, 146–52 207–12 Political Thought in Medieval Islam Safavids and, 166 (Rosenthal), 9 Tanzimat Edict in, 216–17, 222 Politics (Aristotle), 148–9 timar system in, 178, 181 Polo, Marco, 126 ulema–state alliance in, 168–9, 207–8 Portugal, explorations of, 190 Western colonization and, 17–18, 206–7, printing presses, in Muslim world, 207–12 215, 224–6 printing revolution, 187–8 Westernization reforms in, 216–26 Program for International Student Assessment of education, 217, 223 (PISA), 63 of legal system, 222 Protestant Reformation, 188–9 Parliament as part of, 218–19 Przeworski, Adam, 49 political and religious resistance to, 223–4 Putnam, Robert, 61 as state control over economy, 222 ulema during, loss of power for, 217 Qadir, creed of, 96–7 Our Crises (Said H. Pasha), 222–3 al-Qadir, Abd, 17 Qaim, 96–7, 107 Pakistan al-Qaradawi, Yusuf, 22 Islamization of, 45 qiyas (analogical reasoning), 7, 94–5, 232 Muslim sectarianism in, 29 al-Qudat, Ayn, 111 Pamuk, Şevket, 181–2 Quran, 7, 94–5 paper production Ibn Rushd on, 135–6 in Arab world, 75–6 translations of, 207–12 in Western Europe, 77 violence, peace, and, 22–3, 26 Paris Academy of Sciences, 212 Qutb, Sayyid, 25–7, 86

Index 301

Rahman, Fazlur, 59–60, 178 Rumi, Jalal al-Din, 143 Raphael, 160 al-Rumi, Kadizade, 171, 180 al-Rashid, Harun, 76–7 Russell, Gül, 192 al-Razi, Abu Bakr, 78 Russia, 215–16 al-Razi, Fakhr al-Din, 26, 113, 128 Turkic Muslims in, 219–20 Reagan, Ronald, 18, 151–2 reformists, in Muslim world, 216–24 Saadi, 145 regional diffusion, 51, 55 Sabra, Abdelhamid, 106 Reis, Piri, 173, 176–7 Sachedina, Abdulaziz, 47 religion and the state (din wa dawla), 9–12, al-Sadiq, Jafar, 72 93–101, 225 Sadra, Mulla, 5, 177 Abdel Razek on, 12 Saeed, Abdullah, 24 Ardashir I and, 9–10, 113–14 Saeed, Hassan, 24 G. al-Banna on, 11–12 Safavid Empire, 165–6 Seyyid Bey on, 11–12 dissolution of, 206 Ghazali on, 9–10 merchants in, 181 Ibn Taymiyya on, 146–7 Ottoman Empire and, 166 Islamists on, 10 philosophers in, 177 Tusi on, 149–50 ulema–state alliance in, 169–70 religious diversity, during Abbasids, 74–5, 86 Safi, Omid, 111 religious morality, professional careers in Saint Pierre, J. H. Bernardin de, 214 conflict with, 60 Saladin, 120–1, 130–1, 144 The Removal of Doubt from the Names of Salafism Books and the Sciences (Katip Çelebi), authoritarianism and, 36 176 defined, 16 Renaissance, 160, 186–7 founding of, 17 The Renaissance of Islam (Mez), 74 Ibn Taymiyya and, 146 Renan, Ernest, 84 Jihadi-Salafism, 25, 27 rentier states, 48–52, 55 violence and, 17 GNI influenced by, 52 Sami, Şemseddin, 211, 219 government revenues in, 51 Sardar, Ziauddin, 108 regional diffusion in, 51 Sarton, George, 106–7 tax rates in, 49–50 Sasanian Empire, 70 Republic (Plato), 78, 148–9 Muslims ideologically influenced by, 112–16 The Revival of Religious Sciences (Ghazali), 10, Muslims institutionally influenced by, 114 46–7, 103–4 Zoroastrian hierarchy during, 114–15 Rida, Rashid, 17 Saudi Arabia The Rise of the Western World (North and Britain and, 17–18 Thomas), 195–6 Salafism in, 16 Robertson, Graeme, 52–3 Wahhabism in, 17 Robinson, James, 64 Saunders, John, 105, 124 Rodinson, Maxime, 58 Sayιlι, Aydιn, 106 Rosenthal, Erwin, 9 scholars, Islamic. See ulema Ross, Michael, 36–7 scientific revolution, 192 El-Rouayheb, Khaled, 180 scientific societies, 212 Rousseau, Jean-Jacques 212 secular states, in Muslim world, 37–42 Rowley, Charles, 34 secularists, in Muslim world, 6–9, 232–3 Royal Society, 212 Seljuk Empire, 4–5 Rubin, Jared, 201–2 iqta during, 4, 102 Rulers, Religion, and Riches: Why the West Got Nizamiyya madrasas and, 102–3 Rich and the Middle East Did Not ulema–state alliance in, 101–3 (Rubin), 201–2 Sen, Amartya, 61–2

302 Index

Sezgin, Fuat, 127–8 Sufi orders (tariqas), 6, 108 Shafii, 3, 72 Sufi shaykhs, 6 jurispridential method of, 7–8, 94–5 authoritarianism and, 48 Shah, Nader, 206 critics of, 143–4, 183–4 Shah, Reza, 29 and violence, 17 Shahristani, 72 Sufism sharia (Islamic law) Ghazali and, 8, 10, 109 in constitutions of Islamic states, 37–42 Ibn Khaldun on, 144 inheritance laws, 198–9 philosophy replaced by, 143–4 percentage of supporters, as law of the land, spiritual hierarchy in, 144 23–4 state and, 144–6 Sharia-Based Governance in Reforming Both Suhrawardi, Umar, 144 the Ruler and His Flock (Ibn Taymiyya), Suhrawardi, Yahya, 131 146–7 suicide bombings, 22 Shatibi, 138, 232 Suleyman the Magnificent, 169 Shatzmiller, Maya, 80, 154–6 Sunni jurisprudence, 94–6 Shaybani, 72–3, 80–1 Syria, sectarian violence in, 29–30 Shaykh, Shamil, 17 Szyliowicz, Joseph, 207 Shii jurisprudence, 94–5 al-Shirazi, Qutb al-din, 107, 128–9 Taftazani, 5, 129 Singh, Jai, 175 Taha, Mahmoud Mohammed, 24 Skocpol, Theda, 213 al-Tahtawi, Rifaa, 218 slavery, 214 Takiyuddin, 5, 174 Smith, Adam, 64, 212 Tanzimat Edict, 216–17, 222 Smith, Nathanael, 34 tariqas. See Sufi orders socioeconomic underdevelopment, in Taseer, Salman, 24 Muslim-majority countries tax rates, in rentier states, 49–50 authoritarianism and, 61–3, 229–32 terrorism, 15–16, 22, 27, 29. See also essentialist arguments, for Islam’s role in 11, violence 58–9 Testament of Ardashir I, 9–10, 113–14 historical factors for, 63–5 al-Thawri, Sufyan, 73 intelligentsia, bourgeoisie, and, 232–3 Thomas, Robert, 195–6 rates of, 1–2, 56 Tierney, Brian, 159 ulema’sinfluence on, 58–60 Tilly, Charles, 186 Western colonization’sinfluence on, 57–8 Timur, 123 Somel, Selçuk, 224 Travels (Ibn Battuta), 126–7 Soroush, Abdul Karim, 47 The Treatise of Kāmil on the Prophet’s Southeast Asia, late Islamization and early Biography (Ibn al-Nafis), 132 colonization of, 4–5 Treaty of Balta Limani (Anglo-Ottoman Spain Treaty), 205–6 alliance between the Church and the Treaty of Karlowitz, 205 monarchy in, 190–1 Treaty of Kucuk Kaynarca, 205 explorations of, 189–90 Türker, Muhabat, 172 inquisition in, 190–1 Turkey Spengler, Joseph, 152 founding of, 220–1 Spinoza, Baruch, 191 Erdoğan in, 231 Stark, Rodney, 92 Gülen movement and Erdoğan in, 43 Starr, Frederick, 100, 108 Islamization of, 42–3 Stepan, Alfred, 21, 52–3 PKK in, 19 Stevens, Christopher, 34 Turner, Bryan, 81 Stokes, Susan, 52 Tusi, Nasr al-Din, 128, 149–50

Index 303

Udovitch, Abraham, 199 Wahhabism, 17. See also Salafism ulema, 6 violence and, 17 anti-intellectualism of, 6–7 Waldner, David, 65 authoritarianism and, 42–8 Wali Allah, Shah, 211 in early Islamic history, independence from waqfs, 102, 154, 199 the state, 3–4, 71–5 Watson, Andrew, 83–4 socioeconomic underdevelopment and, Watt, James, 212 58–60 Watt, Montgomery, 95 violence and, 23–8 Weber, Max, 20, 58 ulema–state alliance, 3–6. See also religion and Weingast, Barry, 196 the state Western Europe formation of, eleventh century, 93–101 book production in, 188 in Mamluk Sultanate, 146–7 bourgeois class in, 193–4 in Mughal Empire, 170 Catholic Church in, 158–9, 193 in Ottoman Empire, 168–9, 207–8 class structure in, Early Middle Ages, 92–3 revival of, twentieth century, 42–5 comparison with Muslim world, Early in Safavid Empire, 169–70 Middle Ages, 90–3 in Seljuk Empire, 101–3 defined, 2 Ülgener, Sabri, 183–4 and geographical explorations, 189–90 Umayyads, 3, 70–5 historical development, in comparison to underdevelopment. See socioeconomic Muslim world, 227–8 underdevelopment Industrial Revolution in, 212 universities, in Western Europe, 5, 161 intellectual class in, 193 Muslim influence on, 159–61 Van Zanden, Jan, 90, 187 political decentralization in, 185 Vesalius, Andreas, 175 printing revolution in, 186–8 vicious circle, 61–3 Protestant Reformation in, 188–9 The Victory of Reason: How Christianity Led rise of, explanations for, 185–97 to Freedom, Capitalism, and Western anti-colonial approach, 194–5 Success (Stark), 92 new institutionalist approach, 195–7 violence. See also terrorism scholars in, social status of, 93 anger and, 21 scientific revolution in, 192 anti-colonial approach to, 16–20 socioeconomic transformation of, High authoritarianism and, 28–30 Middle Ages, 157–9 sectarian conflicts as result of, 29–30 White, Lynn Jr., 91–2 terrorism as result of, 29 Why Nations Fail (Acemoglu and Robinson), socioeconomic underdevelopment and, 229–32 64 Islam and Wilson, Brett, 211 abrogation and, 26–7 women’s rights. See patriarchy essentialist arguments for, 20–3 Quran and, 22–3 Young Turk Revolution, 220 suicide bombings and, 22 Islamists and, 19 Zaman, Muhammad Qasim, 25 as multicausal phenomenon, 22–3 Zengi, Nur al-Din, 130, 144 Sufi shaykhs and, 17 Zheng He, 189 ulema and, 23–8 Zoroastrianism, 100–1, 115 Violence and Islam (Adonis), 20 Zürcher, Eric, 215