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Pakistan: Between Mosque and Military By Pakistan Between Mosque and Military Husain Haqqani Reproduced By Sani H. Panhwar Table of Contents Praise .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 1 Foreword .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 2 Acknowledgements .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 4 Chapter 1 - Introduction: Identity and Ideology .. .. .. 6 Chapter 2 - Defending Ideological Frontiers .. .. .. .. 50 Chapter 3 - Old and New Pakistan .. .. .. .. .. 81 Chapter 4 - From Islamic Republic to Islamic State .. .. .. 118 Chapter 5 - Afghan Jihad .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 142 Chapter 6 - Military Rule by Other Means .. .. .. .. 175 Chapter 7 - Jihad without Borders .. .. .. .. .. 234 Chapter 8 - Conclusion: From Ideological to Functional State .. 279 About the Author .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 294 Praise for Pakistan: Between Mosque and Military “A very valuable addition to the existing literature.” —International Affairs “Taking years of first-hand experience of Pakistani politics, Haqqani’s narrative weaves disparate strands into an informative and authoritative tale.” —Far Eastern Economic Review “For gaining a grasp of the situation and its implications for the United States, there may be no better place to begin than Pakistan: Between Mosque and Military.” —Commentary “In Pakistan, a nation that the United States has been happy to use without ever bothering to understand, the global war on terror will be won or lost. In this cogent, well-informed and extraordinarily informative book, Husain Haqqani describes in detail the unholy alliance between Islamists and military officers that has shaped Pakistan’s past and may well determine its future. An important and disturbing tale, deftly told.” —Andrew J. Bacevich, Author of The New American Militarism: How Americans Are Seduced by War “Husain Haqqani has seen Pakistani politics close up. But his book is much more than a memoir: Haqqani has produced a provocative and controversial history revealing the depth of the links between the army and the Islamic radicals. Required reading.” —Owen Bennett-Jones, BBC, Author of Pakistan: The Eye of the Storm “We are in Husain Haqqani’s debt for providing the authoritative account of the linkages between Pakistan’s powerful Islamists and its professional army. He conclusively demonstrates that these ties are long-standing, complex, and very troubling. This brilliantly researched and written book should be required reading for anyone who wishes to understand this increasingly important state.” —Stephen P. Cohen, Brookings Institution, Author of The Idea of Pakistan and The Pakistan Army “Husain Haqqani has written the most comprehensive account of the role of religion and the army in Pakistan’s tangled history. It makes for fascinating and sobering reading. The challenge of maintaining a ‘moderate Islamic’ identity at a time of national insecurity and religious passion remains one of the central problems confronting any Pakistan government.” —Teresita Schaffer, CSIS, Former U.S. Ambassador and Assistant Secretary of State for South Asia Pakistan between Mosque and Military 1 Foreword Of all the United States’ partners in the global war on terrorism, Pakistan is the most vexing and arguably the most important. For years it has been accused of encouraging terror, through support of the former Taliban government in Afghanistan and by promoting armed opposition to Indian control of Kashmir. Following the events of September 11, 2001, however, Pakistan cast its lot with the United States, providing assistance to U.S. military operations in Afghanistan and sharing valuable intelligence. Today, Pakistan is simultaneously a breeding ground for radical Islam and a key ally in the U.S. effort to eliminate terror in South Asia and worldwide. This ambiguous relationship is rooted in the historic alliance between Islamists and the Pakistani military—the subject of Husain Haqqani’s fascinating political history of this young, troubled state. Haqqani, a visiting scholar at the Carnegie Endowment, political commentator, and former Pakistani diplomat, examines the entire period of Pakistan’s statehood, from which he masterfully extracts the key factors that have shaped the contours of the country’s evolution. Haqqani shows how perceptions of Pakistan’s external and domestic threats have produced a debilitating partnership of expediency between Islamists and the military. Government officials have not only used Islam to unify the multiethnic and multilingual Pakistani state, they have also used it to reinforce Pakistani identity in opposition to India’s predominantly Hindu population. Conflict with neighboring India has mainly benefited the Pakistani military, which has used its exalted status to play a decisive role in government policy, even during periods of civilian rule. Haqqani contends that while Pakistan’s leaders have repeatedly courted religious nationalism to advance their personal agendas, they have rarely been able to control its less desirable effects. “The historic alliance between Islamists and Pakistan’s military has the potential to frustrate antiterrorist operations, radicalize key segments of the Islamic world, and bring India and Pakistan to the brink of war yet again,” he warns. Pakistan: Between Mosque and Military is an articulate and convincing plea for a return to civilian-led government and an end to the Islamist-military alliance. As Haqqani amply demonstrates, reliance on this partnership has stoked the flames of conflict, impeded efforts to control terrorist operations, and diverted precious resources from the country’s considerable development challenges. In doing so, Haqqani firmly rejects the view that greater democratic participation will empower Islamic extremists. Pakistan between Mosque and Military 2 Now more than ever, the fates of the United States and Pakistan are tightly intertwined. From counterterrorism to nuclear nonproliferation, effective cooperation with Pakistan is a sine qua non for the success of critical U.S. foreign policy goals. The harrowing discovery of the A. Q. Khan network in 2003—a Pakistan-based operation that had for years been selling nuclear bomb designs and equipment to North Korea, Iran, Libya and elsewhere—is only the most recent example of this troubled interdependence. Given the central role Pakistan plays in whether or not the U.S. reaches so many of its foreign policy objectives, partnership with this South Asian power is sure to be a high priority well into the future. Between Mosque and Military is a timely and original contribution to our understanding of one of the U.S.’s most enigmatic allies. At this particularly critical juncture in the U.S.-Pakistani relationship, Haqqani’s trenchant analysis and practical recommendations deserve our closest attention. Jessica T. Mathews President, Carnegie Endowment for International Peace Pakistan between Mosque and Military 3 Acknowledgments This book is the result of my lifelong passion for understanding the history and politics of my homeland and for creating a democratic Pakistan. In a sense everyone in Pakistan who has contributed to my learning and the evolution of my ideas has contributed to this book. That includes my neighbors, teachers, and friends from my days as a student activist with Islamic sympathies; my many colleagues as a journalist; and the several Pakistani officials who I worked with, or for, during my days in government. My father, Muhammad Saleem Haqqani, taught me at an early age to question the officially distorted version of events in Pakistan. My mother, Saeeda Saleem Haqqani, continues to support me, as she has done at every stage of my life. She believed in me through the many controversies in which I have been embroiled. I learned about the ethos of Pakistan’s civil bureaucracy from Roedad Khan, Saeed Mehdi, Anwar Zahid, and Ijlal Zaidi. Zaidi was, in addition, also helpful in figuring out several mysteries of Pakistan’s political development. Pakistan’s military and intelligence services try very hard to remain inscrutable. My understanding of these institutions was made possible by my acquaintance with Generals Aslam Beg, Asad Durrani, Hamid Gul, Jehangir Karamat, Zulfikar Khan, Asif Nawaz, Abdul Qayyum, and Syed Refaqat. Generals Durrani and Refaqat have remained friends, notwithstanding our occasional differences of opinion and outlook. I also value my friendship with several colonels and junior officers in the Pakistani military establishment but they would probably not like to be named in a book of this nature. Among Pakistani political figures, I am grateful to Benazir Bhutto for a free exchange of ideas during our decade-long association. My analysis has also benefited from exchanges with Qazi Hussain Ahmed, Professor Khurshid Ahmed, Kamal Azfar, Hamid Nasir Chattha, Syed Munawwar Hasan, former president Ghulam Ishaq Khan, Ghulam Mustafa Jatoi, Shafqat Mahmood, Sardar Abdul Qayyum, Anwar Saifullah, Nawaz Sharif, and Manzoor Wattoo. The friendship of several American diplomats and scholars has been invaluable. Among them I would like to mention Jerry Brennig, Stephen Cohen, William Milam, Robert Oakley, Robin Raphel, Teresita and Howard Schaffer, Michele Sison, and Marvin Weinbaum. Pakistan between Mosque and Military 4 Nuscie Jamil, Maleeha Lodhi, Najam Sethi, and Nasim Zehra provided friendship, guidance, and help even when we disagreed vehemently. With Nuscie and Najam, our agreements have become greater than our disagreements over time. The advice of Ardeshir Cowasjee, Amina Jilani, Arif Nizami, Sherry Rahman, Muhammad Salahuddin, Mahmood Sham, Mujibur Rahman Shami, and Sajjad Mir
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