This article was downloaded by: 10.3.98.104 On: 02 Oct 2021 Access details: subscription number Publisher: Routledge Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered office: 5 Howick Place, London SW1P 1WG, UK

The Routledge Handbook of Muslim–Jewish Relations

Josef (Yousef) Meri

Historical themes

Publication details https://www.routledgehandbooks.com/doi/10.4324/9781315675787.ch02 Orit Bashkin, Daniel J. Schroeter Published online on: 23 Jun 2016

How to cite :- Orit Bashkin, Daniel J. Schroeter. 23 Jun 2016, Historical themes from: The Routledge Handbook of Muslim–Jewish Relations Routledge Accessed on: 02 Oct 2021 https://www.routledgehandbooks.com/doi/10.4324/9781315675787.ch02

PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR DOCUMENT

Full terms and conditions of use: https://www.routledgehandbooks.com/legal-notices/terms

This Document PDF may be used for research, teaching and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematic reproductions, re-distribution, re-selling, loan or sub-licensing, systematic supply or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden.

The publisher does not give any warranty express or implied or make any representation that the contents will be complete or accurate or up to date. The publisher shall not be liable for an loss, actions, claims, proceedings, demand or costs or damages whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with or arising out of the use of this material. Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 04:10 02 Oct 2021; For: 9781315675787, chapter02, 10.4324/9781315675787.ch02 village. and city the of places public and markets, neighborhoods, streets, the in level local the on rule andasnewmodesofdailyinteractiondevelopedbetween Muslims,Jews,andChristians subjects andcitizensinMuslimempires,states,countries underEuropeancolonial as relationship their rethink to Jews and Muslims allowed frameworks social and cultural the in life Jewish modern periodthatchangedMuslim-Jewishrelationsinmeaningfulways.Newpolitical, to came that elements positive very the emphasized North often and Jews Eastern African Middle 1948, before aspirations and hopes their about writing When nineteenth andtwentiethcenturies,especiallybeforetheestablishmentofStateIsrael. would ignore the new forms of Muslim-Jewish coexistence and cultural interaction in the civil rights. One product of the Tanzimat non- were the major changes in the centralizing role of of status the changed – (1856) with citizens Ottoman to Muslims fromprotectedminorities oftheIslamicstate(dhimmīs) Hümayun Hatt-i the and (1839) Gülhane of Şerif identity.civic imperial new a of creation the and Two Hatt-i the – decrees official important goals werethepreservationof theOttomanstatethroughmodernizationandcentralization Central tothisprocessofreform wastheTanzimat, aseriesofOttoman reformswhosechief enable and centralization of their governmentstomeetthe challengesofEuropeanimperialismandcapitalistexpansion. mechanisms effective create to order in models Western on states Ottoman military,economic, administrative, based undertook the reforms technological and educational, and Tunisian, Egyptian, Iranian, the century, nineteenth the During Jews andMuslimsintheeraofreforms explained in Muslim-Jewishrelations,thedepartureofJewslivingMuslimcountriescannotbe and nationalism, in rupture conflict a the caused and Israel ideologies and and Palestine nationalisms escalation of clash Arab the and the While Zionism with countries. Muslim predominately of from associated Jews most rise of emigration ultimately, often the the of are because Africa tensions North Muslim-Jewish and of East Middle modern The only asalinearprocessofdeteriorationMuslim-Jewishrelations, Muslim–Jewish relationsinthemodern Middle EastandNorthAfrica Orit BashkinandDanielJ.Schroeter Historical themes 1 fortodoso 2 35 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 04:10 02 Oct 2021; For: 9781315675787, chapter02, 10.4324/9781315675787.ch02 intellectuals supported thereformsthatgranted religiousminoritiescivil rights, otherswere decades beforethecountrywassubdued. was it though 1830, in France by invaded was which Algeria, neighboring in transformed Levant, therewerenoindigenousChristiansinthelandsofMaghrib. anti-Semitism werecommon. of eruptions and manifested amongtheEuropeanChristiansettlerpopulation(piedsnoirs), relations, butresentmenttowardtheadvancementofJewswasevenmorestrongly Muslim-Jewish in rupture a caused Algeria in colonialism under Muslims over gained Jews to these changes were sometimes ambivalent if not hostile. While some Muslim some While hostile. not if ambivalent sometimes were changes these to reactions hand, other the On sphere. public the in develop to relations of kinds new hand, minorities broughtaboutby reform, eveninitsmostmodestforms,enabled,onthe one minorities wasdevelopingwith far-reaching implications.Thechanging statusofreligious change, everywhereitwasapparent thatanewclimateofMuslimrelationswithitsreligious the nineteenthcentury, broughtaboutbybothforeignpressure andtheinternalimpetusfor religious minoritieswas formally promulgated. other and Jews to equality 1873, in and kindness’, and ‘justice with treated be to were Jews to ensure that Jews would be treated with justice. The Iranian Shah proclaimed in 1865 that promised that decrees obtain to government British the of backing the with and efforts his Montefiore, the Anglo-Jewish leader and tireless advocate for Jewish rights, was able through implement reformstostrengthentheirstatesandtransform thestatusofJews.Moses to pressures increasing under came also dynasty) Qajar (the Iran and dynasty) ʿAlawid (the 1882. in the came of equality founder civil dynasty.Full and khedival 1805 since ruler Ali), (Mehmet Ali Muhammad by initiated reforms of non-Muslimminoritiesandgrantedthemnewcivilrights.InEgypt,thisbeganwiththe independent dynasties,implementedtheirownreformsthattransformedthedhimmīstatus part inthefirstbloodlibelDamascus(1840). Christian communitiesintheLevant,whichappearedmissionarypressandplayeda Arab century,among nineteenth ideas the anti-Semitic in spread missionaries Christian but though theirformalstatusremainedunchanged. (dahir; Jewish delegaterepresentedBaghdadintheOttomanparliament(founded1876). of the empire andbecameamuchmorevisiblegroupinmajor cities. InIraq,forexample,a provinces the in built councils administrative new in posts official to appointed were They (with the help of local committees). local of help the (with and was to take the leading role in all religious matters pertaining to the Jewish communities the (Hakham-bashi; leadership of a Chief Rabbi Orit BashkinandDanielJ.Schroeter 36 constitution of1861. the by effect into put was and minorities, religious to equality civil full proclaimed which Bey, Muhammad Tunisia, of security”), of pact (literally, ruler “the pact” “fundamental the Husaynid 1857, in al-Amān ʿAhd the the issued Hümayun, Hatt-i the of reforms the was maintained after the region was annexed to French Algeria in 1882. subjects. indigenous remained that population Muslim the from separated Decree, Crémieux the by French Empire,in1870theJewishpopulationwasgrantedFrench citizenship en masse The positionoftheJews’relationshiptoMuslims,however, wasevenmoreradically Despite the uneven process of reforms throughout the Middle East and North Africa in Africa North and East Middle the throughout reforms of process uneven the Despite Morocco Africa, North and East Middle the of peripheries WesternEastern the and On Egypt andTunisia, bothnominallypartsoftheOttomanEmpirebutwiththeirown, . ẓahīr) Arab. 7 Theonlyexceptionswere the Jews of theSaharanMzab,whoseindigenousstatus in 1863, in 5 In Tunisia, this chiefly affected the Jews, since unlike in Egypt and the affirming his role as role his affirming 9 Anti-Semitic ideas made very little impression on Muslims on impression little very made ideas Anti-Semitic 2 Jewish elites took advantage of the Tanzimatthe of advantage reforms: took elites Jewish 6 While Muslims and Jews became subjects of the of subjects became Jews and Muslims While 11 10 guarantor ofjusticeforhisdhimmī TheMoroccan sultan issueda royal decree 12 Hahambaşı) who was appointed by the state 4 Under foreign pressure to implement to pressure foreign Under 8 Theadvantagesthat ulama subjects, 3 and Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 04:10 02 Oct 2021; For: 9781315675787, chapter02, 10.4324/9781315675787.ch02 Africa. Initially the opening of schools was met with some resistance by the local Jewish local the by communities, resistance some with met was schools of opening the Initially Africa. the secondhalf of thenineteenth century spread in the Ottoman Empire, Iran, andNorth Universelle, whichfrom Israélite Alliance the network, educational Jewish French the was Christian missionary, foreign, European Jewish, and Ottoman state schools. Most influential the onlyeducationaloptionforJews,asmodernandsecularstudieswereintroducedby mid-nineteenth century in the Levant. Jewish religious education, however, ceased to be religious instructionwasprovidedinmodernyeshivot,whichbegantobeestablishedthe organized More Africa. North and East Middle the across introduced be to began schools teachers. because ofthehighleveleducationthatwasofferedandbefriendedJewishstudents the economy. IncertainprovincesoftheOttomanEmpire,Muslimsattendedtheseschools position ofeachJewishcommunityandenabledJewstoobtainjobsinthemodernsectors resistance from conservative Jewish figures. The system in general upped the socioeconomic much with met was that move a girls, to radically,education More offered also Alliance the century, nineteenth classes inmath,history, geography,late physics,biology,the andchemistrywerebeingofferedaswell. By English. and Turkish,Spanish, place, Arabic, and in time courses on offered depending and, Hebrew taught also it but French; was instruction of colonial rule in the Middle East and French North Africa, enabling a new generation of generation new a Jewish families tothrive. enabling Africa, North French and East Middle the in British rule under colonial continued economy global the in entrepreneurs and intermediaries as role Iranian, andMoroccanempires, oftenobtainingforeigncitizenshipintheprocess.This businessmen tofunctionascommercial intermediariesbetweenEuropeandtheOttoman, throughout the Mediterranean basin, and participation in local societies, enabled Jewish greater integration into the socioeconomic life of Muslim societies. Kinship connections influence, economic European of imperialism andcolonialrule,yettheirnewascendancyin themoderneconomyfacilitated spread the of because economy global the in involved became Jews markets. global in influence of positions for merchants, foreign or neighbors which moreJewsmetandtradedwithMuslimscompeted, oftenwiththeirChristian the of hubs commercial and Mediterranean andbeyond.Thenineteenthcenturyturned intoaneraofsocialmobilityin cities major the from operating networks, commercial and this Ottomanprovinceafter1908. example, Jewswhowereadmittedtotheseschoolscame playimportantrolesinthelifeof and education), higher as known schools governmental thus and system education modern imperial, an of network a of establishment the included reforms Tanzimatthe Empire, Ottoman the Within schools. state French attended Jews 1870, since continued their religious education in a where teachingfocusedonHebrewandreligiousinstruction,whileaveryselectivegroup their Muslimneighbors.Jewishboystraditionallystudiedinelementaryschools(kuttāb), with relations their changed and Jews African North and Eastern Middle for consequences process thatwouldtransformMuslim-Jewishrelationsinmanyways. a motion in set reform to movement the obstacles, many the Despite path. straight clear a with regard to religious minorities were an ongoing – and often contradictory – process, not foreign powersandsignaledthedeclineofMuslimsovereignty. opposed tochanges,especiallyrecognizingthatthereformscame,inpart,atbehestof Modern schoolinghelpedJewstointegratemoreeffectively ininternationaltrading The introductionandspreadofmodernschoolsduringtheerareformshadimportant 15 n lei, h peec o te line a wa, eas a Fec citizens French as because weak, was Alliance the of presence the Algeria, In 14 butitbecameapopularinstitutionintheyearsthatfollowed.Thelanguage

Sulṭāniyya 17 16 ( ) opened their gates to Jewish students. In Iraq, for Iraq, In students. Jewish to gates their opened lycée) yeshiva Rushdiyya or midrash. Iʿdādiyya(preparatoryto (primary), In the nineteenth century, modern Historical themesinmoderntimes 13 Consequently, the reforms 37 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 04:10 02 Oct 2021; For: 9781315675787, chapter02, 10.4324/9781315675787.ch02 encounters and quotidian interactions in the streets, parks, cafés, beaches, and promenades. urban centers,withtheirbustlingplacesofcommerce,camenewvenuesforMuslim-Jewish were adevelopmentthataffectednotonlytheupperclassesofsociety. Inthedeveloping modernity, andprogress.Newmodesofinteractionbetweenreligiousethnicgroups associations wherebothMuslimsandJewsmet,sharingsimilarideasaboutstatehood, clients ofallreligions,andmembershipinoccupational,cultural,political,patriotic crowds insharedvenues, Jewish closer: grew Christians musicians, ormixedMuslimandJewishensembles,whichperformedformulti-religious and Muslims, Jews, between connections cities, these in Cairo, Alexandria, Jerusalem, and Tunis Teheran,Beirut, developed, as Istanbul, and such with cities the in rise culture of Urban mixed boundaries. neighborhoods ethnic and religious of Muslims,Christians and Jews,enabledsocialrelationstodevelopthattranscendedolder the Arabian PeninsulaArabian the Yemen,and in hegemony its expanding state, Qaramanli semi-autonomous the to end an putting and provinces andimposedirectcontrolofitsperipheries,establishing directruleinTripolitania Ottoman provincesinEurope,thestateendeavored tostrengthenitscontrolof formerly in states nation independent of emergence the and empires) British and French expanding the to (mainly territories African North and Eastern Middle its of loss Ottoman the With rule. colonial Italian or Spanish, British, French, under all were Yemen) (South Aden WorldTunisia,and By WarAlgeria, Egypt, Africa. I, Libya, North Morocco, and East late nineteenth century through the World War I, political change swept through the Middle new identitiesand,insomecases,shareacommonlanguageofpoliticaldiscourse.From the and otherbusinesses. stores, department banks, of sectors commercial new the in entrepreneurs the among were North Africa facilitated new types of relations between Muslims, Jews, and Christians. Jews Aleppo, Baghdad,Damascus,andJerusalem. in theMiddleEastandimprovedwelfareoftheirbrethrencommunitiessuchas schools and synagogues various supported communities satellite the from families Affluent Rangoon, and Hong Kong; and Moroccan Jews migrated to Brazil and the Shanghai, PeruvianBombay,Calcutta, in Amazon. communities satellite established and Jews Iraqi Europe Americas; to the waves migration the joined Jews Lebanese and Syrian East; Middle the in and Muslimpeers,movedtoavarietyoflocationsacrosstheglobecitiestowns Orit BashkinandDanielJ.Schroeter 38 of 1908 were particularly important in the formation of new identities, notions of imperial of notions identities, new of formation the in important particularly were 1908 of the after Young era constitutional second Revolution the Turk and (1876) constitution first that changedMuslim-Jewish relations.IntheOttomanEmpire,periodsfollowing the several with identified often Jews contradictory, ideologies simultaneously, seemingly for example, beingZionist,Arab,andOttomanatthesametime. While Zionist). and (Arab century nineteenth late the of nationalisms ethnic emerging the with or Spanish), French, (British, power colonial the of culture national the with identifying Moroccans, Ottomans, as Egyptians, lived they which in empires) (or countries the to belonging as themselves define to came Jews stage. center the occupied state nation the or nationalism of notion the Jews, andChristiansbegantoimaginethemselvesaspart of alargercommunity, inwhich political changes,thoughuneven,weretheconstructionof new identitiesinwhichMuslims, greater loyaltyamongitsmulti-ethnicandmulti-religious population.Theresultsofthese These changes in the era of reforms caused Muslims, Christians, and Jews to construct The growthofportstradeandcommercialcentersinthemodernMiddleEast During the nineteenth (and continuing in the twentieth) century, Jews, like their Christian Iran (1905–1906) and the Ottoman Empire (1908) witnessed constitutional revolutions constitutional witnessed (1908) Empire Ottoman the and (1905–1906) Iran 19 Thenewbourgeoisiethatemergedinthemodernperiod,consisting 20 trainedprofessionalsintheliberalprofessionswhoaccepted 22 andpromotingtheideaofimperialcitizenshiptoinstill 18 21 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 04:10 02 Oct 2021; For: 9781315675787, chapter02, 10.4324/9781315675787.ch02 Aramaic, Judeo-Arabic, Judeo-Persian, and Ladino, and many spoke (and some also wrote Hebrew,also some (and as spoke many such and Ladino, and Judeo-Persian, communities, Judeo-Arabic, Aramaic, Jewish to unique languages used Jews multilingual; was of modernJewsandtheirrelationships tofellowMuslims.TheJewishworldatthisperiod Arabic. in expression cultural and literary of vehicles world, to redefine the place of Islam within modern society, and to take up Muslim bythe Westernthe genres as and typified Europe between relationship was the reassess that to intellectuals Arab of attempts renewal andcultural literary Arabic an signified words, other in word Arabic The (“renaissance” or “revival”) root.came to signify the cultural elements of this process. The nahḍa, take to began coffeehouses, and events, public societies, such as Cairo, Beirut, and Damascus, new Arab public spheres, with their Arabic newspapers, were also reflected in the cultural realm of Muslim-Jewish relations. In Middle Eastern cities imperial citizens. abolished under the previous regime, greatly accelerated the integration process of Jews as been had that liberties restored and rule parliamentary introduced which Revolution, 1908 Worlduntil WarThe and I. century twentieth the of turn the at develop to continued state Ottoman the with Jews of identification The millets. Christian than loyal more were they Ottomanism, toemphasizetheirpatriotismtheOttomanstatebytryingshowthat expressed solidarity with Ottoman Muslims, even articulating an identification with Islamic Islamic definitions of Ottomanism. Amid these tensions with the Christian population, Jews to increasingly turned II Abdülhamit Sultan movements, separatist and imperialism foreign the OttomanstateandChristianethno-religiouscommunities.Outofgrowingthreat were emerging out of the fragmentation of the Ottoman Empire, conflict worsened between millets, wasfraughtwithtension,andasforeigninterventionincreasednationstates However, thisall-inclusivecivicOttomanism,supportedbymembersoftheChristian ethnic minoritieswhohopedthataneweraofprogressandenlightenmentwasdawning. state. Theconstitutionalrevolutionsalsoinspiredenthusiasmamongotherreligiousand embraced thenewideologyofOttomanism,expressingtheirpatriotismtoOttoman particular in Jews members. its all to rights constitutional equal gave that setting imperial patriotic citizenship, brotherhood about that was thinking not for based possibilities on religion new but up on opened equality,words, and other justice in within Ottomanism, a larger citizenship orcivicOttomanismsharedbetweendifferentethno-religiousgroups. Zaydan, Gurji polyglot Christian by initiated was 1866) the (b. Moyal Shimʿon writer Jewish Jaffa-born by Arabic Talmudinto the of translation The Spain. Muslim of case the particular in celebrated theharmonybetweenMuslims,Jews,andChristians underIslamicrule,citing journals Arabic many Likewise, short. fallen had emancipation this which in domains the Muslim intellectuals,moreover,persecution. supportedJewishemancipationinEuropeandrecognized perpetual under exist to forced individual an as Jew the of image the and evoked Balkans; the and Russia in especially activities, anti-Jewish and pogroms on reported journals Arab Leading of the Arab nahḍa novel presented the Muslims as heroic conquerors, who were able to provide equality to equality both JewsandChristians. provide to able were who conquerors, heroic as Muslims the presented novel This girl. Jewish a with love in fell who Jerusalem, Byzantine in living Christian devoted a Iliya, on focused It Jerusalem. of conquest Arab the during place took which 1904), Jadīda, novel, historical a Tripoli), wrote in 1874 (b. intellectual Modern and Western education affected the reading habits and modes of communication These politicalchanges,andthenew, oftencontestedidentitiesthat emergedasaresult, an actthatmadethetextaccessiblealsotoMuslims. 23 paid great heed to Jewish affairs anddefendedthe rights of EuropeanJews. protested the persecution of Jews in Eastern and Western Europe; Western and Eastern in Jews of persecution the protested 26 24 TheMuslimandChristianpioneers rhlm al- The NewJerusalem(Ūrshalīm Historical themesinmoderntimes 25 Farah Antun, a Christian a Antun, Farah al-nahḍa 39 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 04:10 02 Oct 2021; For: 9781315675787, chapter02, 10.4324/9781315675787.ch02 some Egyptian newspapers that ought to know better. fanaticism and envious hatred; he also deplored racial the fact that this “disease” of had contaminated instance an was this that argued Riḍā Rashīd thinker Pan-IslamicAffair, Dreyfus the on Europe. Writing of critique general the into well fit countries these in Jews against discrimination the discussing Russia), notably (most Europe in Muslims and world of the welfare throughout the for concerned were thinkers Muslim As question. Jewish the on as the prestigious journals such platforms Arabic reputable highly in essays published and intellectuals Christian and Jews TurkishEducated and Revolution. Arabic 1908 the after Jewish intellectualsestablished,togetherwithMuslimpartners,threenewspapersinboth Baghdad, In Muslims. modern with communicating of means a Turkishas and Arabic in of religiousdifferences. assumed that modern Muslim states should treat their subjects equally and justly, regardless pride in the changes that occurredin the MiddleEastand a new horizon of expectationsthat times of persecution, especially in Iran; at the same time, their writings convey a great deal of at states Muslim against protection their for ask and Jewry European with communicate to press Hebrew international the used Jews Europe. in newspapers Haskalah in publishing Europe andOttomanPalestine andparticipatedinthemodernHebrewenlightenmentby AfricaNorth and in East produced Middle journals the Hebrew over read all Jews addition, and Ladino print industries and print markets produced books, newspapers, and journals. In Ladino and Judeo-Arabic influential, albeit modest, as discussed, was modernity which in vehicles were Judeo-Arabic context, this Within Persian. Turkish, and Arabic, in) read and Orit BashkinandDanielJ.Schroeter 40 love of, and identification with, Arab and Egyptian cultures. Egyptian and Arab great with, his identification and of,expressed love and Qu’ran the praised He intellectual: Muslim any of writing “passed” the writing as Ṣannūʿ’s elites. European Westernized for local remedy the of a corruption as the colonialism) and combat colonialism to order in Muslims all of unity the for he life; his in role limited was an Egyptian patriot and supported thePan-Islamic very ideology (an ideologythatcalled a played Jewishness Ṣannūʿ’s that seems It colonization. because ofhisbitingcriticismtheEgyptianpoliticalelites,whomhefeltenabledEgypt’s Paris in exile into forced eventually was he journalist, and playwright, satirist, A 1912). (d. Jewish intellectual of the nahḍa the of intellectual Jewish ties offriendshipbetweenMuslimsandChristians”. Islam, demonstrating his love for Islam in frontof all thepeople, and tryingto strengthen the now respectandlovethishumbleservant,becausetheysee anIsraeliteraisingthebannerof “Muslims the that happiness his expresses and Islam to converted never he that clarified he debate andtheexchangeofideasinnewpublicspaces. for forums books, and newspapers through communication of mode a as and elite educated European languages were important cultural capital,andoftenservedasalinguafranca an importantvehicleforMuslimsinterestedinadvancingsociety. Incolonialsocieties, often became associatedto the languageofmodernityfor many Jews,butit alsobecame like Arabs, were categorized under the rubric of the Semitic peoples. Both Jews and Muslims aware ofthefactthatJewishintellectuals hadverypositiveideasaboutIslam,and that Jews, the nahḍa the Jewish journalistand feminist, to a whole host of Jewish translators, writers, and journalists, the modernistdiscoursestypicalofnahḍawī internalized Jews Arabic-speaking important, Most liberals. Egyptian of journal significant Ṣannūʿ’s support of Pan-Islamic politics mirrors the position of some of the Pan-Islamists writing into shift the marked nahḍa the and revolution constitutional Ottoman The transformed the Jewish sense of identity and modernity. 27 In the Maghrib under colonial rule, French rather than Arabic than rather French rule, colonial under Maghrib the In al-Muqtaṭaf and al-Hilāl as well as period was an Egyptian Jew by the name of Yaʿqūbof Ṣannūʿ name the by Jew Egyptian an was period print culture.From EstherMoyal,aSephardi 30 31 Moreover, Muslimintellectualswere 28

In oneofhisletters,however, read textswrittenbyMuslim al-Garīda, arguably the most 29 The most prominent for the Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 04:10 02 Oct 2021; For: 9781315675787, chapter02, 10.4324/9781315675787.ch02 his importantworksonIslamandJudaism. [d. ʿAlī Kurd Muḥammad intellectual 1953]) published a long obituary that depicted, life with and much admiration, the scholar’s Muslim Syrian the of initiative the through 1918 in Syria in (established Academy Language Arab the of journal the died, Goldziher When trust intheOttomanstate. convinced of the virtues of modern education, and his rulings encouraged Jews to put their Alliance the to grandson own his sent Somekh Rabbi innovations. scientific and technologies modern welcomed 1892) (d. Hosin Bekhor Shelomo and 1889), found similarsolutions. and questions similar with dealt who ʿAbduh, Muḥammad as such intellectuals and ulama, innovations. scientific In fact,importantparallelscanbedrawnbetweentheserabbisandMuslimreformers, new to openness great showed and revelation and reason between contradiction no saw they evoked), often was reformers and rabbis between opposition an and Egyptian traditions. Like Muslim reformers at the time (and in contrast to Europe, where (as termed by Zvi Zohar), represent the originality and inventiveness typical of the Levantine Protestant missionary education. Jewish rabbis such as Yitzhak Dayyan, “a maskil in Aleppo” conditions. JewsandOrthodoxChristianswereparticularlyambivalentaboutCatholic Christian OrthodoxandCopticclergymentoreplycometermswiththesenew leisure. urban to related practices new of These processesforcedMiddleEasternrabbis,SunniandShi’iulamaintellectuals, rise the and India; and Americas, the France, establishing ofcommunitiesMiddleEasternJewishandMuslimmigrantsinEngland, and norms into everyday life; improved modes of transportation; technological advances; the European, and American, Europeanized systems by of education; presented the penetration challenges of Westernthe cultural included habits which modernity, to related phenomena similar with deal to had period this in Jews and Muslims modernity.Both and stagnation, religious science, reform, revelation, between relationship the to relating questions similar modern realities took shape – meant that Middle Eastern Jewish thinkers were engaged with context whereideasabouttheneedtoreformIslamicpractices,laws,anddiscoursesinlightof uprising in Egypt, an anti-colonial revolt that led to the occupation of Egypt by Britain. by Egypt of occupation the to led that revolt anti-colonial an Egypt, in uprising with met ʿUrābī the and for sympathy expressed he Europe, to 1897) return his After reformers. Muslim other (d. al-Afghānī al-Dīn Jamāl with intellectual friendship Pan-Islamic a formed prominent 1921), the (d. Goldziher Ignaz intellectual Jewish time, the at law unimaginative features of Semitic culture published in 1884. The greatest scholar of Islamic theology and and conservative the on reflections 1892) (d. Renan’s Ernest to responded modern agesaying: into newnotionsofcitizenship andpatriotism,asnationstatesemergedintheregion. century,twentieth the in transformed, be would State the of people the with one Becoming The fact that Middle Eastern and North African Jewish thought was conceptualized – in a upon us...forall[Jewsandgentiles]havebecomealmostas onepeople. Turkeyin as libel well cast as will Europe, one of No cities Empire]. the Ottoman [the At Presentthe Time, in especially sweetened... been has exile in life Jewish God, thank 34 In Baghdad, Rabbi Joseph Haim (d. 1903), ʿAbdallāh Somekh (d. Somekh ʿAbdallāh 1903), (d. Haim Joseph Rabbi Baghdad, In 35 Inalettertohisnephew, hecelebratedtheachievementsof 33 Historical themesinmoderntimes school becausehewas 36

41 32

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 04:10 02 Oct 2021; For: 9781315675787, chapter02, 10.4324/9781315675787.ch02 villages to cities, from towns to cities, and from Jewish to mixed neighborhoods. These from migration: and movement constant by society,brought larger the of transformations century, accelerated during the interwar period. Jews experienced the socioeconomic in commonurbanspacesand toforgenewbondsinthepublicsphere. Muslim countrieswererarely seenasathreat.JewsandMuslimscontinuedtointermingle in living Jews worsened, Palestine in conflict the as 1930s later the until and WorldWarI, small growth ofinterfaithandethnictensions,itisimportantto notethatintheyearsfollowing relatively their and arena, political number allowed them a certain degree the of autonomy from which they benefited. Despite the outside remained most protests, workers’ Egypt especially, supportedtheanti-colonialmovement, andwereactiveinunions and Iraq in efforts nation-building in participated Jews some While period. the typified all marginalization their against women and workers of protests and Anti-colonial rebellions, tribal countryside. revolts, rebellious the and cities capital between and groups, minority constant tensionsbetweencolonizersandcolonized, majoritygroupsandreligious and North African countries sought to gain complete independence. Amid this process were affected bysimilarprocessesof nationalism and state- andnation-buildingasMiddleEastern and states independent partially colonies or or those under independent French between or British rule – or domination period – Muslim-Jewish interwar relations were the in Africa men went to the battlefields; some perished from hunger and disease. and hunger from perished some battlefields; the to went men authorities without serving in the military. Women, children, and elderly were left behind as drafted Ottoman the were from escape to men managed others while Jewish served, some Jews. Army; Ottoman the Eastern into Middle among terror and trauma created I War nation new of Worldrelationships. Muslim-Jewish emergence in change accelerated which the East, Middle the in and states Empire Ottoman the to end an brought I WarWorld 1914–1936 Jews andMuslimsinthenewnationstatesundercolonialrule, Orit BashkinandDanielJ.Schroeter 42 landscape oftheinterwaryearsinMaghrib. Jews werenotactiveparticipantsinpoliticallife,allaffectedbytheshifting most While lived. they which in countries the with affiliating identifying to power from colonial the tendencies with political multiple the and population Muslim the and settlers between MuslimsandJewswereaffected.oftencaughttheEuropean relations colonized, and colonizers the between grew tensions TunisiaAs of Morocco. and Nationalism and, eventually, anti-colonial struggle ensued in Algeria and in the protectorates in Morocco, met with considerable resistance to military occupation and colonial rule. and increasethenumberofsettlers.TheItaliansinLibya,French andSpanish and tothenationalculturessurroundingthem. that were solidified during the 1920s, as Jews considered their applicability to their daily lives of when IsraelservedasameltingpotforJewsfromMuslimlands,theseareoldercategories categories context, the Israeli later that and Palestinian the think in shaped were to Sephardi and tend Ashkenazi, Mizraḥi, we While processes. historical these in participants new hierarchies and new identities, which affected the lives of even the most reluctant state. ThesechangescomplicatedtiesbetweenMuslimandJewishcommunitiescreated independent an as Turkeyemerged while French, the under Lebanon and Syria and rule, Trans-JordanBritish Iraq, under Palestine, in mandates established Nations of League the Urbanization and the expansion of trading networks, a process that began in the nineteenth While there were significant differences between countries in the Middle East and North In the Maghrib after World War I, the European powers attempted to tighten their grip their tighten to attempted powers European the WorldWarI, after Maghrib the In 38 37 Following thewar, Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 04:10 02 Oct 2021; For: 9781315675787, chapter02, 10.4324/9781315675787.ch02 Arab nation,surfacedaswell, especiallyinIraq. the to belonged who faith Jewish the of Jew,member Arab a the of of identity the denoting Jew,(Egyptian patriotism local Persian/Iranian Jew, Jew,Iraqi category the while on), so and was Another category that was applied at the time (and which originated in the Ottoman period) the in pride taking idea thattheyfoundrefugeinterritoriesbelongingtothe Ottoman EmpireandMorocco. earlier), (or 1492 in Spain from exiled were who Jews of descendants Turkey,Palestine,Syria, namely,Sephardim, as themselves of Africathought the North and Egypt, in Jews Many identity: Jewish of frameworks new produced ideas nationalist These Turkishand Persian, Arabic, became of more important Knowledge in each Christians. nation-state, as and modern Muslims, standard Arabic Jews, and modern for built were schools the interwaryears,education systemintheMiddleEastexpanded,andmorepublic theyprojected. nation the of image secular the with identified and construction their in part took thus minorities religious of members and a role, limited played Islam narratives, historical Turkey.such in In Sumerian and Hittite and Iran, in a national past which was pre-Islamic: Pharaonic in Egypt, Phoenician in Lebanon, Sassanian Middle East began discovering their ancient pasts. Forms of local patriotism thus celebrated emphasizing theeternalnatureoftheseverynascentstates,newnation-statesin who mostly spoke Kurdish and Aramaic, or the Jews of Berber (Amazigh) regions of the mountains. Atlasof Moroccan regions (Amazigh) Berber of Jews the or Aramaic, and Kurdish spoke Turkey,mostly and who Iraq Iran, of regions Kurdish the in lived who Jews the like towns, and cities recently migratedtothebigcities.RuralJewsoccupiedhinterlandsofMiddleEastern as the old Jewish quarters in many cities were populated by poorer Jews, some of whom had neighborhoods with mixed populations, poor neighborhoods at the outskirts of cities as well and middle-classJewsmovedfrompurelyJewishneighborhoodstomoremodernized many Jews in governmental and private offices as clerks and trained professionals. As upper- Muslim-Jewish partnershipsintermsoftradeandcommerceaswelltheemployment more enabled and communication and transportation in improvements the from benefited shops, cinemas, clubs, and sport stadiums of the cities and in the workplace. Trading networks changes alsobroughtnewpatternsofMuslim-Jewishrelations,inthestreets,shops,coffee and Arab Muslims and Christians belong to the same ethnic universe in this construct. this in universe ethnic same the to belong Christians and Muslims Arab and world’s first writing and legal systems and inspired great civilizations and empires made Jews that the Semites contributed to the world its three monotheistic religions as well as the already intheculturalmagazinesoflatenineteenthcentury. Theemphasisonthefact nationalists, however, werealsointerestedinSemiticcultures,aninterestthatwasexpressed identity. national their of Pan-Arab component cultural a as Islam they, with identified too, Arabs. These types of nationalism sometimes excluded Jews, although some Jews wrote that all by shared identity national the of components cultural the as Islam and language Arabic Arab all states, emerged alongside the local forms of nationalism, and its supporters highlighted the of unity the for called which nationalism, Pan-Arab of form a East, Middle Arab states andasfoundationaltothenationalistmovementsinanti-colonialstruggle.In nation- these of many of religion official the declared was Islam though even Jews, many to based onbelongingtothenationalcommunity, ratherthantoareligiousgroup,appealed Muslim partners. with touch close in often traders, and peddlers, peasants, farmers, as worked Jews villages, the in while goldsmiths, and shopkeepers, merchants, clerks, as worked they where period, Jews and Muslims interacted with each other to a greater degree in this period. During period. this in degree greater a to other each with interacted Muslims and Jews narratives historical cement to attempt an in and efforts nation-building their of part As Sharqī, Oriental,orMizraḥimeaningtheJewsofEast.Othercategoriesemphasized 40 39 ManyJewishvillagersmigratedtocitiesduringtheinterwar 44 Historical themesinmoderntimes 41 Theideaofcitizenship 43 43 42

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 04:10 02 Oct 2021; For: 9781315675787, chapter02, 10.4324/9781315675787.ch02 sometimes intimateways. as religiousminoritiessharing a commonexperienceandinteractingwithoneanother in FrenchWorldthe in in military numbers large in served also WarMuslims and Jews both I, dominant majority. before the modern period, rarely did Jews read and write in the literate languages of the them; in write or read to able being without usually although connections, trading their of so on – because of the ethnic composition of the border regions where they lived or because Persian,Arabic, of dialects various Kurdish,the – languages Turkish,local three Berber, and or two speak to how knew often smugglers and merchants, petty peddlers, Jewish dialects. regional vernaculars,andJewscommunicatedwiththeir Muslimneighborsinthelocal the of variations the reflected Judeo-Arabic religious of example, for for dialects, the of used Some purposes. be to continued also Hebrew and languages Jewish These Aramaic. or Judeo-Persian,or Ladino), (or Judeo-Spanish Judeo-Arabic, of dialects regional various the the same time, Jews continued to speak, read, and write in the distinctively Jewish languages: AtChristians. grew,and Muslims, Jews, between communication of modes new facilitating the twentiethcentury. Knowledge ofboth European and national languagesofthecountries cinema, thetheater, andeventhebrothel. also saw, andbefriended,Muslimsinschoolsuniversities,the localcoffeeshops,the politically,involved not were who Jews course). of fascism, of exception the however,(with of theseideologiesandculturaloptionsaspoliticians,philanthropists,patriots,feminists circle every almost in role a played Jews indeed and fascism, and Zionist) and local, Iranian, Turkish,democracy,(Arab, social-democracy,communism, nationalism liberalism, as such twentieth centuryofferedawiderangeofideologicalapproachestopoliticsandculture, the of half first The houses. publishing and rooms editorial newspapers’ associations, and institutions: the political party, the anti-colonial demonstration, the workplace, cultural clubs minimized theroleofreligioninpubliclife.JewsandMuslimsattendedsamepolitical Turkeyand further Iran, and Iraq, Egypt, in increased institutions national of development as lawyers,administrators,bureaucrats,andglobalmerchants.Secularizationthe Muslim majority. aspect ofthecivicculturethat wasdeveloping,andmanyJewsadoptedthelanguagesof the important Turkish,an (Arabic, Persian)became language and national the in literacy Iran), schools, a prerequisite for success and advancement in the colonial economy or civil service. grow,and thoughinproportionslessthanJews,MuslimsalsoincreasedenrollmentEuropean to continued Libya) in Italian Morocco; northern in Spanish (or French in schools that survived the Arab-Muslim conquest. Arab-Muslim the survived that celebrated asthegreatachievementofpre-Islamicpastandonefewlanguages Turkish replaced the role of Ottoman Turkish, while the Persian language was reformed and Orit BashkinandDanielJ.Schroeter 44 itself wasoftenlocatedinthelocalcafé). rather listenedtothemastheyweretransmittedbynationalandlocalradiostations(the Muslims whodidnotactuallyattendtheperformancesoftheirfavoriteJewishsuperstars al-Fāssia. Zahra of music the to listen brethren Moroccan their while al-Kuwaytī, Dāwūd joyfully to the songs of Jewish artist Salīma Murād, composed by Jewish musicians Ṣāliḥ and listened – alike Christians and Jews, Shi’is, Sunnis, – Iraqis success; commercial enormous Jewish and audiences inEgyptadmiredtheJewishsingerandactressLeilaMurad,whosemusicalsgained Christian, Muslim, scenes: cinematic and musical the in involved much very The linguistic landscape of Jews in the Middle East and North Africa was transformed in working period, interwar the in emerged that economies the from benefited Jews Many In the independent Middle Eastern states of the interwar years (especially Iraq, Turkey, and 51 In the Arab Middle East, some Jews called themselves “Arab Jews”, while 50 47 49 48 45 Jews in the Middle East and North Africa were Africa North and East Middle the in Jews In colonial North Africa, Jewish attendance at attendance Jewish Africa, North colonial In 46

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 04:10 02 Oct 2021; For: 9781315675787, chapter02, 10.4324/9781315675787.ch02 Muslim andJews,especiallyinthemodernsectorsofcities. language alsohelpedtofosternewmodesofcommunicationandbondsbetween between MuslimsandJewsintheMaghrib,itisimportanttoemphasizethatFrench nationalists who were seeking to reclaim Arabic as the national language. While the gap grew for agrowingnumberofMuslims,andanimportantmodecommunication,even educational system (which became known by its Arabic title, Jewish dominant the still curriculum, Alliance’s the into integrated was Arabic literary that remained, community Jewish sizeable a where (1956), independence Moroccan after only citizenship forJews,intheMaghribliteracyEuropeanlanguagescontinuedtogrow. Itwas Muslim societyandtocommunicatewiththeircompatriots. to articulatetheirdesiresforpoliticalindependence,socialreform,andintegrationinthe in newwrittengenres,especiallythenewspaperarticle,editorial,andshortstory, connection to Arab ethnicity rather than the Islamic religion. In Iraq, Jews were a also engaged indicate to used frequently most was Jew Arab term the context, Iraqi the Within places. speaking community with whose members they traded, studied, and intermingled in various period interwar in that they wrote the in Arabic, enjoyed of Arabic music and drama, culture and lived in Arabo-Islamic an Arabic- the of part a much very were all yet not; did others ay es a ltl o n ivleet n h Zoit oeet ad oe repudiated some and movement, Zionist the in involvement no or little had Jews many that fact the of Despite countries. own some their in businesses nationalists, Jewish boycotting for Arab called whom for point rallying a became aboutbythe that and brought (1936–1939), especially revolt Arab inPalestine, ofconflict intensification the was first The challenge thetiesthathadbonded MuslimsandJewsasnationalcitizensorcolonialsubjects. lands that was to Muslim occur after from the birth of Jews the State of of Israel and emigration the decolonization of massive the Arab world. the 1948, before period the in anticipated, was rampant.Few imaginedafutureinmetropolitanFrance. NeitherMuslims norJews France, theywererejectedbymuchofthe Europeanpiedsnoirssociety, whereanti-Semitism remained citizenship, French connected culturallytoMuslims,andthoughtheyhadbecome increasinglyacculturatedto their with Jews, Algerian 1948. after until countries African remain, andtherewasrelativelylittlemovementtoPalestine fromMiddleEasternandNorth to intended they if as sphere public the in participate to continued Zionists Even lived. they colonial states,mostMuslimsandJewsimaginedacommon futureinthecountrieswhich of subjects as or citizenship national of bonds the by tied Whether lines. religious and ethnic same countries,inwhichpoliticalandideologicaldivisionswere notsharplydemarcatedalong tensions majority-minority the was asenseofsharedculturebetweenMuslims,Christians,andJewsasinhabitantsthe to owing – While sphere. harmonious produced by the birth pangs of new nation states or by the divisiveness of colonialism – there public always the not in interactions were their relationships increase to continued Jews and Muslims Until the late 1930s in both the independent nation states and in countries under colonialism, Struggle inPalestine,World War II,anddecolonization of thecolonialpower. Muslim community, asJewsbecameincreasinglydrawntoandassociatedwiththeculture the with gap the widened education WesternEuropean a or to access with Jews of number Spanish innorthernMorocco,andItalianLibya.Ontheonehand,disproportionate places, most in French communication: of language modern the became that colonizer the In contrast to independent Iraq, where literacy in modern Arabic became a near requisite of From the 1930s two important and increasingly interconnected developments began to began developments interconnected increasingly and important two 1930s the From 54 Ontheotherhand,French alsobecameincreasinglyimportant Ittiḥād). Historical themesinmoderntimes 53 52 It was the language of 45 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 04:10 02 Oct 2021; For: 9781315675787, chapter02, 10.4324/9781315675787.ch02 the repressive measures against the Jews. In 1942, the Muslim reformist leader in Algiers, in leader reformist Muslim the 1942, In Jews. the against measures repressive the any manifestations of nationalist activities. Indeed, some leading Muslim figures denounced the French fascists to continue to maintain tight control over France’s colonies and to quash be accompaniedwithgranting Muslimsmorerightsandhadfewillusionsabouttheaim of to begainedfromthedemotion oftheJewswhich,theyunderstoodverywell,would not were undermined.Theeducated elite,andsomeoftheulamanationalists,alsosawlittle could that interdependency economic of kind adversely affectthelivelihoods ofthepopulationasawholeifJewisheconomicinterests a was there that society in Jews the were Muslim reactions tothemeasureswere generally tepid,ifnot apprehensive. Soimbedded support fortheanti-Jewishlegislationandgreateracceptance oftheFrench regimeasaresult, Muslim invoke to hoped had FrenchYet the measures. if anti-Jewish the of consequence a Others circles. may have stood to gain from losses of property nationalist or businesses or the remission of debts as some in root take to begun had that 1930s the in ideas Semitic anti- of growth the of because or Decree, Crémieux the of result the as Algeria in especially measures againsttheJews,whomtheysawashavinggained advantagesundercolonialism, 1941). 2, and 1 (June coup military pro-German a of failure the following Baghdad as theFarhūd, inwhichmorethan170Jewsweremurderedaseriesofurbanriots known Iraq, in occurred event notorious particularly Worlda Warof II, outbreak the After embraced anti-Semitic ideology in the context of countering the or Zionist nations), menace in both Palestine.of heritage Aryan shared the underlined also example, for Hedayat, Abas challenge the dominance of British and French colonialism in the region (the Iranian thinkers, worth emulating, felt that a strategic alliance with Germany, Italy, and Japan would help to as efforts modernization Nazi and fascist the saw who those Turkishamong were thinkers and Iranian of Arslan; number a as Torrèswell Khalek Shakib as Abdel Morocco Iraq; in in Shakwat Geneva, Sami in exile in nationalist pan-Islamic Lebanese Lebanon; in Sa’adeh Antun Palestine; in al-Ḥusaynī Amīn Ḥajj anti-Semitism. and fascism, Nazism, to turned with NazismincertainMiddleEasterncircles. development oftheperiodwasrisefascismandagrowingsympathyortacticalalliance second The increased. Zionism with Jews local all associate to tendency the altogether, it Orit BashkinandDanielJ.Schroeter 46 citizenship rights. Frenchof Jews stripping abrogated, was Decree Crémieux the Algeria, In cities. of number of Morocco,expellingJewsfromtheEuropeanneighborhoodsinnouvellesvillesa numerus claususrestrictingthenumberofJewsadmittedtopublicschoolsand,incase Jewish lawsthatexcludedJewsfromvariousprofessionsandeconomicactivities,established the Africa, North French In countries. colonial authoritiesthatwerenowpartoftheVichygovernmentimplementedanti- occupied German the in Jews other as fate same the suffered Tunisian,Europe Turkishof in and Jews lived Egyptian, who Algerian, origins Jews fromLibyaandTunisia weredeportedtotheEuropeanconcentrationanddeathcamps, of number small a only While camp. the in prevailed that conditions poor the by weakened epidemic, typhoid a in perished Cyrenaica, from primarily Jews, 500 about where Libya, in 6-month German occupation (November 1942–May the Tunisia1943), and during in the Giado camps internment camp labor the were severe Particularly Morocco). (primarily in Jews Jews foreign many interned which Africa, North across established were camps labor forced of Dozens France. unoccupied in Vichy in established government collaborationist Tunisia andtheItalianfascistregimeinLibya,asFrench coloniesbecameapartofthe of occupation military German the with conditions, perilous very under lived Jews African Some oftheMuslimpopulationinMaghribmayhave applaudedthediscriminatory militants anti-colonial and intellectuals, radical nationalists, some 1930s, late the In 57 55 56 North Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 04:10 02 Oct 2021; For: 9781315675787, chapter02, 10.4324/9781315675787.ch02 and operated in Turkey and Iran. Tunisiaof Frenchprotectorates the in and Morocco, 1940s and the during Egypt and Syria, Iraq, as such countries in spread undergrounds and groups Jewish Zionist help, initial their With Palestine. in labor Arab replace could who workers as particular in valued were Jews Yemeniand Kurdish and communities Jewish in interested were emissaries Zionist WarII. Worldafter greatly expanded activities their of extent the and numbers Yemen);their (for Middle East. Ashkenazi Zionist emissaries were sent to the Muslim lands as early as the 1910s Muslim brethrentojointheiranti-fascistmovement. influence of Nazi ideas and conduct boycotts of German goods and services, calling on their and Maghrib the in Jews Egypt formed 1930s, branches of the LICA (Ligue In International Contre Muslims. l’Antisémitisme) to and counter the Jews both for society and state a of vision religion-less and classless a offered communism nationalisms, Jewish and Arab both Challenging positions. leadership took often they where region, the in elsewhere and Iran, Palestine, Iraq, Egypt, Tunisia,Algeria, Morocco, in illegal) (often parties communist and nationalists whoturnedtofascismoranti-Semitism,ledmanyJewsjoinsocialdemocratic meaningful resistance. saved JewsduringtheFarhūd. who neighbors and friends Iraqi and Africa; North in neighbors Jewish their assisted who neighbors Muslim USSR; saw the and who classes working the communists of enemies or as Nazism democrats and fascism social Ethiopia; of occupation the after particularly colonialism, German–Italian of threat the by troubled nationalists systems; protectorate and pro-British 1941; in and pro-French localpoliticianswhoreliedonforeignpatronagecreatedunderthemandate fall its bemoaning and France in educated liberals Muslim included Muslim worldthatchallengedtheirpeerswhoespousedfascistviews.Theanti-fascistcamp the within segments those Worldare about ignored Wardiscussions Often in II. leitmotif a Palestine, theassociationofMuslimstofascistsandNazisduringThirdReichhasbecome states such as Iraq, Egypt, and Syria in the Palestinian campaign. Most important, Zionists important, Most campaign. of Palestinian the failure in Syria the and Egypt, Iraq, to as such led states that reasons the regarding discussions comfortable true a deflect to Zionist, as a so with scapegoat equated was Jew every Increasingly, point. turning a war were 1948 the after and during Jews against governments Arab by taken the actions and repressive conflict Palestine the of wake the in came that Africa North and East Middle the across businesses Jewish against attacks and quarters Jewish in riots The wars. Arab-Israeli subsequently, and, the Palestine in conflict the with up bound became Jews African North and Eastern YetMiddle saved. of increasingly,been Zionism have the could they Palestine, Holocaust andtherecognitionthathadEuropeanJewsbeen allowedtocomemandatory the to response a as Zionism supported countries Eastern Middle in Ashkenazi Jews with Some Zionists. closely interacted former the while countries, respective their public of the spheres in Zionism of critiques daily to exposed were latter The countries. Arab other ruler and protector of all his subjects, including the Jews, and undercut his first steps in steps first his undercut asserting himselfasnationalleader.and Jews, the including subjects, his all of protector and ruler he subtlyobjectedtosomeaspectsofthelawsthatwouldunderminehisroleasanIslamic the authorities, by French produced legislation all to decree royal by imprimatur official his V), formally promulgated the Vichy-instigated anti-Jewish statutes, as he was required to give French fascists. Shaykh Taieb ordered el-Okbi, Muslims not to attack Jews as they were being urged to do by The first half of the twentieth century also saw the rise of Zionist movements in the in movements Zionist of rise the saw also century twentieth the of half first The Arab those from especially nationalism, of forms local from disappointment partial The issueof the over Jews and Muslims between conflict ongoing the of context the In 58 While the sultan of Morocco, Mohamed Ben Youssef (later King Mohamed 60 In short,thepro-fascistandpro-Nazicampwasmetwith 62 HereadistinctionshouldbemadebetweenPalestine and 59 61 Historical themesinmoderntimes 47 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 04:10 02 Oct 2021; For: 9781315675787, chapter02, 10.4324/9781315675787.ch02 and French culture. France to assimilate to goal their countering as Zionism considered schools public French or Alliance in educated many Africa, North of Frenchcolonies In well. as lands Muslim in that Zionism harmed their position in their home countries by its claim to represent all Jews felt all communists and patriots, and nationalists Jewish liberals, rabbis, countries; their in integration to threat grave a as Zionism saw Palestine mandatory outside living Jews Many vision became moreanddifficulttomaintain. this Palestinians, the against actions Jewish the also typified murders and lynching where and murdered were Jews Sephardi many which in Heaven), Seventh the to journey nocturnal his during Muslims believe the Prophet Muhammad tetheredhis steed (burāq) as Palestinians by (known 1929 of revolt national Palestinian the after particular in worsened, Palestine in conflict the However,as Jews. and Arabs between mediators the as themselves presented and Arabic, to Hebrew from and Hebrew to Arabic from translated They about. Christians, formisunderstandingIslamicculture,andthedamagetheiractivitiesbrought and Muslims Arab the mistreating for Jews European critiqued Jews Sephardi by published their homelandandhadalegitimaterighttosettlethere.Nonetheless,articlesessays country andlikewisefeltthatJewswhowerepersecutedinEuropecouldconsiderPalestine believed thatJewishmigrationtoOttomanandmandatoryPalestine couldhelpdevelopthe 1950s, completelycollapsedthedifferencebetweenJudaismandZionism. and postcolonial elites, whose members ousted the monarchies in Egypt and Iraq during the distinguished communists and nationalists Christian between Zionism and Judaism, while other national and elites, especially Pan-Arab, chauvinistic, Muslim Some well: as varied to willing make bold moves in order to realize their goals. were The responses of the Arab elites to Zionism and radical more became movements Zionist these however, 1948, Israel. Afterto emigration was necessary was that all that said hand, other the on Zionists, The communism. democracy,and social socialism, liberalism, approaches: of range a of merits poverty, discrimination,andclassdisparities,wereboggeddowninheateddebatesaboutthe of the upperand middle classes. Leftist Jews,who were similarly concernedwith ending the gapsbetweenrichandpoormenwomensocialconservatism societies: their in saw Jews Eastern Middle that ills societal all to solution simple a offered Orit BashkinandDanielJ.Schroeter 48 or circumstance, becomingMoroccancitizens andreconstitutingamuch diminished,yet V restrictedJewishemigration, thousandsofJewsremainedinthecountryoutchoice Franceor to emigrated Canada. nationality, When Cadima was closed down after hadMoroccan independence French and King Mohamed of whom some affluent, more the Israel, Tunisia),(and to Morocco went from emigrants Jewish poorer the of most While 1953. in the after especially emigration, Israeli quota policy for – established to restrict up the number of Moroccan immigrants signed – was lifted many Casablanca, in Agency Jewish the by agents beganorganizingandencouragingemigrationthrough Cadima,anorganizationrun independence independent Arab states. Many Jews, especially in Morocco, were for destitute, and when Israeli struggle the amid because and theimminentdepartureofFrench authorities,theyfearedfortheirfutureinthe but organizations Zionist in involvement of activitiesbytheIsraeligovernment.ThemajorityJews leftnotbecauseofpolitical and Algeria in 1962. It was part of a twofold process of decolonization and the intensification cases, both in 1956 in Tunisiancame and which Moroccan independence, of approach the Africa began in 1948, the mass emigration of Jews from North Africa began in the 1950s with , pre b roig vr oto o te aln Wl (h pae where place (the Wall Wailing the of control over rioting by sparked al-burāq), thawrat n at o te rb ol, oee, eih poiin o ins ws considerable. was Zionism to opposition Jewish however, world, Arab the of parts In In Palestine, thesituationwasdifferent.Inanearlierperiod,someSephardiJews 65 While some waves of emigration from the French colonies of North of colonies French the from emigration of waves some While 64 63 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 04:10 02 Oct 2021; For: 9781315675787, chapter02, 10.4324/9781315675787.ch02 for repatriation. is supportedbyJewishorganizationswhouseitasacardtoplayagainstPalestinian claims Jews from Arab countries, hence entitling them to compensation for their loss of property, are refugees, victims of Arab persecution. The campaign to recognize the refugee status of their forefathers. Furthermore, it has often been argued that the Jews from Arab countries ofland the to return to Jews of “messianic”, as countries Islamic of Jews the for described sometimes yearnings, age-old the ignited Israel and Zionism while citizens, as minorities of nationstateswhereIslamisthedominantreligiontoacceptandintegrateitsJewish explained as the culmination of centuries of oppression of Muslim rule, and the failure Arab in Jews mistreated states and endangered their well-being. occasionally countries, Arab from migrate to Jews encourage to desire its in Israel), of State the later (and movement Zionist the that safety,suggest their for responsible organizations Zionist American and Israeli various the of incompetence the the and Iraq, and deaths ofdozensYemeniteIsrael JewsasthecommunitymovedfromYemenbetween toIsrael,due negotiations the in chip bargaining a became Jews Iraqi of property the which in Iraq, in property Jewish over government between Iraqi negotiations the and the Zionists However, Iraq. in especially governments, Arab by taken steps endangered Jewishcommunities. Many Jewswantedto leave because of the anti-Jewish in Ottoman, Qajar, and Egyptian lands and yet, during the course of the late nineteenth late the of course the during yet, and lands Egyptian and Qajar, Ottoman, in communism, andnationalism. True, Jewishsubjectswerefarfrom enjoyingfullrights yet inthisincreasinglyglobalized world,theydebatedsuchtheoriesassocialdemocracy, were eitherundercolonialrule orindependentnation-statesunderforeignhegemony, that countries in together lived Muslims century, and twentieth Jews the of half first the In change. social and justice, equality,social for hopes many shared they where sphere, and Jewsapartbutalsobrought thesetworeligiouscommunitiestogetherinthepublic not onlycolonialism,capitalistexploitation,andnational chauvinismthatdrewMuslims the modernperiod.Innineteenthandtwentiethcenturies, modernitybroughtwithit politics inIsraelontotheMuslim-Jewishpastmisrepresents Muslim-Jewishrelationsin Mizraḥi as well as communities these of uprooting painful the project to world, Muslim displacement processesthatendedinthedestructionof theJewishcommunitiesin period. contributing totheruptureofMuslim-Jewishrelations thatdevelopedinthemodern Zionist, a as Jew every identify to came reasons, own their for each who, Zionists/Israelis and thinkers nationalists/Muslim Arab both between relationship dialectical complicated and individual motivations for emigration, clouding our understanding of a much more the disregard manner, undifferentiated wide variationsofcircumstancesbetweencountriesandregionscollective an in “refugees” as Jews all together lump that the piedsnoirs. citizens, settledinFrance, departingontheeveofindependencewithcolonialsettlers, Frenchwere who Jews, of majority vast The dramatic: more war,much protracted was and bloody a underwent which Algeria, community.with Jewish severance substantial The still the conflationofallEgyptianJewstoZionismandIsrael. strengthen to only seemed Zone, Canal Suez the at presence military their evacuating from British the dissuade to also perhaps and country the destabilize to Alexandria and Cairo in Egyptian Jews organized by Israeli military intelligence to sabotage Western and public places The emigration of Jews to Israel from the Middle East and North Africa has often been often activities Zionist and Israel with relations 1948 after East Middle Arab the In While the conflict in Palestine and the Israeli-Arab wars were important factors in the in factors important were wars Israeli-Arab the and in Palestine conflict the While 66 69 TheseexplanationsfortheemigrationofJewsfromMuslimcountries, 67 Operation Susannah in 1954, an espionage ring of ring espionage an 1954, in Susannah Operation 68 Historical themesinmoderntimes 49 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 04:10 02 Oct 2021; For: 9781315675787, chapter02, 10.4324/9781315675787.ch02

Notes cultures, andpubliclife,asJewscitizens. countries inwhichtheylivedastheirhomelandsandwishedtoshapepolitics, Muslim the saw 1948, until Jews, these of many loyalties, contradictory sometimes and overlapping the despite that fact the reflect moreover, demands, These them. demanded countries theyrealizedthatdeservedrightsasmoderncitizensand,attimes, century andespeciallyinthetwentiethcentury, inboththenation-statesandcolonized Orit BashkinandDanielJ.Schroeter 50

14 13 12 11 10 9 8 2 1 5 4 7 6 3

VIIe siècle(Paris: Perrin, 1999),pp.168–172. Alto, CA:StanfordUniversityPress, 2007),pp.56–59,88–95. (Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1983), pp. 80–99. The 80–99. pp. 1983), YorkPress, New of Morocco University Morocco: 1862–1962 (Albany,State NY: of case the for 172–174; specifically, Laskier, M. Michael pp. see 2000), Larose, & Maisonneuve en movement(Paris: Taïeb, Jacques see Alliance, the to Maghrib the in opposition on 47–70; pp. 1990), Press, University Indiana IN: (Bloomington, Rodrigue, Turkey, Aron in see Jews, Turkish schools Jews:TheAllianceIsraéliteUniverselleandthePolitics new ofJewishSchoolinginTurkey the to challenges local On 1911). Alcan, Narcisse Leven, Masters, Green, Abigail ff.; 123 Press, 2010), pp. 300–319, 365–367; Michel Abitbol, 1994), Humaines, Sciences des Montefiore: et Jewish Liberator, Imperial Hero (Cambridge, Lettres MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University des Faculté la de Mohammed K Daniel Antisemitic “Arabic Haim, G. Sylvia literature: somepreliminarynotes,”JewishSocialStudies,17:4(1955):307–312. 2004); Press, Wisconsin of University WI: (Madison, Florence, Ronald 1997); Press, University Cambridge Jonathan Steven Uran,vol.1,227–232). Chicago Press, 2014),pp.15,42–56. Meddeb andBenjaminStora(Princeton, NJ:Princeton University Press, 2013),pp.286–291. Decree,” in Antisemitism/Anti-Zionism,” Norman Sarah EJIW] Onur déracinement, 1850–1975(Paris: Tallandier, 2012). Bensoussan, Georges by book voluminous the in found is world deterioration The approachofmuchthescholarshiponMuslim-Jewishrelationsthattracesprogressive 121; Yaron Tsur, “‘Ahd al-Amān,”EJIW, vol.1,93–94. Barbey, 1938),pp.157–172. Steven Brunswick, NJ:RutgersUniversityPress, 2010). Joshua Schreier P Maurice F 1864–1913,” InternationalJournalforContemporaryIraqiStudies,4:3(2010): Orit Avigdor Levy(Syracuse,NY: SyracuseUniversityPress, 2002),pp.88–107. The Periphery: and “Center Century,”19th in Schroeter, J. Daniel 134–141; Changing Relationship between the Jews of the Arab pp. Middle East and the Ottoman State in the 2001), Press, University Christians andJewsintheOttomanArabWorld:Cambridge TheRootsofSectarianism(Cambridge: aul Sebag, aul Bashkin, “‘Religious hatred shall disappear from the land’: Iraqi Jews as Ottoman Subjects, Yildirim,“Tanzimat Period,”Reforms, beaa Stein, Abrevaya Tsadik, d Nra A Stillman A. Norman ed. rn “rmex Decree,” “Crémieux Uran, Christians andJewsintheOttomanArabWorld, pp.156–168. Frankel, . tlmn İkr yük See Ua, n Jnta Fn, “Anti-Judaism/ Fine, Jonathan and Uran, Steven Aytürk, İlker Stillman, A. Cio Ipiei Paul Imprimerie JuifsenEgyptedepuislesoriginesjusqu’àcejour(Cairo: argeon, Les A HistoryofJewish-MuslimRelationsfromtheOriginstoPresent Day, eds. Abdelwahab Histoire desJuifsdeTunisie: desoriginsànosjours(Paris:L’Harmattan, 116– pp. 1991), of Muslim-Jewish relations leading to the mass emigration of Jews from the Arab enbib, JuifsetMusulmansauMaroc,1859–1948 (Rabat: Mohammed V, Publications Between Foreigners and Shi’is: Nineteenth-Century Iran and its Jewish Minority

, ArabsoftheJewishFaith: TheCivilizingMissioninColonialAlgeria(New Cinquante ansd’histoire–L’AllianceFélix (Paris: israéliteuniverselle(1860–1910) Jews, Turks, andOttomans:ASharedHistory, FifteenthtoTwentieth Centuries,ed. (New York: Politics,(New The Damascus Affair: ‘Ritual Murder’, and the Jews in 1840 Ciao I: nvriy of University IL: Saharan JewsandtheFate ofFrench Algeria(Chicago, EJIW Lie: rl, 00, o. , p 4143 Bue Masters, Bruce 461–463; pp. 4, vol. 2010), Brill, (Leiden: The AllianceIsraélite UniverselleandtheJewishCommunities of Sociétés juivesduMaghrebmodern (1500–1900):Unmonde EJIW, se eto o “lein ooil nieiim by Antisemitism” Colonial “Algerian on section (see o. , 8–9; ejmn tr, Te Crémieux “The Stora, Benjamin 688–690; 1, vol. Encylopedia ofJewsintheIslamicWorld [henceforth Le pass Le Blood Libel:TheDamascusAffairof1840 e d’unediscorde:JuifsetArabesdepuisle Juifs en pays arabes: Le grand Juifs enpaysarabes:Le 305–323. French Moses (Palo Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 04:10 02 Oct 2021; For: 9781315675787, chapter02, 10.4324/9781315675787.ch02

15 19 18 17 16 23 22 21 20

F 1984), pp.20–21,87–88. Publishers, Academic ArabJews:TheCommunities ofJerba,TunisiaThe Last Harwood (Chur: pressure toopenAllianceschoolsontheisland;seeAbrahamL.UdovitchandLucetteValensi, Jewish leadershipofthecommunitiesJerbawasabletoresistsecularizationandwithstand EJIW, York: ColumbiaUniversityPress, 2003),pp.29–48. (New Reguer Sara Laskier,and Menachem Michael Simon, Spector Modern Times,Reeva eds. in Life,” “Economic Simon, Spector Reeva and Laskier Menachem Michael 44–49; pp. 1998), Press, California of University (Berkeley,CA: Kedourie, “The Jews of Baghdad in 1910,” Elie 2011); Press, University Jews inEarlyTwentieth-Century Campos, Stanford CA: PalestineAlto, U.(Palo Michelle 1997); Press, California of Ottomanism, Arabism,andIslamismintheOttomanEmpire,1908–1918 (Berkeley,University CA: Era ofaSacredSong(Paloand theUrbanLandscape Alto,CA:StanfordUniversityPress, 2013). Laskier andSimon,“EconomicLife,”pp.40–42. Late Era, the in Morocco Northern from Century,”in Emigration Nineteenth Jewish Amazon: the on “Kippur Miller, East Middle the of Countries and Languages the in Publishing century,”nineteenth the in stop Jews Jews Iraqi of practices reading Baghdadi the about comments Some did Mainz? in brethren their “Why to writing Bashkin, Orit 2010); Civilization, Jewish of Library Littman his also see 191–202; (1998): 23:2 AJS Review Y Joel Middle EasternStudies,7:3(1971):357. 1910,” in Baghdad of Jews “The Shohet, Da’ud Harun and Kedourie Elie see Iraq, in school Jewish Ottoman an establish to idea the on 305–323; (2010): 4:3 for ContemporaryIraqiStudies, shall disappear from the land’, Iraqi Jews as Ottoman Subjects, 1864–1913,” hatred “Religious Bashkin, Orit schools, Ottoman in Jews Iraqi On 17–28. pp. 2011), Florida, of Press University FL: (Gainesville, YaacovLev and Laskier Political Turmoil,M. Michael ed. in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries,” in Education Jewish of Modernization the towards Attitudes “Ottoman 32–34; pp. 1990), Press, University Indiana Universelle andthePolitics ofJewishSchoolinginTurkey IN: (Bloomington, On 1993). 1939: TheTeachers oftheAllianceIsraéliteUniverselle (Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press, Julia (Chicago, IL:TheUniversityofChicagoPress, 1990),pp.35–51. Goldberg, E. Harvey 12–14; pp. 2014), Brill, Bat-Zion Sephardic Culture(Bloomington,IN:IndianaUniversityPress, 2005),pp.149–155,76–88. Lehmann, B. Matthias 233–268; Jews) Egyptian (on 261, Zohar, Zvi See leaders. religious interactions Jewish of secular reproach the in involving reflected are non-Jews activities and Jews leisure between of development The 97–109. (1994): 10 no. Valensi, siècles,” Lucette XXe see et XIXe cities), aux African communautaires North espaces publics, and “Espace Eastern Middle major other to apply could F Edwin Laskier andSimon,“EconomicLife,”pp.37–44. Sciarcon, “Unfulfilled promises: Ottomanism, the 1908 revolution and Baghdadi Jews,” andBaghdadi NY:Empire toEmpire:Jerusalembetween OttomanandBritishRule(Syracuse, 1908 revolution Jacobson, Abigail 155–168; the (2009): 3:2 International JournalofContemporary IraqiStudies, Ottomanism, promises: “Unfulfilled Sciarcon, Press, 2011). rn ae, Te is Jw fo Aep i Mnhse: e Dcmnay Evidence,” Documentary New Manchester: in Aleppo from Jews First “The Harel, aron r n vriw f h Alac, rn orge “line salt Uiesle Network,” Universelle Israélite “Alliance Rodrigue, Aron Alliance, the of overview an or or ananalysisofMuslimandJewishencountersinthenewpublicspacesTunisia (which

Ottoman state schools, see Aron Rodrigue, Aron see schools, state Ottoman Beinin, ed. Harvey E. Goldberg (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press,University Indiana IN: (Bloomington, Goldberg E. 190–209; Harvey pp. ed. 1996), (New hlis Cohen, Phillips vol. 1, 171–180; Aron 171–180; 1, vol. Seroussi, “Music,” Rabbinic CreativityintheModernMiddleEast (London, U.K.: Bloomsbury, 2013), pp. 259– Eraqi Klorman, Eraqi ok Ofr Uiest Pes 21) Hsn Kayali, Hasan 2014); Press, University Oxford York: The DispersionofEgyptianJewry:Culture,Politics, andtheFormation ofaModernDiaspora Becoming Ottoman:SephardiJewsandImperialCitizenshipinthe Modern Sephardi andMiddleEasternJewries,HistoryCultureintheModern EJIW, Traditional SocietyinTransition: TheYemeni JewishExperience(Leiden:

: Special Issue on History of Printing and Printing of History on Issue Special Journal ofSemiticStudies: Rodrigue, vol. 3, 501–519; Maureen Jackson, Images Middle Eastern Studies of Sephardiand Eastern JewriesinTransition, 1860– Jewish LifeinMuslimLibya:RivalsandRelatives Syrian JewryinTransition,(Oxford: 1840–1880 Judaism andIslam:Interdependence,Modernity, and The Jews of the Middle East and North Africa in French Jews,Turkish Jews:TheAllianceIsraélite Ottoman Brothers:Muslims,Christians, and Ladino RabbinicLiteratureandOttoman Ladino Historical themesinmoderntimes

7:3 (1971): 355–361; Jonathan (2004): Mixing Musics:Turkish Jewry

Arabs andY Confluences Mediterranée, Confluences 95–110; Susan Gilson Susan 95–110;

Syracuse International Journal oung Turks: University From 51 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 04:10 02 Oct 2021; For: 9781315675787, chapter02, 10.4324/9781315675787.ch02 aul Starkey “Nahda,” in Orit BashkinandDanielJ.Schroeter 52

25 24 27 26 29 28 40 39 38 37 36 35 34 33 32 31 30

Bashkin, eds. MarilynBoothandAnthonyGorman(Edinburgh:EdinburghUniversityPress, 2014). in Antun,” FarahWorks of Orit Press, 2012),pp.1–15. Bashkin, and the Early Zionist-Arab Encounter Gribetz, Marc Jonathan 2014); Press, University Princeton Lital (London: OxfordUniversityPress, 1962). (London: Routledge, 1998), vol. 2, pp. 573–574; Albert Hourani, P (Paris: L’Harmattan, 2003),pp.75–87;Yona Sabar, “Kurdistan,” vol.3,pp.185–189. Juifs: Exodesetenracinements, in culturels,” et historiques aspects Nord: du Afrique en Berbères et Juifs On (Morocco),” Joseph passéd’unediscorde,pp.267–309. and MiddleEast,seeAbitbol,Le F Studies 36:1(2009):73–92 I,” War World during Jerusalem Crisis: through Living City Jacobson, 48–52; pp. Society,1991), Publication Norman Zohar On Somekh,seeZohar 2013); seealsoBashkin,“ReligiousHatred.” Zvi University ofChicago,2010),pp.91–101. (Chicago, IL: The Oriental Institute Museum Publications no. 30, The Oriental Institute at the Pioneers tothePast –AmericanArchaeologistsintheMiddleEast,1919–1920,ed.GeoffEmberling Orit Martin Haim, “ Behar andBenDor Brandeis UniversityPress, 2013);seealsoLevy, Poetic Trespass;Gribetz, DefiningNeighbors. Middle EasternJewishThought:Writing onIdentity, Politics andCulture,1893–1958(Waltham,MA.: F Press, 2011),pp.257–281. eds. Emily Benichou Gottreich and Daniel J. Schroeter (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Century Tunis and the Spread of French in Tunisia,” in 915–920; Keith Walters, “Education for Jewish Girls in Late Nineteenth- and Early Twentieth- in Lucette see Taïeb, Sociétésjuives,pp.151–169. Literature, Ottoman Empires(Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 2004); Lehmann, Stein, 289–320; pp. 2007), in siècle,” XIXe du et hébraique “Haskala Chetrit, Joseph 745–809; pp. 1, vol. in sépharade,” monde 7–7; n h Mgrb Taïeb, Maghrib, the on 277–279; Studies, 1999),pp.1–48. Lewis, mandatory Palestine, seeSalimTamari, Mountainagainst theSea:EssaysonPalestinian Societyand 58–67. On interactions of Jews, Muslims, and Christians in the public spheres of Ottoman and Washingtonpp. of 1989), WA:Press,University The JewsinModernEgypt,1915–1952 (Seattle, or a general discussion on the situation of Jewish society under colonialism in the Maghrib the in colonialism under society Jewish of situation the on discussion general a or of collection a or ed. David Biale David Cultures oftheJews:ANewHistory, ed. (New York: Bloomsbury Publishing, Bloomsbury York:Zohar, RabbinicCreativity in theModern Middle East (New raiain n dmgahc rnfrain, e Abitbol, see transformations, demographic and urbanization Bashkin, “My Sister Esther: Reflections on Judaism, Ottomanism and Empire inthe andEmpire Ottomanism Judaism, on Reflections Esther: Sister “My Bashkin, Levy, ahi, Te rb eia, rhelg, n te nin Mdl Esen History,” Eastern Middle Ancient the and Archaeology, Revival, Arab “The Bashkin, , RabbinicCreativity, p.28. ed. Martin Kramer (Tel Aviv: The Moshe Dayan Center for Middle Eastern and African Arabic AntisemiticLiterature,”p.309. Chetrit, “Judeo-Berber” “Judeo-Berber” Chetrit, rmr “nrdcin” inTheJewishDiscoveryofIslam:StudiesHonorBernard “Introduction,” Kramer, Valensi, “Multicultural Visions: The Cultural Tapestry of the Jews of North Africa,” North of Jews the Tapestryof Cultural The Visions: Valensi,“Multicultural “Religious hatred;” Levy, New Babylonians: A History of Jews in Modern Iraq A. Stillman, A. 26, pp. 45–48; On the multilingual landscape and its transformations in the Maghrib, Poetic Trespass: Writing NJ: BetweenHebrewandArabicinIsrael/Palestine (Princeton, EJIW, vol. 1, 286–290. Joseph Chetrit and Daniel J. Schroeter, “Les rapports entre , ModernMiddleEasternJewishThoughtpp.10–11,28. Entre orientetoccident:JuifsMusulmansenTunisiel’éclat, de (Paris:Éditions Jewish texts, see Moshe Behar and Zvi Ben-Dor Benite, Ben-Dor Zvi and Behar Moshe see texts, Jewish nahdawi ed. Shmuel TriganoShmuel mondesépharade,ed. Le 2006), Seuil, du (Paris:Éditions (Philadelphia, PA: The Jewish The PA: inModernTimes The JewsofArabLands (Philadelphia, , RabbinicCreativity, pp.13–41 Encyclopedia ofArabLiterature,ed. Julie Scott Meisami and Paul Starkey Making JewsModern:TheYiddish Press andLadino intheRussian The Long 1890sinEgypt:ColonialQuiescence, SubterraneanResistance, The Long d. al at, ahrn Dn, n Rgn Dhoquois-Cohen Régine and Dana, Catherine Balta, Paul eds. EJIW, Poetic Trespass; Joseph Chetrit, “La p. 012 o Eyt se urn Krämer, Gudrun see Egypt, on 80–102; pp. Sociétés juives, Pictn N: rneo Uiest Pes 21) Orit 2014); Press, University Princeton NJ: (Princeton, o. , 86; ail . cree, Als Mountains “Atlas Schroeter, J. Daniel 58–60; 3, vol. Abigail Jacobson, “AJacobson, From Empire toEmpire;Abigail (New York: Schocken Books, 2002), pp. 2002), York:Books, (New Schocken Jewish CultureandSocietyinNorthAfrica, (Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Stanford CA: (PaloAlto, haskala Defining Neighbors: Religion, Race, Religion, Neighbors: Defining British JournalofMiddleEastern Arabic ThoughtintheLiberalAge judéo-arabe à Tunisfin à la judéo-arabe à Le passé d’unediscorde,pp. Le Haskala La Méditerranéedes La hébraïque dans le Ladino Rabbinic Ladino Modern Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 04:10 02 Oct 2021; For: 9781315675787, chapter02, 10.4324/9781315675787.ch02

42 41 48 47 46 45 44 43 55 54 53 52 51 50 49

1945: Old and New Narratives,” in Narratives,” New and Old 1945: Israel publics, espacescommunautaires.” Tunisia,Valensi,for “Espace see 2009); Press, California of University (Berkeley,CA: Culture Orit Jankowski andIsraelGershoni(NewYork: ColumbiaUniversityPress, 1997),pp.3–25. 26(2006):163–211. Prooftexts, Jewish urbanism, see Lital Levy, “Self and the city: literary representations of Jewish Baghdad,” on 128–164; pp. 2012), Routledge, (London: Hamzah Dyala ed. Colonial CoordinatesofSelfhood, in (1873–1948),” Lital Levy, Bashkin, see Iraq, in secularism on Thought; History ofJewish-MuslimRelations,pp.501–503. visions,” pp.912–913. Valensi,“Multicultural 27–32; pp. 1994), Press, YorkUniversity York:New and Algeria(New Studies, 46:3(2014):602–605 era,” Pahlavi the in identities “Jewish-Iranian Sternfeld, Lior Beinin, Egypt: on 585–588; (2014): 46:3 on Michelle U. Campos, “Between others and brothers,” Hebrew: Arab the “To Gribetz, possibilities and impossibilities,” Marc Jonathan 10–26; (2004): Jerusalem Quarterly, 21 Palestine, see Salim Tamari, “Ishaq al-Shami and the predicament of the Arab Jew in Palestine,” Eastern Studies,29:1(1993):118–134;Gribetz,DefiningNeighbors,pp.131–184. Nimrod Hurvitz, “Muhibb ad-Din al-Khatib’s Semitic Wave Theory and Pan-Arabism,” Years,”Inter-war the in Ideology New Babylonians. (1921–1932),” Iraq in Process Building National and Cultural “Between century,”twentieth the (Leiden: Brill, 2015); “‘My Heart Beats with Love of the Arabs’: Iraqi Jews writing in Arabic in language ofinstruction.SeeRodrigue,French Jews, Turkish Jews, pp. 163–166. Ethan Michael Bashkin, Sharqi Jews, see Bashkin, in the Mashriq,” On (2011): 584–588. Tangier, 1893–1913,” in Association Alumni AIU The Jews: Cohen, Abitbol, On Laskier Reuven In Description,” EJIW, 53–58. “Judéo-Spanish,” “Kurdistan,”YonaSabar, 58–60; 3, “Judeo-Berber,”WayneChetrit, MI: Joseph (Detroit, Press,2009); University State Gavish, Haya 1993); Press, Brauer,Erich 2007); Brill, (Leiden: Mordechai EJIW, vol.3,194–195. Laylā” “Murād, 498–519; 3, vol. Beinin, On pp. 279–281. Turkey, schools were secularized, and Jewish schools transitioned to adopting Turkish as the the growing educational gap between Jews and Muslims, see Abitbol, Jewish political and ideological options, see Behar and Benite, and Behar see options, ideological and political Jewish the categories of the Arab Jews, see Lital Levy, “Historicizing the concept of Arab Jews Arab of concept the “Historicizing Levy, Lital see Jews, Arab the of categories the ahi, Te rb Revival,” Arab “The Bashkin, Gershoni, “Rethinking the Formation of Arab Nationalism in the Middle East, 1920– East, Middle the in Nationalism Arab of Formation the “Rethinking Gershoni, B. Katz, “In the Shadow of the Republic: A Century of Coexistence and Conflict,” in Conflict,” and Coexistence of Century A Republic: the of Shadow the “In Katz, B. , TheAllianceIsraéliteUniverselle, p. 334. Becoming Ottomans, The DispersionofEgyptianJewry Le passéd’unediscorde, pp.310–355. Le Snir, . Laskier, M. New Babylonians,pp.58–100. “Partitioned Pasts: Arab Jewish Intellectuals and the Case of Esther Azhari Moyal Azhari Esther of Case the and Intellectuals Jewish Arab Pasts: “Partitioned Zaken, Who NeedsArab-JewishIdentity?Interpellation,ExclusionandInessential Solidarities 98 (2008): 452–469; on Arab Jews in Iraq, as well as well as Iraq, in Jews Arab on 452–469; (2008): 98 Jewish Quarterly Review, The MakingoftheArabIntellectual(1880-1960):Empire,Public Sphere,andthe EJIW, Jewish SubjectsandTheirTribal AStudyinSurvival inKurdistan: Chieftains North AfricanJewryintheTwentieth Century:TheJewsofMorocco,Tunisia, 1:2 (2002): 182–203; Aline Schlaepfer,Aline 182–203; (2002): Journal ofModernJewishStudies,1:2 vol. 3, 69–76; Norman History Stillman, and “Judeo-Arabic Linguistic New Babylonians,pp. 1–58; on Arab Jewishness and Eastern identity in pp. 1–4, 48–62, 140–142; Jessica Marglin, “Modernizing Moroccan Unwitting Zionists: The Jewish Community of Zakho in Iraqi Kurdistan Unwitting Zionists:TheJewishCommunityofZakhoinIraqiKurdistan International JournalofMiddleEastStudies, 46:3 (2014): 589–592; EJIW, 20:1 (1988): 67–91; (1988): International JournalofMiddleEastStudies,20:1

Nahda vol. 3, 185–189; Yaakov Bentolila and David Bunis, David and YaakovBentolila 185–189; EJIW,3, vol. (Detroit, MI: WayneMI: University (Detroit, State The JewsofKurdistan 91–104; Rethinking NationalismintheArabMiddleEast,ed.James , pp. 83–85, 232–233; Edwin Seroussi, “Music,” Seroussi, Edwin 232–233; 83–85, pp. , vol. 3, 494–495; idem, “Kuweiti, Salah and Daud al-,” Daud and Salah “Kuweiti, idem, 494–495; 3, vol.

Journal ofL Jws Itletas n aha ad h Nation- the and Baghdad in Intellectuals Jewish : p 18; n Iran: on 1–89; pp. The DispersionofEgyptianJewry, ret . an “h Frain f Pan-Arab of Formation “The Dawn, C. Ernest , pp. 58–100; on feminism, see feminism, on 58–100; pp. New Babylonians, 1 (2011): 59–74; Bashkin, 59–74; (2011): 1 evantine Studies International JournalofMiddleEastStudies, Historical themesinmoderntimes International JournalofMiddleEast 0: 4 101: Jewish QuarterlyReview, Modern MiddleEasternJewish Le pass Le e d’unediscorde, EJIW, Middle EJIW, vol. 53 A Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 04:10 02 Oct 2021; For: 9781315675787, chapter02, 10.4324/9781315675787.ch02

1939,” and 1933 between East near Arab the in Socialism “National Wild, Orit BashkinandDanielJ.Schroeter 54

63 62 56 61 60 59 58 57

Le monde sépharade,ed.Trigano,les paysmusulmans,”inLe vol.1,pp.879–904. pp. 183–229; Laskier, Ethnicity (Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Press, 2006), pp. 1–110; Bashkin, Books, 1986); Yehouda Shenhav, Shiblak, Abbas 2004); Routledge, Studies 19:4(2014):554–570. Jews respond to Nazism in French North African colonies, 1936–1940,” Jews in ModernEgypt,pp. 128–139; Aomar Boum, “Partners against anti-Semitism: Muslims and Tunisie l’anticolonialisme, 1919–1956,” in Bashkin, Esther 141, Beinin,TheDispersionof EgyptianJewry,pp.60–89,121–178. Bashkin, (Austin, TX:UniversityofTexas Press, 2014). (ed.), Gershoni Israel 100–141; pp. Arab-Israeli War ofNarratives (New York: Metropolitan Books, 2010); Bashkin, Achcar, Gilbert 2009); Press, University Stanford CA: Alto, and James Jankowski, of Arab–Nazi German encounters,” Götz Satloff save Jews:amysteryanditsmemory,” JewishQuarterlyReview 102:2 (2012):256–287. Paristhe “Did Mosque Katz, Ethan See decades. recent of politics identity Jewish and Muslim Pard (1940–1942),” Vichy de gouvernement du antijuive mesure les et musulmans Algériens “Les “L’opinion Kaddache, la Deuxi Mahfoud condemnation: (1939–1942),” française l’administration et the Algérie en musulmane politique emphasizing e.g. Decree; Crémieux Muslims applauded or condemned the anti-Jewish measures, such as the abrogation of the 1940s,” early the during Africa North of Jews the harassment: German and antisemitism Vichy “Between Tamuda, Islams 1:4 (1985): 126–173; Jamaâ Baïda, “Le Maroc et la propaganda du IIIème Reich,” Stefan (Boulder, CO: Ginat, A History of Egyptian Communism: Jews and Their Compatriots in Quest of Revolution Rami 1996); Press, California of University CA: Jewish Workers (Berkeley, inPalestine, 1906–1948 in Subjects” Jewish Indigenous His Residency,and The V Morocco: Mohammed in Schroeter, “Vichy J. Daniel see reassessment, in Jews,” Moroccan of ProtectorV, “Mohammed Kenbib, Mohammed 1997); Plon, (Paris:V etlesJuifsduMaroc:l’époquedeVichy Assaraf, Robert Vichy.See during Jews the toward V Mohammed of benevolence Mandel (Bloomington,IN:IndianaUniversityPress [forthcoming]). German Occupation,” in the in TunisianJews “The in Kazdaghli, Collaborate,” Habib to 365–366; Refusal History ofJewish-MuslimRelations,pp. the Hadj, “Messali idem, 104-110; pp. 2006), Stock, Éditions Satloff 2006). (New ReachintoArabLands York: StoriesfromtheHolocaust’s Long the Righteous:Lost Public Affairs, the SecondWorldSatloff,Robert War1989); Press,Wayne University MI: State (Detroit, On Farhud,” http://jewishrefugees.blogspot.co.il/2012/05/at-shavuot-we-remember-farhud.html. (New York: Columbia University Press, 1986); Shmuel Moreh, “At Shavuot we remember the Reeva Simon,IraqbetweenTwo World Wars: theCreationandImplementationofaNationalistIdeology 2006); Routledge, York: (New Authoritarian, Totalitarian andProfascist Inclinations,1932–1941 Torr è Jews in the Maghrib during World War II, see Michel Abitbol, è (Paris: Coédition Balland-Eddif, 1994), pp. 217–232; PeterWien, 217–232; pp. 1994), Balland-Eddif, Coédition (Paris: s s, Nordbruch, “‘Cultural fusion’ of thought and ambitions? Memory, politics and the history , , 16 (1992): 189–202. The debate about Muslim attitudes during World War II is tied to tied Worldis Warduring II attitudes Muslim about debate The 189–202. (1992): 16 (Tunis:Krämer,see LICA, on 217–237; pp. 1999), Universitaire, Publication de Centre Meir-Glitzenstein, pp. 109–111. Though a subject of debate, most scholars stress the stress scholars most debate, of subject a Though 109–111. Among theRighteous,pp. è p 1518 Bnai Stora, Benjamin 105–108; Among theRighteous,pp. me Guerre mondiale 8 19) 9–0; en Wolf, Jean 97–100; (1990): 28 New Babylonians New Babylonians 13 19) 3839 oiin vr o te xet o which to extent the on vary opinions 348–369; (1991): Modern Judaism11:3

L ynne Rienner, North AfricanJewry, pp. 32–42, 84–113; Haïm Saadoun, “Le sionisme dans Confronting Fascism inEgypt:DictatorshipversusDemocracythe1930s(Palo , pp. 183–229; Meir-Glitzenstein,183–229; pp. , A History of Jewish-Muslim Relations, p. 4–8; ahr Lockman, Zachary 141–182; pp. , 29:114 (1979): 109; insisting on the wide approval: Yves C. Aouate, (London: Zionism in an Arab Country: Jews in Iraq in the 1940s

2011); The ArabJews:APostcolonial ReadingofNationalism, Religion,and Histoire communautaire, Histoire plurielle: La communautéjuivede Histoire communautaire, Histoire plurielle:La Lno: al-Saqi (London: The Lure of Zion:The Case ofIraqi Jews Arab ResponsestoNazismandFascism, AttractionandRepulsion Middle EasternStudies,47:1 Colonialism andtheJews,eds.EthanKatz,LisaLeff, Maud p 3234 Fr a For 362–364. pp. A HistoryofJewish-MuslimRelations, Habib Kazdaghli, “L’engagement des Juifs tunisiens dans Les secretsduMarocEspagnol:L’épopéeLes d’Abd-el-Khaleq pp. 32– pp. Zionism inanArabCountry; pp. 367–369; Michael M. Laskier, (Paris: troisexilsjuifsd’Algérie Les (2011): 183–194; Comrades andEnemies:Arab The Arabs and the Holocaust: The The JewsofNorthAfricaduring Iraqi Arab Nationalism: Journal ofNorthAfrican Revue d’histoirede New Babylonians, New Babylonians, Israel Gershoni Die Welt des Mohammed Hespéris- Among A Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 04:10 02 Oct 2021; For: 9781315675787, chapter02, 10.4324/9781315675787.ch02

Beinin, Joel, Beinin, Orit, Bashkin, Ammiel, Alcalay, Further reading Schreier, Joshua,ArabsoftheJewishFaith:Brunswick, TheCivilizingMissioninColonialAlgeria (New Meddeb, Abdelwahab, and Stora, Benjamin (eds.), M., Michael Laskier, Washington of University WA: Gudrun,TheJewsinModernEgypt,1915–1952 (Seattle, Krämer, Harel, Yaron, SyrianJewryinTransition,Civilization, Jewish of Library Littman (Oxford: 1840–1880 Encounter Zionist-Arab theEarly and Race, Religion, Neighbors: Gribetz, JonathanMarc,Defining (eds.), J. Schroeter,Daniel and Benichou, Emily Gottreich, (ed.), E. Harvey Goldberg, Cohen, JuliaPhillips,BecomingOttoman:SephardiJewsandImperialCitizenshipintheModernEra(New 67 66 65 64 69 68

On thesharedvision,seeCampos, Press, 2012). Mediterranean JewsandthesharedcultureofArabs. and Eastern Middle of world literary multicultural the of study A 1993). Press, Minnesota of University Press, 2008). Michael Beinin, Studies, 16:3(2011):149–173. Israel,” to YemeniteJews of immigration magical the of myth the Magic constructing Carpet: “Operation Meir-Glitzenstein, Esther 1997); Cass, Frank OR: (Portland, 1948–1951 Gat, Moshe 605–630; (1999): Journal ofMiddleEastStudies31:4 accounting,” national of anomaly an 1948: of refugees Palestinian the of property Lure ofZion, pp. 67–71, 103–127; Yehouda Shenhav, “The Jews of Iraq, Zionist ideology, and the Beinin, Laskier On conflictbetweentheAllianceandZionists,seeLaskier com/how-the-1929-hebron-massacre-invigorated-the-zionist-movement/67101/ Hebron Movement,” Zionist the Invigorated 1929 Massacre the “How Cohen, Hillel in discussed 2013); Keter, (Tel Aviv: ha-yehudi-ʿaravi Cohen, with French colonialismfrom1830tothe CrémieuxDecreeof1870. communities Jewish Algerian of encounter the Analyzes 2010). Press, University Rutgers NJ: to thePresent Day(Princeton, NJ:Princeton UniversityPress, 2013). Algeria (NewYork: NewYork UniversityPress, 1994). Press, 1989). 2010). and wroteaboutoneanotherinpre-World War IPalestine. (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press 2014). Examines how Arabs and Zionists understood culture, andliteratureofJewishlifeMuslim-Jewishrelations intheMaghreb. (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 2011). Chapters in this volume study the history, East andNorthAfrica. aspects ofmodernizationandculturalchangeamongtheJewishcommunitiesMiddle diverse examine volume this in Chapters 1996). Press, University Indiana IN: (Bloomington, in theciviccultureofOttomanismfromlatenineteenthcentury. York: Oxford University Press, 2014). Analyzes Jews as Ottoman citizens and their participation examining theJewswhoremainedinEgyptandtheirdispersion. 1948, since Jews Egyptian of history A 1998). Press, California of University (Berkeley,CA: , NorthAfricanJewry. The DispersionofEgyptianJewry,pp.90–117. The DispersionofEgyptianJewry 1929: Year Zero of the Jewish-Arab Conflict Jewish-Arab the Yearof 1929: Zero The Dispersion of Egyptian Jewry: Culture, Politics, and the Formation of a Modern Diaspora . Fischbach, R. (Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Stanford New Babylonians:AHistoryofJewsinModernIraq(PaloCA: Alto, inaoi, N University MN: Culture (Minneapolis, Jews and Arabs: Remaking Levantine After North AfricanJewryintheTwentieth Century:TheJewsofMorocco,Tunisia, and Sephardi andMiddleEasternJewries,HistoryCultureintheModernEra Nw ok Columbia York: Jewish Property ClaimsAgainstArabCountries(New Ottoman Brothers;onthecollapseofthisvision,seeHillel ; Bashkin, ; A History of Jewish-Muslim Relationsfrom the Origins (5 March 2013), http://972mag. 2013), March (5 +972 Magazine [in Hebrew] [in , pp. 182–228; Shiblak, 182–228; pp. New Babylonians, Jewish Culture and Society in North Africa , NorthAfricanJewry, pp.42–54. Historical themesinmoderntimes Tarpat: shenatha-efesba-sikhsukh The JewishExodusfromIraq, International Israel The 55 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 04:10 02 Oct 2021; For: 9781315675787, chapter02, 10.4324/9781315675787.ch02 Tsadik,Daniel, A., Norman Stillman, (eds.), Reguer,Sara and Menachem, Spector,Laskier,Michael Reeva Simon, Orit BashkinandDanielJ.Schroeter 56 CA: StanfordUniversityPress, 2007). of theJewsinArabic-speakingcountriesMiddleEastandNorthAfrica. Publication Society, 1991). Provides diverse primary sources and a concise survey of the history with chaptersdevotedtobothbroadthemesandindividualcountries. authored volume covering the history of the Jews of the modern Middle East and North Africa, Multi- 2003). Press, University Columbia York: (New East andNorthAfricainModernTimes Between Foreigners andShi’is:Nineteenth-CenturyIranitsJewishMinority(PaloAlto, Piaepi, A Te Jewish The PA: inModern TimesThe JewsofArabLands (Philadelphia, The JewsoftheMiddle