DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 129 687 95 SO 009 465 AUTHOR Goodman, Leroy V., Ed.; And Others TITLE A Nation of Learners. INSTITUTION Office of Education (DHEW), Washington, D.C. PUB DATE 76 NOTE 166p. -AVAILABLE FROM Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 2C402 (order stock no. 017-080-0150.0-4, $4.05 paper cover)

.ED.RS PRICE MF-$0.83 HC-$8.69 Plus Postage. DESCRIPTORS Career Education; Community Colleges; Continuous Learning; *Education; Educational Accountability; Educational Change; *Educational History; *Educational Philosophy; Elementary Secondary Education; Equal Education; *Essays; Futvres (of Society); Higher Education; History; Instruction; *Learning; Public Education; School Organization; *United States History; Womens Education

'ABSTRACT Thirty-nine articles provide a composite picture of American education as it haS developed during the past 200 years. Most of the articles are written by educators. Vignettes of daily rontines in a one-room schoolhouse in 1775 and a description of how a' log college was built in Pennsylvania in the 1770s indicate the process and philosophy of education at that time. The struggle of women for equal rights is documented by articles about issues and significant women educators in the 18th century as well as the 20th. Education of immigrant groups, minorities, and handicapped children is\discussed. Changes in school building,structure from the one-room schoolhouse to the modular open classrooi reflect changing theories about' the nature of the educatve process. History of land grant colleges and community colleges is traced, and the-roles of nonpublic schools and libraries are explored. Several articles exaMine curriculum--arts versus science, career education--and methods of presentation such as textbooks, audiovisual instruction, cartoons, and lyrics. Recent concepts such as accountability and lifelong learning are explained. (AV)

*********************************************************************** * Documents acquired by ERIC include many informal unpublished * materials not available from cther sources. ERIC makes every effort * * to obtain the best copy available. Nevertheless, items of marginal * * reproducibility are often encountered and this affects the quality * * cf the microfiche and hardcopy reproductions ERIC makes available * * via the ERIC Document Reproduction Service (EDRS), EDRS is not * responsible for the quality of the original document. Reproductions * * supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made from the original. *********************************************************************** {) U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, EDUCATION IL WELFARE NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF EDUCATION THIS DOCUMENT HAS BEEN REPRO Duce() EXA.CTLY AS RECEJVED FROM THE PERSON:OR ORGANIZATION ORIGIN ATING IT. POINTS OF VIEW OR OPINIONS SIATE0 DO NOT NECESSARILY REPRE SENT OFFICIAL NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF EDUCATION POSITION OR POLICY

EDUCATION, AND WELFAR U.S. DEPARTMENTOF HEALTH, David Mathews,Secretary for Education Virginia Y. Trotter,Assistant Secretary Office Of Education T.H. Bell, Commissioner The contents ofthis vulumeoriginally ap- peared in American Education magazine(June 1974-August/September1975), published by the U.S. Officeof Education.

3

U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. WASHINGTON: 1976 For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. GovernmentPrinting Office Washington, D.C. 20402- Price $4.06 (paper) Stock No. 011-080-01540-k.,A) IN PURiUIT OFHAPPINESS affxing their naines toit. the 56 signers ofthe At the time they were of Declaration of Independencequite naturally felt thatthe most noteworthy document was itsconclusion, ,the four distinct elementsof that remarkable That th e.1. awesome- deciSion to"publish and declare, wherein they formalized and Independent these United Colonies are,and-of right ought to be Free ..." States. view, since theyhadlearned The second mostimportant section in their the lengthy list of"injuries and usiirpations"al- the uses of propaganda, was Judging from dis- legedlY perpetrated by "the presentKing of Great Britain." plaCe prior to the climactic event,there was specialinterest cusiions that took Nature and of Nature's also in the preambleeand its reference to "the Laws of liat John Adams hadin particular championed.Which God," a proposition preamble, beginningwith the leaves the sectionimmediately following the .." ringing words, "We 1holdthese truths to beself-evident. . the American RevolutionBicentennial, we would Today, as we celebrate be assumed, reverse thisranking. Independenceis so well established as to superseded by more reliablebogeymen, and philos- King George III has been of Nature," at leastin the ophers no longer arepreoccupied by the "Laws 18th century sense. tUrned out on Meanwhile the truthsthat the signers held tobe self-evident , enduring inspiration toall mankind. Timehas elevated the contrary to be an itself, and the historyof the the principles of theRevolution above the event been a record of whathas been done towardaf- United States has in essence liberty, and the pursuitof fording all citizens the"unalienable rights" of "life, happiness." Jefferson's These concepts did notof course spring fullbloom from Thomas irriagination. They were partof the common currencyof "Nature's Law,''a which in fact was neitherlaw nor a product of nature, contemporary theory dream was the but rather a dream tobe fought for. Acrucial element of this possessing the God givencapacity to learn assertion that as rational creatures, their own form and to reason, menalso possessed theinherent right to select in general to determinetheir, own fate. ° of government and generalize as educationwere,in short, Reason, learningwhat we now the Bicentennial is thus an crucial elements of theAmerican Revolution, and that aspect of ournational life. Stimula- apt occasion'onwhich to re-examine publication. In it a number tion of such,reexaminationis the purpose of this provide appraisals of the pastand present of edu- of distinguished observers considering how it may be cation in the United States, as astarting point for strengthened in the future. remind us, the greatprinciples publishedeanddeclared As critics properly elusive: in 1776 are yet to befully realized. Justiceand equity sometimes seem and other forms and sourcesof happiness duringthe The pursuit of learning uplifting and exhilarating story. past two-centUrieshas nonetheless been an 4 L.V. GOODMAN Editorial Staff . Leroy V. Goodman, editor William A. Horn Mark Travaglini Walter Wood Contributing Artists Barry. Hate Myrna S..Herget JoelDove's One-RoomSchool day seemed to go on forever,and the rod saw lots of Judith Selden It was a crUde structure,chopped out of the wilderriess, The Log College but it exemplified for highereducation the Spirit of '76 Walter Wood 13 f ' subject to massive.criticism a para- EDUCATION SYSTEM Despite its successes, it is AMERICA'S UNSYSTEMATIC dox that/ the answers to sixquestions may serve to explain Ratricia Albjerg Graham printers weht alloui in the creation 21 As examples demonstrate, anniversary The Spirit of 1876 of "visuel aids" to helpherald the Nation's 100th major theme of Centennialexhibits, 22 Public Schooling was a its critics The Pride of Philadelphia but then as now it hadits problemsas well as J. William Jones stirred24 Kindergartens, new to mostAmericans in 1876, soon original German version The klowering Preschooler a squabble overchanges from the L. V:Goodman higher learning in the 27 STYLE In its evolving character and purposes, HIGHER EDUCATIONAMERICAN United States has mirrored theprinciples of the larger society Stephen K. Bailey launched by the Congressman 33 The Land-Grant college system paths Senator Morrill's Baby from Vermont was to directhigher education down new Russell I. Thackrey 36 New though they are, two-yearcolleges now attract perhaps education ;1 The Community's Campus ha ff of all students whoenroll in postsecondary Edmund J. Gleazer, Jr. 38 It confounded the critics,produced a new breed of students, The Remarkable GI Bill 4 and led to basic changes inthe conduct of higher education Sto ni Moorefield changed markedly duringthe past 41 Our schoolhouses have well THE HABITATS OFEDUCATION 200 years, and 'not justphysically but psychologically as Harold B. Gores Franklin gave them a boost,li- 48 Over the years since Benjamin American life Libraries in theNew.World braries have continued toplay a distinctive role in Kathleen Molz 63 Another rebellion called forin 1776 is still beingwagedby afforded men THE FEMALE EQUATION women fighting fortreatment equal to that Kathryn G. Heath 58 During her lifetime 11787-18701&rime Willard witnessed and One Woman's Fight did much to accomplish theopening of education to females Story Moorefield 60 The peculier American fact isthat a high regard for education Teachers An American Paradox has until recent times beenoffset by low regard for Myrtle Bonn 67 Parochial anct other nonpublicschools have given diversity SCHOOL SYSTEM odds THE NATION'S SECOND to American education,sometimes against considerable Neil G. MdCluskey individual student in sectionsof ESEA 74 The focus IS on the children. Benefiting the Child aimed at offering Federalaid- to nenpublic school Wilma A.,Bai ley 76 Somehow ways had to be folind toassimilate the millions of Tending the "Melting Pot" assigned to take the .lead immigrants, and the schools were ; L. V. Goodman 81 Education may seem to some sostable as to be stodgy, but AN EMPHASIS ONCHANGE 6in its basic aspects the changehas been deep andcconstant John I. Goodlad The VocEd Breakthrough By eilcient tradition, training- My, _Ed Win L. Rumpt' job we's excluded from the 9 ----Sthdo7 ciirriculum and" thencame 1917 and Smith-Hughes In the Wake of Sputnik Mark Travaglini Russia's launchi4 in 1957 of the firstman-made satellite helped 9 to set in motion a sweeping overhaulof American ,education LIFELONG LEARNING Ronald and Beatrice Gross Paralleling the classroom in forgingan educated American 9' society hes been the powerful forceof nonschool learning Seven Golden Days Leslie Rich It was William Jennings Bryan andDaddy Groebecker's Swiss 10, Yodelers. It was Olture on thehoof. It was Chautauqua I brewing Power A not inconsiderable contribution Florence H. Seidel.). to "education" came into 101 _being with the onset of thenewspaper and magazine cartoon TOWARD "A LEARNING SOCIETY" The idea of universal education Stanley Elam took a while to catch hold113 but in time becamea basic characteristic of American life Henry Barnard's Crusade Hating school as a boy, he became Story Moorefield not only a leading arChitect117 of school reform but the first U.S.Commissioner of Education Kalamazoo And High School Too Ha.rry L.,Selden A not-so-friendk suit brought in1874 produced _a landmark120 decision -that paved the way, fortoday's public high schools EDUCATION'S EVOLVING ROLE Wendell Pierce As shaped by the individual States,our educational system 125 has in turn been instrumental inshaping our national life Horace Mann's Client Francis Keppel and Jonathan Messerli Toward serving "the next generation,"he organized and led 132 the cempaign that resulted intoday's public school system Learning by the Numbers Joseph Lancaster's .schools Judith Selden were no picnic, but at the time135 they were the onlyones available -to children of the Poor -TOWARD EQUAL EDUCATIONALOPPORTUNITY James Farmer Having won the principle of equalaccess to the schools, minori- .139_ ty groupsere focusing on equalaccess to schools of highquality Gonzales And Sons Problems remain,. but Joe's boys Bill Rivera don't get punished for speak-;146 ing Spanish, and theygo to the same schools as the "gabachos" New Era for Special Education Thanks to strong leaders and William C. Geer recent court victories, more 'handl-148 capped children are getting-the schoolingthat is rightfully,theirs THE ARTS IN THE-SCHOOLSA200-YEAR STRUGGLE --- Nancy Hanks Historically last in American schools, thearts still lag, but efforts 159 to incieise theirimportance in thecurriculum are more promising _

A Special Telling of History Words aren't the only L. V. Goodman means of revealing America's story,a162 point made down through theyears by the Nation's artists TOMORROW'S EDUCATION 1 Ralph W. Tyler Building .on the accomplishments of thepast, the schqdli of the _173 future will be called upon to reachout in a range of new directions . America's First Public High School Perched aboVe the Town Watch and Hero FireEngine No. 6, Rob-Carroll 179 " Boston's English high launcheda new era in Ameridan education Discovering America Rich,ard C. Spitzer Today as they have during the past 300years, textbooks play the181 basic role in telling us who weare as a people and as a Nation 7 4S

CIETY

BY OSCAR HAN,DLIN

however, did not quiteprimary function of the schools was to - he Revolution The reality, transmit an inheritedbOdy of culture and marked adecisivematch the rhetoric, Theintellectuals who attention on' wielded the pen in graceful essays werefreethose who wished to focus new departurein training in useful skills. Theinability to ,ofand easy in their promises of theinevitable the history the hard-make a clear-cut choice created oneof the education, as in rewards of such a system. But learning bitten farmers, merchants, andartisanspersistent patterns in the mode of many other aspects in the United States. of Americancul-who held the purse strings werecautious indeed as they counted up the costsin From the very start, it seemedplausible tureor at least. so to expect that theschools would preserve Previously, asincreased taxes. Many a goodintention it seemed to contemporaries. withered, unfulfilled; and mostof thethe European culture,secular and the convmnional wisdomthen prevalent religious, that had crossed. theAtlantic by newly founded colleges either neveropened 'had it, the colonists had been shackled Besides,with the first settlers. Thefounders of the the Eurapean past ;anachronistic ideastheirdoors or quickly closed them. hadstifleda society longclose to the frontier found and outmoded institutions andhoiding Le+ innovation and inhibited progress.Nowdifficultyinrecruiting talented teachers. - liberated, the citizens of theRepublic all easy to instructio,. Above all: it proved not at would develop new modes of break away from the traditionsof the Free men, stimulated by theenvironmet did make a; transform everyColonial era. The Revolution ef opportunity, would difference, not becatise it marked a turnin hpectof thelearningprocess.New the Nationa totally newdirection, but bAcauge the colleges sprouted rapidly; aud fruitful debate it evoked compelledpeople buzzed with schemes forimprovement to consider whatthey had formerly taken nurtured by confident expectationstliat total citizensgip required afor granted. The result vtas not a the obligations of break with the past. but isubtle 'shift in system of educationcapable of training the _development. latter-day equivalents of Roman senators.the pace and emphasis of Well before 1776. Americaneducation° feltthe__ pressureof competing,even Dr. Ilandlin is Cailf H. PforzheirnerUniversity- The contradictory, impulses thatcontinuedto Professor at Harvard University andauthor of its development for Uprooted, for which he won the PulitzerPrize in create cross-currents in History in 1952:Facing eife... Youth and the Family two centuries.'An gndlessly unravelling in American History:A.971:The Americans, 1963; argument thus echoedthrough the decades Fire-bell in the Night,1964: andChltdren of the those who insisted thatthe Uprooted, 1966. gbetween Massachusetts Bay Colony worried lest theyPuri,ans had been. Aliwere eager to justifyhostilityof andtheirchildren heleftwit how a farmers andartisaos A ministry their departure from the old homelandby argued that the best way to learn was in capableofreadingandstressing, thedistinctive interpreting God's word, quality of thefield by wielding a pitchforkor in the sl as handed. downculture they Would develop in theNewby swinging a . hainmer.It in Ow Hebrew, Greek.andLatinWorld. On the other hand, they was -:t1 ures; and they feared also how their werenecessary to disclaim any pretensions equally determined somehowto transfer tofancy . courses,deadlanguages, .a experiment'wouldfareiffuture' their adopted country the values broughA generations, reared in the wilderness, parchment *diplomas. But nosooner (. grewfici.m the places of theirbirth. They wishe'fl-,--.the building up and the appropriation kip in igArance. Tlw Puritanswere not(their children to become -Arnericar3,, ;alone in the dread that the departure tohand thabn the polish began. The liter; fromlearn English, yetalso'. nof -fto forget'the anci.the . a'bstract the mother 'Countr y. might leadto a relapse -rnttuded' ,int'd. ..t ancestral': heritage. -Always the. schoolscurriculum, and the distincdon cbetWe to barbarism. The inen.'andwomen who'accepted-as oneoftheir _ . came to ,New-Netiterland and the colonies cunctionsthe practical and tht. cultural began tothe preservation of the Nation's antecedentwaver. south. sharedthatsentiment,heritage.Precisely because the schools . he standing interplay withint although toa.lessintense degree. andstood somewhat apart from life, !Wipedthat byproviding were not same system between utilitarianis enoughaltogether practical, Americans lookedto and the pressures toward bro; instruction they could, head it off. them for performance of that .task.' general education . Colotiial was distinctive toti societV .did becomemore Yet the schools were also expected stable; but with the to beUnited States..In Europe the line whichh emergence of the 18th"useful.- afunction notaltogZ.ther .from elementary school through century,Americans . the lye still feltthecompatible with that ofa repository ofto the university was entirely separate fro dependenceofprovincialsnponthe culture and therefore alwaysa source ofthat which led to technical andvocation metropolis. The'most importantinfluencesteniion. in religion,science, training. In America, the historicneed i art, and literature- In the 17th .and 18th centuries,mostaccommodate the two together influence eManated from England. and inthe.,New usefulwhich is to say pifactical skills in World only the sChool could equip both types of instruction; thecultural an yetung the society were acquired in Workshopsor Practical,never permitted to stray people with the knowledge- andskills toon farms, within the family or through fa receive and assinailatethe developments' apart, remained ,exposed to the questitir in apprenticeship.OnlygentlementhenWhat were they for? To thatextent, th ihose fields across theocean. wished more learning than Independence, was required tosystem always remained accountablet paradoxically;read the Bible. As timeTassed andsocietysociety. , height-ned the need. Thenationalbecamc,,,more democratic, , emotions stirred up by access to the In the last quarter of the 19th century the "Revolution,schools spread and with ita desire to alterthe schools acquired still another function prodded Americans into provingthat theirtheircurriAilumsin more culture was not inferior practicalthat of classifying the students whopasse( to that of the Olddirection. Eahy on, for instance, writingthrough them in order-to direct each World. Frenetic efforts tO developa unique to th( schools trained young men inutilitarianoccupation appropriatetohisorfie literature,_ art.,' and architectureyielded an arts, not only those of penmanship but also .outpoutingoflengthy epics, talents. Education was subtly linkedtt massive-therelatedskilliconnectedWiththesocial mobility. canvases,aridambitioug proposalsforconduct of business enterprise. Thatmade Until then, the family had Vorne thc great monurrients. Noah .Webster. for thesense. Citizens who grudged a few extratax samereason,compiled obligationpf sorting out and preparing thc spellers landdollars annually for the- publicschoolsmembers of the oncoming generation for dictionaries to help define thedistinctive willingly paid the,,fees to equip theirsons their.status in life, Daughters,as a matter language ofbisCountry.. and Thomaswith a fine hand Jefferson dreained of or with the secrets ofof course, were expected to play thesame a hieriTchOf i'choolsdouble-entry bookkeeping that would help roles as their mothers, and whiCh would train the talented to'.lead the sons toply the in later Iife. In the 19thcentury, the sametrades of their fathers. When thegreat Nation. imprillse led to the formation Despite thestraining 'fordifference. in many cities bulk of the population-16s agricultural, however, the language of the United of mechanics' institutes in which ambitious the problem of choice hadnot been Statesyoung men could improve themselves, that -retained its roots in that of England.as did difficult ;,.one generation followed another, the. literature, art, arid architethire. Theis, acquire information that wouldexpandin the sarne calling although perhaps'ina desire their earning power. Private, proprietary,different location. In town, also, the family for achievernent. emphasized the importance of mastery of the European"business colleges" in time performedthe was crucial ;.boys either picked up the same function. parental craft at home or learned through techniques available to most Americans Yet Americans were not content only to let apprenticeship in.another household. Even through' theformaleducationaltheseeminentlypracticaland system, The sciences were as important -As useful the ambitious youngsters who wished.to subjects stand merely for whatthey were. moveintothe the arts and the classics in theprocess ofInstead, an insistent trend drew together learnedprofessions transmittal; as long as Europe tookthe 'divinity, law, and medicineusUally did so technicalandtraditionalinstruttion, by serving a minister, lawyer, 'leadindisCovery and scholarship,thepartly 'out of the democratic belief that or doctor; ai--;' school was the most important a.. lateas'Lincoln'stime, not,formal means ofunifiededucationalsystemoughtto following. Well into the 20thcentury., procedures for scl;Ooling in the professions include all forms of learning; partlyopt ofwere required. American boys and girls struggledwithasneaking respect'for - Latin and algebra to catch culture and..-, Powerful social7Tid economic forces up with the OldresentMentofanyeliteefforts to World, and to surpass it. Large borrowings altered the situation in the19th century. monopolize it: , - The population neVer ceased &oar abroad shaped thecontent of a good The institutions supported by public to move parC of their instruction. from, East to West fromSouth tb North, . ,fundsmostclearlydemonstratedthe Furthermore, after independence, each away from the country intothe city, away process of adaptation.,Urban high schools fromagriculture.' ;nto wccessive wave of immigrants repeatedancrininuiT training- iiiRitiirei iiid rufil industry.New :he experience of the early pioneers. machines; new sources orTiower,and new TheState univer§ities claime'd supporton themethods of distribution transformed Ittitudes of the Irish, Germans, Poles,andbasis of the ublity of *hat they taught; the ews were as ambiguous as those of thetheir initial problem most important branches of theproductive was to overcome thesystem.'Atiorenticeshin thprAfnr. Al...,...... 3 111 excepr.ini few shelteredcrafts like the whichtraditional techniques femarried intact':Ip the fluid, everchanging environment of theUnittM States after 1870, childrenno,longer took it " for granted that they wouldUsually foltow the 'occupations oftheiMparents.' Kinship networks were no longer adequate,and an alternative 'method of findingiftcheS for the ,.oung or of sortingthem out ind prepari4g them forfuture careets- essential. Americans thrust the,res(ponsibilitv for performing that function uponthe schools and, in the process. transformedthe system of education so that it.could do the job of selection and of vocationaltra:ning: The schools were the appvopriateinstruments because they had 1,, g.assertedthe claim that they were usef, at the same time the.conveyorsofculture:theycould demonstrate the validity of theirclaim by providing a series of fi,lters at thecrucial stages of life whichwould direct each individualtothestationhistaients deserved. The Jeffersoniarrview of edqtation as an instrumentfor defining ..the aristocracy of talent to leadthe,Nation _ ale thusbroadenedinto a visjonof a mechanism forassigningallplacesin 'society. The conceptof the school as the testing -ground for ability wasin accord with the deMocratic impulsesgaining .power,as the ccriturv d,rew to aclose. It offered a means of dissolving all therelics of privilege and inherited status whichlimited equality of opportunity: Within the-wallsof the school neither family, nor wealth, nor race,nor creed would count.only merit. On this neutral ground, therefore.eat-hperson could compete without-handicap in the contest for the success towhich all aspired --That the practice fellfar short of these standards, and thatfamily,race, and creed still counteddid not, diminish the powce of-the-ideal. schools been far from Foracentury. American of the processcompetition seem to haVe themselves for service as To insure the efficiency conception of a merit- struggled to adapt ,ofstaff. equal. and the very Only criteria. demanded professionalism r o c es s maybe channels of Social mobility. administratorsorientedcompetitive organization:- --andTrained te"achers and* questioned. But viewed inthe context of administration. would not only commandknowledge of the the teaching thiet were uniformand standard theerainwhich it developed. -subjects taught 'but also ofthe procedures more would C.hable them to turnout a product information and skillseducationalsystemdeserves a recognizable as valid.in for conveying the favorable judgment: in aneriod of raPid bearing credentials and for evaluating the progressof the evei'v part of the country.The old hit-or- change.itundoubtedly furthered social institution devised- itsg,udents. The evolvingbureaUcra.tic miss days when each casuals who had mobility and itinhibited "stratification, whateverstructure crowded out the in an industrial owncUrriculuMandhired a teaching, thethus helpingdo preserve afford' were no longer.formerly moved in andout thepoen access to, instructors it, could expedients being to insist .upon adefined environment developedwithin opportunity the frontier hadprovided in adequate. Asystem coUrse of preparation and toestablish firm which the child passedthrough successive. uponand the rural3past. his destinatiowqualificationsfor 'entering schools after clearly articulated stages to . The evolving American advancing.in careers in theschools. social Elementary-.secondary, and higher imperfections of the 1870alsoperformed, another a threetiered In retrospect. the theywere. educationformed Residual biases fdvored"function.Ever more often teaching,andsystem are evident: whatever else they mech-zin-Unr7, ofscrutiny.______regions, andexpected, in addition to loeate ability and-tosome-families_ethnic groups. acculturation and testing. in the effort to expense-zif-othersFrorn thedid, to act as agencies of direct each pupil to his orher proper roleclasses at the ---aSsirhilatioh,_instrutting their chargesin - perspective of the l970s;the conditions of in life. wide variety of modes of correct behavior,lost their binding quality, k,) ranging in scope from the the influence'oftheit parents. As well proper meth011sparents atid churches grew weaker, expect tne creXchniar of brushing the teethto safe driving. and to teach his .sons to drivea lommirive All those matters the intermixture of diversepeoples under. of health, ,hygiene,mined, the assumption that motor Ca, as expectdiiin to instruct then; it% manners, and morals had all shared the the behavior metropolitan life formerly beensilrile values: OldMaxims did not readily demanded. among the duties of the Nmilyand 'the And' indeed,. as authoritydrained away apply to the new circumstances;the tried church.Changingcircumstances fro'm the family and thechurch, parents hadand true injunctionsto_ neighborliness, brought them withitl-the orbit of the themselves .welcomed theopportunity to school. A relatively thrift', honesty, andrespect for the rights of laimogeneous, largelyothersdid transfer elsewhere 'the responsibility,for rural society had been not a neatly. fit the socializing their 'offspring. able to leave thesecircumstances on the sidewalks concerns-inprivate of New The 'burdenfellupon hands on theYork as they had downoti the farm. theolready assumption thateveryone shared the sarhe overburdenededucationalsystem. The communal views and The discrepancieswere most evident insAools attitudes. Any child.relationship with the millions of were repositories ,of the sciences, reared in any good farnilyand any church. European. which steadil) displacedtradition as the Canadian, and Mexican immigrants.The would learn thesame lessOns of duties tO source of answers to tbe importantques. himself and to his neighbors. men ankwomen who met the .Nation's'dons of life. To the' The few whoa need extent that people did not were subject forlabor seemedtotallyalien. to correction and carebabbling away in sought ,gui4ance from medicine, by institutions fordeviants. incomprehensible economics, and sociology ratherthan from tongues, worshiping in strange' churches, the memories of their ese assumptionsand set apart by culture, life grandparentS, it ecame style, and.made senseCif entrust children ever less ways of thinking. Therecould be tothe tenableafter .1870. no'institukionswhichconveyed assurance that the Polesj, Italians. Jews. these The population organiiedbodiesofknowledge.The and Turks who resided in elosepropinquity remained unset tled schools had the prestige,which family and to one another and to the native Ainericanschurch fost, to set' the standards andin a _ of correct fashion could comprehendone another or goexist more behavior and. thought. disconcerting withoutconflictp-r disorder." Yet . thr; Nevertheless, than before. Thechildren growing t he'schools did not' Yankees who moved from Connecticut up in all such familiesthreatenthe to were A:mericans; and they would diversity ,char'acteristic"of Ohio in 1820 carriedwith them family some daysociety in the UnitedStates. Nol,ingle have io deal as citizens withNew World. structure, style of life, and churchesnot group had the power through themto problems. They Could hardlybe expectedimpose its preferences, totally,,intact, perhaps, butintact enoughto learn to do so in. Old World upon the otheis. to adapt to the new environment. homes.Neutrality was apo9ticalnecessitY of By ThFy would have to find theway through contrast. migrants who arrived inChicagosome other agency. public educaiional systemswhich cOuld not after 1870 found that the urban risk the enmity of situation The plight of thecildren of native any bloc of voters; and radicallytransformedalltransplanted dissenters, anyway, always hadthe option Americans. while lesi viS`ible,was almost institutions.Inthegreatanonymous, of founding private schoolsof their own: as grave. They toosuffered from the, impersonalcities,conventional controls As a result, .deviant viewswere generally. inadequacy of the trainingavailable from tolerated, even if not acebrdedcomplete a

4".

11 '1 a . -.

10111111,, 11 t1411.1 1411 1411144 .1 os011141144 41 14 41. IMPORT E. a 11004E111'1N. P1/411.113SHIMA (1/4 ached between a thin board and a sheet of clearhorn were the 'run major materials of , Ns,. e.; Colonial elemental' .J:PTA:=131.6 education-4 the alpha bel and the, 4 /141'1;,,I (:1I)N(' Lord's Prayer. The 11' wooden text: 1,11 0,1r1111'1, "hornbook, ',' as this'simple u9as knoWn, was often theonly, 4441*, hi t` t'.1-1 instructional tool available to bmmary t" 1, i% schootchildren of the period.'Once,thei); , ., ntals young v,64 had mastered its fundame g',1141 scholars progressed tocdtechismlessonk, , 0117..1..VX1A.T1.1:3 Vt7C7,11.11C011 abandoning their hornbook,tos youngeq"' brothers and silvers; and,because of ti,1,1 resilience of their design,handMe-dovnr hornbooks endured childhoodafter, printed readers tintn define the i:entralgOals of 'the system, childhood; until mass equality, Administratorsand teachers had teaching career in leaching materiagtpadef,:iri knew Since, in adtkion, the more elaborate to balancethe certainty that they customarily the United Statesdidnot them obsolete. - q4 what was good fortheir pupils against tlw aura( t the mostfalented, the shortcomings need for taking accountof the variety of of the schools werehardly surprising,. But views in a pluralisticsociety. nonetheless schools to meet their achievements were The efforts of American parallel in the modern rapidly changing and impressive. without the needs of a by- thevast population expanding conntry wereotilypartially wOild judged immense: served, the t.ariety offunctions performed, successful. The obstacles were needs met. With allits createdafresh: aml the-, social everything hadtobe the system ofeducation despite the wealth of the country,resourCes imperfections, significantcontributionsto 'for education were usuallymeager: and made it democracy in ..thecountrY within which the dispersal of control amongmany local authorities left no onein a position to OperatCd.

12 The Master's deskwas in the front'oi room. next to the door. Jeremiahk.nt:w that inside that.massive piece of oakwere MasterDove's the tops.i balls, marbles,and other forbid& itemswhich Master Dove confiscated from his pupilswith uncanny regularity. Just yesterday.Jeremiah himsel had been the victim of theMaster's quick One-Room hand, and had lostthe.prized penknife which his older brotherThoma:, had entrusted to him lastsummer. He had promised to guard it WhileThoi-nas was cchI away at college in nearby Cambridge,and Jeremiah dreaded disappointinghis brothel While he brooded, thedin in, the classroom mounted toan earsplitting \ pitch. Then suddenly it stopped. gnd the 'room became silent. Jeremiahdragged himself out of his miserablereverie and waited expectantly forMaster Dove to march through the door. Asusual, he prayed that one of these daysthe Master would arrive having beentransformed the Jame-. previous night intoa kind, twinkling man: maybe someone like his uncleJoseph, who always had a piece of maple 24 sugar in his, - pocket and could makeanyone laugh. But, alas, todaywas not the day. for in strode Master Dove lOokingrigid and sour. brandishing the dreaded,ever-present fel*, with histhree-cornered hat riding majeStic-alfyatop his impeccable gray wig. sge Even his worn gray silk waistcoatwith its rows of silver buttons roderigidlyon his lanky frame, as if reluctantto flow naturally for fear of beingpunished: Jeremiah found it hardto believe that the schOOlmaster hadbeen born with,such a sour disposition, a id hewas forever looking for some sad, mysticalreason for Master Doire's transformation.The lad's - father, who knewa lot about most things and didn't put muchstock in sad mysticism, said that MasterDove was probably "of a sour ber.,-because he had to work very hard,not onlyteaching his here he is! The winter. and he expectedto see his students Maker's coming!" in their seats when he Jeremiah tlacistone arrived. Jeremiah was not interested in incurringthe Master's abruptl revérsed his wrath, so he wedged hims'elf direction. onto one of thekackless benches in thefirst row, on the abandimed the, siderpf,, the room'. squirrel he h'ad beerl there were chasing, and dashed two rows of pine bencheson three sides of theroom, facing the huge. toward the schoolhouse.Following 35pr . other boys of assorted so pot,belliedstove in thecenter. Behind the ages. sizes, and benches, against eacq'wall, backgrounds. he neatlyvaulted the two-- there was a foot woocren fence. continuous, sloping spelt"at waist level ran upthe path. and which the older studentsused ,as a pushed inside the doorof the one-room.' support to lean against wooden building. The while they were year was l775in the studying. and asa desk while they were Massachusetts,Colony. andJeremiah writing. There was Gladstone was nine a narrower shelf under ,years old. sit on which they couldstore their books Once inside. the -boyswasted no time in.and supplies. Within the finding their seats. for square of the Master Dove wasnotouter benChes, there wasa line of lower noted for dealing kindlywith tardy pupils. benches for the smaller The Master arrivedpromptly children. The at 7 a.m;iii space in the middle of the -ihe spring and fall and8 a.th. injhe robm'served as a kind of stage, forrecitations. pqmpils but also helping,to maintain the board on which was pasted a printed leaf each day after the boys went home. iool building, for which he :ir 35 paid only containing the alphabet and some short Supposedly the schools were built for 450 per year. Jeremiah thought thatwas a sentences. This was covered with a thin let of money to pay such a crotchety everyone. rich or poor, and to some.pec sheet cr transparent horn to protect it fromthat even meant girls. Abigail and person. , the ity,,;bly dirty fingers it would fall " "Good morning. Master Dove," chanted Rebecca, however, took dancing lesson: prey to. instead because their parents thought t the:boys in unison. at no seemingcue other Promptly at half past ten each morning,was more important. than the Master's arrival at his desk. He the boys were allowed to go outside fora After lunch. Jererniah.returned to scl peered over the top 4 hisquare, tortoise- short recess. On the way back inside, each for the afternoon, which commenced 1 shell glassel, and gazed at his charges who child was permitted a drink ,of water from shifted uncomfortably against each class reading out loud in turn &Mr one another. the pail near the door. but Jeremiahwas The New England Primer, an 88.page, :Jeremiah knew by heart what the I, always one of thelast ones back insideso he3 1:2.inch by 4 112-inch leather-bound ' procedure for the day would be. It would generally got only !I longing look at the book which, except for some spelling itart with the "first class" ( the oldestboys) waterand a menacing look from Master lesi;onS and an occasional illustration, reading from the Scriptures. Then would . Dove. didn't hold Jeremiah's interest. He kneii come the thawing antkvaering of the ink, The rest of the morningwas spent was important to learn.che Westminster in preparation for writing, which working on spelling. ancljeremiab liked.toCatechism, but he haegreot difficulty consumed a major portion of the morning. make this part of the day into agame. memorizing the tedious questions and NOt a meticulous person by nature, While Master Dove readout words from Jeremiah didn't care much for the answers. He forced himself to concentra the handsome WATTS Cornpleat on it because he knew he would have to involved in copying for page SPELLING BO K, and then waitedas recite a portion this Sunday in church, fter page such phrases as "Contentment is the class spelled the words 2 ciliscipline out loud, he definitely didn't want to disgrace his . virtue" or "Procrastination is the thief of Jeremiah tried to see how often he could be time two of Master Dove's favorites the first to finish. family by not being prepared. Aside froi the obvious embarrassment in church fo until he had mastered the letters. Hewas And then it was time for lunch. Jeremiah consoled. nevertheless, by his fascination any child who had not memorized his walked the half-mile home for lunch with catechism, Master Dove's own brand of -with the ink he used and the process of ink- his cousin George. who wai 11 and in the imaking that his father had taught him first class, and George's brother Matthew,. disapproval, manifested with the help of when he started going to school. Together who was seven and, to Jeremiah's mind, the ferule, was not something Jeremiah a coveted. they had gathered the bark of swamp hateful pest. Jeremiah wished hisown maple and boiled it in an iron kettle to give brothers were closer to him in When each class had completed its age so they reading from the primer, there was rhort kit a more perfect black color. When it . couldwalk home from school with him. spelling, and finally some arithmetic. thickened, they had added copperas,or but Thomas was 15 and studyingat green vitriol to it. Jeremiah loved to dip his Harvard College, and Jabez There was nortextbook for this study, bui was only three.Master Dove, like most schoo1masters., quill pen into the ink and make huge swirls Nearer his own age were his two sisters. go on his paper. tut he knew that paper was ten-year.old Abigail. and Rebecca, who each boy pages of handwritten rules and scarce and Must not be wasted.. was eight and his favorite. Their days wereproblems from a manuscript sum-book Aftt r writing, it would be the turn of the spent at home with their mother, learning -which he had studied from when he was2 second class to read from the Scriptures, how to cook and sew, because boy. Jeremiah couldn't imaginetiae the as Jeremiah'sMaster had-ever been a boy, much less and then the turn of Jeremiah's class. After. father rightly said, "A gentleman hasno or th'at, the smallest children would be called interest in an educated woman." Jeremiah who had had as much trouble struggling out to read a sentence or two from their thought that this made sense becadse mostwith problems and sums as Jeremiah reader. the Hornbook, since they werenot girls were sillyanyway, although,he hiniself did. yet ready to read from the Scriptures. The boys were usually weary by this recemly overheard his panents saying that time, because the day was long,, and they Jeremiah still had his Hornbook, which sOMe.of the daughters of the townspeople knew it was almost five o'clock, the Eime really wasn't a book at all. It was a thin were attending school for a couple bf hoursthat school was dismissed. The fire in the stove was Waning, and Jeremiah wis.chill) ,and hungry. The dismally vacant walls an iinie the Glum, aka,,a1.4a.doira .; deth $iettlegAles Ant:. stained, gritty windows didn't do much to 4at.kie cheer him up. and he sorely wished there. was something of interest in the classroom tie rival.04;i.ft 41r,Irriales.::beantt- for him to look at. Across the room, two o - wits the tree:..; oaawlfa Thet :. siredLiii the yOungest boys were fidgeting and' roial pushing each other, trying io see who would be forced off the bench and into th r eels the rod, -Ater den.res. salett;;. In the c,* Master's wrath first. Jeremiah hoped that school would end before the Master caug Estlfer them. 1W:di ,."4% "And tomorrow, Jeremiah Gladstone Ogilb *-0 79.(4114C.4' will light tht fire before schiiol." Master rofii d.ma1 fife: 117,, VA.,11.7,1' Dove planted his hat firmly on and strode from the room. Jeremiah piwohicsira breathed a sigh of relief and suddenly. forgetting his fatigue. hunger. or the col eehifeec ran from the schoolhouse to find that ffeili!%tta squirrel. a. Frt.Teeia..'41t - . 7JUDITI-1 SELDE

- *. r . . "134.* . , Vorzril rr:A; ."! .114.0 r 41, Ms. Selden is a junior high ichool English teach in Wegon, Mastachuset4. , . preached at Neshaminv in November Of 1739, "the students spent most of the clay-- and lodged at night with families in the rhe Log Conee vicinity." By the time Mr. Whitefield arrived at Neshaminy, as noted in hisfournal, subsequently printed by Benjamin Franklin,, Mr. Tennent had dispatched "seven or eight" ministers into the field. "More were almost ready to be sent forth," he added, "and a foundation is now laying 1 for the instruction of many others." By that time also the primitive institution was being called a "college" -in scorn and derision, born of apprehension, by cerainsritics of an aristocratic turn of Mind. Not only did it fail to provide the range of courses offered by such "real" colleges as Harvard and Yale, they said, but even worse it admitted young men whose humble backgrounds demonstrater' that they were not college material. MriTennent himself made no pretensions. He did not award diplomas, C. for example, and there were no formal 11111....4 graduating ceremonies. His ctirriculum ,. was nevertheless no snap. The students Chatham in southea-stern New York, then here were probably were trained in elocution and forensics. to nearliy Bedford, and then back again to ,more axes ringing in they read the classics, and they stUdied Bucks County, establishing his pulpit in Pennslyyania than Latin, Greek. some klebreiv, moral Bensalem. A graduate of Edinburgh there were school philosophy, and theology. Thus armed University and a gifted Latin scholar, 'Mr. bells during those they proved to be able fomenters of a'new imonths in the early Tennent apparently found himself be- egalitarianism ih higher education, 1770s when the Rev-. coming almost as concerned about his parishioners' lack of learning as he was spreading the "log college" movement to William Tennent other regions in the Middle Colonies by with their need for salvation. In 'any caS'e as chopping timber out of the Bucks establishing similar institutions. Among he took to devoting increasing amounts of ounty wilderness for his "Log College." them: Fagg's Manor, opened in 1739 in his time to teaching them how to read their The Presbyterian evangelist raised the Pennsylvaniz.'s Chester County by Samuel Biblei; and catechisms. And when in the vo-story structure directly across from his Blair; Samuel Finley's school in Maryland autumn of 1726 he moved south to a little lurch on the Old York Road at at Nottingham, Cecil County, in 1744; settlement On the:forks of Neshaininy eshaminy. about 2() miles north of And Robert Smith's at Paques in Lir ncaster hiladelphia. And in doing so he Creek. he built not only a church but a Cnunty. Pennsylvania. ;n 1750.' romoted a departure in higher education school as well. Mr. Tennent sensed what seemed to be Their graduates in turn carried on the tat .outraged his More conventional an American compulsion to constantly work. Dr. Benjamin.Rush, a product of mtemporaries by capsulizing a spirit of Samuel Finley's'ichool who was to becoine move westward, he saw how relentlessly the ;alitarianism that was to captivate the wilderness was being pushed back toward a leading figure in the Revolution and a orld a few decades lx.er. the Allegheny Mountains, and he signer of the beclaration of Indepenclence. A dissident priest in the.Church of concluded that the Middle Colonies could was active in founding Dickinson College.'''' Tigland who had turned to inot wait for new preachers and teachers to Johtt McMillan. an early minister in Tesbyterianism. Tennent had ridden the western Pennsylvania. graduated from the come in from the mother country or down de of Scotch-Irish immigration to the from the New England colleges of Harvard Paques school and in turn set up a log Iew World. arriving at William Penn's college in the Redstone country of rovincial capital on September 17; 1718. and Yale. Although his initial motivation for building his'school was a determination southwestern PennsylVania. And Samuel n event he duly noted inhisi diary: Davies, who was graduated-from Fagg's to educate his sons for thePresbyterian We landed safe at Philadelphia Manor, became the fourth president of the miniszry, the logs were hardly chinked ,the head Toyn of Pensilvinia College of New Jersey, Messrs. Blair and before he had decided to accept other and' wasCourteouslieinter young men interested in that calling or in Finley and two of Mr. TennenCs sons hall- tained by Mr. James Logan in fact helped to charter this inslitution ( it becoming teachers. Agent and secretarie of all Pen- was rater to.be known ai Princeton His church at Nesharniny was opened for silvinia. --:Uniyersity) whiCh enrolled its first ,students The new immigrant quickly established services in the summer of 1728, and io in May of 1747. is credentials with the Presbyterian Synodprobably to the astonishment of the That wai" one year after William Philadelphia. but he did not tarry in the backwoods villagers-- was h structure . Tennent died at the age of 73.,He had left tpital. at that time a communiq of which one observer iemembered as being his mark. 1.000 colonists. At the age of 45. -about 20 feet long, and nearly as broad." undling his growing family with him, he located on the OltlYork Road. "In it," WALTERWOOD t out to spread- the wordof God in the wrote the Rev. George Whitefield, a 1 5 Associate Eclitor,.Ameritan Edueition7 ew World. He traveled first toEast visiting evangelist from England who AMERICAS UNSYSTEMATIC EDUCATION

t:. SYSTEM

BY PATRICIA ALBJERG GRAHAM'

'Americab "system system" as such, because until that timehad achieved some degree of mastery of .education"isan education had been acquired through aparticular field. organit.: . . .,tight varietyofratherhaphazardmethods. These various ways of learning wet ma re a Childrenstudiedathomew-iththeir no means mutually' exclusive. Genera functionai parents or with a tutor, o'r perhaps at theyoung person encountered several of t ItnearLy defies ex-home of a nearby spinster or, widow .in aen route to adulthood, after which, it planation as a coher-"dame school" with a few ot her hoped, learning did not stop but was' cm' enterprise. butneighborhood children, and only rarely at less likely to be institutionalized than it persons regularlya building formally designated "school"in youth:Undoubtedly the most univl emerge from their cncounters with it moreand subsidized by the local ccimmunity.form of - instruction was apprentices knowledgeable than when they entered it. the rhurch, the children's tuition, private ahhough most apprenticeships were nc If it is to be judged on theseducadonal at beneficence,or some combinationofthe formal variety on the English m tainments of the entiie ,American public. these. Suchformalworkoften was that prescribed certain numbers of yea thenits success isreal.However, fewsupplemented byindividualstudy,byservice to the master. Much more coin] American in.siltutionshave sufferedas perUsal of books and local newspapers and was theinformalvariety... inwhicl much criticism, particularly in the last ,24 journals: byinstructionalmessages' youngster learned one specific skill or a years, as have those concerned with edu-embedded in sermons and Sunday school general oneg simply by helping some cation. programs. and through apprenticeships whohadtheseskills.Forhalf The paradox of functional success..but both formal and informal to persons who population (the female half) this, was massivecriticismraisesperplexing questions about this enigmatic enterprise. Apparently it is successfully accomplishing one taskwhile being expectedto do another. Sixquestions seem helpfulin approaching some undersianding of the American educational system: What is it? ttihat is.,expected of it? What does itdo?. Who uses it? Who runs it? and Who pays for it? What ,isit? Thc essential unit of the American educational system ( and of any educational' system today) is the school the physical plant and' the organiption it syrnbolizeg". Thus, not until the latter.part of the Igth century could the United States seally be said to have an "educational

Professor Graham isDirector 'ofthe EducatiOn Program. Barnard College. and Professor of Ilistory A n d Education. Teachers College. Columbia University. She k the author of Community and Class in.4 mertcae Education.' I863- /9/8( 197.1) and Frog/esti:1. Education; From Arcady to Academe ( 1967) and is now working on a history of women in . higher, educatfon. !, sic. mode -.ofkat ung hOuseholdof thc classics, hOwever that knowledge was as the pre-eminent .educational enterprise gained. Around the turn of the century thelaidthe foundationfor the Arkrkan, ' .nagement. Girls helped their_ mothers educational system. for the schools Were therebyacquiredthe necessarypopular definition changed so thatan iking techniques, simple scNi-hg skills.'e'doc-ated man- was orie who lilad:been tonearly the only elements within that system :1 some notion .of how to keep a house This shift in. the public conviction until well into the ,20th century. . rctioning. Latyr generations would beabout what constituted education was, .a Whether ''' theschoolswerepublic, ight these topics in junior high school .crucial one, for it illustrated the belief thatprivate, or par:ocliidi probably made little me economics classes. education had become a commodity whichdifference in terms of what the students learned. The differentauspicesunder By'theendof the 19thcentury,one got at an educational institution. The in ora of multiple educationalPossibilitieswhich the schools functioned did, however, ulamental changes had occurred patternofAmerican lerica. Prior to that time an "edUcatedhad faded, and the narrower definition ofcomplicatethe education as what one learned inschooleducation. Numerically the public schools in- in America would.undoubtedly have have dominated the erirollments. For most r:n characterized as one s'yithknowledgehad arrived. This acceptance of theschools ofthiscenturyabout85percentof American school children have attended public schools. Now the figure is over 90 percent, principally as a result of declining enrollments in Roman Catholic schools, which accountfor80 percentofthe . nonpublic school students. The remaining 20 percent of nonpublic school students arc either at other religious schools tz.( 13 percent)orschoolswithoutreligious affiliation (seven percent). Some educators' fascination with,. the . organizational differences between public. and private school Systems has obscured the essentialsimilarities between them. 'Both cover a very broad range of schools serving the top, middle, and bottom.of the socioeconomiC groups in America. Both tend to serve the .residential community near them, thuS making individual schools ::relativelyhomogeneousethnicallyand economically.Bothusethesarne ioit;tt curriculum material's and teach courses in similar sequences. These similarities have beentruethroughoutthehistoryof .AmCrican education. For example. in the alPqr early 20th century the differences between a public-school located in an immigrant neighborhood with predbminantly Jewish families and a Roman Catholic parochial schoolattachedtoanethnicparish composed primarily of Italian immigrant ,families were not enormous, except, of course,fortheadditionofChristian doctrine in the parochial school. In both schoolsa premium was placedupon a .... literacy and tipon Americanization. anckin 7,10' neithICr was' there much opportunity-Ito ::.....°4 , * - mix wirh,children of' othCr eConomic or . t ',.. ethnic backgrounds. 'Tp.daytlfepublic -4, schools of Great Neck, -Long Island, ate probably more similar in curriculum and J a. -clientele to such private schools as Dalton and Fieldston, 20 rnifes away in New York, Nark 0 .City.thant 1 ya.'re to public ones in Wyandanch o evelt, 20 miles in the im...'. opposite direction.. , 1. Schools, then, whether they be public or

. a are the essential element in the Wetwork thatrnakes up the American EiLANQHE LANIONT educational vstem. In recent years they MISS 17have been supplemented by a variety of ea _WITH HER' SCHOOL AT HECLA, MONTANA, OCT.,1893. other educational enterprises, particularly 074.. lIertry Catster. Whaateama Wmahlo television, which is likely to become evenT 7 more im. portant .in coming . years. Theschools for moral uplift to a predominantlyand industrializing nation, and Janticipatedrevolutionwroughtby Protestant Massachusetts populationtremendous decline in need for abdiotapes and videotapes hasnotyet beginningtofacelargeCatholiclabor, education had a new mi ! occurred butitis certainly a technicalimmigration. By the beginning of the 20ththeschoolsthenascent A possibility,althoughnotyetclearly a century, faced with the immense numberseducationalsystem was supi psychic one. Nonschool institutions still areof immigrants. with the rapidly urbanizing"Americanize- the immigrants

alechiefremainingelement . in the educational system. Most important among these are libraries, which in this century have become publicly supported andnearlyuniversalthroughoutthe Nationinstead of beingconcentrated among the wealthy and in urban areas. No longe.,- novelties as they were at the turn'Of the century, social settlements still provide important educational services, as do such otherpioneers as countyand home demonstration agents. The list could go on. but further additions would not modify the essentialpictureof the American educational system as a conglomerate of local schoOlsassisted byotherlocal institutions. What is expected of it?Undoubtedly the mostserious ,problemthe American educational system has ever faced is the gap between public expectations of it and its performance, A recent book on the history of American education in the late 19th and early 20th century is tided The Imperfect Panacea,and that is a superbly -succinctaccountofthefate.ofthe American educational system. rom Puritan times to thepresent, _educa- tion has been asked to solve all kinds of religious, national. social. economic. and even intellectual problems.Inthe 17thcentury.edu- cation was intimately tiedtoreligious salvation: Puritans believed salvation .and ignorance were .contradictory. By thelate 18th century. Thomas Jefferson.more concerned with the problems of this life than the next, looked to education to provide the informed citizenry upon which hisnotions of the democradc republic rested. -If a nation expects to be ignorant' and free in .astate of- civilization.- he wrote."it 'e.APeos what never was and_ never .will Ife,- Concern with the republic and With the citizenry's commitment to it prompfted Noah Webster towritehis "GrammaticalInstituteof theEnglish Language.Partr ostentatiously known as the Blue-Backfd Speller). There Webster tried to insure that through the widespread use of these materials.the American child would grow up with a body ofpatrioticallusions _commOn tohis fellows. "Let the first word ffelisps be Washington,- he urged. Later in The 19th century.Horace Mannpreachedthe gospel of the possibilities of the public

1 8 49 IIIMENEMIes _ everyone literateinEnglish.automobile accidents began to be a serious whose parents they did not see'. Aiain, the ermore. it was to provide extendednational problem,the solution was to schools were asked to assume an impossible itionalopportunitiesatthe highmandate driver training in the schools. A burden. If Americans had really whrittci I level to large numbers of childrenmore direct method of coping with the integration in the Fifties (and thereis riffle parents had never ventured beyondproblemwouldhavebeentoforbid evidence they did, although many Said udiments of literacy. automobile manufacturerstoproducethey did), the areas to have moved on were automobiles that would go faster than 55real estate and job recruitment: !thoughmuchhasmiles an hour. ,orto enforcearigid In short, the principal expectations for been expectedofprohibitionagainstdrivingafterany the educational system have been both educationinthe..drinkingofalcoholicbeverages.Only academic and social. Too often the social past, the failure ofrecently has any serious attention been problems the school was supposed to solve the schools or othergiven by man'Ufacturers to improving thehave overwhelmed it so that it was uable educational agenciessafety of their vehicles. Despite widespread toresolve the academic. Probablyales, to meet these goals,acceptance of driver education in schools, period of most intense criticism of the thoughregrettable,auto accidents have not declined. American educational system came in the was not as serious as A far more serious example of expectingearly Fiftiesatthe height of the "life -ame in the 20th century, For the firstNe schools to do what the rest of theadjustment movement" when the critics , literacyandliteracyat a3cciety either did not want to do or foundsought more rigorous academic programs. nably highlevelwascrucial.Ititself unable to do has been .the racial Few today would maintain that schools are Tie very difficult to make alivingintegrationissue.Sincethe Brownv. the sole place to learn how to adjust to life; )ut it and therefore very obvious whenBoard of Education decisionin1954' that complicated task is not likely to be ,ns could not get or hold jobs becauseschoois throughout the United States have accomplished between the ages of six and did nor have the necessary skills. Thebeenwrestlingwiththequestionof 16. That such a program could even be e was placed on the schnols for failingbringing together in classrooms childreninaugurated, however, is indicative of the !-ducatesuch -pee properly.whose parents have never associatedatkinwieldyobligationsthe ichools had ptingthe Mann clo,L;Inathatthework, at church, or atplay. Since thebecome accustomed to a9cepting. In that ic ( or "common") schools brought allschools not only were supposed to make thecase, unlike many of the others, they were ren together. the public asked thechildren literate but also te"socialize" told to lay th !:-.. burden down.. As to undertake those difficult socialthem,itisnotsurprisingthat many that the society had been unable toparents expressed 'extreme reluctance to What does it do? Despite the fact that childrenthe educational system has not brought jus- withitself.For example, Whensee their offspring associate with tice, affluence, and personal fulfillment ro all Americans,ithas some remarkable -,twa I.I achievements. To an important degree it is, responsible for America's international in- tellectual Jeadership.Obviouslymany SW other nations have well-trained scholars, but none is the academic mecca that the ,( United States is today. This has not alwayi been true. Until early in the 20th century the United States suffered an unfavorable 40r academic balance of trade; more Ameri- can scholars studied abroad thanfor- eigners did here. The shift came primar-4 ily as a result of the emphasis upon re- search at American universities in the years immediately surrounding World War I, a time that sapped the economic, spiritual, 01^.5;,k-Zitir and human energiesoftheprevious leaders: Germany; England, and France. American scholarship wa's also augrzt9nted

iff considerably by .the arrival of political refugees,-'patticularly from Russia (botkas a.result of the pogroms and later from the Bolshevik revolution) and later from fascist Germany, Italy, and Spain. Many of these 6migre's greatly enhanced the intellectual and cultural life of America. and itis tothecreditofthe much-maligned educational institutions that they (the uni- versities, in particular) included many of these distinguished scholars on their facul- ties and enrolled many of their ghildren as students, often with scholarships. Inadditiontothesubstantialin- tellectualcontribution made by,, these emigre's was their social impact. Un'til their arrival college and universityfaculties,

rmiNINENSIM encept for the Catholic institutions, had college that requires more than freshmaninstitutions can enroll students .of all .Veen composed typically of persons ofy.nglish, possibly some science and foreign and since considerably less than half mOlii-generationAmericanlineageof language, and a major to be includedeligiblepcfpulationhaseveratten Protestantbackground.Many ofthe among the 120 odd credits that make upthemcall .for only modest gains: refugeesfromHitler.of course.were the Bachelor's degree. At the turn of thethese gains probably will be chiefly in Jewish. and when they joined American century suchlanguages as Frenchorpublic institutions. faCulties, they were often the first Jews ever Germanwere new additionstothe Statistically children from middle c to have been appointed topermanent curriculumandconsideredbarely homes are over-represented in the col positions. This generation of emigill Jewish respectable academically. Today they havepopulation in the United States and th intellectuals in turn helped to open the faded. as Greek and Latin before them, toparticularly true of male childrenfi barriers for American Jews to widespread be replaced in student interest by majors inmiddle class homes. Thus whereas wor participation in American academic life. urban studies, ecology, or psychology. currently constitute more than 50 pert Discrimination against Catholics. always Even more dramatic curricular changesof the Nation's population, they repre: lesssystematic thanagainst Jews,also have occurred outsidetheliberalarts only a little more than 44 percent of diminished, but moves to bring blacks and framework in the development duringthis undergraduate enrollment.Bright women into the mainstream of American century of professional schools, especially fromeconomicallydepressed 1 academiclife remained for later decades. schools focusing on agriculture, education. cumstances form the largest category There is ample evidence that the Ameri- libraryscience,home economics,and persons who might be expected to pr can educational system has done well at thejournalism. Formerly each of the.,e skillsfrom colkge but who do-not do so. top..Comparative studies with other- na-was learned on an informal apprenticeship male-female disc ;epancy is even greate: tions show that the academically superiorhasis, but now they are degree-grantingthedoctorate 'leVel,where won graduates .of American secondary schools :Trams. All these courses make up the currently receive only about 18 percenl rate favorably with the top students of .0tem." the doctorates awarded annually. U more selective secondary programs in other recently blacks did not attend college ho use.s it?The countries. What of the great mass that anythingliketheirproportionin America attemptsto educate? On the simple. answertopopulation, but in the last few years tt whole the degree of success with them is "Who uses theundergraduate enrollment proportion American educa- .considerable. even though never as great as come closer.to approximatingtt hoped. Despite the immense diversity of tional systemris:proportion of the population. They the U.S. populatiOn, nearly all are literate. "Practicallyail stillfar behind at the doctoratelel children and a great and 87 Reticent of the age group five to 17 however, receivingless than one percent are enrolledin many adtilts as well.- public elementary and the doctorates aWarded annually, altbot secondary schools, an increase of 30per- 1 he rate of growth of they constitute over11 perceitt of centage points between 1870 and 1970. At educational attendance has zoomed in thispopulation. century. especially for the post-elementary The-present time over half the high school If one assumes that intellectual. capac graduates are continuing their formal edu- group. Estimates vary. but a reasonable is disfributedevenlythroughota 1 cations. Most impreSsive is the fact thatone is that less than five percent of the population, then it is. clear that the sch "streaming" (requiring students to make college age .children were in school .in an educational choice, such as a technical America in 1900. Today over 40 percentperformance is affected by factors ot: than sheer institute, which will later limit their voca- are.SeCondary sc*noolenrollments intellect. Such ba tional choice) is muchless characteristic of practically doubled every decade fromcharasteristics as race, class,. and 'sex,' the U.S. educational iystem than that of 1890 to 1920, when theY,hegan to level off. wellas such less Cangible .influences any other industrialized nation.. Although mtleh of this increase was ofmotivation .and teacher expectatic remain Inadditiontoeducating masses ofcourse due to grOwth in the- population_ in'tportantvaiiables-affecti young people ( and large numbers of older more. ofitcould be attributed to theacademic success and ibtellectualgrowl ones as well: in community colleges and increasing tendency for children to remainOver 30 year-S,ageorge S. Counts askt continuingeducationprograms). the tn school beyond the eighth grade. "Dare the, sehopIS :builda new soc order?" He haerhoped for an affirniati Arn'ericaneclutational system has ( Gurrently.for thefirsttime inthe speCialized in enlarging and_ broadeningNation's history, school attendance is notanswer, . but the reply then :and now, negative. curriculum.One can study nearlygrowing. Segments oftheeducational anything in the United States today and system have experienced periods of Despitt? 'the disclaimer that the schot receive academic credit for it. From -thecontraction or . no growth. irrihe past,are not primarily avenues of social mobil constricted offerings of the elementarynotably the elementary schoolsinthein this country, a recent incident involvi school at the turn of the century,. which thirties hnd Forties, 'which`were reflecting,the U.S".S.R.,-a. nation that has made tYpically proyided an unpalatable mix ofthe low birth rate oLthe Thirties, and thegenuine -effort-toèlithTiàTi reading... arithmetic, penmanship. Biblecolleges in the late 19th century, whichdistinctions in its society, is illustrative. study. history, occasionally science, and were reflecting a general disenchantment1973 a group of six American profess and one journaUst met in the Soviet Ilni always "rote work"( memorizatron), with higher education and an economic elementary children today look at newts depression. At present; howeyer. neitherwith-a counterpart .group there to disc undei- microscopes. write their oWn stories, the elementary nor the secondary schooldomestic .problerits ofITILIWAIconcern. learn arithmetic with a computer. and population, isexpectedto. increasebutthe opening session each participant t replace history with economics based on rather to shrink, a result of the drop in theranged in age from early 30s to mid 50 experiences in the loca'l stores. Even more birthrate,theabsence of .; significantwas askedjto introduce himself or he dramatic changes have occurred in -theimmigration. and the alreadyestablishedand tO say a bit about family fiackgrou curriculum of the colleges, where a centurypatternoffullparticipationin the The Americans, all of whom had b ago most colleges gave their students littleelementary and secondary schools. College educated at Harvard, Yale. or Coluin if any, choice( qectives)in their entireenrollment predictionswhich are subject represented a more diverse group m te .four-year. program. Today:. itisarare, to much more fluctuation,since suchof family; background than the Sow 2 0 Over half of the Americans were ache second generation of their family ilt.thig country, and less than half came., from' familieswho wereprofessionals.The ----coviets, on the other hand, almost. unan, imously came froth families in which the parents had been professionals and had attended 'college. This was all the more unusual since the proportion of Russians attending college of their parents' genera- tion was very small indeed. Although our educationalsystemclearlyhasserious. Iimitations as a vehicle for social mobility, it is noteworthy that the most prestigious universities in this country have not limited theirenrollments,particularly.. atthe graduaie level. to children of the upper middle class.

ho runs it? Two of the most distinctive features of the American e*cluca- tionalsystemare related to its organi- zation.Oneisthe extraordin a ry degree of lay controlthat still exists in school systems in this country, and sheotheristhesystern''shighly (decentralized structure. Lax control throughschoolboards andoboards of trustees made .up typicallyOrcoinmunity latiers dates ft:omthe' time when the numberofeducatedpersonsin a community was vcry small, anti the one or N,vo schoolmasters (or more rarely, school-. mistzesses) were not regarded as .among the most enlightened. citizens. Until the 20th-century the school teacher commonly was a young, single person ( no one could support a family on ateacher's wage) either en route to a-career or marriage, or when the teacher was older, a misfit for either. Such persons were notlikely,-to inspire the confidence of the statesmen of the community. .Tho therefore undertook responsibility for the schools themselves. A county in central Indiana exemplifies the school board model: When the first public school system was organized in the community of Franklin in1866:it was educational IAsupplantingmiscellaneous 4.1 endeavors that had been carried on by the local Baptist. Methodist, and Presbyterian.. churches, each-of which had operated its own school at one time or another. The town fathers accommodated to the history of riYd'alry among the faiths by naming the pastors of the three churches as the first Franklin school board. Two years, later they were succeeded by the county judgec the local doctor, and the leadag Franklin merchant, .atrio that looked after the schools for many years, hiring and firing superirnendents of schools at two and three n' year intervals. 21 Tension betweenthelayhoardsof -cifiltr.n1 and the professional educators has :ended to increase during,the 20th century withthegrowthoftheprofessional educator group. In many large systems the professionaleducators making up the established.continuing bureaucracy of the school system have become the effective determinants of educational policy. Although they are nominally responsible to the superintendent of schools, this official occupies such an exposed and vulnerable position in the community that his( one can say "his"advisedly,since over 99 percent of school superintendents inthis country are male) incumbency is likely to be no more than three or four years. The professional educators making up the staff of the system, on the other hand, usually are protected bi; tenure, and theirposition is therefore much more secure and their influence more sustained.Functionally that is Where the power lies in a school system. Lay school boards and superintendents canenunciateallthe reforms they want, but unless the teachers change their ways, nothing will happen. It ig often difficult to change an experienced teacher's view about pedagogical method or children's abilities. 'One of thc most persistent tensions in school, systems has been thatbetween parents of schpolchildren and the policy- makers of the schools, whoevei they have been. Generally parents have played a rather small role in setting prioritiesfor the schools, and when the schools did not seem to be educating theii- children satisfactorily, they have complained. Such parental dissatisfaction was evident during , 4i. in the denunciation of ( the 4,1950s nnt"1111141111*.sistill"I 1 1 I "1"1"1131"11111118111P "1"" 11" progressive education by the ,Council for Basic Education, a group that included many parents who were noteducators, IL 11141ilitilli111111110 1 ill 111111)1111111111 1111114 More recently the school decentralization

controversy in, New York Cityhas been 1 marked by vivid complaints from some If parentsthatthecentrallycontrolled schools were not responsive to the needs of their chjldren. 1 glalP4 Who pays for it? The question of control of the American edUcational systemis inevitably closely linlKd with the questibil of finance. There is very little nadonalized i Ill central authority over cducation in the United States. and proportionately there is I I 1 1 also relatively little Federal expendit'ure for 1 ii eV I elementaryandsecondaryeducation. iill 14111 Funding for higher eduCatkon. particularly for research carried on in colleges and universities, is 'much more likely to come from Federal sources than is support for the schools, though the latter has grpwn. Forty years ago nearly 83 percent of the. funds allocated to public schools came , from' local 'governments, with 15 percrit coming from State government and 0.3

1 percent trom tne recterai Uovernment. the country the districts with the highesttions, but two issues are clearly signifiCant. urrefitly approximately 52 percent comes levels of expenditure ale usually those. One is' a demand for 'rom local sources, 40 percent. from the a more ,diyeise found in the most prosperous suburbanfinancial base for public education. -than ;tate, and about eight percent "'from theareas, a shift from thepre-World War I, 7ederal Government. Over 80 percent of thepresentheavy. reliance on era when the city districts were tYpically .-property taxes. The second and more he local funds come from propertytaxes. the leaders in educational expenditures. subtle hypothesis involves citizens' loss 'of many critics have pointed out. givenRural areas particularlythoseinthe hiS faith in the capacity of the schools to structureof support,wealthySouth have always spent he leaston ornrnunities with_high property valuesare accomplish the many tasks assigned to public education. The estimatedrange them, a reaction compounded not only of ble, to provide better-financed--schools there for the 1972;73 'school year was from .a-tradition hanarepoor communities.Such of overexpectation_ butof $590 in' Alabarna,4651 iii Arkansas, andcertain- noteworlby_ recent developments. ifferencesin -educationalopportunity$689 inMississippi, in contrasttothe One of. these arises 'from ribe-faa that for- ave been held in recent court suits tofigures for the three highest States: $1,584 iolate the equal protection clause of the thefirst time in American historywe haVe for New York, $1,473 for Alaska, and reached a point where children no longer ourteentli,amendment t o t he,$1,307 for Vermont. regularly receive more formal education onstitution. most notably in 1971 in the ince the end of the alifornia case of thantheirparentsdidand_ _where Serrano v. Priest. 19th century.there As the Serrano case illustrates, one of opportunities for children to do better hasbeenconsider-than their parents economically do not ie striking features of the financing of the ablewilli'ngnessby mericaneducational system is the abound. Many college-educated parents taxpayers to financetoday are aghast at the lack o(concern ifferenceinsupportto befoundin the schools, at least Iffering regions_a_variation that has displayed by their teenage or young adult inpart because ofchildren for college or for entering _the-- taracterizedthefinancing. --Cifpublic- widespread faith of location throughout the Nation's history. economic mainstream. Others who were many Americans inunable to attend college themselves but oberi D. Reischauer and Robert W. theability of the schoolstoprovidewho have worked hard so ..thattheir artman have pointed out inReformingchildren with helpful and necessary skins. childrencoulddo so are .hool Finance,for example; that schoolIn similarly thelasthalf-dozen years,however,disturbed. Both groups may attribute their stricts in New York spend on the;averagevoters have been rejecting school bond ore than twice as much as the average offsprings'disinterestintheseoppor- issues and budgets with alacrity. Explana- tunities to what they see as permissiveness strict in nine other States. Throughouttions differ on the reasons for these rejec- in the schools. Such parents cannotvote Inka. against the changed culture that-. has in 4 fact produced their children'S' attitu but they can vote against school budts.. Dissatisfaction with the schoolsisen- demic. Ever since there have been schools there has been criticismof them. ',It conies from parents who blame the schools for the.inadequacies they find in theirown children.It conies from employers who findtheiremployeesillprepared' (somehow young people were always better prepared agenerationago when the employer was young-)-..It comes from teacherswho .findtheirstudents uncooperative( again, a 'generation ago when the teachers were young the students were better) .And itcomes from the students, who find the schools dull"( as students always have.) Wlth the American educationalsys- temas with most systems the halcyon days always seem to be in the past. Itscon- temporary triumphs are often obscure, , particularly to persons currently struggling with it. Since education has become'so widespread in America todayand that,

of coursc,isone of itsprincipala.c- . complishinentshigher proportions of Americans are directly conceraed with how it fares. Many of them .believe.thepast to -.be preferable tb the present; what survives from.the past tendsto be the successes of the past, not the failuresWhat troublesus in the present are our difficulties, notour achievements. It is toyur credit that weare dissatisfied with the present, for thenour future may be even better. 23 . - The Spirit of1876

"Never had there been 'such a turn- out nearly 350,000 people amonth, to a fotal of sonic ten million,flocking to. Philadelphia to join in the celebration of the 100th anniversary of the Nation's foiinding. - ostensible attraction was.the dentánnia1.Exposition, an array df kingerimiad itructures housing educa: lional exhibits and displays of an assem- blage of technological advancesthat almost defied the imagina- tionAlexander Graham BelPs _tele- phone, for example, a sewing machine, a typewriter,:a reaper, even an auto- : rnatic baby feeder. What really drew the record throngs .together, however, was a national out- burst of patriotic fervor a spirit of uninhibited pride in America that was most accurately captured notby ex- hibits but in the.stirring posters that flooded the jand.

'

111111110111.0111111A*Cli 017111111 s' 7.

smovesesce W nos owns 24 The Pride

t was to be, in the The visitor quickly perceivedthat a solid board regarded as the unreasonable words of M. Hall grounding in English literature,correct stinginess of the city's Common and Select Stanton, "a corn, speech, and proper posturewas routine 'plete exhibit of Councils, which controlled thepurse among the young scholars from the strings. So tight was the situation that that system of Philadelphia Common Schools, and that common school construction of:scores of needed additiona the girls could cook andsew with the best schools had been indefinitely postponed education which is the world had to offer. the chief foundatitm leav'mg, in the words of Board President The 31 members of the school board Stanton, 20.000 school-age children of our national4 strength." took considerable satisfaction in putting "running wild in the streets, growing with this kind of fooe forward to visitorsnot onlyyears in wickedness, and recruiting the Mr. Stanton. President of the Boardof from throughout the United States but Education of the Common School streng:h of the army of the depraved." In System from many foreign countriesas well. In of-Philadelphia. stood in his starched the existingschools, mearn2thile, the doing so, however, theywere compelled to teacher-pupil ratio was 50 to 1, and collar and long coat before the school ignore a crisis or two and to board on that February afternoon almost sweep various Philadelphia teachers were paidan annual a problems under the rug, for in salary of $486.14, in contrast to the century ago and verbally sketched a Philadelphia as elsewhere in the Nation in aunning picture of what the school' handsome yearly stipends of $814.17 in 1876, education suffered its trialsas weil asNew York and $973.35 in Boston. The :hildren of the Quaker City wouldprove to its triumphs. he Nation and to the world. result was loud complaint and heavy The most convulsive problem, turnover of teaching staffs. At one point The occasion was the International aggravated byuthe lingering effects of :entenni al Exposition, celebrating.the an the Common and Select Councils flatly economic depression, arose from what the '00th anniversary of the American- refused to pay the salary of Professor tevolution, with Philadelphiaas the host August Perrot, who was in charge of the ity. The Philadelphia schools exhibit,Mr. system s music prograins. Board meMbers scored the town fathers, but theprofessor, tanton declared. "will be commensurate ....-- iith its dignity as the mostcomprehensive took the more pragmatic step of filing suit, chenie of popular instr,uction conducted and funds to pay his salary were.somehow any city -in this country." found. The Board was unable tdscrounge Actually, the Philadelphia exhibitwas enough money to pay a superintendent Of ist one among scores of Exposition schools, however, So the city limped along -.without one until 1883. ttractions devoted to education, displays . f one magnitude or another having been The scho-Orsysteniwas meanwhilerun tounted by most of the States andsome of lock, stock, and patronage by the central ie Territories, and the city was in fact the board of education and by 31 sectional te of an international education boards established in a -wave of enthusiasm mference held in conjunction with the for the concept of decentralization.,The entennial observance. Parochialism latter bodies, electe'd by the voters of each ing what it is, however, itwas the home of the city's 31 political wards, had total wn exhibit that attracted the attention of control not only over the hiring ofevery e locatnewspapers. And in truth it was employee but over the day-to-day te of the more elaborate, the school In operaiion of the schools in their ard, having spent the jurisdictions. Critics railed in vain against extra- _girt "31 little independent forces iinary sum of $8.500to - now each. use its demonstartion of _ pulling its own st,vay." w far the schools had .r:1 One teacher, according to a magazine vanced in the young,, report, complained that when she mtry that had been- attemptedto correct a pupil's rn amid that city's 1 proniinciation of the word "piano" the boy- y cobblestones and retorted scornfully: "My popsays

171, brick buildings: , /9 it ilt,41 'pyanner' and he's a school director." ['here were tri- Impressed by this logic, add wanting*to phant pictures and 11;g1,_ keep her iob, the teacher settled for 31a ys of the. latest in -t "pyinner." The situation.was not eased, teaching of science one observer pointed out, by the tthe industrial arts. persistence of voters in "choosingowners of even physical education. saloons to fill the regional councils. A saloonkeeper "may be an admirable hiladelphia

goes frbm herpractice,to herschooland settles down to,the daily grind of

memorizing." . About tests: "The aim of examiners should be to discover the general -development of a child's intellect. rather. than the number of unassoCiated facts, dates, and rules which he has succeeded in mernorizing.:' As a matter of fact, rnany other comments about.education that found their way into print in 1876 have a 1976 ring to them. too. Thus School Board President Stanton on dropout: "The practical truits [ of this persistent problem] are to be Seen in the criminalcalendars all over the country.,and the expense .. . is .o be estimated in theappropriations for sustaining police, criminal court, ails,

and almshousei,, to say nothinc . :le dens of vice and crime in perpetual A teacher on the rigidity of the so al classroom: "How much of the t s -Ich should be emploYed in actual teaching is wasted in the mere effort to keep order. Discipline must be maintained so unnatural, so irksome to a healthy child, st almost brutal in its exactions, as to irritate and denioralize the pupils, to weary and unnerve the teacher, and toabstract an immense proportion of time from the true o6ject of the school." And Ms. Turner:.: , again, this time anticipating the concept o that man More penetrating and enduring career education : "We know person," this critic declAred, but few cannot live by textbook educationalone, "as a criticism Came from Eliza S. Turner, ---display any tlualifications to serve yet we see not where he is to learnthe art o guide for teachers,.a chooser oftextbooks, whose thoughts on humanizing education transcended the boundaries not only of trade by which he must earn his bread. As a,manager of schoolexpenditures,' an the times change we must`change. or suffe authority 'on school methods. ( oj) an Philadelphia but of her time. The schools, disaster." arbiter of the destinies of education." she said, must somehow.find a wayto "teachshildren to read.without tears:" In short, the process of lookMg back to a Not that the central board wasabove dose,of deja In other comments,that seem as much century ago contains a strong reproach. On November 28, asthousands for the bask issues Bicentennial as they were.Centennial; she vu. Not unexpectedly, of persons were flocking to theCentennial and goals that led to the Nation's of "the made such obscrvations,as the following:- .Exposition grounds to see exhibits founding. are essentially constant.TI-Ms foundation of our national strength," the On the purpose of schooling:-"If education meant siMply the fixing of though the common school system of a presicl-nt of the PI- iladelphia Commor, century ago has advanced fromtentative t, Councilwas declaring in City'Hall, asnort certain facts and definitions in the youthful mind, it would not be so much assured, there is still a plentiful supply of distance-:away. thai the Board of problems to be solved and challenges to be ring that amiss: burit should mean insteael-the real :Ed ucation.was "the most corrupt met. As with the preservationof liberty has ever disgraced the City ..,.",Money awakening of that mind and the 5trengthening of its own capacities for itself, there will always be a needior was being spent, he,said, on school renewal ancPrededication if our system of aequirem.ent. It is the larger part of our building repairs never made, textbooks education is to remain "the chief that never appeared, furniturenever business to make the pupil want to learn." On innovation: "Newer and bëttet foundation of our national strength." delivered. When asked to producespecifiC J. WILLIAM JONFS evidence in court, however, he backed methods of the day are supposed to be Services," Philadelph down, and within a few months the upioar taught , but these newer ways veryseldom Director, Informational Oung teacher School District. was red,uced to a:grumble. get into the classroom. The 26 The FloweringPre-Schooler

II kin-ds of novd Its emetzence also stirredup developments in being impractical and wrong-headed considerable controversy. Onone side wereThough muted by [low, in preschool education were on the followers of Friedrich Froebel, a 'education 'circles thecontroversy over dispfay at the 106 German educational reformer whohad., Gentennial Froebel's theories still persisis.100years created the "kindergarten,"as he called it,later: Exposition in J in le3i. Froebel's notion wasthatin the Meanwhile, this dispute asidethe------Philadelphia. from prr per setting, their natural organi'C., demconstrations of - kindergarten hassstab$she'd itselfas a: . . .prnesses stimulated by specially designed standard-asp-e-Ct of ti-C'American eduCailon the latest wrinkles in gaines and other play activities, children Sehool of Practic'e Teaching technicitiesto system, although Most of the earlyventures would blossom More or lesson their own were operated under private and modern design in pupil's desks. life plants ina garden: -the role of the not necessarily "educational" auspices.Even One newfang10.idea that attracted < teacher being in effect' tharof admiring particular attention. since most visitorsto . prior to the Centennial, in 1873the7City Of. onlooker. St. Louis had included theltindeigarten :he ExpoSition,ha'd never heard of such.'a On'the other side were those who took as hing,'w.aS call4 a 1.tindergarteSdinuch part of its public school program, andby-. up Froebel's creation but gave short shrift the turn of the ceptury rnAny other'cities mention did it draw, in fact, thatan to his premise, among other things adding .nterprising photographer en ide it the' -.wev following suit;(. book-learning to the agenda and givingthe 'Kindergartens art today maintained b'y ubjezt of a tereoPticon slide, roughly the teacher a more direct role in cultivating ontemporary equivalent of being featured m ore than 7aperceutof the public schnol the children's intellectual growth. This systems in the ;Nation': enrolling nearly 2.6 In. a network TY news program. new'form came to be calledthe American The children who were part,of the million ofihe ;nore than threeMillion kindergarten, to.distinguish ifrom the youngstets who are today participatingin Ahibiti'On's model kindergarcenwere fromGerman original. . . public and prrvate preschciol h orphanage, and' not co'incidentallr, The steadfait Froebeliaos heatedly , programs. nce the kindergarten movement in the rejected the New World.departures bite' d States began largely as - "ignorant imitations apti,perversions."The L:71. V. GOODMA'N a charitable venture. deviationists scoffed:at the Froebelians as Edltor, American Education

.e

r

;.

a 27 HE EDUCATION AMERI YLE

BY STEPHEN K. BAILEY third bf amillen- R,..,0000ce, ,f0 commencementprogramstressedthe . ervol. graduates in its firstcentury went into the nium separates thefounders' longing "... to advance I founding of Harvard ministry. Learning and perpi?uate itto Posterity; Three andathird College fromthedreading to leave at illiterate Ministry centurieslater, American toundergradukes in American collegesand Nation'sthe Churches, when ourpresent Ministers': Bicentennial cele- universities preparingto be clergymen shall lie in the Dust." Thi didnot mean,have dropped to a tiny bration.Inthatas ProfessoSamuel Eliot Morison has percentage of total period, thg number student enrollment. A turriculumthat' was pointed - oiA,that Harvard was onlyaonce Limitedto of institutionsoftheological school. The foundersprovided Latin, Greek, anda higher.education will have risen fromone handful of stilted,arts and sciences now 'for the teaching of thearts, sciences, andinvolves thousands of disparate to nine during the Colonial period.- from goodliteraturea;well course- nine to nearly 700 during the astheology.'offerings suited to almost.every, level of Nation's first Presumablyothersbesidesclergymendemand, taste, and interest. century, and from 700 tosome 2:800 by'could profit from the higher Giant ,the end of the country's second century. learning. ButAlniversities. small fourlear colleges,and Ifeducating clergy was surely theessential onejsdisposedtochangethepurpose of the early Harvard, for thetWo-year community colleges co-existin an nonienclature-.from "higher" to unprecedented profusion. advancewent and perpetuation of learning 4 is no easier to assess' the meaning-of' postgecondary" education, the final wasinextricablyintertWinedwitha number is shy by a goodmany hundreds succession of literate these complex changes in higher ecrucatIon ministersinthethanitistoassign meaning to even thousands of institutions,many ofchurches. SeVenty percept of Harvard's the them run at a'profit to trainyciung people kaleidoscope of history itself.Romantic in business,trade, and service skillsbeyond high school. Today,higher 'education eniollnients involve one-thirdof the 18-21 age group, as contrasted withtwo percenti of that same agegroup..a century ago, and' well under one percent duringthe Colon:: period. Extraordinary as they are, these siMple facts, alas, are not very simpleat all. Even the founding of Harvard in 1636was not the beginning of higher educationin America. The original c011ege gra.duates in North America were products of higher education in other lands. Before 1646', some 130 graduates, ofOxford. Cambridge, and Dublin had emigratedto New England. Furthermore, higher education purposes have not remained steady over time. The original functions and curriculum of Harvardwere a far.cry' from later defipitions of collegiate ptirpose ihereandelsewhere.Harvard'sfirst, Dr. Bailey k Vice President.1 the AtnerkanCouncil FAucalion. The First Nine Colleges Where Higher Education Was 200 YeargAgo

]; 'kraloti -.... Limp .Lk '11111)IIIIIir ------:7'51='FIll Nail

i . '1'.-r:.1' -II I VI' A1.1411111111111 C'111t11116:11.11.1%rlsit%)177,1 -. k ..t''''''-----11PA600"' /. . ._.

Akirot

INN

.tlid 1)111.1 Ull ,)/

sasits1811 II 11 111111111111111 I I ormars 1111M1

-1 1 'Ith.,-'):.s1,11.1171;.0

- .1111 Y) 71)11 1, i

2 9 descriptions'of higher educatiOn'spart incertin key phrases in the Declaration ofover various forms of foul disease, have "the Unfolding of the, American dream-.Independence in tlu. light of current moral .ari/ 'countered by Mat 'ian "proof- that been possible without the scientificarid perceptions. For this part of the exercise. professional contributions ofour colleges .,bigheseducationhasalways..; been a liberties will be taken with the following weardn of the classes against..the masses. aml universities? familiarsetsof° words:theLawsof Surely, credit must be assigned Titerclassicallybuttresseddemocratic to the Nature; All Men are Created Equal; I.ife.higher academy: butitroustalso "be Sisions of Harvard alumnus John .Wise.Liberty. z:and the Pursidt of Happiness.; whosel'indica!ionOf the Gt.iveroment of rationed., Mechanical arts practiced -in the and the ConSent of the Governed. garages of automotive invent° s were often -NewEngland Churches in 1717seems so No more fundamental tibligation existswithout benefit of academicmentors. Wily pregnant with meaningforourlateritt higher.education than the cultiyation of history. must be hoe alongside the, words and often rUthless entrepreneurs.most of Cicero's definition of Natural Lawas,thent without college.. experience, fueled . ofa speakeratanearly Harv.ard "right reason.- In contemporaryterms. th . machinery of our prodigious economic commencement. It the fathers had-notthis means the .ahility to think clearly,to .founded the College, growth. For atleasttwo-thirds of our the speaker said.recognize discriminating evidence,to sense history, higher eduCation . . . the ruling class wou'd have been was far more interdependencies. to assess probabilities. interested in civility- and piety than inpure suhjectedto- mechanics,cobblers,and to gauge consequences. In this sense,- the tailor.:thegentrywouldhave or, applied science. Most of the hundreds di been Lawsof Nature connotemore than sciencecolleges that were created during the 60- overwhelniea liV-lewd fellows ofthe baserand technology, although these fields of sort, the sewage of Rome, the dregs of .an year period prior to the Civil War were,acts knowledge are 'certainly ,included:Itis of denominational Consecration and illiterifte plebs which judgeth much fronipatent that the energy and environmental emotion, little from truth." competition. Christian doctrine,the.. crises and moon-based photographs, ofclassics, and .a rudimentary mathematics Has -Higher EducatiOnAmericanspaceship Earth .have Combinedto give "Style- been an affirm,ative instruinent in and science of little practical value beyond defense of the values encapsulated in the Declaration of "Independence,or hasit been the suhverter of-those principles and the true defender Only of 'aristocracies and meritocracies set upon securing theirown I jirivileges and credentiallingtheir, ownIIIMILMET /MI fort uities? II one'can say is that the signals frOm his- tory,arecrazily mixed.There is enough evidence of hubris and class dis- crimation to satisfy the cynical: there is enough evidence of noblesse'obligeand upward mobilityto' give heart to the votaries of Oledemocratic. faith.In all, this,higher education has remained .a faithful mirror 'of the,human conditionbeyonditswalls.In sum.,,hutha beings a new : senseOftheir although the question of the meaningof land surveying :"were the staples of the inextri able involvementin the LawsofdenominatiOnalcolleges.Thefew the evolUtion of higher educationfor the Nature and of their need, to exercise "right development and extension Of democratic challenges to tradition that emergedat reason- if the species is to survive. placeslikeAmherst,Union, ...andthe Values in America is a key .question, itmay To what extent has higher education in be that no final answer is possible. University of Vermont Were witheringly, TheAmerica'spastcontributedto ambiguity stems from something ouranswered by the famous report of the Yale beyond understanding of the, Laws of Nature? Afaculty in 1828. According to Theodore the problems of historiographycreated -by superficialreview thecontending of. 300 year's of theRawson Crance in his book The CO/leges styles. andrevisionist increasing secularization of the :ompulsionsofhistorians.The social and the Thiblic, 1787-1862,the report was curriculum. and of the extensioneven . :onscience itself is-a slowly turning prism. . avindicationoftheresidential proliferatior.of academic 'science andcollege and of the prescribed classical rand Light from the past becomes iefracted,by technology over the course of the 7hanging past 100mathematical course tied to a forthright perceptions of moral yearsalone,wouldleadonetothe mpe.-atives. Was the Harvard of the statement of the moral ,and pedagogical 17th concluSionthatAmericanhigherobjectives they were intended to achieve. entury a "sexist" institution? The question education has been the Nation's major vould hardly have been raisedeven a The traditional curriculum was upheldas instrument for exposing and harnassingideally suitedto disciplinethe mental lecade ago. nature's laws. What arc the glories of There is of course a wayout.. If we 'faculties' such as reason, imagination, and agricultural productivity in this Nationbut memory,andas anindispensable Aercise our sovereign right to defineour -a reflectionof sponsored scienceand iwn terms, appraisals may be made of. the prerequisite to all advanced education." technologyinourgreatLand-Grant Not until thefinalthird of the onformity of historical developments,at institutions? Could we have reached the 19th :.astas perceived:-by- the definer centurywasthisconservatismturned to thcmoon without the cybernetic wizardry ofaround under the leadership of presidents efinitions we have created. Letus thenNorbert Wiener of M.1.T.?. Would the roceed vith some arbitrary benchmarks: like Tappan at Michigan and Eliotat woriderS of oureconomy and of ourHarvard. personal interpretation of the meaning of technology, to say nothing of our triumphs Even then,the introductionofthe 3 0 German university tradition into American 4. ,higher.education, with its emphasis upqn disciplinary spFcialization, tended to fragment nature's laws intoponderously examinea smithereens, Whatever the gains inrigor,theGermanicinfluence. in American. higher education created an enormousintellecturalcentrifugethat tended to ley- e holistie concerns tothe unrigorous. So university.discovered syntheticfertilizersgaveanexplosive growth to American agriculture atthe unperceived price Of killing Lake Erie: so the engineeringmarvelsfacilitated :s,sk creation of the.ghettoed metropolis: so,in Omar Bradley's words, "Americabecame' a nation of technicalgiants and moral infants." _TheEnglishinheritanceof classicalliberalarts,withitsemphasis upon the public gOodand the obligations st,,ter,:;;:t6ralo 'of citizens, has never found .acomfortable TRt OW1.1191kulIV. reconaiation with the ultra-specializatiOn vit va Clitaa of advanced learning in Americanhigher education.

f "right reason- is w prevailinthe dec- ades ahead,ifthe higher laws of nature are to be understood, areconciliationbe- razor 'tween these disparate streams in America'sculturaltradition must be discovered. 'All Men are Created Equal Equality has been a major touchstor.eof the American dream. If it hasrarely been defined clearly and virtually neverhonored in practice, ithas continued throughout our histOry to disturbthe slumbers of f he -callous and to temper the exploitationsof themighty.Ithasbeen a dynamic. .concept. Today, for example,the equality clause of the Declaration would surelyhave to be rewritten toinclude all "persons" Give hopc!to these.RUpics laiddo *Toni elders and betters, tie rather than simply all "men.- And"all- would have to be underscored. The relevanceofthis to higher .1moommimi 3 education is clear. For most ofAmerican aside your ro and, in. your aping the to assist yon in casting too deeply involved in history.higher education has been ways of college men,to prevent you generally soxist and intellectuallyelitist. an anfraottiosities thereof. the labyrinthine oircumplications implicit obedience b fl uppie. Until fairly recently, large segmentsof the FIRST.In every matter of collegetotems!. American population have been effectively clansman. SECOND.---mEgingis are not allowed to displaying them on their prscp 4 excluded from education beyond grammar nntif after the mid-year examinations. bed to smoke pipe! on m school,let alone high school. Only in THIRD.---tfeder o circumstances whateverwill /14811/12i recent decades has thepromise of higher campua FoURTH.FRw3HkEN muse not carryOMNI. eduCation been a reality for a substantial y description FIFTHFRESHMEN must Ewe sear1oo6 oroonirploaoae olothing of portionofthepopulation.Historica' Me. statistics tell, the story. W.11:11E10.3MEILAZIELZWECP( We do graciously condeacend to con yourskouttou k the Mowing: of mieltili.brtivaliy =OM FREBBILEN.they nre cum tom d From 1894 to 1957, the ratio of womer For the sake'of the propagation of a cense to men attendinginstitutions of highel against hugging. kiaaing. or otherwimeannoying the mole. verdant phydognondee of FRE1RMEN. education in America -fluctuatedbetweer Facial appendages do not become the appearance would reackrthtqji one-fifth and one-half. Even today,foil: FRESHMEN ar adviited to keepoff the gram se the aimaarityif universities fol inconspicuous. Ohheir banquet at least two weeks men attend colleges and The FRESHMEN plass is mmoted tonotify the Dopbokore Clam higher everythreewomen. Atthe in advance. and sh gums among the FRESHMEN For the prevention of colic croup.measles. whaqping-oough, postgraduate level, the imbalance is ever have their milk bottle utvrilsedat least ones *reek. greater. Roughly ten times as man,...men - Clam. we advise them to 3.1 students, local commul colleges, four. They were part of the reality of nationa year, low-tuition ?publicinstitutions,orgrowth. proprietaryschools are the real 'Higher EducationAmerican Style' opportunities for postsecondary education. has been a handmaidenofupward Patently,.noteveryonecan -goto mobility. Theintellectuallypromising, 'Harvard. But controversy still exists about regardless of class status, have found far what principles should determine whogoes greater opportunities here for access to to an Ivy League college. Should academic. higher education,andfor , entryinto brilliance be tbe.sole .qualification? Ifso, prestigious professions, than in any other does the system notsubstitute a nation. meritocracy for an aristocracy Itis true, of course, that the classical perpetuatingselitist tendencies in the social conservatismofthepre-Civil .War order? Should Harvard, in thename ofcurriculum turned mans entrepreneurial equality. admit a 'random sample of high types away from the higher learning. It is 'school graduates from across the Nation? also true thatparts of the American On the other hand, is a lotterya useful population.notablyagriculture, have surrogate for 'real equality? And if-such aalways had a deep suspicion of "book random sample of students competedas fatmin' and "book larnin'." But by the Harvard undergraduates, wouldnot onlyturn of the 20th century, when Land- the top scholars survive and be admittedto Grant, experiment stations and extension graduateprofessionalschools. ,andto services were conveying usefulnew graduate schools of arts and sOiences women have knowledge to the farming population,even receiveddoctoralorenthroning an elite at a different level of.these attitudes began to change. The past equivalent professional degrees from education? A nd why not? Who wouldwant halfcentury has seen American universities a remarkable over the past toreceivemedical treatmentorlegal demonstration of an increasing of faith in sentury. For most blacks and ethnic poor, services from poorIy qualifiedthe proposition higher education has been a nonachievable that higher education is professionals? an essential instrument for maximizing goal.The situationhas improved . Public policy and institutional policyare somewhat during the past decade. But thc career choice and avocational options. inequalities trying to thread their way through these When nine million young Americans incur remain. A farlargerand related moral issues.As the proportion of whites than blacks late for themselves or their parents substantial enterRichard Hofstadtef-wrote in his brilliantfinancial burdens in order to meet the college. The ratio is nearly twoto one. .essays for the Commission on Financing expenses and the opportunity costsof Measured hy the experience of other Higher Education in the early 1950s: "The highereducation, .someone obviously nations, of course. the Americanstory ofUnited States has developed a sysfem ofbelieves in the worth of the enterprise. equalizing higher educational opportunity mass education without achieving the goal Parents,students,philanthropists.and isan extraordinary success. Over nineof educational'equality." The task of the local.State.and Federal governments million young Americans presently attend future isLto sort out what we reallymean by presently spend an estimated $35 billiona colleges and universities in 'the Uni:ededucationalequality,toassay itsyear on higher education. States. A group that sizerepresentsa compatability -witheducationalqualitY, There are, however, some disturbing whopping "elite" by any measure. Inone )ncltodeveloparrangementsand portents of disenchantment. Risingsosts sense, the term -elite- becomesprograms that can approximate what our and'uncertainties about the occupational 'meaningless when applied to the modernmost informed moral sense tells us about "pay-offs" of aliberal education have collegegeneration.On thebasis ofthe contemporary educational meaning ofcaused some students to switchto trade enrollmentstatisticsalone,equalityof"All men are created equal." andtechnicalschools, proprietary educational opportunity during thepast institutes,and. paraprofessionalcourses century has increased by quantum leaps. Life, Liberty,andthePursuit taughtincommunity colleges.High- Alas, the story is more complex than the H'appiness tuitionbutnonprestigiousprivate simple arithmetic suggests. Not only has A strangeambivalence hasalways institutions are being particularly hard hit discriminationpersisted toward womencharacterized America's moral posture:a bythesechangingcostsandbeliefs, and minorities, a class system has survived stated belief in'equalitya rousing defense although a number of four-year tesideniial right through the egalitarian revolution. ofindividualvitality.Likeso many public institinions as well Not all institutions of higher education are suffering are dilemmas, this one can never be resolved. drops .in enrollment. After 1980. because "created equal." Tradition has given some Equality without individual freedom leadsof changing demographic trends in the 'colleges a peculiar distinctiveness; private to a social ant heap; freedom withoutNation at large, enrollments in higher money and the socialposition ofthe equality produces avicious Darwinian education institutions are likelyto drop in families of students have blessed theseorjungle. any case. Unless some means are foundto Dther institutions witb special prestige: Mr most of our history, the search of ease the direct financial burdens of higher sccidents of leadership and State prideindividuals for a new life, for liberty, foreducation on parents and students, the lave made some ofthegreat.State the pursuit of happiness has hada real drop may be severe. miversities "more equal" than others,; ofsignificance for an increasing number of Will the next quarter century ?,800 institutions of higher educatiOn, see the not ourcitizens. ,Blessedwith enormous rapid demise of our faith that the nore than 100 or so are recognized as quality natural resources, and a political andof individual lives, encapsulated in spirit najor centers of creative scholarship. Theeconomic theory compatible withtheir by the "life, liberty, pursuit of happiness" hreats to -survival of all-black and ofexploitation, the American Nation openedclause of the Declaralion, 'omen's colleges are real and, if they do is somehow up dazzling opportunities for alert arid related to, higher education? This is surely lisappear, valued options for students will aggressive individuals. Horatio Alger tales one possibility. Social institutions are not .e reduced still further. For millions ofof rags to riches were mOre than fiction. immortal. Unless they continually, justify 3 2 -..h-,t, ; tit144;" kr),4 .0, -1111L4MI It 1 4:L01mi .` - ra :11464 1 "?:.1<$ , ittL:11'01...04;'- ;251 .41 ."

. 441N $ e , ' - I/ & I: 4.4 . L 471144 Mr'''t-'2.411 enator Morrill'sBaby

merican education frequently turned to the...universities of designated by the State legislature. This has its roots in "the Europe, and particularly of Germany.. AS good earth." college would be required to stress one critic put it , the existing colleges "agriculture and the mechanic arts," the From Colonial served'five percent of the people those latter term usually interpreted times! hrough the as seeking a literary education orto enter theengineering, and to Offer courses in 19th century. with traditional professions of the law, the military tactics what seemed an ministry, or medicine a provision addyd by but offered little Morrill as a reaction to the abundance of (men for the other. 95 percent. gross lack of trained leaders for Union armiesat the space and a sho.rtage It was nevertheless true that important of other fOrms of cap tal. .outbreak of the Civil War. But Morrill's governments at initiatives in.adapting,to the needs of the charter for the LaAd.Grant institutions rry level used gifts of public land to times had been launched. The foundingof was.much broader thana call for stress on en"courage and support the develcipment Of West Point in 1802 and Rensselaer in 1824science and technology and in particular education in each of its aspects . were highly influential pioneering ventures apiculture. His bill specified that"other elementary school, secondary school. and in technical education schools of science scientific and classical studies" all the major branches of higher learning. should not ,had made their appearanc.e in afeW of the be excluded,a provision he later Of the many types of institutions aided 4older private-Universities: and several 3. interpreted as meaning thatthese other by grants of land, one became uniquely States had established colleges and traditional subjectsmust be included.And identified in the Public consciousness with universities offering instruction in science the gre ;)!)jective was statedas being "the 'this method of aid: The national and technOlogy, including early system of liberal and practical education-ofthe Land.Grant colleges and universities. "agricultural colleges" such as those of industrial classes in the severalpursuits represented by at. least 'cii;e collegeor Michigan, Pennsylvania. and Iowa. As and professiOns of life." University in each State and'Territory early as 1842. moreover, the U.S. National To a..swer fears of Federal control,the together with the District of Columbia andAgricultural Society called fôuse of Act specified that instruction should be Puert6 Rico. These institutions Smiffisonian funds to founda national ranging: given "in su.-h manneras the legislatures of in iize from Langston University in agricultural school. Itssuccessor, the U.S. the several Stares shall respectively' Oklahoma, with an.enrOliment of Agricultural Society. furnisheda some prescribe." Annual reports on theuse of 1300,, to the multicampus University of continuing forum in which individuals and funds from the Federal endowmentwere California and its enrollment of nearly groups could bring to a wider audience required, but so long as theywere used for 150,000owe their identity to the Land- their proposals including the "Illinois the broad purposes specified.no Federal Grant College. Act of 1862 ( frequently plan" for an "industrial university" for ''intervention wa inVolved. knc-wn as the.First Morrill Act afterits each State. to be endowed by grants of Several facrr:-. 510 '..ed early sponsor. Justin S. Morrill of Vermont, and land from the public domain. development. One was the lack of funds to distinguish it from the Seconii Morrill Out of all these discussions, initiatives, for instruction. In accepting theterms of Act Of 1890) piece of legislation that wasand proposals came what provedan the Morrill Act, the States had recognized to become a landmark not only for acceptable "Federal" solut ion :'n ationwide that funds would not be made availableto postsecondary education but in the in its-application. Its Congressional underwrite the costs of buildings and advancement of democratic principles. in sponsor was Justin Morrill, then a equipment, but many had assumed that a.massive study of public higher learning Representative. later for decades a U.S. other costs would be covered by done 90 years after the 1862 Act had come Senator from Vermont ( where hewas one endowments created by the sale of the land into being, the Council of State of the founders of the Republican Party). they had been given. There was-no real Governments said : "The passage of the Undaunted by President Burhanan'sveto market for land, however, and the States First Morrill Act of 1862 jolted American of a bill lie had introduced earlier passed could not wait for prices to increase. The higher education out of the famtk.,ar paths by Congress in 1857- Morrill tried again result was that the revenues they actually it had followed for two centuries . . ." following the election of Abraham Lincoln received were in most cases far'too smallto, Behind t hat shakeup was a growing and the withdrawal from Congress ofmanycover an instructional program sufficientlz ;awareness, climaxed as the United States opponents of national aid tdeducation on substantial to carry out their missions. approached the 100th anniversary of its "State's Rights" grounds. His revised bill founding. that American higher education nother problem arose from the fact was signed into law by President Lincoln that collegiate instruction in was oin of phase with the Nation's needs. on July 2. 1862a remarkable act of faith Population was increasing rapidly. but agriculture was taken largely from the at a time when the very existence of the traditional methods of "good farmers.", college enrollMents were actually Nation was uncertain. Lacking was a basis in s'cientific research declining. Young Americans interested in This Act offered to each State S0,000 advanced training that would enable them for improved_agriCultural practices, and acres of public land for each memIrr of for effective instruction in those practires. to contribute more fully to the discovery ofCongress from that State, the land to ire new knowled'ge in the natural sciences- In response, the Congress in 1887 passed sold and proceeds invested asa permanent an act sponsored by Representative Hatch and its application through technology endowment for at least one college of Missouri authorizing annual 34 pp.

, .

, p 411164

,J4s,

0;4

c.olleges for appropriations to repair this defect, a annual appl'opriations'for instruction in act, orOestablishing separate t he State-designated Land-Grant .Negro and white students.and dividing the move that was to produce major benefits. funds "equitably" between them. For this Research under this and subsequent acts institutions. In identical language; Senate and Housereason some of the Land-Grantinstitution: not only was an essential factor in the which admitted only black students prior remarkable increase in productivity of committee reports on the bill said : "The io the banning of racial segregation in , American agriculture which has made ft passage of this measure, which is introduced by the distinguished father of education are aometimes referred to as the possible toleed'and clothe increasing "1890" colleges, though the reference is millions with fewer numbers of farm this system of colleges, will place them on a incorrect in the strict sense, sin.ce several ol workers, but as educational historians sure foundation as long as we arc aNation and link his,name with theirs in one the institutions involved were in fact point out, it became a crucial stimulus to founded under the 1862 Act. the establishment of research as a major common immortality." Today there are 71 Land-Grant . function of the American university, A provision of the 1890 Second Morrill one in . ach of 33 States, In 1890 Senator Morrill again cameqo Act in effect gave to the States the optiOn institutions of either barring racial discrimination in Puerth Rico, Guam, Virgin Islarids; and the aid of "his" colleges with the Second District of Columbia, and twb in each of Morrill Act, authorizirig permanent colleges receiving Federal funds under the

:4' 5 &wit ln and':'border" Sit.tes plus of subject matter. Postsecondary ... (University, which declared that "Themost .Masschusetts, where the State university enrollments in the United States no longer aind 141.T. share instructional funds. important single step in connection with represent a particular stratum of society, the training of scientific and professional AWrd major Federal act affecting the and college and university chairs inmany personnel was the Morrill Act of 1862 Land-Grant system, passed in 1914, subjects now universally considered which laid the basis for the country's created the Cooperative Extension Service academically respectable were initiated in extensive state college and university of the U.S. Department of Agriculture and Land-Grant institutions. .. system . the Land-Grant institutions, with the Today t:hese institutions constitUte about Beyond its i.npact on the character of mission of carrying the reiults of research five percent of the total number of . higher education. the collegiate system in agriculture and family life into practice American colleges and universities offeriAg on the farms and in the homes, This Senator,Morrill did so- much to create has four or more Years of postsecondary study. made a major contribution to 'educational service our national financed by a enroll about a quarter of all the students security. Out of his specification that combination of Federal. State, and focal attending these colleges and universities, "military training" be offered in the Land- and private fundstoday reaches millions and grant more than half of all degrees of families in rural, suburban, and urban Grant institittions, there gradually awarded in the United States at the highestdeveloped the idea of the Reserve Officers areas annually ( including more than five or doctoral level. - 'million youngsters in the 4-H Club" Training Corps. which ultimately involved a wide range of colleges and universities as movement) and is represented in virtually well as the Land-Grant group. The every county of the United States. existence of this system prior to World Wat Several privately controlled colleges and 11 was credited by Gen..George C. universities bore the Land-Grant Marshall with shokening mobilization designation under the Morrill Act, and- .( mild thus the war) by six months, and some still do. Yale. Brown. and saving thousands of lives. Dartmouth were for varying periods Land-^ Grant institutions, for example; Cornell Perhaps the most impressive tributesto the significance of the educational has been the Land-Grant institution of New York from its founding. and in revolution inaugurated by the Morrill and subsequent Acts, however, Massachusetts the private Massachusetts are those of emulation. Domestically, the changes , Institute of Technology and the State- called for by Senator Morrill have been operated University of Massachusetts have widely accepted by alfsegments of, shared the designation for more thana American higher education. century. In Vermont, Pennsylvania, olnternationally. other countries seeking Delaware, and New jersey existing private to . . capture the secret of the remarkable institutions were given the Land-Grant success of the United States in improving designations. With time these assumeda the lives of its people have iniroducedmost substantial identity with other State of the features of the Land-Grant universities, though some are technically of system into their own systems of higher education. a, mixed public-private charactet. l'his is pirticularly true :n the developing Viewed in the perspective of historir. the nations, where the "Land-Grant idea" is - great virtues of the Land-Grant College America's most sought after educational 'Act would clearly include its ambiguity. its As the Declaration of Independence export. diversity of purpose. its omission of any signified the determination of Americans The contributions of the Morrill-Acts tight "set of rules" as to purpose and to sever the political ties that bound them were perhaps most succinctly summed up to the monarchical and hierarchical method of operation so characteristic of in three points emphasized in thereport of later legislation in the field of education. societies they had emigrated toescape, so the Council of St ate'Governments cited The consequence has been an affirmative the Land-Gfant College Acts signifieda earlier: First, thanks tu the Land-Grant rather than a negative revolution in higher "declaration of independence" for system it is now generally agreed-that education, The'institutions involved were education. Thus takinias its benchmark highee education should be made available required to emphasize hitherto neglected the pre-Constitution lawasserting that to broad segments of the population"; areas, but were warned not to "exclude" "schools and,the means of education shall second. "education in the applied subjects-such as the classics- forever be encouraged." an 1890 study by sciencestechnical and vocational the U.S. Office of Education said that traditionally stressed by established - education generallynow have wide American colleges. They were to meet the "next to the Ordinance of 1787, the recOgnition and status"; and third, "the demand for more "practical" education. Congressional Grant of 1862 is the most performance of broad public services and ,but the language of the act inextricably important educational enactment in participation in activities designedto serve Jinked this aspect of learning to "liberal" America." Sixty years later an analyst for both immediate and longrange needs of education, in a governing phrase that the Hoover Commission on Organization society are generally acceptedas proper spoke of "liberal and practical of the Executive Branch of Government, and important functions of institutions of education... in the several pursuits and Hollis P. Allen, pointed out that "The higher education." And the report added: professions of life." general support for resident instruction of "These trends toward democratization of the Land-Grant Colleges is sometimes higher:education. thus begun4continue The conseqtiences of this affirmative referred to as the 'host effective gran: 111 strong today..." revolution was the democratization aid eyer made by the Federal RUSSELL I, THACKREY of higher education, in terms both of Government." Similar tribute was paid in making college training accessible to a 1953 report of the National Manpower greater numbers of people and in the scope Executive Director-Emeritus, National Associa- Council, affiliated with Columbia. don of State Unive and Land Grant colleges 36 The Community's

*1447'1

hey have been called they might ie developed as an extenSion of junior college, as represented by Joliet, and "people's colleges," the offerinof local school districts. in any case, these private tWo-year schools "commuter Today the St te of Illinois has some 50 flourished during the early part of the colleges," and public corrimunity junior colleges current century. Even as late as 1930 they "democracy's including one bearing his name. outnumbered the public junior colleges , colleges" by observers The public community junior college to 178. seeking to capture "povement".-may be said to have started It was the latter, however, that were the special character when Dr. Harper suggested to school destined to dominate, a consequence that of those uniquely authoritiesin nearby Joliet that they had its roots in far-reaching changes in American educational institutions, our undertake to offer two years of classwak public attitudes and the society's needs. public community and junior colleges. beyond high school, with thre Greater concern developed over the By whatever name, they have made a understanding that the students who traditional exclusivity of much of higher Substantial impact on the shape of ,successfully completed this work could be education and a greater interest in postsecondary eduCation in this couniry. accepted by the University of Chicago in itsequalizing educational opportunities at all And- tbey Have done so in a relatively 'shOrt "senior college." Dr. Harper'sbasic levels. In educational circles and in the r periorrof timenot quite 75 yrars in terms concern was to strengthen the university by public arena alike, there was a-call to of when the first of them came into being, assuring a supply.of mature and purposive provide new kinds of school experiences perhaps 25 years if one considers the ,students, but he also foresaw potential attuned to the individual interests and period of greatest growth and expansion.- benefits to education generally and to the goals of the students involved while at the Their essence is the American ideal of higher education comnfunity in particular same tinresponding to the Nation's :equal opportunhy for all, and their role by providing a way by which those four- manpower requirements. The advent of a technological age was creating an has been that of opening channels for . year colleges that were having difficulty further education to greater numbers of keeping afloat could consolidate their -increasing demand for better trained Americans than could have been resources bybeC8rning two-year Colleges. people for industry, in busineSs, in the accommodated in more traditional In any case, theultimate result was the health fields, indeed in all aspects of the institutions. creation in 1901 of Joliet Junior College by American worid of work. Concomitantly, Formal Steps to establish the two-year the Joliet Township High School Board, there was increasing insistence that every "junior" college as a new entity in higher ru he idea of linking high school and individualbe eoabled to pursue'edG'cation. would education can be traced back to 1892;and college quickly caught on and for as far as his abilities and ambition the late William.Rairiey Harper. first many years was standard. California's carry him. The four-year colleges and president of the."reorganized" University ubiquitous community colleges, for universities, however, were.confronted by of Chicago. though thz germ of the idea example, were until recentlrso closely tied such an enrollment boom, receivingfa- handle', had been expressed even before then. Earlyto the secondary schools that both often more applications than they could in thc 1850s Henry Tappan, president of operated under the same administrators. that they began to tighten theh- admissions. the UniVersity of Michigan. referred' to the The development of junior colleges as part requirements. This combination of forces found in the notion that the first two yearS Of college . of the public school system of that State might well be separated from the last.two was in particular championed by Alexis F. public community junior college a natural meetingplace..bne result, beginning in the -itt some special kind-of arrangement, and Lange in his capacity as head of the much the same idea was also department of education at th'e University 1950s, was ihe emergence of these recommended a few years later by Will iain'of California. Dr. Lange and others also institutions as a niajor phenomenon ultimately attracting perhaps half of all Watts, Folwell, president of the University stressed the need for a departure from the students entering postsecondary of Minnesota. traditional "academic" approachthe education. Another, as they began to It was Dr. Harper, however, who put theneed to offer both general and vocarional -concept into action by establishiOg at the education specifically addressed to proliferate, was the development of various University of Chicago a "university college",studeins who might not necessarily be new arrangements for their governance ( covering the junior and senior years) and interested in attending college for four and a more precise definition of their role. an "academic college" ( covering the years. New, patterns of control and financing freshman'aod sophomore years) . These Meanwhile the junior college movement began to emerge, often accompanied by designations were subsequently changed to was receiving its principal impetus from provisions for more direct involvement of "senior" and "junior" college,,and the _private two-year institutions, though they the community. Thus in California, where latter term became generic, for -Dr:Harper mit), variously have been' called academies, community and junior colleges once were also sought to encourage the establbhment seminaries, finishing schools, or the like. wedded firrrily to the local school systerns, af a network of public tWo:year The first private junior college would there has been a trend toward.the postsecondary institutions, envisioning thatappear to have antedated the first public establishment of separate, discrete districts 37 groups being one noteworthy example. ^ Older Americans have found inthese institutions a new resource for retraining or for general intellectual and cultur`al stimulation. The ambitiousyoung high school graduate can takecourses applicable to the ultimateaward of an A.B.'degree or enter traihingthat would lead to a good jobat the end of two years or so. FroM timberl'alling tocomputer technology, 'from nursing and police, '0We; -- training to English literature and art appreciation, there is,something for just about everybody. he result has been such awave,of 111interest that in the late 1950s and c during the 1960s, new community junior _4 , colleges were.1;pught into being at a rate of nearly one a week. Enrollmentsrose Aigao. from one million to more than three million in a little more thana decade. Today, with 937 public two-year colleges 4v.r, ,Afrar. in operation, plus 228 conducted under private auspices, the number, ofnew institutions being established has leveled!, off at about 12 annually, and total enrollments now stand at about 3,144,000. NumeriOl growth has meanwhile been\ AP- replaced 4 an expanded -view of functions to be seived. These functions continue to include standard academic courses'plus .with both local and .State . support. of the community often proclaimed that considerable emphasis on education "a , Pennsylvania uses another model. The their new two-year institutionwas simply little out of the ordinary." Equally operating expenses ofa college are equally an interim arrangement preparatory to a important, however, the community junior shared by the students, the 3tate, and the mote satisfying expression of locz.: pride in college seeks to serve as a general local sponsor ( a county, resource a municipality, a the' form of a "regular" four-year college. center for the population area it serveS school district, oc any combination of -7as While many students continueto use a force for mobilizing and catalyzing the these) ; capital costs are liorne equally by these institutions as the starting place for efforts of a wide range of local agencies, the State and the local school district. In their pUrsuit of a baccalaureateas Dr. institutions, and groups toward resolving Virginia and Florida, control and support Harper had suggestedthe community community issues and problems. The are die responsibility primarily ofi. he junior college has today established itsown catripus and the community in effect States. In general the goal has beento identity, generating ;ts own share of local become one. institute control and support patterns pride and serving as a focal point for The community junior college has in attuned to the particular State's needs. overall community development. In the short evolved into an instrument of -1 hese shifts have been accumpanied process it is also preparing thousands'and liberation in a'society where opportunity 1 by the development of a new view of thousands of people for a widerange of for education means opportunityto lead a the role of the community junior college. careers that neither require nor need four truly productive and satisfying lift. Ithas Until not so very long ago and perhapsto years of advanced tiaining. thus set out not only to respond to'change some degree even now such an institution By its convenience and by the relatively but to influence the directions thatchange was typically thought of as a stop-gap low costs it imposes on students, the may take. method of starting on a four-year community junior colleges have openedup EDMUND J. GLEAZER, JR. program, a transfer mechanisM for those opportunities fOr postsecondary education who could not make it intoa more,_ for those that traditionally have been President, American Association. of Community 'respectable" college. Similarly, members denied themmembers of minority and Junior Colleges

3 8 The Remarkable G.I. Bill

4.*r:4-rt prominent universityveteransmany from poor families, many The Syracuse analysis went on to relate president said it the first in their families to aspire Co higher some of the broader implications of such would open educationstretched their dollars, took findings as these to the conduct of higher' postsecondary odd jobs, and made do. Some flocked to education generally. Veterans who were education to a liberal arts, technical, and professional first generation college students floodtide of schools. Thousands Of others went the demonstrated that a far greater proportion unqualified students route of vocatidnal and onthe-job'training of the"N,ation's youth could profit from and con.,equently programs. ..postSecondary education than previously depress academic In cashing in their 1.0.U.'s they ' had been envisaged. Veterans had a major, standards. Another called it a "threat" to confounded the experts. No more than impact on the balance between public and; private.college enrollment: Whereas the . the cause of higher learning and added .640,000 veterans in all, it had been ' majority of prewar students went to priyate that in av case "education is not a device predicted, would ever use their CI college institutions, by 1968 only a third did so, for copig with mass unemployment." A benefits and no more than 150,000 would Harvaneconomist believed it "carried the be enrolled full-time in any single Veterans made the married student an princiNe of democratization too far." A academic year. In fact, however, the peakaccepted member of the academk spokesthan foal- the military said the debate' year of 1947 saw nearly 1350,000 GIs community. And by their unprecedented enrollments and their demand for more over itLas bootless, since projections crowding the Nation's campuses. By 1955 pragmatic instruction, yeterans forced indica ed that no more than seven percent the number of exservice men and women of the eligible would sign Up ar4way. who had gone to college under the Bill higher education to re-examine its Th,tastord the end of Wotild War reached 2.2 million - 14.3 percent of all objectives, facilities, and methods toward amid Joubt and some acrimony, the World War 11 veterans. During the 1945- adjusting to, students outside the Nati n signed an I.O.U. to be collected on 55 decade, another 3.5 million studied at conventional mold. dem nd by members of the Armed Forces schools belowathe college level. Adding on. ard on the heels of the World War -- whe9 hostilities ceased. It was a promissory the-jo.b,and farm-related training, 48 II veterans came those involved in note qually applicable tO 15 million percent of all veteransover seven million Korea. For them the Congress enacted a mili an; personnel whether, by chance or men and wdmenused their GI educatidn new piece of legislation, followed in 1966 trai ing, they had risked their lives on the benefits. by the Cold War GI Bill cov,ering Vietnam Nor andy beaches, flown overloaded The veterans also defied predictions of veteraris( and for the first time providing , tra sports across the Hump to Burma, how they would perfofm in the classroom. opportunitjes for college t.taining to men slogged through the jungles ofAhe South It had been assumed that being more and women on active dutY). Pacific, or fought the paper war back home.mature than the typical student, they For whatever reasons perhaps because wouldbe serious about their studies, and Officially Congress called it the they were fewer in number than those of `c so they were. It was-also assumed that they Senicemen's Readjustment Act of 1944 World War II, perhaps because jobs in would fare poorly in an academic sense 1954 were easier to find the proportion of and inuded in it incendves for veterans and would be unwilling to pUt up with theKorean.veterans using their GI benefits for housin insurance, pensions. medical discipline involved in higher learning. edikation was just under 42 percent. as benefits, and of course education. Those who 1:vere married were ex 3ected tocontrasted with the 48 perCent of the Unofficially this remarkable piece of have a particularly tough rime. legislation became known assbe GI Bill of previous decade. With Vietnam veterans, Rights, and its education benefits changed 3 resident Conant of Harvard. however, it's a different story. The forever the Nation's notions about who I however, was subsequently to Veterans AdministratTon says the Vietnam should go. to college in America. observe that veterans were "the most participation rate already exceeds that of The veterans quickly established mature and promising students Harvard Korean veterans and ultimately can be hemseIves as a neW breed of college ever had." More particularly, a 1968 expected to go well beyond-that-of-the student. The warlzad afforded.thern a look report on the GI Bill by the Syracuse veterans of World-War II. beyond the limited opportunities in New University Research Institute noted that 'Together the 1.0.U.'s fepresented by England mill towns. Al.fibama tenant alinost all studies made,of it "have the three GI Bills have been collected by no farrns. Detroit slums. and Texas barrios. concluded that the veteran earned higher less than 27.5 million men and women. They came home war-tested and mature, grades than did his nonveterad 7nd in'the process postsecondary education with a cool awareness of what theliwanted.classmates." Moreover, the report added, has been given a bracing new dimension. to make of themselves and a no-nonsense "Thiny percent of all veterans were determination to get on With it. Education, married and ten Percent had Children/ was the key, and the GI Bill a way'to help whect they started their education; rt STORY MOOREFIELD Foay the freight. The Bill was not a free these veterans usually earned higher grades ride. designed to foot the entire cost'. The than single veterans." ore Office of Public Affairs staff

LT- HAB OF FDUCATION

BY HAROLD B. GORES

ccausethii tsa- bout the "places" ofeducation, a quickdisclaimer is in order. Let's a- gree that people are moreimportant than bricks. thai con- structive learning is .mrtre 'likely to. oceur in the presence of a good ieachereven in a tentthan with a stupid teacher in a j-aj Mahal.. t Education ispeople engaging .in a process at a place. Whether the caliber of the faculty or of the studeriebody is of first 'importancetdwhat is learned is debatable, but everyoneagrees that both outrank n importancetheplacesof education.. Yettheplacesandthethingsof education are not unimportant. Indeed, tftelateCanadian Stephen Leacock, raised 'the physical-'humorist. environment to second rank when, he advised that to start a university one should first assemble a student body, then builda smoking room, and,if any funds remain, employ a professor.. Whatevertheorder,it wasearly apparentin ourpitineer days . that gathering the children arounda teacher W'as cheaper than sendinga circuit rider to the homes. And so the one-room. schoolhouse was built. As the Nat.ion grew, the schools .alsia grew - in number, size. (complexity. an-d

Dr. Goresispresidentof EducationalFacilities Laboratories, Inc,. in New York City.

_ expense: In design.ihey mirrored thelocal cultural heritage, and all that, was good. culture, and were distinguishable from This early yearning for' architecttral their cultural counterpartsthe churchmonumentality is not to be 'denigrated. and the town hall only by the presence ofWhat betterpublic expression. of ihe thewell-scuffedplaygroundandthecommunity's prick andintent than a near- -absence of a steep'.e. Essentially, this classic permanent(wiThgood maintenance. trilogy of pit-Amer community art formspractically eternal) statement for ail to consisted of a single barnlike, room, theirsee. Plato said. "That which is honored.in dimensions determined by the length ofa country will prosper there." Intheir ; native beams. monumentality the buildings sought to As populations increased indensity,honor education, .butalas,they were schools grew try adding rooms and sortingexpensive. pupils by age. In 1848, Boston built thef. Even less than the schoolhouse has the firstgradedelementary- school eightclassroom varied from the norm. Debates equal sizeboxlike classrooms under theraged in education at)east since Boston's same roof, an ingenious arrangement thatQuincy School, buf-7ithe- classroom itself set the pattern of school design fora remained asitwas,. a pladeiihefe- One hundred years. teacher and one class gathered in one room themid-1950s wasthere Not until . to engage in'confrontalteaching. discontent with theinteriorlayout of As, long as education took the form. ofdi space,ofrigidlyuniformequalsize "schdoling" and its purpose was primarily 1 , classrooms. Well into the 20th century theto transmit the common culture tothe THE MODERNSCHOOL HOUSE, Boston boxes of 1848 were still adequate,young, the schoolhouse, its layout, and its for aneducation* based onstimulus-equipment could be straightforward and response psychology, serving a burgeoningutilitarian. (To quote an architect Much economy that could endlessly absorbthe honored and employed ina NOrthern eventual graduates even the dropouts State, "The people up here know what a with no questions asked. schoolhouse is and I gitie it to them.Itell Growing like the population and likethe school board wha( it will cost a square Topsy, school systems multipliedfoot and everybody knows what money is eipcmentially. By. 1931 there were 127,000and whit a square foot is." Incidintally, ,public school districts in this land, eachthis praCtical man produced many schools trying to be all things to allchildren.quite .,,cirthyof, theirtimes.But no especiallytothe more verbalcollege-dreamer, he.) bound. From the mid-19th.century to mid-20th, Predictably, there came a reaction toschoolhouses were locked intheir own themountingproliferationofschoolCartesian grids of standard classrooms, districts and small schools. Under theeach accommodating a standard numher pressure to reduce costs, and thedesire to,cf.f children to be instructed by one teacher enrich programs in small schools, separate.lof, it is hoped, standard credentials. The school districts have been "consolidated"/ teacher'smission was totransmitthe by the thousands, reducing the total topredominant culture for a year.In a approximately 17,000 today, while the siz secondary school,bells wouldring. at, of individual schools has become large regular intervals, signaling students, and :W PLAN FOR A .DISTRICT SCHOOL: nce schoolhousessometimes teachers, to change boxes.. became the biggest Since the process of schooling consisted public structures inmostly Of a talking teacher and a learner town, and bigwho rarely stirred from his place, the towns and cities thelearner was provided-with a "pupil-station". most, nurrierous, consisting.of a chair and,desk fixed to the they becaide sym-floor.. Not until well into the 20th century . bols of communitywem the chair and desk freestanding and aspiration. rearrangeable. Until recently, these larger schoolhouses Reflecting the Nation's industrialization were virtually identical, varyingonly inthe furniture itself was industrialized. It Their adjustments to differing'climate: in consisted,like the Model T, of -inter- the North, a collection of uniform class:changeable machined parts, the hetter to roorns in linear array, separated by corri- be manufactured *trateaisembly.line with dors; in the South, taking advantage of ano departure from itsschool-brown uni- gentler din-late, the rowsof classroomsformity. were back to back. In exteior appearance Thebasictoolsofinstructional the buildings, especially the larger highequipment were book and blackboard. To and preparatory schools, were replicas ofbe sure,, early in the 20th century the whatever architecturali styleGreek,moving picture arrived (but never did Roman, Gothic, Federal -t-was most likely"replace the American teacher;" as Mr. to proclaim that theinslitution was "the Edison had predicted), and then radio BOUSi FOR onownid: ritiGHBor0.6oD. keeper ofknowledge, jmorality, the with the high promise of connecting eVery

Al 1 outwan tne alatog of theeducation was a gigantic spheres: and later television,heralded as enterprise oftheir students. evenas the public came to ttthe new window in the monumental priority inour culture.. blame zhe schools for America's classroom": and Buttherewerestirrings failure to more recently,teaching machines and under thebethefirstinspace,thepressures surface. As long ago.as John Dewey andcombined 2.,:....electronic devices, iising insophisticationthe progressive education to produce dramatic to' computer-assistedinstruction.Even movement, therearrangement of the whole process of elementaryschoolshadloosened torlay.thesedevices,of up,schooling,andinthe r instructionalthough not to theextent of exploding the largersense, technologyarestrugglingforgeneralwalls that separated education. group from group. This riptide of- strong and acceptance under the handicap of earlierSchools werestill conflicting over-promise. egg-crates,and thewaves of pressure. gathering strength since For a hundred years theie schools American high school especiallywas still athe decade of the 1950s, is reshaping servedcollection of isolatedrooms under one the well therelatively simple society,theirI roof. role of teachers ,and how theyteach, the designsreflectingtwounderlying curriculum and what is to be learned,and There were other stirrings,too, notably assumptions: in the student body thehabitat thephysicalsettingin The first was that schoolswere only for and in the publicwhich the act takes place. the young 2-, that expectation of what schoolsshould do. As Being closer to young people were to bestudents ininct easing numbers voiced the electorate (and assembled in groups sortedby age; that generallybetter supported)thefirst' their disenchantment withbeing processed transmission of the dominntsubcultureby groups. as the' frustrations schools- to respond to thenew needs and was itsprincipal of teachersnew demands were the suburban schools. , function:thatthemounted when they lost the transmission, called teaching, would result attention of,There the schools,together with their from showing and tellingby an older person located at the "front" of thegroup. This frontal ( or confrontal) teach'ingin its Now is Your owh private classroom box,sealed off from Time! its .environrrfentby I3argain'prices will be advancedMarch 1st, floor-to-ceiling '99. maximum security partitions.had many Write at. once for bargaincircular. virtues for a Nation growingat a faster Our Magic :Lanternsand Stereopticons pace than that with which itwas training in use 'by, thousands oflantern experts. its teachers. Not theleast of its virtueswasJ. B. COLT & COMPANY, Dept. that it'savedmoney: Relatively untrained E 7, 5.74 West 29th Street,New York. andInexperienced teachers, givena book, Could conduct lessons andmaintain order in the group either by the naturalinterest of what was being talked about,or by force CALL BELLS, of personality by charmor by. fright. If thechildrenwerestillinattentiveor unruly. the more affluent districts reduced class size, often substituting intimacyof settingforvitality:whilethe (poorer districts overloaded their classesto the point that childrenwere but listening audiences. The second assumptionwas that schools were islands in our culture, that they not only could but should stand aside fromthe affairs of the town. frorn the conditions that vexed all'the people. Itwas as though schools could remain secureeven as the neighboring tide ran out economically and socially,that children could besecure whether or not their parentswere. In simpler days this wis mostlytrue. An economy growing exponentially somehow lOund places for most of theburgeoning Of Ml kinds,' styles, population.Youth wassecurewhen sizes and prices.Address everyone was secure, and schools were at libertyindeed, set apartto conduct J. B. MERWIN,St. Louis, their own affairs, raise theirown money. and prepare-the young for productiveand fulfilling adulthood. THE GEM PENCILSHARPENER The arrangement worked.satisfactorily Sharpens both Lead and Slate Pencils. "It gives me great pleasure to recommend the 'Gem For the most part until wellinto the-1950s. the work well and quickly. This last Is of Pencil Sharpener.'It does This ' Sharpener' Is In satIsfactorY use In verygreat Importance for school work. As the society grewmore affluent, so did State. From what Ipersonally know of the resultsmany here of the cities and towns of the convinced that the ' Gem ' Is the verybest sharpener and elsewhere, I am fulty :he schodls. By mid-century,the,American not believe that there Is any other which at allon the market. In fact I do .choolhouse wasno longer "a either In the school or tbe office." comparesJost. D.with ham, this one for use ragged ifyisber of Mass. State Board of Zdstoatiote. ,eggar sunning." More likely, itwas a big SINUS PRIOR : $3.50. Send for Descriptive Circular. xautiful edifice, proclaimingto all that Manufactured byF. H. COOK 6c CO., - Leominster,'' !lass.

.4 2 /

...... ,'

I I, !

,

!

/

people,soughtfirsttohumanize the

process This took various forms,

The undergirding psychologyof

learning, for one, was personalizedless

reliance on Pavlovian stimulus response

psychology and greater reliance on the

organismic- the "wholes" of life, learning, '

arid interpersonal relationships, Toward

that end, internal spaces were rearranged

to Fit groups of varying sizes.

In the secondary schools, bells ceased to

nng, and students were encouraged to rut

theirownpathwaysthroughthe

,curriculum and the school, each to the beat of his or her own drummer The

individual student in continuous progress

came into pannership with teachers in determining the pattern of his or her

learning

Once thepersonalrelationships of

students and faculty were altered,the V

environment was forced to respondFor

the first time the debilitating aspects of the

then conventional schools were challenged Suddenly every habitual

'arrangement of spaceand eventhe

physical nature of equipment gave way to

new criteria of performance.

First to be assailed were the immovable

partitions separating each group from

every other., Literally,the walls came

43

44 tumbling down as schools sought w create natural for a child to destroy things thatsurrounds it. No longer iS them lifigering appropriate spaces for groups of varyingpraise him than for a bird to destroy itscultural guilt when colors are vivid and the size, and especially to enable the joining of-own nest. environthent is enlivened with modernt. two contiguousclassrooms.Fromthis What has been happening is a move to While such efforts help to humaniie the beginning,interiorpartitioning movedjuvenilize ( that is, make more childlike)school and appeal especiallyto -.those from the "immovable" separator the environment of early childhood, tostudentswhofindtheconventional frequently load-bearing and laced withmake more sensitive the surroundings oforganization too mechanistic for their, life wiring and plumbing to the movable orthe small child who, in earlier days (circastyles, there are cautions to be observed. curtain-wall partition, thence to the so-1950) was expected to sit out his schoolingRobert Propst,in High School:The called"operable"partitionprovidingIn a slippery plastic chair as though heProcess and the Place, says it best in his immediate separation or juncture and ontowere a shrunken businessman. Yet at thediscussion of geometry versus humanism:, what is jusOlow emergingthe skiddable.secondary school the process--is reversed Authorities and planners visualize the spaceivider. - to dejuvenilize 'the environment and the chaos of large numbers of people in As the interior configuration of smallprocess. High schools and their architectsbuildings with disorderly space. People will boxlike classrooms gave way to large zonestoday are concerned with providing eachbe confused,disoriented,lost,un- of space,thenoiselevelanaturalperson and each group with a sense ofcontrolled.As aresult,we havean concomitant ofpeople engagedinterritory, with personal spaces that offerinordinate regard for method and order in communication, and with the things ofprivacy when wanted and involvementspace thatwill. satisfy these important learningcried out for remedy. It waswhen needed, with pleasant places forconcerns. Where am I now? Which way.is purecoincidencethatthesolution,informal gatherings, and places that help north? How do I get around? Where is but? carpeting, also introduced a. new_note ofthe individual connect with the dynamics But this codcern by itself can produce amenity into the Nation's schools.' Whenoftheschooland .theculturethatspace which, .in, terms of human use,is carpeting( first used atthe Peter Pan SchoolinAndrews,Texas,in1954) provedtobeanefficientacoustic absorbent, the idea spread. And so did the carpeting, across the floors of uncounted classrooms. Today, carpet is routine in school design: to sponge up noise, lessen fatigue, provide safety,insulate against heat loss, and to convey to schoolhouse occupants the notion that somebody cares about their comfort. Indeed, in recent years the acceptance of comfort and amenity has become a part of the American cultural attitude toward schools. Logically, this new concern for physical well-being and morale called for comfortable temperatures. Justasthe 100,000 acres of school floorsinthis country werebeing carpeted,air- conditioning followed apace and is now routineinschools- ofrecentvintage, especially where year-rounduseis contemplated. While the opening up ofinteriors, quieting them, and cooling themare fundamental changes, there were others- growing out of a rethinking of the process of education. Starting with the child in his Own privaie bubble of space and moving ty_ outward, that venerable symbol of the , scholar's place the desk and chaircame under attack. Now that the floor had become the most humane surface in the room, the very young could be returned on many occasions to their natural habitat, ; the floor, and the desk might be a stand of coffee.tableheight.Forstudentsof whatever age,a comfortable chair nourishes his spirit, proclaims his worth, and may improvehislearning.And because the young tend to rise to our expectations of them, itis not surprising that children are respectful of furnitu;e that is pleasirig to the eye and yielding to the body. If morale is good, it is no more 4 5 __...... ---...... ,,,, , uuviiiite, spaceCL07721- son of interior design is evident and the natfd by the straight lines and engineered components. Most recently acute anglesschools are better for it. the ol.:cartesiari geometry. Often planning of buildings has departed it results in Companion to the physical from , egg-crate uniformity which insists response to the customary series of linear on pre- what goes on inside the school decisions in P. has been a favor c4 overlapping the detiymined patterns ofuse, with no give te rethinling of the relation of the steps in order to , whole allew for the ways people naturallyarray compress the total period of planning. institution to the life of the community:1\10Where building systems themselves - in com.munication are employed, it is longer can schools confinetheir ministrynot unusual today for a building's relalionshiPs. only to the young, standing aside shell to Patterns from thebe partially constructed before of humancommunication issuesswirling around the interior .-: follow no straight lines. They allthe people. designiscompleted. And if someday are made up Schools increasinglyare coming off their of bits and pieces, episodicand varied, withinthebuilding'snormallife, islands and joining in partnership.'withextending well into the 21st which call for a different kindof spatial oiher agencies to deliver century, the order. health services,school must convertto some other useful thearts,recreation,and information This order is basedon the proximity of( libraries ). In reversing the purpose, it stands ready economicallyto peoPle who need Balkanizedembrace the ch'ange. to communicate. fe- thedelivery, of services, in workingfrom a work at hand though the particularwork unitary rather than Certainly the habitats of educationare a fractionated base,changing, but as the 18th and those involved in itmay shift through- comes a new synergism that brings higher century German out the day. It is based'on their tendencyto productivity of the tax dollar. A philosopher Georg Lichtenburgsaid, "I no lessdon't know whether if things fall, into groups of differentsizes andimportant product is the change they configurations. encouragementwill get better, but I do know that ofracial integration, if things In the resolution of this conflict, the mixofare to get better they must change." spatialsocioeconomic groups and thebringing order is still the objective. Butit must betogether of an intergenerational Schools are changing and theyare getting achieved studentbetter. throughrecognitionof thebody. More and more will the 0 natural dynamic ways people economic use space. and social well-being of thecommunity be n short, the school-served by schools which sharethe space house is in transi-and the action. Already,on the shores tion andit is dimly seen',thefirst such tommunity 835 GLOBES changing physicallycenter/schools are emerging. because it is chang- These new and varyinguses requireSlightly Damaged, "twelve inch," ing psychologically. maximumflexibilityto accommodate Human relations, changing arrangementsas programs at least in school, develop. An increasing number ofschools are different today are guarding against quick obsolescence by Selling for $10. and the environinent isacknowledging the requiring that the building's difference. To oversimplify, design and schools are construction be systematic, that inthe becoming more a series ofliving roomsinterest of both flexibility and than of kitchens; increasingly speed the the profes- structurebeassembledfrompre- How. Is ThisFor Price ? We will sell 50 of thefol- lowing outfits for$50.00 each to the firstcomers. ''igagitRgi;# 1 Junior Praestantia Magic Lantern, Vration, Lightningsee illus- . ;A. eolrier, one 9 footscreen, 35 plain slideson the war 1k;-- ( or others), 12 colored comics, 1 curtain slide,1 Good-nights 1 i d e,5 0 colored posters4.1x9, and 250 printed hand bills, 24 lantern plateswith mats, cover glasses and binding sufficient to make24 lantern slides, with bottle of developerand full instructions. This is the cheapest outfitwe have ever offered and as usual it bears our guarantee Call on, or address with stamp, for circular Send for catalogue, $ .20.Hire and war lists Free and priets, RILEY BROTHERS, Dept. H, 16 Beekman Jr. B. MERWIN, Street, NEW YORK. St. Louis, Mo. 46 Libraries intheNewWorld

movement faltered. Of greaterimpact 3has s far back as we can mcn tradesmen and farmers asintelligent to be the adoptionof State legislation au- go in history," thorizing cities and towns to establish free, observed Jean as most gentlemen from othercountries, and,perhaps have contributed in some de- tax-supported public libraries. In 1848, Gottman in his Massachusetts passed a law granting such Megalopolis, "we gree to the stand so generallymade through the colonies in defense of their authorization to the City of Boston, and a find major libraries passed similar privileges." year later New Hampshire or clusters of them legislation applying to any city in the State. located at the In effect, the subscription library was a centers of power and culturein each corporation, enlisting a monetary contri- By mid-century, American libraries had period." In light of so ancient a tradition, hution of each shareholder for the pur- started to become so widespread that those dating back to the great river civilizations chase of books to be used for communal involved in them de6ded to get together to of Mesopotamia, there should belittle purposes, and establishingthe regulations exchange ideas and plan for future devel- Behind its of Libraries cause for wonder that theaspirants to for their circulation and Use. opment. This first Convention freedom and opportunity in the New advent on the American cultural scene waswas held in New York in 1853,the same World made libraries their concern at the not only the scarcityand prohibitive, ex- year in which that city andChicago were very outset of theColonial period. pensiveness of hooks but an ever-increasingconnected by rail. Eighty-two men answer- In 1620 a copy of St. Augustine'sCitty of secularization of the Colonial world, an ed the call to attend among them, Daniel God translated into English was eagerness for informationand knowledge Coit Gilman, destined to become first and among some prized works sentby an beyond that offered by the catechisms president of Johns Hopkins University; anonymous donor to Henrico,Virginia, religious tracts that had satisfied theori- Henry Barnard, a Connecticut schoOl su- the site of a proposed new college.Sundry ginal settlers. perintendent and later the first U.S. Com- books including "2 duzzen & ten These so-called "social libraries," organ-missioner of Education; and the Rev. Ed- Catechismes" figured prominently on the ized either on a subscription orproprietaryward Everett Hale, who was later to write manifest of cargoes shipped in 1629 to basis ( in this latter form the sharescould "The Man Without a Country." Although John Endicott's settlement in Salem, be transferred to others at thebehest of theplans for a second conference were discuss- Massachusetts. And in 1638, while owner), flourished for over ahundred ed, these were disrupted by the Civil War dictating a will during the last hours of years.to widespread acclaim. As the years and its aftermath, and it was not until life, the consumptive son of a familyof passed however, politicians, orators,and 1876 that a second group of librarians was London butchers made a bequest of private individuals alike lost no occasion to invited to meet. in Philadelphia, host city several hundred volumes to the college that point out that the newly formedRepublic for the Centennial Exhibition celebrating has-since made his surname, Harvard, as called for the enlightenment of allits citi- the Nation's 100th anniversary. The U.S. world-renowned as that of his English alma zens. Surely, they argued, wealthalone Bureau of Education, .then located in the mater, Cambridge University.That same could not be the basis for the diffusion of Departmerieof the Interior, proved itself of year also witnessed the arrivalfroin abroad knowledge. It was in this spirit that a New great help in assembling this librarians' of the Coloniesqirst printing press, from England bookseller and author wrote to hiscongress. The Commissioner of Education which in 1640'was pulled the pages of the brother in 1803 that he was donating a even supplied postage stamps(whether out Bay Psalm Book, the first book to be collection of books for the free use of theof his own pocket is not clear) to cover the printed in Colonial America. children of his _birthplace, Salisbury, Con- costs of mailing circulars announcingthe Such were the fragmentary beginnings necticut. He called his project "whimsical" event. of American scholarship. What next was but it was in fact a landmark, for it so irn, Ninety men and 13 women anended this needed was a fireball who perceived the pressed the citizens of Salisbury that they second meeting, representing collegiate, capacity of stored wisdom in igniting the ultimately authorized thetown selectmen subscription, private, public, and mer- intellect . Who better than that intrepid to expend tax money to maintain and en- cantile and apprentices' libraries from 17 experimenter with kites and electricity, large Caleb Bingham's handsome gift. States, and there was even a handful of Benjamin Franklin? When still in his twen- Thus, in the words of Jesse Shera, Director delegates from abroad. The most impin- ties Franklin proposed to his fellow mem- of the Center for Documentation and tant resith was a decision to form a perma- nent organization. Thus Was born the bers of the Philadelphia Junto thatthey Communication Research at Western Re- by serve University, "...public supportfor li- American Library Association. expand their individual resources Other events,also helped to make 1876 a "clubbing our books." Soon afterward he brary service had at last begun. The con- tribution was modest, but the precedent turning point for the library movement. It began what he described as his "first proj- was in that year that the U.S. Bureau of ect of a public nature, thatfor a subscrip- had been established; it would be the task tion library." Thus in 1731 came the of later generations to enlarge upon and Education issued its first major govern- mental report on the subject, Public Li- founding of the Library Company.of refine the initial plan." Philadelphia, which some 40 years later, Hesitantly, the idea of tax support for li-braries in the United States of Ar ?rica, all braries caught on: New York State in 1835and that Melvil Dewey, who had I...en Franklin described as "the mother of graduated from college only a year earlier, the North American subscriptionlibraries, passed enabling legislation permitting ihus school districts to raise funds for the pur- issued his famous decimal claSsification now so numerous." Of the movement comments started, he was later to claim: chase of books, and within little more thansystem. "Never before or since," a'clecade several other States had copied Edward G. Holley, "have American librar- "These libraries have improved the general ians been able to claim as much fruition 'conversation of the Americans, made com- the New York example. But with that the wit.hin a single 12-monthperiod. brary development in turn-of-the-centuryproduce& what might be calleda "Publica- Although the initiation oftax support America. His benefactions not only helped tions avalanche." Drug was the most far-reaching breakthrough stores, airline and in to establish some 2,800 libraries in the train terminals, cigarcounters, super- the development of American libraries,the English-speaking world but by stimulating markets, and a vast number ofbookstores role of private philanthropywas also of public authorities to provide matching make reading fare available inamounts great significance, as exemplified by the funds, led a transition from the patrician that staggeT the imagination. bequest to Harvard that marked the There are be- nature of librarisupport during the 19th book clubs by thescore and new ones come ginning of that university's magnificentli- century to the more egalitarian mode of into being every braries. In 1733, Bishop Berkeley year. Radio and television enriched the 20th. offer instantaneousawareness of political the new campus of Yale Unkversitywith As the power of private philanthropy and social developments aroundthe world. 900 volumes from his personallibrary, waned, it was perhaps inevitable that the Far from diminishing the and; some 20 years later Governor use of library Jona- trail of American library development services, however, this outpouringof in- thin. Belcher of New Jerseypresented would in tinie lead to the largest of the formation, entertainment, 450:volumes to the college that and enlight- is now public purses, that of the Federal Govern-enment has created a greater appetite for Princeton University. The traditionof pri- ment. Congress had itself in 1800 created them, and in the vate giving was subsequently process has produced not to bedomi- the greatest of the Nation's libraries, the only more library patrons, but nated by the industrial barons also those of the 19th Library of Congress; and in 1956, follow with highly specialized demands. and early 20th centuries, with t1;etreasures ing ten years of debate on the subject, the they privately assembled Concomitantly, the scientific and tech- eventually be- Congress enacted the Library Services Act.nical communitiesnr publish so exten- coming available to the public. Suchwas Signed into law by President Eisenhower, the case with the important sively that advancement in thesefields has collections this pioneer legislation authorized Federal become a significant challenge gathered by). Pierpoint Morgan, to the ca- Henry E. funds for the extension of public library pacity of any individualto keep abreast. Huntington, John Carter Brown,Henry C. services to those communities having less Inevitably libraries will have Folger, John Jacob Astor, Williarnk to play a Cle- than 10,000 inhabitants whowere without major role in findingways to deal with this ments, and Harry Elkins Widener., all of libraries or were inadequately served by which ultimately dilemma. They will similarly haveto were established either aS thern. Then during the 1960scame Feder- adjust to the fact that while separate scholarly libraries or graphic re- as adjuncts al support for all public libraries regardlesscords will continue to beimportant, they to libraries maintained by institutionsof of their size, for libraries in the colleges higher education. face growing competition fromother and universities ( via Title 11-A, Higher nrans of storing and conveying informa- The greatest, philanthropic contribution Education Act of 1965), and for the devel-tion. Wider use of television, radio, and to libraries cameirom the donations of opment of libraries in the public schools other electronic media andincreasingly Andrew Carnegie. Scottish -born andrear- ( through Title II, Elementary and Sec- the computersuggest That ed in a Pennsylvania mill many of the li- town, Andrew ondary Education Act of 1965). Withthe braries of the future will he far Carnegie in some ways different in comes to mind like exception of those supported bybusiness their equipment and operation a waif out of Dickens. Starved for learning from those and industry, all types of librarieswere we know today. as a youth, he recalled in his maturity his thus covered by Federal legislation,though gratitude to a Colonel James Anderson, Even more fundamental than such the level of support to be made available changes as these, however, has been the who '.r.vited young Andrew and the other each year has been and remainsa subject evolving role of the libraryas a focal point apprentices and mill childrento take home of much debate. books from his personal library. Though for community action. Most strikinglyin Meanwhile new needs and pressures the inner city but by no Mr. Carnegie was to draw bitter criticism means confined to. have been bringing major changes in the such areas, the library is from organized labor and others for his no longer seerk character of the library.-Two centuriesagosimply as a place wherean individual can business practices ( they incidentallycoin- books were for the wealthy and libraries ed the term "Libraro Maniac" go to read a book or borrow a phonograph to des- scarce; today Americans are confronted byrecord. By the particular , cribe him) he left an indelible mark on li- resources it can a "knowledge explosion" that has in turn assemble and through specialnew pro- grams and activities, it is becominga headquarters for cultural and social inter- action and a base for achieving community

progress. r In their role as custodians of all of man's records, not merely his books, libraries will continue to evolve. New responsibilities and new techniques, however, will inno way diminish their heritage as the rallying

point for Americans takinga stand "in de- . fense of their privileges." KATHLEEN MOLZ

Teaching anistant, School of Library Research,. Columbia University HeresHow.

in.a manner that reflects There are 40 textbooks. one for each membei. of the class. Problem:How to distribute them to the pupils Society of New York shows the way. "habits of neatness and order"? A manualpublished in the earl) 1860s by the Public School

within the crect,his heels near together,toes turn. while the second finger lifts the leaves, and brings them The pupil shouldstand When ihe page required is found, all elout.and his eyes directed to the face of the personspeaking to grasp of the thumb and finger. the lingers are to be passed under the leaves, and thewhole turned at hint. and FIGURE ONE represents the Book Monitorwith a pile of books once.Should the Pupil,, on the contrary, have opened too far, . in like Manner, across his left arm, with 'the backsfromhim, and with the top o the be obliged to turn back, he places the right thumb, lifted as before desciibed. page to the right hand. on the left-hand page, and the leaves are FIGURE IVO represents the Book Monitor,with the right hand FIGURE FlveShould,the bookGo old, or so large as to be weari- hands the book to the Pupil, who receives it in hisright baud, with some to hold, the right hand maysustain the left, as seen in' Fig. 5., e back of the hook to the left ; and then passesit into the left hand, FIGURE SIX and sEvENWhile reading, as the eyerises to the toP'` where it is held with the hack upwards, and with tkethumb ex of the right-hand page; the right hand is brought tothe position Poen tended at an angle of forty-five degrees with the, edgeof the book in Fig. 4 ; and, with the forefinger underthe leaf, the hand its slid (as in figure 2,) until a further order is given. down to the lower corner, and retained thereduring the re iding of FttuttE-rfutur.When the page is given ontohe book is tureed this page, as seen in Fig. 6.This also is the position in which the in doing which, the left by the thumb on the aide ; and, while held with bioth hands, is turned book is to be held when about to be closed ; hand, being carried up to the side, supportsthe book firmly and un- with the back downwards, with the thumbs meeting across the leaves, the left at a point judged to be nearest the place to be found.On opening moved, while the, right hand turns the part it supports over on thumb, as seen in Fig. 7.The thumb will then be drawn out from the book, the left hand slides down to the bottom, and thence to the when the right hand' middle, where the thumb and little finger are made to press on the between the leaves, and placed on the cover ; two opposite pages.lf the Pupil should have thus lit upon the page will fall by the side, as seen in Fig. 2. FIGURE Etoirr-13ut, if the readinghas ended, the right hand re- sought for, he lets fall the right hand by the side, and his position is the side, as seen ili Fig. 8. that of Fig. 3. tains the book, and the left hand fulls by The book will now be in a position to be handed tothe Book Monitor ; noun,: rounBut, if he has opened short of the page required, it on his left arm, with the thumb of the right hand is to be placid near the upper corner of who receives it in his right hank, and places the back towards his body.The books are now in the most suitable the page, as. seen In Fig. "4 ; while the forefinger lifts the leaves to drawers, where, without If he finds that he has not situation for being passed to the shelves or brim! into view the number of the page. uniformity and care. raise'il enough, the forefinger and thumb hold those already raised, being crowded, they should be placed with

49 EQUABON> T.Adp. A

BY KATHRYN G.,HEATH ixteen years before A Vindicata of theRights of .Womanby Mary e.- Wollstonecraft was ;Ae4 published in England, a Colo- nial woman on the At,*

Other side of the ' t77 Atlantic wrote a propheticletter to a dele- sti gate io yhe Continental Congress inPhila- delphia. The datewas March 31, 1776 db. . midway between the New Year's Ars Day 04:T444 _publication of Thomas Paine'sCommon 4444 Sense hr and the signing of the Declarationof .44 Independence. 4CL The author of the letterwas Abigail Adams, wife of one future presidentand AIf mother of another, who had learneato read and write without benefitof the formal schooling usually reservedfor her peers of the opi3nsite sex. Its recipientwas her husband, whom. she admonished: "...in the new Code ofLaws which I suppose it will be necessary fbryou to make I desire you would Remember theLadies, and be more generous andfavourable to 4'i;441 'them thanyouranceiters....If particular care and attention isnot paid to the Ladies we are determined to foment a Rebellion, and will not hold ourelves boundby any Laws in which we haveno voiceor Representation...." dtP' A century later, however, and foralmost a centuryaftelthat, 0.4. educational -14 , 441 vt.7..,;, opportunities as wellas laws yemained 5 11- considerablyless than"generciusand I1 r . favourable" as far as "the Ladies"were tiv: concerned. Even v - so, .there were some Pe. '10 . indications along the Way thatmen might sl*,#1, 0

Dr: Heigh is Assistant for Special Studiesin the Office of Education and has participatedin many non. gos;ernmental organizations andinGovernment programs concerned with the status ofwomen. 50 be Jorced one day to face the female level, and three of the first four wortien torexcluded trom delegate participaugn ni equation. the four.year course received their B.A.World Anti-Slavery Convention held in An early sign arose in 1819 when Emma degrees in 1841 from Oberlin CollegiateLondon in 1841, even when they rtprei sented antislavery grOups compdted Willardissued An Address to the Public; .. Institute. entirely of females. For two of the worrren ParticularlytotheMembers of the heir matriculation Legislature of New York Proposing a Plan proved, however, thus excluded, that action was are..last forImproving FemaleEducation. A tobesomethingstraw. Said Eliiabeth Cady Stanton to her. . Magna Charta for the higher schooling of less than a recogni-friend Lucretia Mott, "When we rettiin home, we must hold a convention and women,theplancanedforpublic tion of the princi- endowment of an institution that would ple of equality ofform a society to advance the rights of offer systematized instruction having educational op-women..? The result was the first women's fortherightsconferencethe "Nation had ever educationalsubstance.Thelegislature portunity proved apathetic but the chizens of the two sexes, for theyseen, convened in 1848 at Seneca Falls, town of Troy came to her aid, and thewere barred from the study of Greek or New York. . Troy Female Seminary she founded inLatin on the ground that the "rigors of And so it was that three quarters of a 1821 led to others. For example, Catharine these languages" were too great for thecentury after Abigail Adams made her Beech-yr, an early advocate of., domestic "fematle mind.- Moreover, a gross disparityprediction,the rebellion surfaced. The science, opened a school in Hartford inin timing was involved. The decision tohistory of mankind. the delegates declared 1822 andlaterthe. WesternFemale establish the institution soon known asintheir. overriding "sentiment,"is"a Institute in Cincinnati. An activist in whatHarvard College was made in 1636, andhistoryofrepeatedinjuries and shetermed"securitigprofessional thefirstclassof "English and Indianusurpations on the part of man toward advantages of education for my sex equalyouth" meaning ,,males wasadmitted woman, havingindirectobjectthe tnthose bestowed on men," she sought to two years later. By cOntrast, 199 years were establishment of an absolute tyranny over arouse the public to endow stillother to pass before the first door was opened to her," Buttressing this "Sentimen:" were 15 institutions for the liberal education ofbaccalaureate degrees for women. And for "facts" which they submitted "to a candid that matter, it took another half century world." The one on education declared: women.. n,"He had denied her thefacilities' for In 1828. a different approach to thebefore Harvard's coordinate sister. Rad- cliffe College, offered instruction resultingobtaining a thorougheducation, all encouragement of female education began collegesbeingclosedtoher."This to unfold. Sarah Josepha Buell Hale, a inconferral(in 1894) ofthefirst baccalaureate degreeon a"Cliffie."statement was almost but .not quite trik. writer who had been tutored by her to In any case, the early decades of the 19thCollege doors already had opened Dar:mouth brother, began to publish the women, but by so small a crack . that the new Ladies Magazine.Two years later century did at least see thefirststeps toward introducing women to organized300 me ..,omen at the Seneca Falls Louis A. Godey startedThe Lady's Book, .4.*.,-e4f1y had not yet noticed secondary and postsecondary education.Confere,. and in 1837 alandmark yearasit it. developedbought outhiscompetition tentative though that introduction may In any case the Abigail Adams rebellion and ensconced Mrs. Hale as literary editor. have been. In addition, an alternative tohad been launched, though numerous education for women Her workquicklygained a national privatelyfinanced other developments proved to be necessary also_had begun to emerge. A State law reputation for Godey. One-of--her--never- beforeitachieved 'substanceor even ending purposes and certainly her favorite enacted in 1827 required towns of a certainsignificant recognition. size in Massachusetts to employ a master to reform effort was th,e educatiOn of females nesuch develop- . to become more than hearthside hostesses. offer "instruction of utility" to young lads, ment occurred in and towns of a larger size to broaden that Stepbystepthrcughtheyearsshe 1862 while,.the Na; campaigned for high schoolsforgirls, instruction to include such -subjects as Greek and Latin. To get their money's tion'sCivilWar promoted the idea of normal schools and was raging.Presi- colleges _for women. even outrageously worth, these towns sometimPs allowed girls dent Lincoln --Urged medical education for women at a to fill empty places in the classes. A more signed the Morrill ,subtlebut in the long run more significant time when such training was regarded as Act as the first of a development also occurred in plainly inappropriate for "delicate souls." seriesofFederal The conclusion of her editorial career of Masiachusetts in the form of laws enacted between 1827 and 1834 that required tax aws providing grantsof land and other nearly a halfa century marked the support for public schools and declaredsupport for establishment andmainte- beginningoftheupsurgeinhigher nance of what became known asthe education Opportunitiesfor 'women them free to pupils. Ultimately this concept,of universal tax-"Land-Grant" institutions of higher learn- throughout 'the land. lawscontained supported schooling was togive adramaticing.Noneof these Far.reaching eventsother'thanthe provisions specifically discriminating influence ofThe Lady's Bookmade 1837 a new dimension to the principle ofequality set forthintheDeclarationofagainst females. Nevertheless, initial historic year for women. That was the year practice in the States often barred women for realization ofthe dream and Independence. but that time was not at hand in 1840. Witness the Sixth Decennialfrom admission, and even after that situa- crystallization of the career of Mary Lyon, tiowbegan to be eased they were either ex- who wanted young women to have the Censusconductedthatyear.Atthe instigation of Henry Barnard of Connecti-cluded or else denied anything approach- chance to attend a seminary of superior ing equal access to programs in -certain academic quality at an inferior price. cut ( later to be the first U.S. Commissioner ofEducation),statisticsfieldsforestry, law, and medicine, for Against almostinterminabledis- example on grounds that these were not couragements. she raised. funds through about schooling were included for the first time. Women, however, like blacks and"women's fields" or that women would not private philanthropy for a distinguished the expensive institution thatoffered its firstinstruction Indians,werenotconsideredintheput into productive use in1837 and, intime, became Mount enumeration of citizens lver the age of 20training involved. Holyoke College. That year also saw the who could neither, read nor write. Still, the Land-Grant institutions did inauguration of co-education at the college Similarly,womenabolitionists' wereopen up wider opportunities for women 51 ,1

not only tn these institutionsbut in an promote the cause of education 'through- array of privateinstitutionsof higherout the country:" national Government apartner, albeit an . oftenreluc.tantone, learning, includingmany women's colleges intherebellion. Henry-Barnard, the first CommissionerAbigail Adams had foreseen andthe'. established primarily in theEast. As Mary of Education, immediately Woolley put it during her developed a Seneca Falls Conference hadlaunched. Mount Holyoke P/anof Publicationcalling for a series of College -presidency, theera of expansion One such development studies of what hesaw as some of the major' occuried in 1909 from about 1875 until the first with the convening of the first in World War educational issues confronting:theNation. a series of was marked'byanadvance White House Conferences on Children and in -the One was entitled "Female Education,with education of women suchas the world has-ail- account of different seminaries Youth. Out of that initial meetingcame, for in never seen." Moreover, with the incentive females in this country and in 1912. the establishmentofthe thus established to Europe." prepare more students The subtitle was a telling clue Children's Bureau, whose work in getting forhighereducation, to Women's States to outlaw child labor served schoolsbelow contemporary educational to \ collegiate level began and supplement an Office of Education drive to be created at an employment status. Seminarieswere at a accelerated rate, and females to encourage compulsory school, were the lowerlevelthancolleges,andthose incidental beneficiaries. seminaries open to attendance throughout the land, with girls Meanwhile, 'the Civil War women l not offeragain being incidental brought a training in-.,such"men's fields" as the beneficiariesin fresh examination of Congressionalpower both cases. Seven years laterfihe Secretary under the Constitution ministry, law, medicine, agriculture,and to "provide for the the mechanical arts. of War, impressed by the contributionsof comthon Defencii and generalWelfare of local women's groupsinmeetin.gthe Shortly thereafter ( in June of 1867)the the United States." Thereensued a new Nation's needs 'in1917-18,authorized exploration of the Commissioner issued aCircular Respecting scope of power atFemale Education, some special funds, to stimulate attendance Federallevelandofthose areas -- seeking current at a conference held in St. Louis in 1919 education was one information from leaders in educationat which resulted involving concerns home and abroad. Thougk the in .the founding of The and issues that transcend Statelines. Otte leaders National Federation of Business andPro- consequencewas a were men. Commissioner Barnard's memorialtothe initiative was of no small fessional Women's Clubs. Indignantover Congress,resulting in legislation enacted moment to, the the, prevalent attitude that the education March 2, 1867. and establishing women's rights movement.. This particular of girls was less important than what was request inaugurated the. Federal practice that of to become the U.S. Office of Edpcation. It of routinely boys, the Federation mounted ascne of its was created, according to language in the collecting,analyzing.and early programs a nationwide campaign. disseminating data on the educational law, to "aid the people of theUnited States carried oat through State and local clubs statu.s of-girlsand women.. Italsti in the establishment andmaintenance of withthecooperationofleadersin effident sch"oolsystems,and otherwise established the footholdfor Federal action education, to encourage girlsto stay in in the evolution that wasto 'make the school beyond the eighth grade. 52 o ot tne last tney wereCO 1:1:11711 ill Lin: 114- tior alleveluntil World War II. Th.eycoo- tinu'td, of course, to make progres ort, their .own. Despite accumulating evidence; 'that females were treated as secondchiss citizens by the schools and colleges, -when warclouds broke over the horizon in *1939, the Unitcd States couid clafrn the Jion's share of the best-educated women in the Au: world. In the military and in civilian cap- acities ranging from Rosie thc Riveter to entrepreneur, they won the Nation's respect. But not to thc extent, as indi- vidual leaders and various women's groups __.-irisistentlypointed out., that they were treated on an equitable basis with men. In education,for ,example,male faculty members received far higher salaries than their female counterparts, mcn overwhelm- -W EDEmANIingly dominated the ranksof school ad . AMENDMENTTministrators. and countless women wcrc CONSTITUTION Csnubbed by professional schools. UNITED ST A Winds of change finally began to blow o EN"RANCHISO With the establishnentin1961of the liejimor MUSAPresident's Commission on the Status of Women and afollowttp drive by The National Federation of Business and Pro- fessionalWornen'sClubstoorganize similar commissions at thc State level: a move that ultimately resulted in formation of thcInterstateAssociationof Com- missions on the Status of WomenAt was not until March of 1963.however.that-the modern women's liberation movement was launchedbythepublication "ofThe the Constitution of thc 19th Amendment.Feminine Mystique,a book, that estab- enfianchising women nationwide 72 Fshed Betty Friedan as theThomas Paine years after such action had bcencalled forof the rebellion Abigail Adams had called at the Seneca Falls Confcrence and50 for nearly two centuries earlier.\ years 'after the antislavery 15th Amend- calltoaction' ment recognized' thcrightto votefor his was followed in "citizens of the United States- ( a tcrm that by .Ameri- did not extend to females. as Susan B. OctOber cOnWomen,thc Anthony demonstrated when she was report of thc arrcstcd and convicted for trying to cnter a dent's Commission . polling booth in 1872). and thc first cffort the 19th Momentous though to produce a com; Amendtnent was, thc celebi:ation of that posit('pictureof breakthrough was considerably dimmed by thc fact that womcn as individualsstill the status or women for, purposes of na- were excluded by the Supreme Court from tional policy-making. Thee rep9st called. for. example. for a drastic' revision of the coverage 1?y the 14th Amcndmcnt. adopted in 1868 and prohibiting "persons- struCture of cducation so as to provide for ( interpreted as males) from being dcnied "praeticable and accessible opportunities, "due proccss of law- and "equal protectiondeveloped with regard for the nccds of elementaryand: The following year, 192o,-brciugivit'some of the laws." A case in point was that ofwomen., tocomplete schoolandtocontinue 1andmarkadyances. inthe driveforMyra Bradwell in 1872. Though shc had secondary women's rights, again with action at thcduly been educated in law, an education beyond high . Less President Kennedy Federal level. June 5 marked the establish- statute was used to deny her the right' tothan a month later ment of the Women's., Bureauinthcpracticc.Thc UnitedStates Supremeestablished an Ituerdepartmental Com- Department of Labor.' with responsibilityCourt tiphdd thc State law and refused tomittcc and a Citizen's Advisory Council on for, formulating standards and policies toapply the 14th' Amendment in her case_theStatus of Women, and, not by coin- cidence COngress shordythereafter 'Promotethe *welfareofwage-earningthough it did so in employment suits in- assistancefor adult women. its early studies madc officialwhat volving males, including alien men. It was.authorized Federal of 'how in fact, not until 1971, inReed v. Reed,'basic education in thc Economic Oppor- women alrekly knew: Regardless tunity Act of 1964 and for continuing much.education thcy had, thcy occupied,that the Court began to change its stance. education in the Higher Education Act Of thc low rungs, on thc employmentladder. .Winning the right to vote was neverthe less a major 'victory for women, but it was 1965. Then-pn August 26 camc the addition to , 4 5 3 medical and other heann nem to open Such- advanceswereaccompanied, another sweeping aCtack, this time by the newly eitablishedProfessional- Women'stheir doors as wide to women as to men. hOwiNer, byanoCeworthy, setbaCk Federal financial involving the Civil Rights Act of 1964. AsCaucus, orgvized to cut across the profes-as a condition fdr fUrther sions and thus assure a spectrum of exper-assistance. Beyond its more visible impact, Women leaders were _quick to point out. 'brought though this controversial legislation wastise in activities ainied at opening up edu-thislegislativebreakthrough c- home what c,was quickly recognized as a 'strong_in prohibiting discrimination, incational. and professional opportunities for public education on the basis of race,girls and;women. Charges by the Caucusguiding principle. As Carnegie color, 'religion, or national origin. ii waswere directed at all law schoolshaving Fed-Corporation President Alan Pifer put it, silent on sex discrimination. Thus, theyeral contracCs. In total, more than 2,50,0"Without the threat of coercion itseems said, educational institutions could andaccredited institutions of higher learningunlikely higher educationwould have did continue to discriminate against girlsfoundthemselvesunderclassactionbudged an inch on this issue. Certainly it and women in admissions,. the right to takecharges. . had every chance to do so and failed." particular courses, and opportunities for Thus did the drive for women's rights Then 'an, organized lobbying blitzkrieg. scholarships and fellow,ships.Moreover.gain momentum, leading to a number ofin the 92nd Congress by women'sgroupsV women performing educational ditties inadditional advances at the Federal level. In .and their supporters proved successful educationalinstitutioAswere exemptedmid-1970 th/ eDepartmentofHealth.-after 49 years of strugglein winning Education,. and Welfare's Office of Civil bybothhousesofthe from coverage under the equal employ., endorsement ment opportunity provisions of the law,Rights notified its regional directors thatCongress of a joint resolution proposing an. thus affirming Such existing practice's as"investigations of sex discrimination mustEqualRightsAmendmenttothe loWer pay for women than for men, fewer.be a parr of all complianc. review. andConstitution. "Equality ofrights under the the opportunities for proMotion. and poorer ...allaffirmativeactionplansin law," it declares, "shall not be denied or fringe benefits. These injuries were in turnfuture must address themselvestoabridged by the United States or by any compounded. the women felt, when -theovercoming matters of sex discrimination."State on account of sex." Final action on related Executive Order 11246. issued the Meanwhile. encouraged by Republicanthe resolution calling for the amendment, nextyearignoredsexdiscriminationCongresswomen, President.Nixon in 1969which now is in the hands of the States for under thousands of Federal contracts withhad appointed a Task Force on Women'sthe necessary 38 ratifications, came on schools and colleges and under Rights and Responsibilities. eut of theMarch 22', ,1972. ferally assisted construction contracts..recommendationscontainedinits Two days- later the Equ'al Employment ri ber 11246 was destiried_to becomesubsequent report A Matter of SimpleOpportunity 'Act 'of 1972 broadened the one of the more noted Of the ExecutiveJuslicecame such developments as thepurview of' the Civil-Rights Act of 1961.to Orders that are issued from time to time,appointment of the firs t woman counselorinclude persons ( a word' that now at )ast fdr it attracted the particular attention of.to the President and t establishment ofincludes women) employed by States and the varinus new activist groups that werean Off cc of Women's Programsin thetheirpoliticalsubdivisionsandthose coming into being. 'One of these was theWhite House ; extension of the jurisdictionemployedineducationalactivitiesin National Organization for Women, moreof the Commission on CivilRights toprivateaswellaspublic...educational familiarly known as NOW. Founded ininclude sex discrimination; additions toinstitutions.' 10Ciober of 1966, NOW' was the first ofequal pay provisions of the Fair Labor Three months afterthat came the what soon became an .arrajr,ofNigorotisStandard Act of 1938 tO cover executive.EducationAmendments of 1972,, a far- organizationsestablishedto i'fIghtfor.administrative, and professionalreaching act that included a legal' block- , women's rights,and its members promptlyeniployees. including teachers; andbuster on behalf Of girls and women. W.)th-7- "No -- I selectedExecutiveOrder 11246asaestablishment of a Women's PrograM Staffspecifiedexceptions,itdeclared, i primary target.Lobbying their case with,in the Office of Education. Also sparked byperson in the United States shall, onthe thereportwere establishmentof thebasis of sex, be excluded from participa- I the Department of Justice, the Civil Service 1:Commission,theCitizens'AdvisorySecretary's, Advisory Committee_ on!ion- in, be denied the benefits.of, or be ! 'Council on the Status of Women, and theWonien's,Rights, and Responsibilities andsubjectedto discrimination Under White House itself, they were able just 12appointrhent of a.task force in the Office ofeducation -program or activity receiVing months later to pdint with considerableEducatioz to examine and advise on theFederal financial assistance." Since the satisfactiontoExecutive ,Order 11375,impact on women of programs adminis.great majority of schools and colleges do in which amended its predecessor by adding atered by the Department as a whole andfact receive such assistance, and want to _ the Office of Education in particular. continue, doing so, the,recently proposed : prohibition of discrimination by scx. That was. no smallvictoiy,for the By application , of such administrativeFederal.' regulations for carrying out this revised Order was the first (and for a timepressure, the women's' rights movementact-charts a leVel of change not far from the only) Federal mandate bearing on thewas achieVing change, bin the pace wasrevolutionary.-. situation. Although some obsei-versini- frustratinglyglacial.Itwas time,the From these major legislative advances tially may have seen this administrative fiatwomen's groups andtheirsupportersand from other legislative action that, is as little more than a palliative to someiratedetermined, to renew'_their, efforts alongfilling in the gaps, from an array of court , femali:s, its potential was tobe made clearthatmostcharacteristicallyAmericandecisions and consent decrees, and from by another of the.new aCtivist groupstheroute to. redress of grievancesthroughthe vigorous campaign to win ratification Woinen's Equity Action League (WEAL):legislation. Thus as the Nation entered itsof the Equal Rights Amendment come, Organized in .November Of 1968, WEALbicentennial decade, a concentrated drivethe signs that the female equatiOn will one jolted academe 14 months later by. startingwas launchedtoachieve . through newday be brought into halance. That day to file specifiC and class actioncharges.,/legislation the equity that the inertiaof--,-,'may not be .just around the corner. Never- /against hundreds of institutions Of highen,custom and trad4ion denied. , theless, is the Nation prepares to celebrate learning in virtually every section of the Among the landmark Federal legislationits 200th anniversary, itis reasonable to Nation, accusing them of °discriminationenacted thereafter was an amendment toexpect that .the rebellion whichAbigail the Public Health' Service Act adopted inAdams sought to foment in 1776like the " by sex and relying on the amended Order. wasoengaged in -- In the following year, and again relying on November of 1971which forced someone her' husband then the: revised Order as its authority, came .1,400 schools and training centersinwill be crowned with success. , 5 4 hen Emma6Hart,wherenot just in theUnited States but Willard Was tional status ofwomen. In her quiet way throughoUt the worpaccepted women she was a relentless and successful born in 1787 students. By the time she died in education 1870, ! champion of higher education forwomen women were not only attending American in a period often marked by beyond the a-rts high s.chbols but'manrof the bombast and of homemaking brightest aridtortured rhetoric. Emma Willardwas most determined among them,.wereearn- was foreclosed to given to neither,gatherTshe placedher ing college degrees andlaunching pro-' reliance on facis, figures, well American girls. fessional careers. reasoned !.! Even the con- argumentation, and perhaps aboveall, -In a remarkablecareer spanning 66 temporary Eatin grammar schoolswere personal example demonstratingfrom off limits to them, and years, Mrs. Willard laid much of the her own teachineexperience that no college any- groundwork for this advance in the women !, educa- were as capable bf serious acaelemicpur-

rk

EMMA-WILLARD7C1187:1870)--Q-

58 . 55 Seminary opened in1821. served as a director was . Troy Female to which Dr. Willard Mrs. Willard was34 years old and soon She graduallyconvinced required to make up almost 50 yearsthereafter, suits as were men. alike that robbed and he was be a widow. For and legislators loss to depositorsfrom his own and a male educators Much 'some of the edu-except for abrief second marriage access to acollege education was as advanced her own Middlebury, she made as of men,and resources. Having 'short time back in the birthright of women cation by readingthrough her husband's home base andthefocal republk had a illard the seminaryher in be- that the struggling young entire medicallibrary, Mrs. VI, ever.expanding efforts survive if its women were crisis by point of'her school better chance to responded to thefamily financial half of educatibnfor women. Her educated to the politicaland economic turning her homeinto a school forgirls.. and poor, girlsfrom Her Plan for Im- uncharted accepted rich girls .realities of the times. Since she wasexploring largely ctiltured city homes andthose from fron. Education ultimately was was todetermine, she ar- proving Female territory, her first step tier outposts.Through the years instrumental, after manysetbacks, in in- seleCtion of academic $75,000 to students legislature to pro- with her own ranged loans of some fluencing the New York subjects and her ownteaching methods, their education.Conscious of in- education young womento finance vide State fundsfor women's colleges, exactly how much the need for trainedteachers in the western cluding Troy FemaleSeminary, later were prepared toabsorb and their parents territories, she made aspecial effort to at- College, the last and most - willing to pursue pro- Emma Willard for to find proper. tract young women . famous of the thethree institutions andfessional careersthere. he started withmusic, drawing, school grew in fameand women shefounded. penmanship..subjects no onewas As her second administrator, she was acceptance, she wasable to broadenthe gradually s teacher,and lack of sup- likely to quarrelwith but When Rensselaer not.ea5ily_4!smayed by languages, mathe- hue of her resources. basic eduCa-; introduced foreign Polytechnic Institute wasfounded for port or ascarcity of funds br history, and literature. from the semi. materills. When she lackedtext- matics, philosophy, young menjust up the hill (lona! challenging tutelage, for her examinations of anacademic Under her patient, delighted tonary, forexample, she arranged ' books or the girls didwell. Parents were of the scientific her demandingstandards, Academy girls to attend many to rigor to match geog- see that theMiddlebury Female lectures presentedthere. She continued sf,e wrote her own.She coauthored a who were still ohtaining State support, the first with mapsand plc- graduated daughters have difficulty in raphy, one of text in many 'female'' despite beingdemonstrably however, and itwainot until 1837 that the became a standard a huge success. small State allow- . tures, that the intelligent. The school was school finally received a moving history of in Middlebury, Willard's semi- schools. She wrote a Based on her experience ance. Theimpact of Mrs. Republic. When sheneeded hands-on prepared her Planfor Im- pervasive. I Mrs. Willard nary wasnevertheless deep and materials to teachher girls theprinciples Education. Essentially,the Pioneer Educator6f she made conesand proving Female In Emma Willard, of solid geometry. plan advocated asystem ofState-sup- in connection pyramids out of potatoesand turnips. for women. Such A merican.Women,.wriuen Alma usual ported academies with the school's150th anniversary, Emma Hart beganlife un er the academies, she said,would better prepare did much to Century, mothers Lutz notes that its success female constraintsof the latè 18th young women tobe wives and for Vassar, Elmira,Mary exception. Thetl 6th citizens) , trainthem as pave the way well with an important ( and incidentally women's colleges as farmer, she grew of the young, and Sharp, and other University and child of a self-educated competent teachers as the openingof Iowa State up in a homenear Berlin,Connecticut, strengthen the socialvitality of the Repub- Utah as coeducational. and Shakespeare York ntore receptive the University of whereChaucer, Milton, lic. Believing New institutioni. . aloud on long wint7ernings, such an undertaking, Mrs. Willardturned over were read encour . than Connectkut to State's legis- t age 50, her and daughters aswell as sons w she presented herplan to that A supervision of the serninary to themselves. D ringthe circulated the proposal her son) to aged to think for lature. She also younger siste( and later to dompany . Revolution her fatherhad led a publicly and receivedencouraging ntures: She traveled to the Monroe embark on new of Connecticutvolunteers against responses fromPresident James Europe, whereshe`met and exchanged served as a memberof the Presidents Thomas distinguished British and later In and from former views with manyof themost nascent ConnecticutGeneral Asembly. Jefferson and JohnsAdams, though they educators there. Onher`return she spent his daughter to minority opinion. Connecticut workingwith addition to encouraging seemed to represent a by a some time in exercise her naturalintellect and'curiosity, view was summed up destined to becomethe America The prevailing be Henry Barnard, he gave her anabiding faith that New York farmerwho said, "They'll first U.S. Commissionerof EduCation, would fulfill thepromises ofits,Fohnding educating the cowsnext." toward providing greateropportunities for and women used fi- State. - Fathers if gifted men The legislaturerepeatedly refused girls in the commonschools of that this end. It was awin- but did grant acharter for Troy, she devotedMuch \their talents.toward nancial support Ladies in Water- .Then returning to similar \ ning combination. an Academyfor Young attention in remainingyears to she cotild in the husband . Emma went as far as ford, which Mrs.Willard and her and began teaching at obvious effortS nationwide. schools of her day operated brieflyuntil it became "My lot," she hadsaid, "is cast with my-. first in her home town,later alone could not sus- country." Her life wasan the age of 17, where she met that tuition revenues of Troy sex and my in Middlebury,Vermont, tain the school.When the citizens exceptionaltriinite toboth. ,,i Willard. adistinguished found a new schoolin that MOOR,EFIELD 7 and married John long invited them io center, STORY physician some yearsher senior. Not River commercial OE's Office ofPublicXffairs staff. born the family wasbe-thriving Hudson -after their son was they gladlyaccepted., set by financialreverses when abank in 56 51 Amen (sfik,k:? radox uilt like a to select,-no nial timeswas the "dame" kareprow,a conferences to attend,Joannes a housewife, would haverun out of things often thespouse of the local gangling, pin- to do, even minister, see, after making quills,the most time- ing extra income. hetaded, flat: She listenedto the consuming adjunctto teaching:So it younger children recite topped oaf. But understood he would was the older their letters and what would take a second job ones read and spell anyone minister's assistant, as frim their expect? He though had helived primers while shesewed or knitted. was just elsewhere he might the dame who It was a teacher." ( That have been juryman, polished town crier, registrar structed the manners, in- is Washington of probate,or trades- youngsters in howto bow and Irving's superstitious, man. (John Thelwellof Wilmington, curtsy properly, and simple. Ichabod Delaware, held impressed on them Crane.) so many extra jobsthat the importanceof avoiding "A ridiculous as "stepping such vulgaritie figure, his bald someone recalled: "It'would be easierto on vermin in the covered with head say what he did sight of an ill-fitting wig...a not do than torecount his others." The firstdame to set had aspired man who numerous duties.") up shop in to be a doctor but Nprthfield,Massachusetts, been forced by who had A s minister's assistant, she cared for reported that poverty to be nothing Joannes wasto 20 youngsters than a schoolmaster." more "keep the church during the ( That is Mark clean.. .serve as summer months andfound time Twain's description messenger for the shirts for the Indians to "make of Old Dobbins.) consistory..givethe at eight penceeach." "Their teacher funeral invitations,dig the was a gaunt. red-faced graves, and toll Procedures for hiringteachers were spinster, with the bell... ." He was of fairly uniform fierce, glaringeyes." (That course paid extra throughout New is ThomasWolfe for thismoonlighting. A selectman England. in LookHomeward, or town fatherrecruited AngeL) Considerably furtherup the social scale candidates whothen stood for These fictional were the schoolmasters the minister and approval by teachers arepart of a pe- of New England's before a town culiarly American Latin grammar Outlying areas meeting. paradoxa paradox schools. Usuallycoming settled foranyone compounded of from wealthyor at least well-connected answering an ad a high regard foreduca- or located by hearsay. tion on one hand families, thesepedagogues for Joannes Van As and the generallylow re- with preparing were charged Ecklen, the peoplein gard that hasusually been the sons of other Flatbush weredoubtless accorded teach- parents for college, well-to-do- more concerned ers on the other.Time and the though many with whetherhe held a license kind of this task as regarded from the people enteringthe profession a barely bearable British governorof New York have enOr- they could stop-gap until which , mously elevatedthe status of arrange more lucrativeand - guaranteed hisreligious conformity course, but historically teachers, of prestigiouscareers. with his academic than they have drawn achievements. mixed reviews. Lowest on the The schoolmaster's as witness WillardS. teaching ladder inColo- wages were usually Elsbree on the low, since hewas in most instances Colonial schoolmaster: deemed si"Hewas a God-fearing an unproductiveworker, a tolerated was an unmitigated clergyman, he 'sky. a cheap neces- rogue; he'was amply commodity. Herepresented paid, hewas accorded the budget itemthat could a bare pittance;he squer-zed for most readily be made teachinga life career, hc greater community merely as a used it Whether such economy. steppingstone; hewas a classi- treatment was thecause or cal scholar, the effect,townspeople found he was all butilliterate; he that hiringa licensed by bishop was schoolmaster couldbe risky. One or Colonialgovernor, he was ac- was certified only cused of paying"more attention by his ownpretentions; to the he was'a cultured tavern than to theschool"; another gentleman, hewas a firedfor "obtaining was crude-mannered yokel; he ranked with articles fromstores in cream of society, he the the name of the was regarded rector and taking themto menial. In short,.he as pawnshoias," Contracts was neithr a were usually a personality. but type nor written fora year and if the a statisticaldistribution schoolmaster represented bya skewed curve." failed whetherIoi:reasons of drinking, using profanity, Somewhere piling4tp debts, on that curve appeared "uncremly" toward behaving roannes Van Ecklen,who signed women, or simply for n 1682 to "keep a contract being unpopularwith the coirimunity school" in the he'd move gatbush, Long town of on or make a change Island. Five hours fession. in his pro- ix days a week, a day, from Septemberto June, T n a society where oannes taught picking appleson a class of about 16 the sabbath some schoolmasters children brought a fine,the handled more than schoolmaster's 00). He received the tuition fees comportment was narrowly plus a prescribed. Joannes ilary. with theuse of a, dwelling, Van Ecklencame a asture, and barn, cropper when he andsome other locals meadow thrownin. took issue with With no lesson a group of wealthyland- plans to drawup, few owners. He was promptly ipers to grade,no curriculum fired andre- materials ICHABOD placed. He thenadded to his CRANE setting up a offense'by competing school.This enter What most impressed aNew England' teachers moved in aristocraticsociety, early part of the prise was halted by a ceaseand desist schoolteacher during the others arrived as indenturedslaves bring- his school's order, and Van Ecklen dropped outof convicts. 19th century, however, was later to ing a lesser price than and the community's sight for a while, though he seems the Revolutionand if the lack of an outhouse Flatbush, r". ame failuie to provide amanageable building have returned to teaching in schoolmaster wasn't called to arms. supply of fire- presumably made more tractableby his nonecsential career. or even maintain a proper he found himself in a wood. He and his pupilsnearly froze in the experience. In those schools thatcontinued to operate, suffocated by the Though political activity such ashis was finding classroom mornings and almost the teacher had trouble smoke later in the day.He figured out that not to be tolerated, amuch more common materials. Hostilities had cutoff what had Colonial days and for his school had seen 37teachers in 30 years. cause for dismissal in in any case been a sparsesupply of books, the wind, thereafter had to do with Change nevertheless was in a long time imported from England.Moreover, the welcome its arrival. schoolmaster though not all were to maintaining discipline. The content of the texts thatremained had be- example, of keeping prank- There was the matter, for .with insufficient skill in come instantlyunsuitable, since they were notion that could never feel secure. teacher preparation. The prone boys in line of course British incharacter. Revised required spe-- wholesale his teachers, like bookkeepers, If he ousted troublemakers versions were ultimatelyissued, one of the by many old- school gained a reputationfor being too being. A New England cial training was regarded most popular timers as an affront totheir dignity and an hard. If he permittedinsubordination he "millions to read the Primer (which taught unwarranted reflection upontheir com- wits a "poor manager." In any case and not one to sin") ,but for some time country was growing in whipping post, the ferule,and later the honorary English petence. But the indispensable allies ofspellers still contained land and people, demand wasincreasing hickory stick became titles and math booksignored decimal work force, and North Carolina school- for a more sophisticated some teachers. A able to help build of rules starring the currency. the need for teachers master developed a set In the years betweenthe Revolution and The re- stick three lashes forcalling each other idea of free, tax- such a work force became acute. for blotting a the Civil War, the sult of these pressures wasthe establish- names, for example, two supported schools took rootand teachers for failing to bow tovisi- ment of numerousinstitutions specifically copy book, three seemed headed for a newlease on life. training normal influence, litera- focused on teacher tors. EduCation leaders rose to schools, as they were called.About a dozen Some schoolmasters,especially those importance of education accorded the ture on the came into beingbetween 1834 and the with advanced degrees, were abounded, statutes appearedin State remainder of the prominent Civil War, and for the title of Mister and assigned constitutions indicating arecognition of were4established at a rate of important social all, century they pews in the church the obligation toprovide education for indicators in Colonial times.While such

"

58 Lwo or mree a year. Normal schools offered But in those days if one-year ( and later,longer) courses that a female wanted to taxcl neither the present a paper, regulations meal, includingbreakfast, for the-i,At pocketbook nor, the required that ..of mina. Men it be read for her the week. The were admitted, but itwas by a male member. diary : "Dinnercoldschoolmaster confided inhi young ladies who flockedto them. Meanwhile as educationleaders debated ganderagairi; The first normal whether teachingcould be reduced didn't keep school thisafternoon ;weighed school studentscame " to a and found 1 had straight fromelementary school science and if physicalculture and singing lost six pounds thelast if they belonged in the week; grew alarmed; retained a smattering "regular branches,"the had a talk withMr. of what they had great body of teachers B. and concluded I -learned there theywere acceptable. After was more concerned had boardedout his f:'-ew, a with the practical share." . years the standards problems involved in quire two were raised to re- "boarding out" ecause women were years of high school. Notuntil or the personal penalties more trouble to after 1900was high school graduation their careersexacted of them. Bboard than men andfewer homes a The male teacher offered them hospitality, prerequisite. Highbroweducation was not had long "boarded boarding around the goal of these around" on the theory was gradually "phasedout" during the young ladies. Somemay thaeclose associa- ond half of the sec- have had a desire tion with localfamilies would give 1800s. Nevertheless,the to serve mankind him a teacher continued through teaching,but many better understandingof the studentsand to have little personal profitable way were seeking a the community.Not that this freedom and to be theobject of close to spend the timebetween was the school years and teacher's idea. Livingas a guest afforded scrutiny except,curiously enough, inthe marriage. little privacy, area of professional skills. With the institutionof grade levels in no guarantee of nourishing Few laymen,or the schools and food or warm educators for that the consequentseparation quarters, limited control matter, were competent of theyounger from the older over leisure time, andthe frequent dis- to judge teaching abilityand fewer still children, the comfort of long bothered to try. The argument no longer heldthat females' trudges to and from situation changed made unsuitable school. It was simply somewhat with the teachers becausethey a cheap way to sup. advent of county could not handle port the schools, A superintendents, buteven then teachers obstreperous-older boys. Pennsylvania county could expect It had to beconceded that they superintendent argued: "By this mode the an inspection visit onlyabout could at burderi of bdarding once a year. Moreover, least cope with theyounger children, the. the teacher isnever county superin- Boston Board of felt ; whereas ifthe teacherwere boarded tendents were electedto their positions, Education declaring,for in one place, and and some example, thatwomen were "infinitely money paid therefore, were merely inept politicalhacks the cash cost of who looked at more fit than malesto be the guides and supporting our schools outside paint withmore -dili- exemplars of would be nearlydouble." gence than they reviewed young children"; thatthey the classroom; performance in poSsessed milder Historian Mason Stone Many others, however,con- manners, purer morals, tells of a Ver- scientiously did their which :Makes "thesociety of children mont schoolmaster whosuffered a diet of best to cover their delightful, andturns duty into pleasure." tough gander. Thebird was served territories with horseand buggy and do at a whatever they could T ot everyone jumpedon the distaff Monday dinner andthereafter for each to make schooling N bandwagon.A Rhode Island more effective The situationsometimes superintendent insistedthat no matter how well qualified, a female teacher couldnot be employed "forthe szznereason she can- not so well managea vicious horse or other animal, as aman 'may do." But thcvoices ofdissension soonbecame muted, and beforelong, women pearing in classrooms were ap- I. everywhere. In 1862, New Jersey reported:"It is somewhat remarkable that the number offemale '2 teachers has beengradually increating from year toyear, until it now exceeds number of male the teachers... States were ." Other soon to report similarex- periences. The CivilWar would ringthe final knell toteaching as a male profession. predominantly The averagewoman-teacher, because her youth, because of she was notcareer minded, because she-was ignorant ofn a-. 4"-r tional affairs, didnot involve herself with the State and localteachers' associations that were forming. She was seenas having no interest in educational any case insufficient reform and in knowledge andex- perience to contributeto it. Those who tried found themselvessubjected to times humiliating some- discriminatoryprac- tices. Womenwere, to be sure, welcomed by the new National Teachers Association, founded in 1857. which later becamethe National Education Association ( NEA).

59 discoUraged even the most ebullient of them..A Pennsylvania superintendent, for instance. found that "not a scholar in the ,school Could tell me what country he lived in:" Not that the situation was universally this disinal. There.was at least one good teachei to match each poor one, and in many instances the teacher washeld in the highest regard. As many of the traveling super- intendents observed, however, the situa- tion was disturbingly spotty, and the feel- i e I t i & . . I.'1,.. ing grew that if the schools were to have a., 7.21,-.:'...,,a '.:?.. --,. 4.- -r-1'... competent teachers, each community , ,._ . . could no longer be left to set its own stand- I li!:- .11%=.2\ ards. With normal schools improving and P. rn.ei9 ii i %. .' 1 kir communication facilities expanding, .1( ....' ; educators began to devise schemes to , T. . - 0 . :: 1 . .k.: ;.,;.: - at least within States 0 ; - ' ea.-"lot, standardize .- :' 1 7 requirements for securing a teaching ., . 'rr4i). iA '"',- certificate. After the Civil War, authority #: ),%R1V4;1-0 to issue certificates began to move from ' 1.-'''r: S': ... -_. - '; 34b - L_ local and county officials to the States. A ;,.: ... 'IV teacher applying for a license was required to take a written examination preparedby 4 State authorities. As long as local and ce.unty superintendents were responsible foi grading the papers, however, they still conti oiled certification for all practical purposes. I eachers needed only a tenth-grade educa.tion to be eligible for the tests even a'A),Wks into the 20th century. ( Indiana in 1907 became the first State to requirz a high school diploma as a condition for all teaching-certificates.) If they passed the written_exam, they had a blanket certifi- cate g6od for any subject at anygrade level. Gradually. the idea of special certifi- cates for special teaching assignments caught on. as did the notion that gradua- .tion frOm high school and, later college would be a sounder basis fOr evaluation than a single test. The typical teacher of 1911, according to the first study made of the characteris- tics of schoolteachers. wag 24 years old, fe- male, had entered teaching at 19, and had four years of training beyond the'ele- mentary school. Her parents were native born, her father was most likely a farmer or tradesman, and she had to earnher own

way. . Fifteen years later, a similar survey showed little diange. The teacher of the mid-Twenties cairlc from a rural area or AL' small town. She had never traveled More than a couple of hundred miles from her _,home. and had had little exposure to art or music. Light literaturepopular maga- zines such as the Saturday Evening Post and Ladies' Homejournal was her preference. and she scanned the news-. paper daily. Attempts to elevate teacher preparation standards had meanwhile en laurwhed, but then came the dis-

6 0 63 locations of World War I. In1918, rising to the national level according to records of The aimed at includes people trained in traditional National achieving better salaries,tenure, higher Education Association, half ofthe 600,000 institutions who earned their credentialsby certification standards,a larger role in taking traditional courses, teachers then in the classroomlacked spe- setting school policies, and so does ii cial training and about one-sixth greater per- encompass people who have been certifi--. were sonal freedom. In the beginningthese without even a tenth-grade education.As cated because they acquired anddemon- .moves brought few gains, but asa conse- strated specific competencies. It includes late as 1926, 15 States still hadno definite quence of them the pattern was set. scholarship requirements fora certificate. people who completed coliege in fouryears Teachers were determinedto win a place and went straight into teaching, r-reachers continued to be boundby in the sun. and it in- cludes people who have climbed petty restrictiOns that had littleto do Their efforts have not been universally a career with their teachng. Before ladder through multiple levels. Itincludes and imme- weleomed or endorsed, particularlywhen !likely after thewar, the management of people who teach in a conventional their new-born militancywas translated manner in self-contained classrooms their private lives extendedeven to being into boycotts and strikes. Even as then, how- well as individuals who work in told to what charities theywere obliged to ever, the criticism has primarily been di- "open" or contribute. Tenure was insecure, "free" schools where youngstersare without rected toward the organizationsinvolved provision for sicknessor old age. And to responsible for much of theirown rather than teachers as such.Moreover, to learning. take a stand on a public issuo,wasto the extent that their demands have been lr-,rom a compilation of statistics about commit professional suicide.Personal aimed at providingmore competent freedoms were similarly limited. teachers by the National Education Well into instruction and more effectiyelearning. the20th century, thecommon habit of teachers struck a responsive chord. Association comes this oddassortment of tobacco chewing was adequate Mean- facts: The medianage of teachers is 35 cause for while teachers were becomingnot simply denial of certificates to maleteachers. A years. A little over eight percent of all more militant but better educated,more teachers are black. About 50 seacher who was for somereason invited to competent, more involved. And as it percent of all a party was not supposed to dance, and teachers come from blue-collarworking turned, out, more highly respected. class or farm backgrounds, but failure to attend church servicesregularly onsider, for example, some results the percentage of teachers with fathers in was taken as sure proof of moral decay.As from a series of Gallup pollscon- one late as the 1930s, one teacher of the professions is increasing. complained: ducted for Phi Delta Kapp,the education There are "I cannot be funny or act likea human more male teachers today than therewere fraternity. When asked if they wouldlike five or ten years ago, especially being. I must posseis all the dignityand their children to become teachers,three on the peculiarities of an old maid." out of four parents said yes, they would, elementary school level. Seven teachersin Employment of teachers in theirhome and when the sample ten are married. The percentage ofmen was narrowed down teachers with working wives has towns was prohibited in Alabama, anda to parents with children still in school, the increased. Ninety-seven percent of all teachers North Carolina county outlawed ratio climbed to fourout of five. hold at "quarreling among teachers."Between As for the teachers themselves, though least a Bachelor's degree. The bestpre- 1920 and 1930, school authoritiesin pared teachers tendto work in large school they have changed considerablyover the - systems. several communities refusedto appoint years, there is this constant : Like the Finally, a statistic that teachers who bobbed their hair,painted Colonial schoolmaster, he Or she is serves as a kind of their lips, or rouged their an cheeks. Such individual, "neither atype nor a per- - intangible monument to ihe teaching restrictions often were embodiedin State sonality, but a statistical distribution professionals who recognize theunending codes or written intocontracts. A Virginia represented by a skewed curve." Only series of challenges theyare called upon to county school system rule still meet and who have the will and the on the books today the curve is even less symmetrical.It in 1935 read. "Any conductsuch as staying includes blacks in cities and Suburbs, courage to meet theme: Nine of everyten out late at night, etc., which teachers plan to go on teaching. may cause people with Spanishsurnames, Native criticism of the teacher willnot be toler- Americans on and off reservations. MYRTLE BONN As it Office of Educaiion Program Specialist ated by the school board." . As individuals, teacherswere often 7.1sissuPo4I4 praised, venerated, andeven loved by the communities they served. Asa class, they were stereotypedcongenital old maids of both sexes, too incompetentto compete in the wtirld of work,too frustrated to take their place in normal,society,somewhat odd in appearance and dress,lacking in social graces. "Youcan tell a teacher as far as you can see one," went one of the !P. cliches. Or. "He whocan, does: he who can't, teaches." As with Americans generally,the arrival of the 20th centurywas accompanied by considerable gear-shifting with regardto teachersin their status, in theway in which they were viewed, and inthe way they viewed themselves. Bothcause and effect were involved ina surge of activity chiefly conducted through localand State professional organizations at first, then ^

64 61 NATION'S ND

BY NEIL G. MCCLUSKEY

hough the vast ma . As America came to an increasing jority of Ameri-acceptance of "popular" educationand can youngstersthen to enthusiastic support of the public today receive theirschool movementperceiving education formal education innot simply as desirable for a few but as public schools, theneceSsary for sharing inthelifeof a non public school vigorous republic the religious character has always been anof American schools gave way to the integral part of oursecular. educational system and can justly claim to Nonetheless, nonpublic schools remain haveprovidedaspecialqualityoftoday as a large and significant element of enrichment to our national life. the overall system of education. Currently ; nearly one of every ten elementary andb Inavery realsense,infact,the American public school can be consideredsecondary school youngsters in the Nation a child of the "nonpublic"schools startedattends a nonpublic schoola total of by Protestant churches, and communities.aPproximately five million. About three- At the time Ofthe Nation's beginnings,fourths of these young people are enrolled education was a private and religiousin Catholic schools, with the remainder undertaking that in time became seen asattending either private schools or schools serving broad, nonecclesiastical purposes.sponsored by other religious groups. Today Indeed among the Massachusetts colonists,only a few such groups, other than the who were the first group in early AmericaCatholic church, conduct schools or school to act on the principle that education viassystems on any significant scale, the most a public concern, there was noclearheavilyrepresentedbeingtheschools dividing line between religious and secularmaintained under Lutheran, Authority sofaras the schools wereEpiscopalian, and Adventist sponsorship concerned. Nevertheless, before the advent and those operated under Jewish auspices. of the 19th century, education beyond the With few exceptions the older private rudiments was seenas an upper-classschoolsalsobeganunder church sponsorship, though the majority today prerogative,aprivilegeto which few peasant or working-class families aspired, eitherretainonlyaloosereligious and essentially serving the purposes ofaffiliation or have become completely, religious groups. secular. As prep schools for the prestige collegesanduniversities,the:privat secondary schools have traditionally Dr. McCloskey is Dean of Teacher Education, Her- exercised an influence far beyond their bert H. Lehman College, City University of New number, but their number nevertheless York. 62 t 44:

4,

;

t

311.

"'"'" remains small, as does that ofthe newschoolsituationwasparticularly "private" schools opened insome States in disappeared. The Bible,however, was intolerable. The schools were belligerentlyregarded by most Americansas the moral opposition to laws requiring desegregation. Protestant, and texts were shot through As regards both the numbers of students Gibraltar of the Republic, and therewas withderogatoryreferencesto things involved and the great national issuesthat widespread conviction that unless the Bible Catholic. A graphic case in pointwas thewas enshrined in the schools, .,.;od's wrath have risen, then, the story of the nonpublicuniversally used New English Tutora school movement in the UnitedStates is would fall upon the Nation. And the Bible forerunner of the New England Primer meant the Protestant version. Strong legal largelythe story of theparish schoolsand its stern injunction to young readers:supportfortheretentionofdaily operated by the Catholic church. That"Child, behold the Man of Sin, the Pope, story had its beginnings in a fundamental obligatory reading from the Protestant worthy of thy utmost hatred!" Accordingly,Bible was supplied by an 1844 decision of American challenge to the basic principlesthe Catholic family faceda dilemma: that were ultimately to be fought for inthe the Maine Supreme Court, affirmingthe whethertoplaceitschildrenin a right of a school districtto require the War of the Revolution. During thecenturyreligiouslyhostile and a half of the Colonial period. environment,ortopractice. Tension and strife besetmany thedeprive them of the preparation neededcities in the wake of incidents involving .Roman Catholic Church livedinthefor social and economic advancement. the caningorexpulsionfromschoolof shadows. Catholics were suspectedand The smallCatholiccommunity -- by feared, and as a groupspent their lives Catholic pupils who refusedto take part in 1850only1.6millioninnumber what they believedto be aProtestant outside the cultural and political activitiesvigorously struggled to better the situation. of the community. Though religious exercise. The unabashedly many of theThey asked thatoffensivepassages be more onerous restrictions and penalties Protestant orientation of the public schools deleted from the common textbooks. Theybecame the principal reason that led the were lifted at the start of the, nationalasked that Catholic children be excused period, only four Catholic community to establish.separate States in theirfromthedailyprescribedProtestantschools and to work to obtain public constitutional conventions gave Catholicsprayers and the reading of the King James political equality with Protestants. support for them. version of the Bible. They asked thata In the years that followed, the The rigid laws in existenceat the time of concept portionof theschooltax money beof popular_education spread rapidly, and the Revolutionmodeled on those of thereturned-to help support separate Catholic mother country by 1880 public school enrollmenthad curtailed the freedom ofschools. passed the one-million mark. Meanwhile, Catholics to worship, to participate in civic By stages the textbook situation did life, and to educate their children. however, the Catholic dilemma remained Theimprove and the more offensive referencesacute, .and Citholi,c leadership became 63 than faith. Nonetheless, oy Erie enu Ul sharply divided over the school question.petrated in America was "Socialism, Red Republicanim, Universalism, Deism,two-year interval, some230 new schools Maky dioceses had drawn up statutes had been built. Spurred by theBaltimore ordering pastors to establish parish schoolsAtheism, ahd Pantheism -- anything, everything,but religionismanddecision, enrollments in parish-maintained and Parents to send their children to them, schools increased thereafter at aboutthe -and, the move inthisdirectionsoonpatriotism" was scarcely calculated to ease Prostest ant-Catholic tensions. On the otherrate of the growth ofthe Catholic popula- asstimed nationwide dimensions. to isgivings certainly must have re'hand, many local communities did try totion,rising from 490,500 in1884 mai'ned inthe minds of manycome to terms with theschool problem by804,000 in 1900. leaders who questioned whethermeans of various compromises.Generally, The last great effort at compromise their people could support the burden ofthese were efforts to comhine public and came near the close of the century.In 1890 what actually amounted to a second publicparochial schooling within a single institu- Archbishop JohnIrelandaddresseda school system for Catholic children, oi whotion so that religious instruction would pre. meetingoftheNationalEducation felt that some kind of compromise with thecede or follow the regular classroom day.Association held in his See city of St. Paul, State schools could have been entered into.Although in many eases the local pastorMinnesota. A distinguished .and 'forceful Nevertheless, Catholic bishops meeting inhad the right to select the teachers, theyorator, Ireland made a deepimpression were salaried by thepublic school board. with his call for an approach which would Baltimore in 1884 formalized a commit- S6te ment to the separate parochialschool andAt one time or another, nearly every provide religious instruction for Catholic therejection of the public schoolforhad some such plan in operaiion, at leastchildren, while making parish schools a Catholic children. The argument of thebriefly,for the benefit not merelyofpart of the public school system.This bishops was simple. Education must fosterCatholic children but for Presbyterian,p'attern was already operative in two towns religion in order to safeguard civilization;Quaker. Lutheran, Mormon, and other within Ireland's jurisdiction, Stillwater and religious- knowledge and formation .,canchildren as well. Faribault in Minnesota. take place only in the school; the public Thesituationwasnotwithout While warmly received by his audience, schools either had no religion or a hereticalequivocation, but while the bishops whoArchbishop Ireland's address igniteda one; therefore, separateCatholic schools.hadpushedvigorouslyforparochialbitter controversy among Catholic leaders And so this gathering, known as the Thirdschools continued to do so,those whowithoutparallelin American Catholic Plenary Council of Baltimore, decreed thatharbored doubts had difficulty rc-solvinghistory. Ireland had lavishly praised the within two years every parish must have itstheir position. It can be conjectured thatpublic schools and.urged as the solutiOn to own school. most bishops, while in agreementwith thethe Catholic problem "to make the state New York City was the scene of the firstideal, were deeply disturbed by the im-school satisfactory to Catholic consciences, important struggle by Catholics to obtain amensity of the task. The pressure on theirand to use it." He argued that the necessity proportionate share of common-schoolworking classparishionerstomultiplyfor parish schools was hypotheticalthe funds, and the outcome there went a longschools and to maintain them on a parnecessity notarising directly from the in way toward establishing a nationalpolicywith the free public schools called for moreChurch's missionbut"aprovision that has endured tothe presentday. Between 1795 and 1825, the State of New York had given financial aid to every educational institutioninthecity, practically all of which were operated by the churches. In 1805 the FreeSchool Society was founded "for the education of Sbe fleb) (MUM such poor children as do not belong to, or are not provided for by anyreligious Tit POPE. or Man of Sin; society."Shortlythereafterit' adopted another title, the "Public School Society." and assuch became adominant Child, behold . that Man. of Sin, the educational force in New York City. In Pope, worthy thy atmoitHatred. 1825 abillwas passed by the State legislatute authorizing the city council to determine which schools should receive tax Thoii'filalt find in his.Head, .(A money. The next year the councildecided Herefjf-'f, . - that henceforth the city's share of the State In Shoulders,:()The' Sufipor; school fund should go exclusively to the rers of,Difinider. nonsectarian Public School Society, exCept . In .his Heart, (C)-Make, ',larder; for minor grantstoorphanages and and Treachery. mission schools. Although the Protestant coloring of the In his Arms, (D) Cruelty, public school had meanwhile been fading, .in.his Knees, (E). FalfeWoribip and under both Catholic and Protestant pres- ldolarry. sures, a new kind of objection haddevelop- In his Feet, (F) naftneri to!heel ed within the Catholic community. The public schools were irreligious,ifnot In his Stomach. (G) it! downright antireligious. New York's Arch- veroggfners. bishop John Hughes, never distinguished ) The for his tact and embittered over his failure .In his Lovns, to win tax supportfor the parochial schools, was among the most hostile critics. His remark in 1852 that education as per- prumem,ana muchofthestruggleand freedom of expression faith." Moreover, he stated,,"TheChurch were the pride between "progressives" and "conservatives"of the young New World republic. Itli.,the is not established to teachwriting andover the school issue stemmed from sharply ciphering, but to teach morals minds of many continental-churchmen, and faith,contrasting American andEuropean and she -teaches writing andciphering however, the spirit behind theseconcepts attitudestowardsocietyanditscould be associated with revolutionary only when otherwise morals andfaith . could not be taught." institutions. Such "conceptsasfreeinspired attacks on the established enterprise, individual liberty, equal rights, ader, By the turn of the century therewas still in particular the Catholic Church.Rome widespread sympathy andsupport for this was especially uneasy. Some of thepublic position among the AmericanCatholic letters of the popes of that periodto the leadership.Despite the decrees of the American Church seemedto challenge the Third Plenary Council of Baltimore,many validity of ideas like theseparation of bishopshopedforsomesortof church and state, the religiousfreedom compromise. Nor was thisattitude guaranteed by the First Amendment,and dictated only by economics,granted that the secular stateschool. The day of lack of money was almostalways a critical collaboration between Catholicand state factor. ' schools abruptly ended and wouldremain Leaders like Ireland. JohnLancaster that way until comparativelyrecent times. Spalaing of Peoria, and .Nrivir'ffeWpIpirrAmort Cardinal James IN* tta0,00010, eanwhile t h e Gibbons of Baltimore emphasizedthe iffri parochial schools value of common schools inassimilating hadbecome a immigrant children and opposedany' 40trAi renewed objectof approaches to parochial schoolingthat hate beginningin tended to preserve Europeancustoms and the1880s when languages at the expense of Americanways forces of nativism and the English language. Theywere also again banned awareofthespecialaffection most. togethertoform Americans felt toward ,the publicschool the American Protective Association.This and the resentment non-Catholicswould. group was succeeded by one of the largest direct toward what they mightinterpret.,as and most influentialof the-. an official Catholic attitude of hostility, movements, the Ku Klux Klan. \Founded criticism, and boycott. Butcompromise on in Georgia in1915,. the Klan enlisted the school question wasnot to be, and the millions of members ina campaign against more conservative and traditionalist wing Catholics, Jews, Negroes, andthe foreign- soon carried the day. born. And aspecialtargetwasthe In one way the school issuewas simply parochial ,school. anaspectofthelargerchurch-state , Theparochialschoolfromthe beginning of its existencehad of course

1.

PIT been, no 'stranger to controveriy, for the salariescommandedbylayteachers, mcis part over .the question of the useof modest though they were, the tradition of public funds for its support, but in this clericalandreligiousinvolvementin instance the, attack took a more virulent education was as oldasthe monastic turn.Whatever 'misgivingspeople schools of the early Middle Ages.,Thus for generally might have felt over the effects of many years the parochial schools were church-maintained-schools onpublic staffed almost exclusively by nonsalaried education, so long as Catholics or others teaching orders of religious men and themselves paid for them, they could be women. tolerated. After all,what did America uring the past two stand for if not for religious liberty for all? decades,however, The Ku Klux Klan, however, called 'on the the lay teacher has Statesto haveallbut public schools come more and ou'lawed. They actually succeeded in the more to replace the Sta,e of Oregon when, in 1922, the voters religious or clerical narrowlyapprovedby referendum a teacher, a'. move measure to thateffect, an action that thatstartedafter shocked and dismayedArhericans World War II when d throughout the Nation. the great expansion of paroChial schools The press was almost unanimous in itstook place. It was heightened subsequently criticism. Following a nine to nothing by the sharp decline in the numbers of men ruling by the U.S. Supreme Court strikingand women entering the religious state. down the Oregon law, The New YorkThe net result was that the percentage of -Times, in its lead editorial for June 2, layteachersintheNation'sCatholic 1925, commented: "Yesterday's -decision schools rose from ten percent in 1950 to 26 bythe Supreme Court holding invalid the percent by 1960, and to more than .50 Oregon School lawisnone-the-lesspercent by 1970, the further result being a- welcome for being expected. The statutehuge increaseinthecostof Catholic set aside was born of prejudice. ...1t was education. one of the most hateful by-productsof the The scarcity of religious teachers ( and Ku Klux Klan movement, which nowits impact on costs)is the chief reason happily seems to be dying out." Theregularly advanced by Catholic school Oregon school decision was a powerfulsuperintendents for closing a school or reaffirmation of the paramount right ofcurtailing classes, but changing viewpoints parents tb choose a private orparochial school for their children in fulfillment of the compulsory school attendance laws. and in the 50 years since, has been cited regularly in judicial decisions involving parental liberties. With this right firmly established and with the greater toleranceit helped to spawn,the Catholit schoolpopulation steadily motinted. In 1964 it reached a historic peak of 5.6 million, or nearly 12 perCentofthetotalelementary and-- secondary school populationofthe country. Until very recent years parochial school attendance also wds stimulated by a strong disciplinary motivation. Sending children4 to Catholic schools wasrequired by church law ( a law, which became largely a dead- letter issue beginning with theFifties, when parental demand far exceeded the

available facilities). For the most part, .the 4 canons on education in the Codeof Canon Liaw, promulgated in 1918, echoed the assumptions and.principles In places the actual wording of the decrees of the Third Plenary Council of Baltimore. Historically, ashas been seen,the bishops and clergy were at the forefrontin the creation of the parochial schoolsand subsequentlyintheiroperationand staffing. There was little alternative and 141 large precedent for this dominance. Even had there been ample funds to pay the 6 6 woula appear to be involved also. Large yearsintothe1960s / numbers of Catholics today, for.example, the number of1973, theyannuallydeclined, b seern children involved was stillrising,1959 percentages ranging from 4.6 tohavedecidedthatCatholicsaw the start of a marked decline in the youngsters who attend public school will Within a decade the fall-off hascome td 3 proportion of Catholic. children.in Catholicpercent, more than one.third. notforthatreasonturn outto be schools, and that was soon matchedin the For .those who equate "success" wid something less than good Catholics. gross figures themselves. Thus from The consequence of such factors an all- unceasingluantitative growth, this fall-of as these timepeakof 5,.6 has been a steady decline millionin 1964, may have been taken as a signal of th, in Catholicenrollments fell to 5.2 million in 1967. onset of disaster. Those arguing for C. school enrollments. Even thoughfor, a fewDuring the six years thereafter, ending inbroader view of the Church andit mission, however, insisted that thedeca theoretically inherent in the bald number was more apparent than real. Put intc proper context, they said, these enrollmeni trends were simply further evidence thai the parochial schools, like the Catholic church generally, weie, enteringa new era, with new goals andpriorities.ilany Catholic educators pointedout, moreover, that the shrinkagewas bringing specific benefits to the Catholic education syStem, both in the quality of instructiOn and in the refinement of its operation. Meanwhile it became increasingly clear thatlthe shift °in Catholic school enrollmentswould have significant repercussions, withinthe Catholic community and in the societirat 'large. . The emptying of thousands of parochial schoolclassrooms, forexample, has inevitably exacerbated the financialplight the public schools,so that a number of States have tried to findways to help keep theCatholicschoolsopen. Whether impelled by expediencyor conviction, public-support for nonpublic schools isnot something new.Historicallythere. has alwaysbeenrecognitionthatcertain important public goalsmay be achieved throughprivate,voluntary( including church-sponsored) agencies. Inone way or another, not only the Federal Government but every State in the Union has provided some forms of assistancefor 'children attendingsecularlyilualifiedreligious schools. Generally speaking,to be sure, this assistance has been peripheralin character; transportation,for example, health sen;ices: enriched dietaryprograms, specialfirovisionfor the handicapped, textbooks, driver education. In recent years, the FederalGovernment and several of the State legislatureshave tried to 'move further. Especially_through provisions of TitlesIand 11 of the Elementary and Secondary EducationAct of for example, Federal funds have broughtadditionalbenefitstomany thousahds of nonpublicschool children, in partioUlar thosefrom disadvantaged families. Among theStates,the most significant' move came ina Pennsylvania law enacted in 1968 that servedas a model for slimilar laws adopted by Ohio,Rhode Island, and Connecticut and consideredby a namber of other States. Generally speaking this legislationwas in the _nature of a "purchase-of-services,"an effort to provide limited salary assistance 67 . T e net result is that money,including 4.Not only has the lay teacher gainer] for, teachers, in selected secularsubjects. equal footing in the staffing of theschools theiuestion of some measure .of public TIqugh the conceptof"purchase.of- but lay people are rapidlybecoming full upheld bysup ort, will be apainfully obvious factor services". had been historically in determining what proportionofpartners in Lkpolky-making.The fastest . the, courts in special areas andfor special growing movement in Catholic education in Cat olicchildrenwillcontinuetobe cosagories of recipients. and though is the development of parish anddiocesan Court enrolledinseparateCatholicschools. earlier decisions 'the U.S. Supreme boards.As aaideeffect,the secular Interestingly enough, the proportion ofschool _did accept' the distinction between been increasingly lay image. of the Catholic valuesin, educationCatholityoungsters that have andreligions accommodated in separate schools hasschool may greatly broaden its appeal for ( approving bus transportationin1947, of varied little in this Century until very recentwhatever constitutionally valid forms te)abooks in 1968. and taxexemptions in public assistance may be forthcoming in 1971 years. About one-half 'ofthe elementary- 1970) ,decisions by the Court in the years ahead. struck down all forms.of di reCt- aid.In Juneschool-age group and about one-third of agegrouphave of 1973 the Court extended thispririiciple thesecondary-school findingsandthecontinUing always attended Catholic schools, which Such to rover not only directaid but indirect aid research 4aehind them inspirein many means conversely that themajority of as well. ncludingproposals to .give tax observers the convictionthat although credits and tuition vouchers tofamiliesAmerican Catholic youngsters have alwaysCatholic schoolyn ay, not again enrollthe with children in nonpublicschools. The been in the public schools. numberl of students of former years,they ahead? _Research has stiffer posture of the Court hasof course But whatlies will continue to be an importantelement become an important new ingredientin seriouslyaffectedCatholicefforts .to in American education. Theirrole is very maintain a separate school system. ,Catholic planning for the future. Sparked in studylikely to bedifferent from what it was The final factor eirplaining thechangingby a Carnegie-Notre Dame national the past -trin response to thechanging completed in 1966, some 57 dioceses and ,position .and roleof the Nation'sCatholic 'needs and priorities of the Catholicchurch dozens of religious teaching orders have schools' also arises from the impactof and of the student clientele to beserved undertaken in-depth examinations of their Vatican Il and is evidenced in a new setof but it need mot for that reasonbecome a own educational situations.Out -of these attitudes on the part of manyCatholics. lesssignificantrole.Considerable 'Those attitudes extend beyond the role of arious research enterprises have come necessary, begin toreadjustment will of cqurse be inthey Catholic several important findings that ' theparochialschool Catholicand costs will remain a problem. scheme of things io new perceptionsof the sketchout the future of the The same can be said of theother. would appear to be of pivotal function of the parish itself. This is not to schools. nonpublic schools, for they too have been say that all AmericanCatholics approve of significa ": subject to the financial and moral stresses The schools which have withstood or have themselvesadopted -these newer .1. that have beset theirparochial is nodisagreement, the winnowing proce*s of the past ten years by Notsg outlooks.There hadcounterparts. A recent sampling .however, that for good or ill, thefuture ofhave generally been the schools that Dame researchers indicates, that ofthe initiated needed the contemporary Catholic schoolis beingon their own account schools operated 14 other religious groups, reforms. They have larger andbetter"approximately two-Airds of the sects, influenced by them. ratio Time itself is an important elementin qualified staffs:. Their teacher-pupil accounting for abOut 85 percent of the orisapproachingthe the unfolding picture, Theroughly one- ha F. achieved non-Catholic, school enrollment, are also Nation which in accepted professional optimumonthe quarter of the Ainerican todaydependent upon the servicesof., 'low- varying degrees describes itself asCatholic elementary level in Catholic schools secondarysalaried' teacher personnel."the story is is markedly different from theimmigrant the ratio is one to 28; on the by level, one to 19. These advances plus newthus the samerising salaries.followed generations of a century ago.Similarly, rising tuition costs leading to aniinevitable instructionalmethods and imaginative chiefF; as a result of the reformenergies decline in enrollment. Similarly pressed, of VaticanII, reorganization suggestthepatternby released by the spirit thethoughforother reasons, arethe relationships within the church itselfhaVe which the parochial schools can attract necessary measure oflocal communitynonpublic schools without religious undergonefar-reachingchanges.The affiliation. Many have sought to remain support. tiihtinstitutional discipline so long a coeducational, expanding 2.The contemporary Catholicschool solvent by going characteristicof the Roman Catholic their enrollments, or raising their fees,and for has largely shed its narrowconfessional Church no longer predominates, and ,some have done allthree. increasing numbers of Catholics is now image as it-has moved more and moreinto the mainstream of Americaneducation. Clearly the nonpublic schools, religious practically a relic of the past.Similarly, and secular alike, face a vexingsituation. frequentingThere is new emphasis on civic concern, attendance at Sunday mass, for theThough the cost squeeze is most visiblein the Sacraments, and support ofthe Parish especially in taking responsibility children, the case of the Catholic schools,since they school no longer- are consideredessential schoolingofrninority-group of including a heavy proportion of youngsters form such a predominant proportion for °deciding who isor who isnot a the whole, it touches in onedegree or from non-Catholic families. is , thus 'Catholic. Increasing') numbers of , Catholicanother on all. The dilemma Be thatasitmay,however,most 3. national and pervasive, and it prises abasic whether "liberal' Or leaders are taking the position that -there the Catholics discharging pastoral-questionthe question of what value toregardtheir are other ways of -he 1 "traditional" continue schoolAmericancitizenrywillplace on schdols as singular and unique.National responsibility outside the parochial Whilesuchleadersdo snotdiversity of educational opportunity that scale research at the Universityof Notre setting. the 'aatholic and other nonpublicschools thatCatholics necessarily challenge the view that the Dame hasestablished thehave traditionally provided. Thus as the Catholic schoolsas conventional parochial school remains 'Lgerierallyperceive they:Nation prepares to enter its third century, being superior to public schoolsin terms of ideal way of forming Catholicyouth, deal with do insist that the parochialschool mustit is once again called upon to religiousinstruction and personal and andconstitutional first of all be a quality operationwhich willfundamentalsocial social:developrnent, even though they may issues that willaffect the education ol superior attract students qn its ownmerits and not often see public schools as being are future generations of American efficiency, have pupils coming becausethey inacademicofferings, schoolehildren. practicality, and convenience. ordered to by canon law. 6 8 k I eclared U.S. ings that were becoming too decrepit to nonpublic schools as they did Supreme Court use. Of the $31.2 billion in capital outlay so. As early Justke Hugo as 1961 Senator Wayne Morse of Oregon, for public elementary and secondary chairman of the Senate's Black : "It is much education during the 1954-64 decade. Subcommittee on too late to argue Education, had asked thc Department $20.4 billion was attributableto increased of that legislation enrollment. Health, Education, and Welfare t6 prepare legal briefs discussing the various intended to The nonpublic schools and facilitate-the particu- ,issues involved, includingone on "The larly those operated by the Catholic Impact of the First Amendment opportunity of church were if anything in to the . children to get a secular education serves even worse Constitution Upon Federal Aid straits. They too were subjected to no publie purpose." to greatly Education." Both theproponents and the increased operating and administrative opponents of such aid took comfort in The year was 1947, thecase that of . an costs, but perhaps the greatest jumpcame early statement in the HEW Everson v Board of Education,in which a in costs of instruction response taxpayer brotq !'ir suit against as more "lay" teach- which noted that "it is easier a New Jersey ers replaced the unsalaried teachers tradi- to determine school district challengingthe what the First Amendmentforbids than tionally supplied by the religious orders. what it allows." The constitutionality of a State lawthat Within the church, questions proponents permitted tax-supported were raised interpreted this language transportation as to whether parish schools could survive as suggesting the for children attending parochialschools possibility of bold new legislation;whereas similar to that afforded their without some form of Governmentas- the opponents saw itas reaffirming public school sistance. In the absence of such aid, counterparts. In delivering the Court's the 'constitutional limitations. leaders of several religious denominatiOns A second major statement in opinion, Justice Black Specificallynoted argued, the public schools the brief thae"the State contributes m ightfirid their said this: "The First Amendmentdoes not no money" to already severe enrollment Crunch the schools involvedtheconstitutional lifted to require Governmentto be hostile to calamitous proportions if theywere re- religion, nor does Itpermit governmental provisions of separation of churchand quired to take over the education State were not at issue. Itwas rather a of some discrimination against religious activities. six million youngsters attendingchurch- question of whether the Statecould legally The objective is neutrality, howeverdiffi- "help parents get their children, supported nonpublic schools. cult it may be to be neutralor to determine regardless There was another elually crucial of their religion, safely andexpeditiously what neutrality requires in relationto to and from accredited schools." In issue breeding ferment in the particular factual situations." Neither education world the growing side deciding in the affirmative,the Court was encouraged by these passages, since established a significant guidepost criticism that the schooling oftoo many neither felt neutral about thematter. for the yMingsters, especially those from .drafting almost two decades,later of And then came astatement that harks crucial provisions of the economically depressed backgrounds,was back to Everson v Board of most far-reaching defective in quantity a-v! Education and Federal Lducation legislation Some:, 'paved the way to an accommodationof the ever ehacted. eigh: million adultswere rvealed to have Move forward now to the 1960s andthe opposing sides. "Legislationwhich renders repercussions of the postwar "baby completed less than fivel!it...trs in the support to church schools," it read, "is boom." classroom, and lack of In tht fail of 1964 enrollments proper training+ unconstitutional in somecircumstances, in public appeared to be the chiefreason for the 20 elementary and secondary schoolsreached But laws designedto further the education 41 4 million and those in percent unemployment of those between and welfare of youthmay not be nonpublic the ages of 18 and 20. A studyof the 3.7 schools climbed tomore than six Million. unconstitutional if they afford onlyinci- million students in the 15 largest school dental benefits to churchschools." ,The combined total representedan in- systems in the Nation showed that creaSe ufno less than 14.2million students one- Though the issue of aidto nonpublic in just ten yeats. third were lagging sofar behindthat they school children was just a jurfiv -.hat inevitably needed special help. one of many con- brought on many complications. As officials of the cerns in the proposed Federal legislationto The nonpublic schools pointedout , public schools found themselves confrontedby reinvigorate elementary and secondary education had no monopolyon this education, none was more enomiously inCreased costs: foradditional problem. The greatest concentrations thoroughly de- staff, for administration, andto keep the of bated. In time the discussioncame to parochial school attendance alsocame concentrate on the idea advanced in that plant operating $18.9 billionin 1964-65 from the large cities; these students . as contrasted with $8.9 billiona decade also portion of the brief which spokeof "laws needed special( and more expensive) designed to further the education earlier. in addition therewas the expense help. and of constructing some694,000new Class- welfare of youth." Given thepressures of c. -S-Jch were some of the forces that increasing enrollments, mounting rooms, on top of which projections indi- led the Congress and the Administration school ' cated that 344,000more *Mild be needed to seek .Ways of costs, tht significant portion of the load strengthening carried by the private schools, and within the next fiveyears to accommodate elementary the andsecondary necessity of improving the education additional students andto replace build- education and to consider the of state of the disadvantaged children wherever they

. 6 9 '

'

.r.

I

are.e.

...- welfare of the Natio ) rather than the children eligible for this assistance have re- might be this is the concepfthat ceived it, Sometimesbecause ofconflicting Elementary school he or she atte ded. .L.. mately was embodied in the hus under çhe direction of the: State lawz, perhaps someiimesbecause of and Secotary Education Actof 190, '-'5-' . public sch pensatory .; misunderstanding or neglect. Moreover, moit nota ly in Titles I and IIbut inother 1.. Education education was made 2.,,'.4-7'i.,,,:iiie to . the Elementary and Secondary titles as vl:ell. Act has by no means quelled the contro- . disadvantaged child,Orn in nonpublic As with Everson, these provisionsdid not versy over the issue ofexpending public door of direct aid to schools under Title 1, and school suggest opening the library resources. texthoks, and . funds for the support of private and, more church-related schools. Rather the act particularly, church-sponsored schools. It-- dayrto- other instructional mati,skials by means concentrated on providing with II, along does not in fact address that issue.What it day application of the law placed intSe of a lending provision uf(Title .with additional . benefits Madeelsewhere.,has done, through the "child-benefit hands of the States and local publicschool theory." is to provide a practical arrange- agencies aid particularly aimed at in the act., I . nonpublic Over the years since the Elementary and ment by which the publk and helping disadvantaged children but also schools can work together in serving the Secondary Education Act \1 .gan opera - seeking to provide greater educational tions in 1966 hundreds of t ousandsof overall national interest. opportunities to youngsters generally. ; of the kind of school sysieni in- nonpublic 'ichool youngstere.have bene- , irrespective fited frcril lederallY supportedprograms ,volved. The principle was the "child. WILMA A. BAILEY benefit theory," by vhich the targetwai are i;.,.-iri.i.res previously.not offered to rfi.,,,,T.,,..... f.ven so, not all the nonpublie school OE's Office of Public Affairs Staff the child ( ans.: imp/ication the overall i 7 0 the "Mdting a

Imost from the 'beginning the shiploads of people coming to the New World had included a number of men and women who, in contrast to the colonists, had decided to sever their allegianceto their natisie lands and takeon a new nationality. And almost from thebeginning also, the welcome afforded those whowere of other than British stockwas often a good deal less than hearty. Evenso stalwart a libertarian as BenjaminFranklin was not above grumbling aboutwhat he regarded as the excessive number of expatriate Germans who were makingtheir way to Pennsylvania, complainingamong other things that theirstrange tongue boded ill for the future of the Englishlanguage in America. During the years immediatelyfollowing the Revolution thestream of these kinds of immigrants coming to the UnitedStates from Europe exceeded 5.000annually, but the flow did not beginto pick up real force until about 1850. Then,after a pause im- posed by the Civil War, itgathered in- creasing momentum. crestingin the de- cades just after the turn of thecentury. In 1900, of the Nation's totalpopulation of 76 million, more than a thirdwere of foreign birth or parentage, andeven so the peak was not at hand. That came in 1907, when ONO. the number of European-bornimmigrants - ".1111/ t I lir arriving in the United States duringthat year alone reached nearly 1.3 million,and 4747 for the overall period between1900 and 1920, the figure exceeded 14.5million. 4 : Before World War I and subsequentre- 4. strictive laws curtailed the flow,the mil- v lions of men andwomen flocking to Amer- 410:;4o ica from Europe representedwhat has. been described as thegreatest mass move- 4 ment of people the world has ever'known. They also representedan enormous challenge, for -as their number 4 swelled, so did the problem of assimilatingthem. The search for a solution centered 4 chiefly a- round the concept of the "meltingpot." ,411 Essentially the idea was that thesemillions As has so often been the of disparate individuals, case when the the neivcomers was their in'abilityto speak with their dispar- Nation has been confronted bya situation ate tongues and folkways, would insome English - an inability shared, accordingto fashion no one knows quite how to tackle, the job a Government survey made in 1909 of principally. presumably, by of tending the cruciblew-ts chiefly turned sheer exposure to the New Worldenviron- schools in the largest cities, bymore than over to education. In a way that seemedtohalf the students in any given ment - become "Americanized." make sense, for the most obvious classroom. defect ofBut there were numerous othercomplica- 7 1 1--yr ,;fr kalif Ar '1 .44 `.1 t/s ' _11

I.

a a IP

\

a

hos- tions as'well among them a growing , 1 1 tility toward these strangers with their for- :r.31 eig-n ways and empty pocketbooks The A_ 1 , immigrants characteristically were sodes- r"L perately poor and lived in such primitive '; ). conditions that they were condemned as a blight on society Moreoverparticularly starting in the 1880s, whenthe chief areas of emigration began to shift fromnorthern and western Europe to southern and east- ernsizable numbers of those in the lines at Ellis Island wereCatholics and Jews and thus were automatically seen by some American traditionalists as debased and probably subversive Adding to these barriers to assimilation was the fact that the UnitedStates had changed from a rural societl, to an indus- trial one; the frontiers and farmlands largely opened up by Scotch, English, Ger- man. and Scandinavianimmigrants were no longer available. Sothe "new" newcom- ers the Italians and Poles and Czechs and Portuguese and Russians. and throughout both periods the Irishsought jobs in mining or factory towns, or more com- monly. they jammed into the cities, form-. ing ethnic enclaves in slums where. ac, cording to a study made of a section of 'New York City in 1894, the density of pop- ulation reached the incredible level of 986 persons per acre. In short though there was cause for concern nver the inability of so manyof these people to speak English. and over the high incidence of illiteracy among them. the overall problem obviouslywent,far beyond a lack of learning. Nonetheless.the 7 2 Nation's love affair with educationbeing well under way, the schoolswere assigned A the leadership role in the"Americaniza- tion" drive. he campaign got off toa faltering start, for the majority of individuals thatwere supposed to be transformed were not of schoolage. 44-5, They were adults, either holding .0 down jobs Ne or looking for them, unable to attend is .4.1 orr school during the day and inany case shy' . \ of being in classrooms with children. Others were in locations beyond therange of schools, working as laborers inmining and logging camps andon railroad construction gangs. As for those in the cities, the greatest influx of immigrants

always occurred during thesummer . months, when the schoolswere closed. Out of these situationscame a number =144 of interesting innovations,some of which 1 left a peimanent imprint on the conduct of , education. Classes jointly sponsoredby lo- cal school systems and variousindividual companies were set up in factoriesand mills. There were "camp"schools, by which instruction was takento men work- ing in places .not accessibleto regular 4...-Zaqr schools. Many schoolsystems inaugurated summer sessions, and perhaps most inter- esting of all was the establishmentof night schools, then virtually unknownexcept in Massachusetts. That State,curiously enough, had in 1870 adopteda law requiring towns withmore than 10,000 inhabitants to offer eveningclasses in mechanical drawing( insupport of its emerging woolen, cotton, and shoe compulsory school attendance manufacturing industries) and child law was soon overturned . This law was labor laws, the localizedventures in educa- in 1925by the subsequently broadenedto encompass United States Supreme Court. tion began to fade away, withvirtually other subjectsparticularly,as the eVery youngster being enrolled With the passage of time andwith the number Of immigrants began either in to reach public schools or incounterpart-systems reduction of immigration fromits previous tidal proportions. Englishand grammar. massive scale the operated under Catholic,Protestant, or consequence of Federal Other States soon followed suit,some by Jewish auspices. legislation adopted beginning inthe revising provisions of theirconstitutions o far as the schools were 1920s the cry for "Americanization"be- which by failing to foresee the possibility of concerned, at least, the gan to soften. So did enthusiasm for the evening classes in effect prohibited idea of the "melting pot ," which in them. assimilation processwas going prac- Thus did the night schoolultimately forward in reasonably good tice proved more attractiveas a figure of become a standard feature of shape. speech than as a practical way,of dealing American Hostility and controversynevertheless education. persisted, and education with people. Meanwhile outside the established became caught The feeling began to edu- up inhe furor. Many nativistcitizens, grow that perhanS cational systems a variety of "Americaniza- some elements of the press, and-such it wasn't reallynecessary for everyone to be tion" schools were started by religious, melted down and cast in the grOups as the American (Know Nothing) same mold. philanthropic, patriotic, fraternal, politi- Party and the Ku Klux Klan Saw The United Stateswas increasingly seen as cal, and other private groups. people of Some of foreign birth or parentageas inherently a new kind of Nation in which cohesion these ventures were at best dubious among the citizenry was based those posing a threat to Americantraditions and not on his- operated by political factions, forexam- standards especially when torical geographical boundariesor a pie, not really for educational instead of purposes but enrolling their children inthe public common race and religion, buton devo- to sew up captive votes. Most nevertheless schools they them to schools or. ated tion to common purposes andideals. In served a valuable and often heart-rending such a Nation it was possible by the Catholic.hurch. where theygrew for people to purpose, especially those in the slums that be diverse and still unified, up, as one criiic put it. "thoroughlyforeign the objective brought at least a brush with schoolingto - and under.priestly control." being not just assimilationbut accom- In rescionse modation the hordes of street urchins whoswarmed there was a widespreadmovement to enact perhaps the word is through the city, hawking tolerance newspapers or State laws requiring all childrento attend as well. itealing or begging, war orphans ofa bitter publiC schools. In one State.Oregon, the EV. GOODMAN )attle for survival. With the adoptionof effort ultimately was successful,though the Edltor, American Education 73 ON

BY JOHNI GOODLAD

t often is said about Tne whole of it often is described as "thethe man he is capable of becoming aild to education, as about greatAmericanexperimentin masscherishthe development of the3c:the many other things. education." Only a. few rathervisiblepotentiality in others." that nothing threads of change are discussed here. be- Early goals for education were spare and changes b'Ut the ap- ginning with goals and concluding with thestark in comparison with such a, sweeping, pear ance o fmarch toward equality of opportunity andalmost ethereal statement. Going back to change.Itmight a learning society. 1 he central focus is on.Colonial days in Massachusetts we find also be said, how-schools,since we have attached so much im-little concern for individuality and much ever. that one's view portance to them, but there is some atten-for responsibility in the admonition to of change depends to a considerable de- tion to education conceived more broadly.town leaders that they take account of gree on the perspective of time. Looking in Today, two central thrusts characterizechildren's "ability to read and understand the 1970s for widespread, authentic imple- moit widely accepted statements of goals.'the principles of religion and the capital rnentation of the innovative ideas con- for education in this country:the fulllaws of the country." Although there was, tained in ihe cant and rhetoric of reform in development of theindividual anda century later, some expression of concern the 1960s suggests little movement. Only a identification with an everwidenin.A con-forpracticalpreparationforjobsin small part of each successive wave of cept of sociat and cultural tesponsaiiliy. aviculture, navigation, shipbuilding, recommended change rubs off onto prac- statement emanating fromrthe 1970WiOcesurveying, and trading, the commitment tice. Perhaps this is not all bad, since it House Conference:. ,on Children 'art;d:atto moral instruction and love of country protects us from the excesses of those whb Within a frameWork of "the right to learn"remained central. With the passage of make reputations by being more daring juxtaposes these two thrusts in seeking toanother hundred years (bringing us well thantheircontemporaries.But some answer the question. What would we havepatIndependenceand intothe middle of features which cause schobls to seem in- 2Ist century man be? the 19th century), the emphasis still was evitably 2nd forever the same hang on "We would have 'him be a man with aon responsibility-a degree of education stubbornly- telling and questioning as the strong sense of himself and his ownthat would enable one to performall main form of teaching. daily instruction humanness, with awareness of his thoughtssocial, domestic, civic; and moral duties. chopped into arbitrary slices of time,long and feeling", with the catxzcity to feel and Paralleling humanistic stirrings in spells ofstudent immobility,textbooks and, express love and joy and' torecognize Europe. there were, of course, expressions copy books, to name orthr a few. None- tragedy and feel grief. We .would have himof concern over this pervading .sense of theless. in the sweep of 200 years since be a man who; with a strong and realistic,.education only for responsibility. and they Independence. much of the tone and sense of hi: own worth,,,is able to relate resultedina few innovative deviations reality of American education is conveyed openly with others, to cooperate effectivelyduring the second half of the 19th century. accurately by the"Word "change"in aims, with them toward common ends, and toBut it is this continued domination of the in substance, in access to schooling, and in view mankind as one while respectingmoral and nationalistic over a period of where and how education occurs. diversity and 'difference. We would want250 years that Makes John. Dewey's em . The saga is a captivating one. partial.. him to be a being who, epen while iieryphasis onthe meaning of individual lady the last 150 years of it, during which young; somehow senses that he hasit human exPerience so dramatic. Historian schooling has advanced from the privilege within himself to become more than heLawrence Cremin interpryts Dewey's of a few to a widely accepted right of all. how is, that he has the capacity for hfelongdefinition . of education-the recon- Dr. Goodlad is Dean of the Graduate School of spiyitualandintellect:un--growth.We struction or reorganization of experience, Education, University of California. Los Angeles. would want him to cherish that vision ofas "a way of saying that the aim of educa- 74 . s, .?

*it -

A ';'At-%".,,,,Vt., . ;4,-44414; '''"* ,

.:-7...:..-,;piA;r:Z;:j01,00.' tz,-4;i : ."Airtros4,' P.-4;`.:44',4,7... :-V .44

business of getting to and from school has clearly changed, and not just in form. In the1830s boys and girls in New Kirk made do i shanks' mare. Around.the turn of thecentury they couldwet a one-horsepower lift. In the oduced to a newfangled vehicle called early 1930s students in Baltimorewere a bus. Busing is no novelty fodayand no strangerto controversy. 7t) tion; is not merely to make citizens, or"tender" in 'educationthat having to i-nists," A sense of sin arises out of our wq1-ICers, or Fathers, or mothers. .but ulti--with great respect for the personality ofself.recognized inability to live up to the .' mately tO make human beings.who will live individualchildrenwasout ;thepreceptt of our idealism. Cultural Unity, life to the fullest." "tough" "great respect for the facts andsays Myrdal inAn American Dilemma, T,here was no immediate "and generalstructures ,of disciplined knowledgewasarises out Of "this common sharing in both accepjance of that concept. In fact, thisin the ascendency. A dozen years later,the consciousness of sins and the devotion and related ideas of Dewey were attacked however, John Dewey was being redis.to high ideals." for decades afterward and remain contro- covered in "open education," admittedly Perhaps itis the tension thuscreated versial today. Nonetheless. since publica- sometimes in waysto make puriststhat provides the drive for our educational tion of his pivotalDemocracy and Educa-shudder. Today, with the struggle andpreoccupation with curricular reform. We tionin 1916. not a single. major statement sacrifices of 1776 very much before us,probably have more curriculum specialists of goalsforAmerican educationhas what . we can do for our country over-and more curriculum activity than all of omitted referencetoindividualpre- shadows what our country can do for us..the other nations of the world putto- rogatives:worthyuseofleisure,for and "under God" is heard more often thangether. We even have or think we have-- example, ( Commission on the in quite some time. "A degree of educationcurriculum theory, an anathema to many Reorganization of Secondary Education.to enable onetoperformallsocial. in older, less selc-conscious countries where 1918) ;self-realization( Educational domestic, civic, and moral duties" soundscurriculum cc -uction is seen as a kind of Policies Commission. 1938) ; knowledge-of not at all anachronous to many and "righttrial-and-error process of human engineer- self( Commission ontheReformofon" to more than a few. Continuing trendsing wherein some options are chosen over Secondary Education. 1973). indicate, though. that "learning to be"others. Terms in the vocabulary of cur- The drive for redefinition of goals is not could very well become the sub-title for anriculumworkers such as "scope," over; it never will be. Indeed, the cycles of analysk of 20th century aims of American"sequence," "continuity." and, above all, emphasis and excess seem to come and go'education prepared by historians in' the"behavioral objectives" were initially more quickly. Just25 years ago both 21st. American creations and exports and not Progressive Education and the association Gunnar Myrdal has pointed .out thatalways well received abroad.. -carrying its name, were in disarray. The Americans"areatbottommoral But this has been the case only recently.

';04. Courses on curriculum construction have .been coMmon in our universities for onlya few decades, books on the subject for only a few more. Perhaps, then, exponents of "sound principles of curriculum planning- should not be ioo upset when publishers: and teachers pay little attentionto them Until recently, publishers of educational materials concerned themselvesalmost exclusivelywithtextbooksandwith whether the content was acceptable and reasonably -within pupil understanding. Ramificationspertainingtochildren's interests,appropriate recognition ofsexes and races, objectives to be achieved, read- ability. and the like followedsome years- ,and usually decadesafter the appearance ofgoalsstressingtheindividualin education and self-realization. And the additionofsocialand psychological considerations tosubject mattervastly complicated the curriculum-building proceSs. Knowledge of goals is about allone needs in order to guess the content of early school-programs in this country.. In the second half of the 17th century; the school day was occupied with reading, spelling, and- instructionin theBible.The hornbook, a board witha handle, was inscribed with the alphabet and theLord's Prayer. The first New England Primer ( 1690) contained epigrams, prayers, questions and answers about the Bible and spelling lessons. Tid-bitsarefrequently reproduc and include the well-known: In Adam's Fall We Sinned all

An Eagle's flight Is out of sight

The idle Fool Is whipt at School Equally well-known is the "Praipesto GOD for learning to Read": Taft,

711- Praises of my Tongue offer to tht;, Lord I hat I wp taught and learnt so young To read His holy Word: That I was brought to know The Danger I was in, By Nature and by Practice too A Wretched slave to Sin: That I was led to see I can do nothing well; Anti whither shall a Sinner flee To save himself from Hell. Zeading this today, howcan one feel corn- 'ortable.with the proposition thatschools io not change! By thetime of Independence,the urriculum was morecrowded and planning was becoming somplex.Pro- isionsforvocationalskills and more omplicated arithmetic teaching hadto be tted in. And with separationand initial nification effected, thecontent of citizen- 77 qf

pit ',' !ii,,,,, .. i.:iti

I 0 ,.i,4 ..%."...... ' I'il't l''N.IIip.,.:1,t4.411'', t-ti

le.). 44 -4 :

JOHN DEWEY (1859-1952 ) ti ship education and the teaching of na tional loyalty changed dramatically. The schools were having to change with the times, justas they have been exhorted and constrained to respondever since. Withindustrialization,urbanization, andrapid expansionin population during the second half of the 19th century, the schools shook themselves out of 17th- and 18th-century molds and created new struc- tures which held with surprising firmness until past the middle of the 20th.Itis reasonable to suggest that it is those highly visiblecharacteristicsofegg-crate buildings, graded classes, Isompartmen talizedsubjects,andrigidtimeunits brought into being in the 1860s and 1870s

WY, that have provoked the image of tortoise like change in schools. But these things, too,,shall passand are, indeed, passing, like the Dame School, the circuit school, and the Lancaster Plan before, them. - But within these familiar rubrics, cur. riculum change ( much but not all in the form of accretions to what already existed) went on apace. Vocational training in both ''TY skills an&attitudes was needed for work in the factories: physical and health educa- tion made their common appearance early in the 1900s. The elementary school cur- riculum of the 1920s and. 1930s included arithmetic, spelling, reading, hand- writing, grammar, composition., nature 4 study,geography,,history,singing, drawing, painting, ind perhaps some shop and cooking for the upper years. Secon- dary schools commonly included algebra, geometry, some arithmetic: English com- position, grammar, and literature: Latin, French, and sometimes a little German: civics,history,geography:health and physical education:physics,chemistry, and biology: and a clutch of electives in thearts,technical subjects, and home 7'8

\ . then only a seminar in your specialty" was ecorinnics, depending on local resources.Education Association or the professors salary 'Methods of teaching reading becameof education, who together made up "the as significant as the unprecedented . going with a much-publicized appoint- ( and' .cnntinued to be) acontroversialeducationestablishment").There was matter 4ith the introduction ofNole.considerable confidence,alsothatthis ment at a prestigious university. andschool . centered di agnosis7-was-the- correct Particularly fascinating is the side-by- wor'dt'ecognitionapproaches and "conttolle'd vocabularies" in the late 1920s.one, that more generalwell.being wouldside emergence of the "hard"/"tough" come with educational well-being. "soft"/"tender" ideologies which, for at Progressive educationis blamed or Inde. credfied. depending on one7s point of view, The immediate aftermath of Sputnik is least half of the two centuries since with a rash\ of experiments with fused,fascinating and deserves an analysis within pendence, seem so often to have occupied the historical cOntext of out:Nation beyond the same place and time and to relate to integil-fed--- core curriculums; society. snakes. lifewhat it has as yet received. We already had each other like gophers and gopher or communityoriented approaches; Usually, however, in the past and espe- adjustment education; and child.centeredinordinate expectations for ourscilools, for the1930smore than one hundred years linking them ciallyai this centuryone has tended to educationall\ blossoming in survive at the expense of the other, per- and fading in \ the Wartorn years of thevirtually in a eause-and-effect relationship inthetemporary 1940s. By the I9\50s, there were many whowith individual well-being and national ceivedexcesses heli6ed the time was come to have _donewelfare-- regarding them, as Robert M. dominance of tender education triggering the ascendance and accompanying per- with our progressIve folli-6-ind, in the lightHutchins observed, as "the foundation of ceived excesses in its tough counterpart. of thC. United Sta\tes' new-found status. inour freedom, the guaranteeof our future, the world, to tighten and prune. to cut thethe cause.of our prosperity and power, the But the resurgence of the tough-minded bastion of our security, the, bright and had scarcely begun in The Education fat out of curriculai accumulations, and to in .replace outworn Content withthefast-shining beacon that was the source of our Decade before the neo-humanists were cry, condemning lock-step,irrele- enlightenment. ..," How we sought tofull ripening,frui ts of a knowledge explosion. It inhumaneness in schools as and: Indeed, the social andpolish up the beacon and step up the vance, and was time for counterpartshad responsibility Ofacademicianstocandlepower after Sputnik! theirtender.minded civic done before them. Their historic foes were bestir themselves from, their-more scholarly veritable host ofnot intimidated. Today, the proponentsof activities in order to\ jack up the ailing drastic curriculums of America's schools. many long-Standingfree schools ( tender) and other de,:iations from "the system" stand cheek- -Emphasis onstructureofthedis. traits,movements, . supposedly \bothdisciplining tenets,andide.by-jowl with those who would tighten up ciplines, precise the Mind simultaneously, ologies of Americanthe sloth in schools through more andfreeing objectives tholfgh highly visible wa\ not the only em- education came delineationofinstructional phasis in the ensuing reform movement. tumblingtogether( tough). in The Education The Elementary and Secondary Educa- Assumptions-about the nature of learners both loomed large ;psychologicalcOnsidera. Decade.: The inno-tion Act of 1965 (ESEA), which which some observersbrought the pot of reform to a boil.anc1_, . tions had been, part of the fabric of cur.vative character. 'spilled out the brew across this Nation, rjculum and instruction for some time. from abroad have identified as our most Acts of - Even very youngchildren\ were creditednotable contribution to educational ranks with those,great Federal with ability to learn basic i mathematical advancement generally,was 'dominant.Faith which gave us our land-grant univer- We innovated all over the place: with newsities and assured that we wouldnazforget and scientificconcepts,toextrapolate Act) in from data and experiments, and to makeapproaches to curriculum cOntent ;with the vocational arts (Smith-Hughes and sciences. was programed and computerized instruction; our pursuit of the liberal arts intUitiveleaps.The younk child left t he Although the Constitution implicitly , educationally," with modular scheduling, modular build- "disCovered responsibility for educarion to the States, ssignificanceofcognitivedevelopment ings, and acoustically treated walls, ceil- ings, and floor's; with nongrading, teamthe Federal Government has served stra- taking its place beside traditional concerns need ankiphysical and flexiblegrouping;with tegically in diagnoses of nationwide for emotional, social, teaching, From development for nursery school young- films, film strips, multimedia "packages.",and reform transcending the,States. ,the beginning, the United States Officeof sters'at least in the view of a'handful ofand televised instruction. It i's not difficult Education and its Commissioner have been influential leaders. to find the roots of organizational;reforms Although these einphases wer\e brewing in the St. Louis ( 1868) and Pueblo ( 1880) charged with periodic assessments and in the 1950s. they came to a boil in the plans or, in this century, the Winnetka and reports to Congress. philosophical under- The ESEA represents not only a high-- 1960s, spewing out all over the stove in Dalton plans; of faith 1965. Sputjk had touched that nerve of pinnings,qtriluc.h.curricular rhetoric in theperhaps the zenithin our histr effect c flayed our schools as We once teiCiiings of Whitehead 'arid Dewey: andin education and our ability to sin again. constructive change in schools, but also a flayed witdtes. Our schools had ione soft', psychglogicalbases for n w curriculums ,,,, significant- watershed in the post-Sputni . we saidald a few obligingly enterprising and programed instruction in the research 1 frenzy. Ironically,italsci symbolizes ihe television (':cameramen soon "proved" it. of Thorndike and Pressey! hi were rt quite ready to say that we,the We updated ourlong-standing:ambiv-dangers of disillusionment inherent expecting too much of our schools.Presi- Americanipeople, had gone soft, however. alence about teachers and teaching as a right profession by . proposing ) "teacher-proofdent Lyndon El...Johnson was both The ptriod from 1957 to 1967, "The before reveringthe: newlyand wrong 'inhisstatement Educatiqn Decade. began with great con-materials,"while is at emerging professorial jet-set. Members ofCongress to the effect that education fidence that the apparent Ills of our educa. one looks tional enterprise could be cured, especially this new elite were much sought after: asthe heart of all problems, if the. job were turned over to the rightadvisors and, consultants to the Federal deeply enough. Our schools have served uswell, inspite . people1( and, by and large, these were not Government, publishers, school systems, of their shortcomings,in the face of ithe administfators and supervisors in thcspecial projects, and foundations, and as they education as speakers everywhere. Research became so unreasonable expectations. But sthoqidi`stricts,the those especially not the National revered that "no teaching the first year and-simply cannot be expected to correct socialions _ . many acute problems associated with rapidcursed when little seemedto be gOing growth, urbanization, enlightened for their "time, theycan, easily an socializationright. Perhaps this has been thegreatestbe taken apart as, indeed, they-Lave, which are, p%rhaps,more aenable toweakness of these institutions solution that theybeenas discriminatory by contertiporaiy by humanen'gineering:have reflected our societytoo well and," technoltigical displacement of standards: labor-,consequently. not served adequatelyas 0 Providing a free education intensive employment, urbandecay,constructively critical, countervailing up- to a pollution, and the like. That education given level which constituted the principal. agencies. But thistoo, we have expectedentry point to the labor force. would solve them was the expectation.ofof ertern: thatthey be responsive/ butCI Providinga common curriculum for all the 1960s, however at least,so one mightconservative, that they refltzt ongoing life judge from therhetoric of legislators, children, regardless of background. around them. .In so doing,we 'have vir-0 Partly by design and partly because 6f educators, and previously neglectedgroupstually assured a succession o.fr cycles of, in our society calling for recognition low population density,providing that andrelativesatisfaction and diatisfaction,children from diverse backgrounds attend equity. The expectation simply . was noteach in a fascinating way conduciveto the same school. and could not be'met.,It shouldcome as.nosuccessive cycles of .change. great surprise that The Education Decade 0 Providingequalitywithinagiven It probably is healthy, therefore, thatlocality,since local taxes provided the ended on a note of disillusionment: the middle years of the 1970s findus be- It source of support for schools. is overly simplistic to cite2onlyun-tween cycles, with neither the worst fears Withthe realisticexpectationsas addition ofin ividual thecauseofnor the most grandiose proposals of thedevelopment to the stated aims, f considerable,widespreadcriticism ec public ofpast two decades realized. We did not de-education simply to prepare for entry.into schools at the beginning of the 1970s. Thekhool our society. Neither Pygmalion n'or country was weary of war and the the labor force is not sufficient. Likewise,a youngcomputers .took over inthe classroom.cornmon curriculum is regarded today bitter about it; our expandingeconomy as a That new generation abobt,which we werePrbcrustean anachronism. With the U.S. appeared to be checked;an increasing im-so excited goes no more to the polls and no balance of imports over exports Supreme Court having established in the was be2less to prison (or vice versa) than itspre- 1954 Brown decision ginning to challenge the phrase, "as sound,decessors. Our schools are not nearly as the,rightofall is a dollar";our resources children to attend thesame integrated no,, longergood as the predictions of 1966 said theylocal schools, the issue of what constitutes seemed limitless; the alarm ofconserva-would be by now, nor as bad -asmany said tionistsover equality is more complex:Is bus-aided environmentalrapewas they were in1972.It appears that ourintegration ( or its absence) equal clanging more loudly; inflation andre- schools are marked at least as much by oppor- cession were twin devils; daily life was tunity? Is the right to establisha tax- stability as by change. Between cycles,supported bilingual complex; our urban problems seemedas then, we are at one of those stable periods set-1polequality?Is bad as before; ethpic minorities had accesstomariy."schoolsofchoice" come when reflection might provide the neededequality? In regard to equality within a long way but the road to further progressperspective before we move again. What a was not at all clear; women were men's givenlocality.grossdisparitiesin the better time than, on our 200th Anniver-ability of local communities burden of conscience; many things seemed sary? to support, not to go right. We had ysed and abused schools have resulted in'court challengesto schools as the vehicle to improveor chapge the legality of proPerty taxesas the prime all this and they had been found wanting. base for financing schools. helong A Ford Foundation report was interpreted lookat Such issues are likely to be the motiva- to say that the much-touted reforms had lyesterday, today,tion for and at the heart of educational not worked ; and tomorrow sug-change for some; time to come. The issue of campus stress and tumult gests that extending were near-dormant ;shrinking enrollments who shall be eduCated is caughtup in opportunity for expressions suchas"lifelong" and . suggested caution, not boldness; research education has been grants were hard to get; the professorial "recurring '!education.Change willbe oneofthemosttoward extending opportunity downward jet-set had dwindled to a few,now older. significant areas of With some comrrtunities confronting the to younger ages andupward to olderones. unfamiliar, problem of consolidating or chang, and yet itAccess to the learning .cOntinuumat any remains the area of greate t, need and.age will.become much easier; news stories closing elementary schools,therewerechallenge. It has two parts: those prognosticators who 'solemnly access andincreasingly recount the phenomenaof declared teaching to be dead appropriateness. The struggle formore"housewives in their'30s:' takingover com- . as a pro-general access, for fulfillment of the right fession! But it is unlikely that educationor munity colleges,. to learn, has,been carried on under the The issue of 'Providing for individual educators will roll over. rubric of equality of opportunity. It has Among those aspects of life celebrated differences will be expressed insteady taken place previously inthepolitical on the 200th Anniyersary of. the United implementationofmany 4Lp...ovations arena and in the courts. The drive foralready largely accepted in concePt. Wit- States of America, schools loom large.appropriateness has been more While some hear only hollowness in the person-ness this 1966 statement of what isnot yet centered, drawing upOn growing knowl-widespread: ".... continuouspupil , words of tribute; those who knowouredge aboutindividual history best are appropriately stirred and differences andprogress uninhibited by grade barriers; humanistic concern tor the individuil. subjectmatterorgan:Zedseagentially are neither carried away nor turned off by Looking back, with today's conceptions the rhetoric. They know that our schools around fundamental concepts, principles, of what equality and individualityinandgeneralizations; never have lived up to the most eitrava- opportunity - ar,d instructional gant claims nor deserved the most scathing educationalprovisionmaterials gathered together .for the taskat criticisms.. Our institutions of learningmean, it is easy.to fault all levels of khool-hand and the .rxzryingabilities of the ing for lethargy and backwardness. Thuslearners involved with it;ctherion per- have mirrored the strengths and weak-though thefollowing nesses,successes and notions'guidingformance standards inherent in the learn- failures,ofthe provisiortsfor freepublic surrounding society, overly praised when schoolinging task itself, alternative classroomplace- all seemed well- in the land and overlythroughout the second half of the 19thmentsfor.learners.basedonpup:I century andwell ire the 20th werediagnoses and individual expectations.' 8 Wtiat will continue to trouble us is how The immediate road ahead will see us,industry,and public media especially RI provide simultaneously for individualsattempting to restore some of our ola sensetelevision for educational purposes. . "to do ,,their thing- and for all to acquireof community in regard to schooling andCommunity involvementwillbe more the. education' they need for performingeducation: Breaking out of the egg.cratewidespread; more people will be part-time "all .social,domestic,civic, and moralbuilding and the 9 a.m. to 3 p.m. schedule teachers( and,ofcourse,part-time duties.," The sense .of sin perceived byintothelargercommunity andthestudents). But citizen involvement, after a Myrdal and our fear of sloth; if -nothingitinerant daywill become derigueurcyclone of rhetoric and a short whirlwind else, will protect against losing sight of oneamong innovative schools:" There will beof activity: will fall far shcrt of today's or the other of these twin.traditionalnewpartnershipsamongschools,predictions. This is but one of those short goals. museums,publichealthagencies,Fycle ich will move us, nonetheless, one i.ore toward that visionary goal of a ning society. Some good almost always 1,-1, 4 ru ss off from such cycles of enthusiasm and excess. Theie will be changes in the ratio of .Federal.State,andlocalsupportfor educeion, with the proportion paid by the first`cwo increasing and that of the third declining. The courts will continue to play asignificantroleintheadjustments. Accompanyingthesechangeswillbe teniiunregardingauthority.tomake decisions. This tension will carry the con- troversy far beyond the issue of decentra- lization versus centralization into the finer nuances of what is better centralized and what decentralized. The stirring of .this pond will keep it muddyfo a degree,' de- liberately. Some of the fun is taken out, along with challenges to candidates for public office, when lines of authority and responsibility are defined too rationally. Change in our society and, therefore, hi education, has seldom been strongly moti- vated by desire to remove ambiguity, even though we tend tto place rationality high on our scale of values. And so, in education, as in many other -4.34641(3'?V, things', it is the worst of times and the best of times. The schools have not changed, and do not change as quickly as some of us would like. On the other hand, they change much faster than others of us would prefer. They will not 'be nearly as good by 2001 as some futurists say they will be; nor will they be nearly as bad as others predict. We can safely assume that the predictions most designed to catch our attention will be erroneous:,That there will be no schools is a tantalizing thought but no doubt itis wrong. That there is no o future in teaching as a career likewise is wrong. There will be several interesting.cycles of educational change'before 2001; there will be an excess of claims and counterclaims. Careers will be_ made of?both kinds of excess. At close range, nothing will seem to be changing except the appearance of change. The long look will reveal, how- ever, that there haS been considerable health and vitality in a balance of stability and change over the past two centuries and that we nevertheless have many, many miles (sorry, kilometers) to go before, we

/ attain the learning society. In that pursuit. ield trips to museums remain standard, billthe experience is not as formal as in the ,1890s.our visions will change still further,P 8 2 TheV

ustria's Archduke Francis Ferdinand had been assassi- d:gt nated almost three , years'earlier, World wfallkik :r War 1 was at the E height of its fury, and the United States was on the brink of entering the conflict. Soon it was not only to send waves of doughboys to the trenches in France but to become, thanks to a rush toward-industrialization that had seen manufacturing surpass agriculture as the chief source of the Nation's Wealth, a crucial source of materiel in a new, mechanized form of warfare. Against, this background of a convulsive 47, ,271101 struggle abroad and a growing need for skilled weirkers at home, the Congress _

' paied'ancl)President Woodrow Wilson ' signedon February 23, 1917the land- mark Smith-Hughes'Act. Introducedlby Senator Hoke Smith and Representative and social Advances of. unparalleled machine worker was seldom exposed to Dudley M. Hughes,.both of Georgia; the dimensions... more than a fractiortal part of what Isis jot new law broke With a centuries-old tradi- At the time of our Nation's founding Was a/l about. In addition, whereas ithe

tion by which preparation for work was ex- . and for most of the decades since, the apprentice F,ierved a master who had a cluded from the school curriculum. Cul- training of workers predominantly took thetraditional and often legal responsibility minating years of effort on the part of form of apprenticeship. Job skills wcre for his training, behavior and welfare, tk numerous individuals, organizations, and .inculcated by father instructing son and neophyte iactory worker saw his employer

government agencies, it provided Federal mother teaching daughter, or by arrange- as a facekss corpora:ion or a far-removed ' support and leadership for establishing ments under which a beginner worked as a capitalist who didn i so Much as know the vocational education in the Nation's high helperto a journeyman or master crafti- employeeknAme and had no particular schools. co,an. Vocational education as such, how- obligation to him. Not that vocational education, in the ever, was regarded as somehow less worthy Thus a gap developed ,-with training for broad sense of that term, .was neiv. The than other aspects of learning and there- a vocation ceasing to be attached to discipline of learning certain basic skills fore not appropriate as a classroom enter- praduction and 'instead being left up to th 'arose thousands of years before the birth ofprise..In A History of die Problems of individual. The schools were identified a's' ,Christ when such metals as copper and Educatioh, John Brubacher seei this atti- the logical institution to fill that:gap and bronze began to replace stone, bone, and tude as a remnant from Athenian culture." help meet the Nation's e9onornic need horn as materials for axes, hammers, The Greeks excluded vocational training by producing workers able to handle the knives, and other tools and implements. from the school curriculum, hesays, be- increasingly complex industrial machine Ultimately a trained work force emerged'. cause the "industrial arts were too closely arid 'processes. There Were also social pn Thus in Athens beginning about 460 B.C. connected with-the-ancient inStitittion of surei for the schools to take on a job-. a vigorous public works program made slavery" and thus carried "a servile training functionso that they might possible by craftsmen who exchAnged their stigma." In any.case, education and work respond more realistkally, for example, tc skills for wages resulted in such splendid were seen as being in.unrelaied realms-, a the educatioual needs oi the great mass c;f struttures as the Parthenon and the point of view that was.to persist over the young people. In 1910, to take a repre Mausoleum at.Halicarnassus. The centuries. ° tat lye year, only one of every four bor or magnificent cathedrals constructed during Th'at they ultimately began to cOme girts.continued their education .beyond . the Middle Ages spoke.more eloquently together was prirnarily a consequence of elementary school in large pare unany than wOrds of the glory of God, andinci- the InduStrial Revolution. whi,ch caused parents claimed, because the high school dentally of the ayailability of artisans production to be shifted from the home to curriculum was geared to students bound -capable Of building thent. in subsequent. the. f-actory and from handcraft tO power- for college and did little oThothing for Centuries and notably in the United StateS,ndriNen machinery. Whereas early crafts- those who wanted to prepare for the new the,development cif a large corps of well Men learned the entire manufacturing kinds of.jobs that were.opening up. trained, highly skilled workers has been process,-from obtaining the raw material Organized labor charged that the high fundamental tolechnological, economic, to turning.out the finished product, the Sehools served only a small segmenrof -

desire for their GOvernment for the support of their own of such training as they editcatiOnal system,: appropriationsunder society.and wereshort-ch?anging: young," said RepresentativeGeorge 'and daughters ofworking people arguing for a thelaw bear the Condition thatfor each Lan'cl-Gr Huddleston of Alabama in expended, the c,hserNers pointed to the curriculum that includedjob training, dollar of Federal money College Acts Of 1862 and1890, whicii pro- day's wages State or local community orboth shall establish and "but the man who toils for a spendat least an equal amount.(Cur- vided Federal support to must educate hisboy and his girl at the maintain State colleges focused-onagricul- rently'the States and localities are over- public school if they are tobe eAucated at by a ture, the mechanical arts,and the yields that farmers matching the Federal contribution all." Noting the greater And to mestic sciences. Ifthe;Federal Govern- scientific ratio ot,rnore than five to one.) such instructi'on in the might achieve hy applying recent planning and accounta- ent could support advances in agriculture,Representative ensure adequate colleges, they insisted, it coulddo no less at pointed out that bility, each State was called upon tode- Caleb Powers of Kentucky how it in- the secondary level!A fewStates Oahe hilfEefore us to velop a State plan outlining and Ohio "it is the purpose tended to proceed, and tosubmit annual ( Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, help carry, especially tothe children of among them) hadin fact alrea4 greeted knowledge as will makereports of bow theavailable money was by adopting these farmers, suCh being spent and what progress wasbeing the arrival of the 20th century them practical and highlyproductive 4 laws establishing vocationaleducation in required that achieved. champions of farmers." Economic progress Such features of Smith-Hughes asState their high schools. The Americans "born and rearedin this coun- reforin contended that the Federal training, said plans, arrangements for Stateadminis- in too try" reeeive proper job for matching Government would have to chip Representative Jamts R. Marinof Illinois, tration, and the requirement with money and with leadershipif the State and local funds becamemodels for adding, "We cannot rely onimmigrant legisla- movement was to catchhold. Representative subsequent vocational education Nat ionallpride also became aconsidera- labor forever." Declared Federal Homer P. Snyder of NewYork : "Nothing tion:- and the'safeguards apinst tion, with the publicationof the report of a large than control and dependence onthe national Will more benefit the country at, establish a Fed- Commission on National Aid toVoca- direction of the idea ofGovernment did much to by Presidint the stimulation and eral role in the,operationof the Nation'. tional Educatio,, .ppointed the young to broadentheir field of en Wilson in 1914 "in this wholecountry," it mechanical and schools. schools deay.or and to realize that declared, "there are fewer trade business development is arvaluable if not - than are[Oise found in the little German population not more valuablethan the'development kingdom ciff Bavaria, with a merely of their ment;I powersalong pro- 1 much greater than thatof New YorkCity. fessional lines." education laws There are more workersbeing trained at the day, and The Federal 'vocational public exPense in thecity ofMunich alone The proponents carried enacted over the yearssince Smith-Hughes 'thus was adopted "an A :ttoprovtde for broader in their than in all the citiei of theUnited States,. have-become progressively the promotion ofvocational education; to greater representing a population of morethan ,,with the States in, provisions; offering the States provide for cooperation giving them 1'12.000,000." the promotion of suchedocation in administrative flexibility, The proposed new lawnevertheless gen- more options, andenabling them to afford 1 agriculture and the trade:and industries; opportunities to youth erated considerableopposition, pre- cooperation with the States wider educational dictably on t he basis of the costsinvolved to provide for There has anthe in the preparation ofteachers of vocationaland to adults aStell. but more especially as a matterof princi- and same time beenestablished an educational for in Smith- subjects; and to appropriate money responsive ple. Aid such as that called While Stenator mechanisth thancan be quickly Claimed in the Con- regulate its expenditure.0 as witness -- Hughes, it was Smith and CongressmanHughes were in limes of national emergency, essional debate, not onlyposed the the 7.75 million peoplewho were prepared schools but basking in the glow of theirachievement. Federal control of the for industrial jobsduring World War II. lean upon the Mrs. Hughes pointed out toher husband ould "cause the States to about training With enrollments inoccupational the support of that the bill said nothing approaching 15 million National Government for traditionally of interest to womcn. training programs their own educationalsystems" ( as Presi- to "agri- and withannual'expenditures for them of in vetoing a PrOmptly thereafter the reference dent Buchanan had said industries" was nearly almost 85 percent of culture and the trades and and local broadened to include "homeeconomics." that ambunt from State sources vocationaleducation is now, Ancillary to carrying out itsobjectives. of the provisions that recognized as a vital component the Act contained several school curriculum, not onlybuilding a have had a lasting impact onFederal sup- but vocational education but foundation for economic progress redmssor to the Land-GrantCollege Act port not only of broadening the careerhorizons of indi- of education generally.To deal with the of 186P). The bill's proponentsdismissed for example, its vidual citizens throughoutthe Nation. such matters issue of "Federal control," showed the way. hese arguments and dwelt on administration within each State was And ' ,n'th-Hughes as equity, increasedfarm production, Board of RUMPF and indi- placed in the hands of a State Acting Director, strengthening the work force, the States Education. Toward deterring Vocational & Technical Education victual, attainment. from tending to "lean uponthe National OE'r te..ak : "The wealthy classes canalways be sure

84 01 t about 6:30 in the had nevertheless been evening on Friday, coming in. There had been thereport in 1955, for example, Nor as many educators pointedout, October 4, 1957, were the trouble spofs by that the Soviet Union hadtrained some any mean: the news tickers of limited to higher education.Though the the New York- 1,900.000 teachers by thatyear, as con- trasted with the American United States took pride inben:, the based wire services total of leading nation in 1,360,000; and thatmore specifically, the a world community in rlacked out a Russians were preparing which'English was butone among a couple priority bulletin. young people for careers in science at a of dozen major languages,only Spanish Datelined Moscow, rate of some 126,000 annually as compared 'with and French were beingstudied by any it announced that theSoviet Union had our 59000. appreciable segment of successfully launched the first "In America,"reporters were told bya American high man 'made school students. Overall,less than 15 per satellite"Sputnik," short for "Iskust- Russian scientist 'attendingmeetings'being held in Washington cent of the public high schoolpopulation vennyi Sputnik Zemli,"meaning "artificial at the time of the Sputnik launching in was studying a modern foreignlanguage traveler around :he earth." connection with ihe ( not a surprising figure, International Geophysical really, since fewer Almost as astonishingas the fact that Year, "you have than half of tbe Nation's Russians had gotten Sputnik trouble recruitingyoung men to study secondaryschools into orbit at science. In the Soviet Union offered such courses)and the sameper- all, the reports noted,was its weight : more we have centage held true for the three than 150 pounds heavier trouble turning them down.With us, million than Vanguard, science is a matter of pride, students attending college.And Russian the most frequentlymentioned American and everybody was particulariy neglected. entry in what t' e newspap.is wants to be a scientist." AddedDr, Witness a New dubbed the Vannevar Bush, then chairman York Times editorialarising from the fact race for space. of the that shortly before :he corporation of the Massachusetts launching of - lnitially:at least, theAmerican public Institute Sputnik the U.S. Office of didn't seem quite of Technology. "Ifthere's a youngster with Education had sure what to make of the talent for science, they received copies of themathematics and announcement. A Boston correspondent make sure he.gets science books used in for one of the national all the_education hecan take. We still/have Soviet elementary news magazines bright boys who can't afford and secondary schools.Even ten months reported encountering"massive indif. to go to later. the Times pointed ference." In Denver the college. There'oughtto be some kind of out, the Office word was that program for making sure had still been unable"to find persons with "there's a vague feelingthat we have our boys get all dual competence in Russian stepped into a ne the education theycan take." to make era, but people aren't comparisons from partialtranslations with discussing it theway they are football and American school texts." The the Asiatic fiu." The Milviaukee hile Di. Bush's remarks would re situation did news quire some de.sexing not seem destined to improve.Scanty papers proclaimed that 'nistoryhad been to make them though high school foreign made, but they digestible today. his viewsstruck a respon- lmguage were referring to the sive chord. Others courses were, the supply of teachers Braves' firstappearance in a World Series' quickly echoed them.In prepared to conduct them as representatives of America's 1955, it was pointedout, one-third of all was nevertheless beer center. high school students 25 percent below thedemand, and mean- As additional informationbecame qualified for college while the number of available over the next had failed to continuetheir education college students train- several days the pecause of lack of funds, ing to teach foreignlanguages was steadily mood began to change.It developed that and more dropping. /"'particularly, highereducation had for that the three-stageRussianrocket that had ,trid there were other pushed Sputnik aioft reason been denied to half ofthose shortages as well. was nearly 20 times With only 26,000 full- more powerful than that planned scholastically rankedamong the top 30 and part-time (Of Van. percent. And as the Sputnik-stimulated guidance counselors available guard, and that Sputnik'spolar orbit throughout against the earth's rotation conversation broadened,this skimming-off the Nation's entireelementary and second- was deemed process was revealed to be only ary scher4system, experts sai1 far more difficultto achieve than the east- one among an addi- a broad range of problems. tional 15, )00 were neededin the high west orbit contemplated forthe American launching: The Surveys showed, for example,that the schools alone to achieveanything letter-to-the-editor approaching adequacy. columns were quicklyawash with charges collegeand universitieswere having grave According to difficulties in filling faculty HEW Secretary Marion that the neWspaperswere being duped, vacancies. B. Folsom, the that it was all in elaborate Moreover, the proportion oftop-quality Nation needed at least159,000 additional hoax per- faculty Members classrooms just to keep petrated through theuse of sttategically was declining. In the up with the placed directional radio 1953-54 academicyear. whereas 40 per- expanding population,not to speak of transmitters. The cent of all college teachers held dealing with overcrowded more common reaction, however,was not doctoral schools and half jisbelief of the phenomenon degrees, only 31percent of the new faculty day schedules. Thoughthedirect responsi itselfafter bility for the conduct of Ill, thousands of members hired thatyear held doctorates education lay wit curious"moonwatchers" and by 1956-57 the figure the States, only six had tad taken to keeping trackof Sputnik's was down to 23 full-time super- .omings and goings 1:nit percent. Part of the problemwas that rela- visors of mathematics andscience, ard of the proposi. tively few ins2,- ations cf only two had supervisors ion that the Russianshad been responsible higher education for foreign or it. Few had' imagined that even Offered doctoral programsonly160 language instruction. Russian as of 1957, and of that Mcal 60 cience had advanced,solar.The signals awarded Q uch shortfalls fewer than ten suchdegrees,e year. and the need to education a boost hadnot gone un- 8 5 noticed. In a special message toCongress inJanuaryof 1956, PresidentEisenhower had called attention tocritical shortages' "jn medicine, teaching,nursing, science. engineering, and other fieldsof knowledge," and a few monthslater he hnt, National Education PnV' 1pNctujrk told a meeting of tle ] 1w, 01 Association that "our schools arestrong ayt,n.c n,s, -

%Ol.. CII . . .mcre INTO SPA CE; points in our Nationaldefense. SO VIETFIRES EARTHSA TELLITE important than Nike batteries, more THE GLOBE A T18,000 M. P. H.; necessary than ourradar warning nets, IT IS CIRCLING CROSSINGS_OVER IT. S. and more powerful eventhan the energy of TRACKED IN 4 the atom." FormerSenator William SPHERE Benton returned from a tourof the Soviet I 66O LLES 111CR cOURSR RECORDED Union to tell reporters that"education has IIOffASELECTED VoibIeWhpl. Ld h-coic main feature ofthe cold war Sthtemectcjys libraries, her B Russia's classrooms and atorie and teachingmethods may aten us :'ore thanher hydrogen bombs ...... GeieralNathan F. twining, Chief of Staff ofthe U.S. Air security of our Force, deda.ie'd that "the Nation in Sr years aheactdepends as ..,... -_ n boaoa1%. .0a. - oaa .5 b..tL._, - i__ .. - S$ Lana lb$U. ..L.. th. 5t S l.L5L5.d _l_ o..,,...o s. and skill of our engi. _ I ... much n the wisdom - - i-a and technicians as it does - - .De1nctils8 TusHeaner- neer., scientists, ThanOiiePlannedbyU S upon;he courage of ourfighting men.. '.5.5- .. ,--..'-.------' jmes B. Gunant, formerpresident of Har- help v '-d agreedthat education needed' FAUBB'RGF)ffNATAXF - - ,__ W,y 2DOOOPspthO, ..LUt insisted thatit should be extended HSSTMDTOLEE ''__ LbS.d. aoL ':r and not just in the areas .5 IStbI.t 1.q. p ac:oss the board HiSS Hona Lnof .. -, , . *.. ., -"5'-"., p.. -'..oa-o..1 - engineering. What was ,..,. .-5.511I HSI'511 s Csfl11 ,, R.SI o science and , - LI 5.51 II 55511 _,..,, ___ '. = '-"La..-- Einsteins - '- - - '-' . =': 5y4i115'dSI 11.5 reded, he said, was "not ciiore -'5' 5'-"'-- ., -' ' bu'c more Washingtorisand Madisons." ':4- by such commcntsfr-rn Z---d for, - national leaders, concern -and colleges beg ... a g the schoo Ultimatel.' ';he cal gather moincritum. '5-5'- - '5. Fedtra came fromseveral quarters for the Governxneni to ICad the wayby raacting :-'- -. °- That proposal " supportive legislation. -... zi. z" :=-- .-- '5" opposition. By failing ,. : 1uickly ran nto firm mentiozle,!ucation, it was arguedin and to reserved Accws Bid out of Con'ress,the Constkution ''Ex.Pr.mier Moile rcson"ibiLi'y i'Ir its conduct tothe States, .'51'55" '5" Government had no '-"'5" S..,áHLn&.s.As,.Wó '-- z _...- and thus v?, Federal '-. j-:: .., -' -..° '-' 011111 "5' ''"- '' - Moreover, the -- " _ 'I '5' - bwiiness g$ing involvJ. an ., .oa... Federal aid to the '-'--'51.,' n, na51b. Warsaw Cruah'.s Neo,Protest;" ,.,, op'onents tieclared, ..'55'City Sifts Charge ThatSchupler,5' Clubs TearCr.iRcutStudentIn. schools and lleges was a sure path to Brooklyn CouncilmanSoldaJo6, ''t1 --' -... Federal control overthem. --,, - -°. ..-, 1.5i.. 51.--' .'O'. y,5., y. p,..._ 51 .5"5'"' - . I,. d. - .La he advocates of Federalassistance -- - -- "55 '5"5 .... .5-5' ,a..n .1,__. ..- 1.5.05'. .5' ..5.. . S responded by dwelling onthe vital la.., ,.p.., ..,o,... . L.,5', 1. : - s... H o,_ , '5- "js . p.t5'*S * -.5 in the Nation's fl__ - 'a .J tart played byeducation .-n-aar5'.-.S'5La55'.HOrn - III(rn_l.,fl. 5'. !5' .5 seèurity, and on theproposi- 'I,,,,, '51 progress and problems were iiational tion that sincc the - national attention. . _, - in scope they required _i..5'.. .L. _-H,_,j0.5''an Moreover, they argued,there waspre- cederi,foin!his kind of assistance -notably 86 the Morrill Act of in sMEll legislation as :7iZIO

*.

'r*It 1862 creating the _.imIll Land-Grant Colleges, a sen.. the Smith.Hughes ,mparaLeled venturesintospace Act of 1917 addressedto that .V foreign languagesbu.r in such areas vocational education, the .c. to lead some 11 years laterto the as" Cooperative Re- reading; histnry.English. civics. and search Act of 1954.and the Library Serv. triumphant touchdown ofApollo 12 ci!,. the ices Act of 1956. What luilar surface. Bythat tiMe the National .geography. Thanks in largepart to Title proved te, he the VII. the schoolswere making greater most stirring stimulus to action Defense Education Acthadrecorded some use c came on such products oftechnology as television. that Friday evening in thefall of 1957 with noteworthy achievements ofits own. ore than 1.5 million co7-.puters, motion pictures, lindtape re- the announcement fromMoscow that put men and- women had been enabled corders. Arid under TitleVIII, more than the,word "sputnik-intoAmerican dic- to purstie 85.000 young people tionaries. higher education underNDEA's Title IT had been trained in National Student Loan such fields as electronics.drafting desigr The convening of the85th Congress Program. Tit'. and data three months later 'originally writtento strengthen'elerneil r processing, while the number nf brought on the inrn. and secondary instruction institutions offering in science. technical education' duction of a rash of Federalaid to educa had grown from 262 tion bills ma themat-Ws and modern foreign in 1959 to 1,100a ultimately reachingsome 150 in decade later. 'All in all, all. The most acceptable languages. had been broadenedto include by the time Neil prOved to be /1/(- 51)-50 matching Armstrong steppedon the moon, the 13247, introduced in the!louse by grants to the States cover. ing a wide range of Federal investment ineducation through ?.epresentative Carl El lionand paired in subjects. The Title IV NDEA had reached the Senate with S 4237, graduate fellowshipprograrrrwas nearly S3 billion. introduced hv Among the various people Senator Lister Hill. }laving expanding the supply ofteachers alul rais- who had pas.sed Mg, the quality of college commented on the launching Ho Uses by wide margins.the bill was' faculties by of Sputnik enabling more than was Chancellor FranklinD. Murphy of the signed into law byPresident Eisenhower 15,000 Men and on women each year to complete their Cniversity of Kansas.and this iswhat he September 2 a.s the NationalDefense said: "The doctoral programs; "ritjeV had provided message which this little ball Education Act of 1958,designed "to carries to Amyl icans. strengthen the national more than-S158 millionto the States for if they would but defense and to guidance ancl testing and stop and listen, is that inthe last one-half encourage and assist in -theexpan had helped raise ,,of the 20111 sion and improvement the 11 umber of full-eirric century . . . nothing is as im- of educational counselors by- portant as the trained and more than 260 percent, to 41,000.I nder ducated programs to meet criti,ca) nationalneeds: m ind.- Clearly his fellow and for other purposes." Title VI (by this timealso broadened) the citizens had skills of some 122,000 teacliers stopped and listened.and the message had Meanwhile there had been the and educa- launch- tion specialists had been come, through loud and .clear. ing ofthe initialAmerican satellite,. sharpened at NDEA-supported institutes ExPloren, and the CnitedStates was off on offering ad- vanced trainingnot only in counseling and MA RK TRA V AG LIN1 Assimant Editor, AmericanEducatiof 94 LIFELONG LEARNING

BY RONALD AND BEATRICEGROSS

up during the years of schoolingalone. It afforded_ to various minorities, .12.-A1 per n the educationof Arr....:ri is, as it has always been, the daily crea- haps' most pervi8ively to black a nation, as in that cans. The idealnevertheless._-remists: of anindividual, tionofpeoplelearningand 'living together. The further back we peer into Thus inFrontiers of American thegreateipart jarnes T 1(Y our educatiOnal history,and the further the erninent historian, occursoirtsideof Adams, observed after alife col- we look into its future,the clearer we see schools ,and ing.!r* past: leges. As thedis- the force of nonschooklearning. what has perhaps stn. tinguished educa- As we cast our eyes backward itbe- teachers z1-zaS beeil the almost uniqLe tionalstatesman comes clear that our greatest ,-.!rnerica, and, due 'were,.the land itself, in its vast loneliness John Dewey wrote in MO, "Schools are 61'.6( coil-titles, the variety Social and its promise of richness; the politica! not the ultimate formative force. ,,o6s position,seconomic,_ institutions, the trend of occupations, the andeconomicchallengeof . buildL whole communities, and later a whoe ;ociat. political or other which any pattern of .3ocial arrangements, andthe inaividua may find himself jilling in finally -:ontrolling influences in shaping society, from ,the ground up; voluntary ... fromthis has groups. which the Frenchobserver Alexis the course of his life. minds ... . Effective education, that followed the need, above that felt in which realli- leases a stamp on character de Tocqueville rightly remarked as so characteristically American; popular almost any other country,--for constant and tbouccht, is obtained when graduates readjustments, wi:h their educational come tu .a..e their part in theactivities of culture, variously represented- by early adjuncts of one sort or another, at adult society." newssheets, t he Lyceums a nd Chautauquas of the 19th century, and almost any age . ..This appears tO This is a touchstone of sanity in think- corollary to the today's commercial and public television; have been an ing about theroots of learning and whole nature of American life'and the growth. Itic karn what we live. The class- and a potent tradition of self-education kind of learn- stretching from Benjamin Franklin and, American Dream. room Offers one specialized Let's focus in on some key moments in Aned to one period of life and Abraham Lincolnthrough Thomas ing, 1. Arne:,-an history, to get at least a post- one part of the population. Butthe learn- Edison and Henry Ford down toEric ing that enables individuals and com- Hoffer and Malcolm X in our own day. hole.senseof the pervasiveness and power of nonschool learning. The first settlers to munities to _meet changing conditions Above all, the great spur to learning itself. The driv-. these shores faced, and for the most part and fulfill their potentialities is not stored was the Anierican,&earn that ing idea was that in this new world a man mastered, a learning challenge could fulfill his highestpotentialities .11e- dwarfs our highly touted "firture shiick.!" c:13.ohild and Beatrice GrosS are. respectively Ad come all that, he was capableof being. In Imagine uprooting your farnily to em- Act. Pinfessor of Social Thought at New York, igrate to China .no, not China, more ljnieisity.,,and Associate Professor of Humanities practice, to be sure, that noble idealhas the CollegC at Old Westbury (State HniversitY of not beenuniformlyapplied. Throughou'. like the moon: an _unknoWn, primitive, world.At New York). They co-edited Radical SchoolReform our history, considerablyless than lun- uncivilized,awesome fresh (1969) and Will ii Grow in a Classroom? (1974)and limited individual opportunity has been once you face' the task ofdisengaging are coordinators of The FreeLearning Project. 88 yourself from your culturaland social set- ting. of planning for thetrip, of trying. to llier' foresee what the new Worldwill be like. of planning and preparing forit. Once. you get there you have the problemsof ac dim atization, of providing yourself with .fit44azi PPW,..4314.z.:Wzr.717744:.., the necessities of life, ofcreating a: ( ui .1'1 4", I 777."": 411 cure .of writing laws and runninga ARM governnwnt,of creatinga DE7 systemof ft"%nrifirrfrilITIR;PfTiffi.47. 7411747e rm ' floc justicec_ of providing deededprofessional. Aun.D. . , services. What other-people haVeever -XIGOST faced such a challengeto their ability to Steggles ".7,4 11111111C master new skills, understand situations F4NifiX2dt - . qUickly. and well.. make decisions,and createtogether?Beyond all other countries,this One has confrontedits people .with the' challengeto learn and growor die. The cukure of the Colonieswas ci ea ted andtransmittedwitriontreliance on schools and colleges. Weare taught th at Massachusetts established schools inevery township in 1647 and that Harvardwas founded in 1636. But in fact whatMass- achusetts did .was simply pass a statute In early America it which was honoredmore in' the breach was the Community 'the Sunday sermons and and its institutions whicheducated the mid-week "lec- than in the'observance until well tures" of their clergymen, thespeeches into the young. "Schonling went on anywhereand 19th century. And what delivered on holidays and militiadays, was created at everywhere.- one historian has'noted. Cambridge in the 17thcentury was not. "Pupils were taught by the books, pamphlets, newspapers,and Harvard as we know it, but anyone and every almanacs which proliferated in an inflated one . . .and most teaching proceeded the early grammar school. Our now-great univer- on 18thcr otury'.Voluntary organizaiion anindividualbasis,"Ifadultsin sities Yale. Princeton,Wisconsin. Cali- came to the fore early on. Its spirit iscon- gener'alratherthanprofessional veyed by the Puritan fornia, and the. likeare barely three teachers:- educated the children, divine, Cotton generations old, in the who Mather. who proposed in sense of being true educated theadults? Their textbooks 1710 that institutions of higher learning.,; were the agendas of their town meetings, neighbors form "benefit societies"and address themselves to the followingques-

7 \

trr'

it*

:;,/,

t'e,

s'01."Pivrfel -14

QA 8 9 tions,which could well serve as the guid. ing principleg for -one of Ralph Nader's Te.=0.1116, .publicintereSt groups today:

Is Diere any matter to be humbly movej unto the legislative piiwer. to be enacted into a law vs for public benefit? ILL 111 kti Is there any particular person whose'disorderly behavior may be so scandalous and so notorious that we may do well to srid unto the said person our charitable admonitions? .P RI ME Does there appear any instance of oppression or OZ T011 fraudulence in the dealings of any sort of people that may call for our essays to get it rectified? FIRST BOOK FOR CHILDREN: DICSION/ID FOB Can anyfurther methods be devisedthat NOME OR PARENTAL INSTRUOTION. ignorance and wickedness may be chased from our people in general and that household piety EM.13ELLISH1tD 'WITH in particular may flourish among them? NIIMEROVS ENGRAVINGS, AND PRETTY STORIES, ' Mich will please the Children amazingp/ I When the founding fathers articulated their notions of education, they thought- not in terms of schoolingbut cif the entire society: "Jefferson was a great believer in s'chooling." education historian Lawrence Cremin observes, "'but itnever occured to hirn that schooling would be the chief ed. -ucational influence on the young. School- ing. might provide technical skillsand basic Lt:owledge, but it was the press and participation in politics that really ed- ucateA the citizenry. Public education was to he only one part of the education of the public, and a relatively minorpart at that." This point of view echoes throughout the formative years.of the Republic. It is oft, wan pastry Boole 1 IUD ORAILLIT TO LEM. a far handsomer ideal than the mere ,NEW YORK: building and maintenance of schools. It PUBLISHED BY GEORGE COOLEDGE & BROTHER, proposed a society designed and operated 323 max. mum!,IMAM= 641171211. as an environmentfOrlearning and 104 atom puiltahod ec4f.rM . 1st Beebetkre growth.Washington,inhis drovhas go Mud San of AiTarka !*t Farewell out as rovitertm. e. Address, called uponhis countrymen to ' 4it 'Promote...as an object of priiilry im- '4:4' portance, institutions for the general dif- '.usion of knowledge." This commitment , :o the populariiation of knowledge. to lifeinstriking congruencewithour Society, an academy for yoiung boys.. the provision to every man the means to, democratic impulses. One would haw: to As America entered the 1Sth century, know deeply and act wisely, is.rightly rec- be bold to claim tha; our contemporary the burgeoning of splendid initiatives in Pgnizedby Dr. Cremin as thetrue patternhighly trained experts,expen. nonformal education exceeds summariza- 'genius of American educati;:m." We sive professionals, diplomaed and pave not been. first and foremost, build- cre- tion here. Two stunning inventions must dentialedmanagers, and government bementioned:theLyceum and !rs of educational systems. We have been subsidized researchis an unequivocal :m powerers of learners. Chautauqua. The first,launched by advance. Josiah- Holbrook in 1826, endeavored to Lacking great research universities and yen, for a time, towerir.;; popularize scientific knowledge thralgh ".!al Even more than Jefferson, the founder nd scientific figures. wr _nc the sponsorship of study groups and ex. who symbolizes nonformal education is elled in the democratzzatibn of oiiture. lecturers, and also tq agitate for thees . Benjamin Franklin.Himselt self-edu- tablishmentoftax-supported' public ome of the earliest obseryers cf pre- cated. hc s".e.t.,erthelessfull\- recognized schools. In less than ten years it had,3,500 evolutionary American life,as Merle nes;,2 for institutionil supports for local organtzations, 'with an overlay of :urtishowsin .Growth of American Learners. His informal grqup of 12mem- county, State, and national organiza- 'hought, noted the unique diffusion Of bers, the Junto, met continually for 30 tions. The chapters created libraries and nowledge here. America, it might be years to discuss ideas and initiate social mini.museums, held weekly meetings, as- lid, flourished on a I; t of little know- improvements. From. their deliberations sembled and provided equipment for Age, rather than on pinnacles of con- came a number of other organiiations of scientific experimentation, and hosted entrated brainpower. It was an interest- nonformal education: a subscription li- outsideexperts.Thoreauwrotein leexperinient which shapecriiitellectual brary, the AmericanPhilosophical Walden that "The one hundred and twenty.five dollars annually subscribed cocted. The ideal of its inventor,. John NewYork,Lowell_ in.Boston,..-. and For a Lyceum in the winter is better spent Vincent, could hardly be improved on Franklin in Philadelphia; voluntary -as- than any other equal sum raised in the today as an ideal for educators: "that sociationsof myriadkindsincluding' town." education is the, privilege Of all, young men's and women's service and profes. Following Franklin's finepattern of and old, rich and poor, that mental de- sional associations, university extension, .stressing both individual self-imrirove- velopment is only begun in school and worker's education, the popular press, .mentandsocial.reconstruction:the:. college, and should be continued all of the great national debates over social Lyceums sthnulated not only t he public life." With the passage of time its small policy,movements suchasabolition, schoolmovementbutalso,some town base, itsfreligious thrust, and its in- temperance, women's suffrage,the historians argue, the establishment of the evitable exceiteand lapses have turned founding of experimental utopian com- U.S. Weather Bureau, library extension, its name int94'd synonym for American munities. museurns and scientific laboratories, the middle-brow cultural strivings. But when Even more important than these enter- National Education Association and the -it was vital, Chautauqua was an import- prises 'werethe social and economic American Association for the Advance- ant vehicle in spreading progressive ideas conditions of the tim, -,These conditions men t of Science. on social,po'' ical, andeconomic werestillconducivetolearning and Inthelate19thcenturyzhe issues "the kind of thinking that sup- growth: young people could see, experi- Chautauqua movement reviv-d many of,.ported the careers of Presidents 'like ence, and participate in the work of the the impulses behind the Lyceums, though Theodore Roosevelt, Woodrow Wilson, world asitoccurred around them in with added featuresincluding summer and Franklin Roosevelt," according to small towns and cities. Apprenticeship of- schools offering plays, concerts, lectures, historian C. Hartley Grattan. fered training in most occupations, and recreationalactivities_..._40 formal The Lyceums and Chautauqua were there were few restrictions based-on the courses; and lOr those unable to break merely institutionalized distillations of an need for fOrmal education and diplomas. away.correspondence study and guided oceanic educational ferment during the Opportunities were plentiful fur many home reading. The motivating forces 19th century. We can only tick off the people to find and fulfill their aspira- were religion, money. and self-improve- other nonformal educationalagencies tions. ment perhaps the most quintessentially and modes which pioliferated: public Until the last 50 or 60 years this NatiOn American educational mixture ever con- libraries, institutes like Cooper Union in thrived on an 9n-the-whole healthy faith

01P ,1,4=

4

.!tv

-

-11/4,otai4";

41 Nk's fa;

"Soap and scho.oling,"- cautioned Marii-Tividil,"are not as sudderi as a massacre, but are more deadly in the tong run." , in practical rather than academic learn- Mg:. Learning outside of schools andcol- , lege had been the mainstream. Distrustof schools stretches froni Mark Twain,who remarked that "Soap and -schooling are not as sudden as a massacre,but'are mqre deadly in the long run," toMargaret. Mead; ....Whosaid:"Mv grandmother wanted .me--to get an education, so she of the kept me out of School,- At the start -z-. 20th century, only ten percent of college- I. age youngsters. ',vent on tocollege; the country was run bywhat we now cz.d1 (to theirdamage)"dropouts.-and Who would argue thatitwas run with dis- cernibly less humanity and reaSonable- ness, if without computertechnology and motivation research? t- The significance of the Lyceums anti - :Chautauqua lies in the models theyof, t.1 fered of an alternate tradition inAmeri,- Air can educationalternate to our main. education equals. stream conviction that 'private door. If, as waslikely, the school tive;-and fulfilling callings and things schooling. Horace Mann's crusade for todo,iiigrtup into.. The polky I an: public schools in i:I., mid.1800s isusually inculcated vulgar and self-serving habits, or the values associated withTrade,it prop,aingtertdsinthisdirection presented as an ..i,ailoyed blessing. But rather than awayfi..er'rnsit. By inultiply- and would merely serve to prpetuate an in- there was another side to the matter, ing options,it shNld bi,--possibte to from our historical vantage' point it as adequate so( if..tv, an F.,;ablishment that was basically milucnwie." find an interesting'"eourse fOr each sumes considerableimportance."In individual yOuth, as we now do for deliver Of Course, Mann won. The public 1839, after hearing Horace'Mann onlySOMe of t he emotionally disturbed school movement swept all before it. But one ofhistalks,"writesphilosopher andthetroublemakers.Voluntary Maxine Green. "Ralph Waldo Emerson the suppressed tradition of nonformal, adolescent chpkes are often random con- wrote inhis Journal :'We arc shut in( anti-statist,individualeducation and foolish and usually !ransitory; but tinued flowing underground.It bursts schools . . .for ten or fifteen years. and: they are the likeliest ways of growing forth periodically, when. the oppressive- come out at last with a bellyfulof words upreasonar;'y. What is most essential and do not know_ a thing.' Toknow, for ness and ineffectiveness of theestablished he is taken The most s .for the youth to see that Emerson., meant to feel his poetic ima. system becomes intolerable. seriously as a person, rather than.fitted thdughtful spokesman in our time YVas gination soar. It meant to open, his soul to into .tn in.std.utional system.

We do not have to peer into the past to see the potency ofnoninstitutionalized learning. If we merely open our eyes we will see it all around us today. Even with schools and colleges so dom- 1 inating our vision of education, the per- 11 vasivtntess .and importance of nonformal learning is readilydemonstrable. Consider the vast educational enterprises usigra.,* of business and industry -occupational Nu. training. inservice training, occupational upgrading, manpower development, managementandexecutivetraining. 'Add to it education in. labor unionsap- prentice programs, training of foremen anii shop stewardsand an enormous .11 armed forces network involving corres- "The Great CoMmoner,"Williamfennings Bryan. pondence study, televised courses, and classroom ins:ruction. Pile on top of this the 'oversoul,' to 'See by the 'Divitie light 'PaulGoodman, who thought through , .carefully but boldly the ways in which the educational work of churchesand ,of reason' with which k.ery humanbeing civic or- nonformal learning cOuld provide synagogues, community centers, was endowed. TheCommon School, ganizations,voluntary groups, profes- teaching conventiOnal or 'common' hab- answers to theproblems4besetting us in education today. His credo brings the sionalprganizationswiththeircon-. its of thought and perception, seemed to ferences and conventions, the national against authenticity. The suppressed tradition up. to our own tirne : Ideally, the polis itself is the educa- health organizations. museums and gal- st.; -01 ers, believed; would tionalenvironment;a good com- leries,libraries: governmentagencies, the 'self-reliance' -which service clubs, and public television. Most God to enter through the munity Consists of worthwhile, attrac- 9 2

/Nal

significant of all, add in the' individual /mem. Second, the Coleman report and ,ing and growth that arelifelong and life: lear,rCing projects which, rest.'arch reveals, othersrevealthatthe impaet of the wide, supported by a congenial environ . moit adults engage in but'don't consider school on students' learning is ,much less mem of instiLuLions and laws. "educ/dob"becausetheyhave. been than we have thotight. Finally, The feiwks There is much talk.today of the need to schooled to equate learning with taking report showed that'schooling as prepara- move toward a "Learning Society.Btu it couri-es. tion for adult lifeis much less effective israrely recognized that there are two The r8ult of cun1ulating these diverse than nmst peopk. believed. In short, each ways to reachfor this great goal:One is Lo learning activities is to reveal the linea- of us is'essentially shaped before school, further extend and strengthen schools ments of a vast nonsystem'of individual outside of school,and aft:Cr school. and colleges. The other isto empOwer and grpup learning which dwarfs institu- In other countrks. by the way, what we individuals to learn and grow by ;giVing tionalized schooling:This is the kind of call "nonformal education"isincreas them the resources, support, encour9e- learning,by which Amercans as-persons, ingly recognized as a prime concern of meta, and motivation t.o move forwaid and our cornmunities and society, really those committed to enhancing the role of on their own. We can concentrat6 ex- keep changing and expanding 'to meet reason and learning in national life.In elusively on increasing the scope,the changing challenges of individnai and nationS 'as-diverse as Frace. Denmark. power, and the quality tlf feirmal educa- collectivo life. The quality of learning Yugoslavia: .China, and Taniania. the.*lion. Or we efin choose to enlarge and 1-147- first pribciPle .of educational theory 4nd multiply.theopporLuniLies Lo learn practice is that,,what we learn, what We throughout the lifespan and throughout become derives from he press of our en. the.society. tire .sucial and cultural experience. A The fact that we grew'the second way- proper concern for education, therefore, suggests/ that this ma.v be a style that can must far ,transcend preoccupation with serveusinthe future. Having once schools and CollVges. It must ermirace not learned together through our work 'and only contirming education of -frifornial or professions, through our communal life informal kind, but even more what the in city and country, through an inner British cuitural historian' Raymond commitmenttoindiyidual Williams calls "the whole,environment, perhaps we can create.thejtind 'pf its institutions and relationships. (which) climate where that native impaSe can actively and profoundly teach." "Educa- catch fire anew. Perhaps we can go be- tion .permanente". is the label UNESCO yond expanding and improving formai has given to this broader set of concerns; educadon, and become once again a it might also be descr/. ibed simply as learn- nation of learners.

. :rgA 6:sE m tivi

MAS EDISON and of life for us .as individuals, and ffir ff141,1,1;eric.S SION rot- our Nation,isbest measured by the Of: "Rto-P0A quality of these learning opportunities. If )0 nDpf I? F they are narrow in breadth and un :...,,flokae,u,Dirs maginative in chWracter, our lives will be rrr"1' parochial and Mienterprising. IT they are .varied. handsome, and challenging. so will be our prospects forgrowth. _ This is true even for chtildren. Regent .OF 16 ''...hithe analyses of the extant reearch on the growth of youngsters in and outside of '30!Iftt AfRfE47., schoolsbyEarlShaefer,James Coleman, and Christopher Jencksre- "IrtrAr veal three truths which should deflate the ".- educators' chutzpahFirst,themost rapid and formativeiperiod of a person's development occurs before he .or she en- ters school, and of course the family is the most powerful agency inthis develop-

t..1'103 Sev AnGolden

residc;nt Theodore terest to women..relatively few colkges Enwstine Sehurnann-Ileink of the Rrxmevelt once of the time having demonstrated any Metropolitan Ope,ra. 'Daddy called it "the nrost enthusiasm for coeducationaTarrange.. GrOebecker's,Swis.s' Yodelers: Tlw Royal Millen Can ihing in ments. Hand Beli Ringers; the Ladies Ilarp America." Just : The subsequently developed circuit Ensemble; or the star of Chautauqua about everybody, as Chautauqua. which vits said by one oh-stars,, William _Jennings Bryan. It Was an editorial writer ofserver to reach some 40 million people the Community Band.of any town at the time observed. in more than 9,00o communities in the all. perspiring in the late afternooni sun regarded its arrival United States mid Canada during any as they led a parade of townspeoW as launching -the most important seven given season, alSo was essentially educa- dowO Main Streetblaring out such lays of the year." It was called tional in nature. though the fare tended tunesas "Put on Your Old Gray Bon. , Chautauqua. . to he less sedate than that offered by itsnet- and "I Watu a Girl Jut Like the And whauwas Cha. utauqua like, in settled oamesake. In any caSe it might' Girl That Married DearOld Dad"to the closeup view of the Aurn.of-the-ced;' vsry well Oilcan Fratilein.Nlarie Nlayer of 'the Chautauqua grounds. . tury cinzenS who flocked by the familyi Obetainnwrgau. Germany. lecturing on Despite its pep-rally sprit, the inner- to enjoy its wonders? h Wfas culture and, her appearance in the Passion Play Ls . ant Chautauqua was a well-organized . uplift, and it was also clowning andI Mary Magdalene:. Thil Clark and Ills thisiness proposition run by individual- farce presenCed during, the' summer Marching Men of Song: 'Madame,: -/ern'repreneurs rather'than by a national. under a tent pitched on' a vac-ani-lor.---It was what people did inithose das in- stead of going to:the nickelodeon of z.i

subsequent era or of wat."ching the. tele- vision that came later still. Only Chan- tauqua was more precious, be6ause it- VN7as available only one week during.the . entire year. , - 1 At lea'st that was true of one varietty a- of thQspecies - the travelikcornpani of lecturers.: orators. singers..classical muSicians, not-so-classical,musicians.1 Shakespearean actors. jugglers; and

other perform?rs who roamed. the ? Nation during the summer. The othei- variety was fixed, having become est43- lighed in southwestern New York State in 1874. Originally intended'as a surV- mer training program 'for Sunday schOol

teachers, it had set up shop on the ' tr. Shores of Lake Chautauqua, which ti,kaye its name to what was to become a nalional moVement. Though religious instruction wa r. the focus of the first

gatherings. wiuDin a few years the ses-1-- s_hadions so expandedThat the cultur- hUngrY could spend their entire summer being exposed to language criurses, sCientific lectures and demonstrations,(.. music, and ultimately such embellish. Ments as uriiverSity extension work.. In time a School of Theology was estab,in, ,-, lished to train candidates for the mk- try:and a foUr-year home study course was organized. The latter was to have.. an important impact-on aiJ'concept-d self-educatiim and was of riaTti'cular in- aAd. ,

104 The original Chauiaugtiathen and now.

organization. They usually met once. a -'Bozernan Was a hick burg inhabited by guinanteed to cover all the costs. Such -a year or so to exchange lies anft try to hayseeds or whether on the contrary it guarantee was in fact standard steal ideas, but they operated on their____v,,...as_ready-,fOr Chautauqua." Mr. Chautauqua procedure, along with an-,. own and their chief stock in cfaire was Ellison managed to recollect for the othr agreement that the townspeople' an exceptionally slick tongue. Ono such lawyer's l*nefit what Chautauqua had would accept whatever attractions were' was a personable fellow named IfRoy meant to him as a small boy in Ne- offered, on an an-opnone basis. Elliion, whose schedule took hiln one braska when he "first caught a glimpse Mr. Ellison's nimble-mane9vers were afternoon in,1912 to Bozeman, of the culture of the big cities," and he reminiscent of those of an earlier Mont ana. reflected'on what it couldmean now As'maner, Harry P. Harrison, wbo in b,is tTh efore the train had pulled in% ay a dern6r(stration of Bozeman's high- book Culture Under Canvas recalled bis

. Ellison had registered at the. hotel rnindledness. /.torays into various towns in South ,and begun, as he said, to "case the I lier5Viyer quickly sumMoned some Dakota just after the turn of the cen- :main drag.- By_the nameplates ort the of tHe other leading citizens, ail(' withintury. Rolling along thc%prairle.,on,ap:_ / shops he plcked out what he figured wasan. our,they succeeded not only in con-".accommodation. tram (one without a

.1 die town's leading citizen, a lawyer, and yin-ing Ellison that Bozeman was mad" regular'sehedule) he.would-arrange for: paid him a can. The conversation soon, for Chautauqua but in foreing On him the crew.to know hen they boiled do7n to the q"uestion .of whether ar ironclad agreement by which they . were nearing atown. Then,be'd quickly 9 6

105 ty 1 ',It $ 4,4 ...-M0411(2

so..411 114"

1

*.t?

=Laic (447 1 - _i-7

..(a..11ills fat r in the tin the ( .1 twiny.., tile idea bring tItat everyone books it.ti (;irls (it Chautauqua. At un ullat.111(Itier Istie 44er ;11(aild ht. lAt'altily IH'Uause wealth opens t ht. town's social centet ,the soda fouti A:Id !Unlit tiff Ill upjwl 'unity It, de) 14041(1 1101kS (11I1(1 t;tirl,tilt. people «mild talk of nothing t;1' AIN .t,111A11 \lAkIIR4 A ittHIlit' ttr, th1,11141) the Re%Cu1i4vell didn't slier-if-- (*Ise. ht .fti .1 ftAIIkt'I II ally sav sr, a hang, Ili) time in tile Then early nne nint.tling. usually a drip. .p:.l i:It' hat gain -I vot., (tvg/It to be rit :4,1n11.1.14.. glnup of men would start Ntl11t'itlr'111 Hit h ht 1)1mIA.11114.11. II;lvt' lui r/g//1 II) ( leat int; the big I.)t behind the hatd At::A ht HAItt, tht.t he punt be( trioney has pn4ver 4..are snit (.,I ilupping down the weeds I hutigh ;hr. speaket didn't get around and moving away the junk. The (OIl thIN thAt irpink iding the te( ipt. for ar ting rat his lusive signal that 1111. magi( moment t"..A t."11 minutr,I hat 11114114! lion. his :uphill( es never failed to was al hand ( ante with the appCal an( f agt er. that the Rel.. Comvell harl 4..a14ons luarled with mountainous t..a ( rar keruk idea piles (if binwn ( alivas. Some of the 1: III,I (Ill rtli at( fI( illii(.11,111 ()Mel Imvs were selected to help putt up p.,. !. 1,11. 11(11 si) 111111 the 1e:11. an honor nnt fat teinnverl t Ilf beguilernents nf individual jwt 111111 winning the town hot seshoe JiiIli Att : tt1' 111,1 At r", ,tt fller.. billIII pH, ing the next 11:111 ning I/lAtlittt.ti- ?Mir. CIA. t.Idttti in life's routine. \A'reks ahead n1 all would he ill the seats in 11 It'ht; (AtICAt IiLAti time. Inig,t;tes and drays and later neat tows, tilt. Arnett( an flag, ellaped in {01(1 \Indel I 11T ...utild lestoritted 414114 Ilan Hai . 1t1;41144 at (tile side itt- liittt :ht. tht t''. ptur !aiming -Chautauqua Is 14,1111;11111the srakels' tdhle at Ow rift'ttti (.h.tAltA,AIIIAAlaiIt tttt I ..dtiingiti,ett, 1.1.1,1e over whet The small14. would meanwhile 1A:1'A,', A-11Ittir,t, Al) huttunlinle tags ...to.virtg 1;t. gathered along dn. l,ljhl ()ad linv, t ; thtt, 'AA'. I ht I het,. The liluarv had a1 tin «ti stir II ea( it living tu be the litstIII sput the su and r me.iNute 9 7 puff of the engine. ANL-

r.`,^fs, ,!..42.,otvt.'

-110'

-4,

111

V ,

16 -1/4 Y4col"' any 11'..:77-1ittor.1L

g AM= ,:111 sdi - 1 LI'"

glace. w ma. oar.

IMF - arait.

- . wolf* ""_ "'aro- V. ;e,. he train usually arrived at about whistler. Professor Panialtasika and his that they couldn't exacdy remendwr noon. While tht citizenry gaped trameti dogs. cats. and monkeys: a what he said, but they agreed they and appl;tuded. the talent would -,mging group I ailed Dunbar's Original would never forget the experience. grandly disembark and set out for the \\line Hussars. ur David Roth, the nevitably the final night would hotel, led by a wdcoming committee Man \Vito RenirmIters E..erything arrive, the concluding lecturer composed of leading citizens. Then a I here was always at least unr lecturer. rmtke his last dramatic gestu-e. Next few hou:s later as evening approached, And thri,.2gh the talks might get into rimming the lent would come down. the the cown hand would start to play, the ,ut h r hrt hu,1 wagons would pull their load to the people would gather, and with the hooks and wornen's suffrage. therewt'T railroad siding, and the signs and mayor and other city officials and the nl,( a IC I Is .111d no members of the aud pennants would droop lkdessly. Where performers in the van, eyeryene would lent e rosy to take ixsue with the speakei . the tent had been the kids would kick parade to the big brown tent whatd.rr thrir private thoughts. tho hot dust, looking for lost coins. The superintendent of schools was us- If thr town was particularly f trumitte 'Filen in the 1920s as radio became ually the maxter of ceremonies and he there would appear during tli: ..eek a universal, tlw audiences began to (twin- woirld get things started by introducing largc featured. sweet-spirited man with die. Rural depression made the guaran- every last civic leader who had anything a .ormilanding platform manno and a tee harder to sustain. Finally, a littk whatder to do with making it all pos speaking vcite such as thr Nation had more than half a century after that First

sibleFinally the show itself would get neverkin I Ii Ill jrnnings Bryan. itssernbly in southwestern New York, the under way, known varmitsly as T h r Silver Tongued tents were rolled up and padcrd off for The first act rnight well be a troupe Orator. Tht GrCilt (.1)111/111)1W1The ever. Only the summer colony ailed tho Floyds of Boston, with a pro- Flower of the ot k. anti the Greatrst Chautauqua Institutionremained ;is a gram of mind reading, magic, and hem AM, might favor the folks with reminder of a movement that time was musical interludes. Perhaps there would -Thr Value of an Ideal,- -The PI it.. of an educational powerlmu small- follow the Indian princess Watahwaso. it Soul,- or his all.time favorite, "The town America. LESLIE RICH mhal -.rigsLittle Alur Prime of Peace.- N1r. Bryan held them Mr. Rich is a free-lance writer in the New the t hihl riot uounisr anti enthralled. Later they might confess York area.

9 8 ttl7 he (let aile. folimving And 11(11(1 NI). 11 111'4 ('1(11)ed 111 Anothei majot new, eI cutIt the C:ivil Va: were 1925 111(1' .N1)111(1%11,11 dillelent (Iire) tions. was a 1...S Supreme (:matih.i.ision marked by a spurt There was first of all. beginning in the turning an ( )Iegon law passed thi of intimation in the 1800s, the Cartoon as an editorialcom yeais eat lief that in elicit abolished United States, and meat on newsworthy events. Invreas nonplibliv ti( 11( /DIN INvhICII \r.IS It)SiIV. notrworthilv in de inglv, as the Years went liy, thoseevents those operated by the Catholii cliutch velopirients haying had to do with education. III 1925, for in that State. Thc «nut found this law to do Nvith edliCa exarnple, the newspapcrswert filled to be unconstitutional, and the 111111. with articles about the trial ofa high Newark Nezcs hdt that the State de 1.11(°AMC! 1( .111 1:111del)(,11 ( school teacher named Scopes whowas seied a spanking tot suggesting itin 1111() 1)(11114.11(11 111,1) %,4111)4)1", 1)1()NS()111(11. i4(141( It'll ((I1)1(',1k11114,1 I (1111t-NN(1' 1,445' the first place. la high Nt hool began to become uni 111,11III (li)')! 1)1)11111111M( di, eisal and stalidardi/ed. such new insti itassion 111 Dal-1%111.N11r()1 tutions as the Land (:tatit colleges wade (1(111.111(111 1 11,11 11(1)1A..111,111410'»))1(' (1(1 1,11 (1.1..1() postsei ontlan tiaining a4ailable1> Hill 4,111)(11 the clearl insulting imposition and /),(,)1 alike. iiiethuation byt.anie the that man W,IN notin. Ir41()I The e(111141 IA (.11 1)))/IIINI And chide waSIII' emergrilie id that 140OW Imilitrer. 11 %vas intelesting imintibution 4 nloinial the monkeys that %vele insulted. at ionthe toon. Like our education system itself. the had it, toot, but Noon at (11111(11 1.11,,l 111( 14r14 All1t1 wan ilia,

9 9

108 Forty years later the big news in edu entertaining. Thus Puck, the pioneer of the college humor magazines of the cation was the impact of the postwar such American periodicals, in 1883 1920s.At the other end of the scale "baby boom resulting in Overcrowded satirically commented on the dime were (and still are) the sophisticated classrooms and harrasscd wachers, a novelconsidered at the timc to rank cartoons developed by the New Yorker situation neatly summed up by I-ler with slang and pool halls in corruptive and typified by a droll1954insight into block in the Washington Post. ness and in1890suggested how a new the advantages of exposure to a course About a decade after cartoons had teacher might advisedly approach the in art appreciation. And somewhere in Jecome established on the editorial problem of maintaining discipline. between were the down-home cartoons ,ages of newspapers they began to be The magazine cartoon in perhaps its in such masscirculation publications as featured in the early humor magazines. most elementary form --essentially a Liberty, a favorite of the1930sbeing Though often topical, the basic objec- drawing more or less illustrating a one dealing with the adventures of a tad tive of the magazine cartoon was to be printed joke-- was customarily found in named "Hardtack," 100 From the third line tilong which car just ify, t he name. Thus in "Ni iss Peach" In any tam., this iN !Intl(' Of leSs Ito ((ions developed, starting in about IS95.an incisive anti witty comment on the education anti carnmns have grown up came the socalled "comic strip." Whiledifference between studying ;Ind leartc together durnig Ole past yummy tit so. this form of the cartoon has seemed ing. and in -Peanuts" a wonderfully FLORENCE IL SELDEN more often devoted to mayhem than to cynical deli Ili t iOn I hat Charlie Brown Mrs. Schierlisa Washington-based free- merriment, many examples of the gemeand everyone else might well pondet. lance writer.

1 0 1

1 TOWARD "A LEARNING SOCIETY

BY STANLEY ELAM

0 COMew govern school foratleastthree years withoutinconsistency. Small wonder that we arc ing man's relationscharge. There was also to be a secondarystill groping for an acceptable definition a with man ismore and higher education system operated atuniversaleducationdespitehavinf heady and beguil . State expense, with free tuition for the bestdebatedtheconceptinphilosophical, ing than the One as scholars( boys only)of poorparents,political, social, and economic termsever serted early inthe though the less gifted offspring of the poorsince Jefferson wrote to a friend in 1786: Declaration ofIn . would he rigorously winnowed out. "Preach, my dear' sir,a crusade against dependence as sell Itis a measure of the evolution of ourignorance, establish and improve thc law evident:that all democratic values that Jefferson's plan forfor educating the common people." men are created equal. On this glitteringeducation in Virginiais now considered Toward that generalitY end many writersand successivegenerationshave supremely elitist, whereas in his own timeintellectualsatthe striven turnofthe18th to build a system thatwill give it was judged so excessively philanthropiccentury offered ideas for a national system everyone an equal chance. But there are and hopelessly naive that the legislatureof educationinthe new Republic. A questions:Ifeveryoneisbornequal. refused eventodebateit.Notethatwinningessayist in a competition should not the governance system remainJeffersoncouldcallfor"generalsponsored by the American Philosophical aloof? Or. on the proposition that life itself enlightenment"butexcludegirls.Society( of which Jefferson was a chief produces inequalities, should it not deviseIndians,andslavesandsee noofficer) suggested schooling for all male rules and procedures for maintaining the balance? The author of that provocative phrase in the Decla! -tion was throughout his life an education zealot. He said: "Enlighten the people generally.and tyranny and oppression of body and mind will vanish like evil spirits at the dawn of day.- He Of_ said:"Any nationthatexpectstobe ignorant and free, in a state of civilization. expects what never was and never will be." I v'tt And only three years after writing the DeclarationofIndependence. Thomas Jefferson and hisfriend George Wyche prepared fortheconsiderationof the Virginia legislature "A Bill for the More General Diffusion of Knowledge." It was intendedtomakeuniversaleducation possible at public expense. Each free child ( i.e.,each white child)would attend Mr. Elam is the editorof Phi Delta Kapprin 102 7.y r 1112 aphorisms ofTeftris) It I,Tattles Madison,

Gem ge\Vashingt . andBenj.) min Ft an klin Infat Ifinditlia'ict appleciate hoysst anty !Initial education =:1156 was in the eat Iv Repuldic .Not Witte than one st hold agehild in tell was um cdred in a State ot «Immunity suppoi tellschool, because so h.s Id them existed. and so far as higliet ethic calm] isc ont et ned. in1 77Ii tiwre %vete only ahout .1,000 living graduates of the nine Ametic an c olh.ges. or one college 141 adttace among eac h 1,000 peopleIt was not Until18711 that mote than 50 pert cultof the Ault populati nil had gracluated 1111111 any kind ol seconclarY sehool. puldic (It pi Ivate Despite the hopes and entreaties of (;corg) \Vashington and leffi.rsonand other Founding Fathers.uniYetsaleducationremained little 111011' (hall 11) ideal over the first half of the Nation's history.. Amongdiefirst toentinc iatethe coin ept of a "I opinion- SI hotd lot an. as an Pik IIIS1I ument lot emoving bat t betyvren socioe( onoini) yvas a Vitginia Fedetalist named Chat II.s Fenton \len cr I he equality on which

(Iur I (1111101 I ) 111Stittll 1011`, a re 11)111)11rd.- Syloteill1826.", ;111111 Ithe too intimately intet woven in the habits (If thinking among outmod! iindit is obvious thatit....wild be gt)atly promoted lIV ilCit «MI 1111,1;111( I ItIget het . 11/1 the longest possible pet loci. in the same schools ofjuvenile instruc tion;tositupon the sante forms; culgage in the same competitions.pat takeofthe same recreations and amusements, and the sante studies, in connection with each other: under the same discipline, and in obedience to the same authority.- In short, he says' a public sr hool system as providing a means ofpc rpet uating the American democraticstrut utebypt eventing differences in economic. status from

undermining it.

hildren from age five to1 8,%vitt] every opposition to the idea ofuniversal parent to see toit'thathisc hild cUther ethic ationandtheegalitarianism it attend a lasstoom lc( eive a implied. itth 11 Randolph proudly ottliten,,,itiavamount of hist! tit 'tumid pro( !aimed.-I love liberty: I hate iirne at hom1 . ntlinbetIi wliters I idled equahty.- and a subscriber to the Raleigh for ,ystein Ntiltitor led iileastin part. Regtstc.r wtote, "1 hope that you do not from .1 fund oc be taised bv a taxoti eive itat all necessary that everybody plop-city should be able to read. write. and cipher.- No national NVSTUIT1 %vas evel adopted. (It N,Vhileitis probably accurate to say chat «misc. tot ,1 yII irt vIll «unplet; reasons.. most people in the early national period First. by the end of the (:olonial period the took a somewhat mon. liberal stance, the idea ofloc «nitro! yvas already firmly. ickaof providing educationatpublic entretn liedIn addition. traditions varied expense was something else again. Well sogreatlyfrom New Englandtothe into the1 800s in stic h bellwether cnies as Carolithis, and1 cuninunil ations were SO New York and Philadelphia,c.ducation diffic ultthat while national uniformity was available to children of the poor only rolled readily from the pens of the essayists. as a matter of private philanthropy. not it was in hard reality virtually impossible of public pohcy. achievementNloteover. there yvas no little Peoplerearedonthepro-e(lucation 103 NIT Nleitait'snotionoftheposity.e. the cases of ethnic andeconomic ililt (if 1111111 minoritits blacks, Indians, Chit:MOS, i)tmratcti ilitIlilllklll AI rint 111e1stiCI anti the pow and Ot tilt' rt ;II de, Ades It '.IsI t'llet led in hastS 01 sheet howtVcr,tile

I lulu:11111.0 s. talkahwil tIllkets,11 11115 ttri% %%Xs 1111'd ,1S beell tIttlitsphdlit and by it Atli( ional Ihe \PM1S1111111I 1111%.1I1' standal ds tevolutionot v. 1111/11 Si.1111 II 15,1, 111 1)1111' As rally as 1910 some 79 pelt rot Of tht 1111111,11111111.11 iii ..\1111'IR ,1111/I11,14 II11' Nation's school age i hiltIttn that is. boys I,1,11(11,1115 S5511I111)2, lie'I inning! alas hom ,md gills bettseen the ages of five and 17 immune,lot kingdemo!, loth:tioditions weir in fact in school. Ily 1930 the figure ondihossublet I. as Ill in% obseiSeis had risen to better than 90 peicent. .ind it p,11111 1.11 CuIt to irn stands today at9r) petcent. This upsurge II o1.11 \ 1,11111 Hite of Ills ts ,is was inpart stimulated by vat ious (mitt Scctrt,lls. .11IollIIINI.ISS,it decisionse.g., Kalamazoo) and in part by 1.1I's.hoth kllik %SleiIQ,es theillsOlVssCII increasinglygenerousStateandlocal tIle 1,11,1111111 111,11,1 hiteign people, bout financialpt ()visions.Theclincher, and hied ond divot It'd widei the despotism however, c ame from the compulsory school oi the ( )I(I Clii.1 ,11111111 be I 1,111sInl 111111 attendancelawsadoptedoverthesix tilt trtilehill skit Ille t decades following the enactment of the 111(1(11, ,1 ,11 loss the Atlantit first such law in Nlassachusetts in1852. stl list tI hill i. t 0 the 11.1(11 of THOMAS JEFFERSON nattoolization .111(1 mole . et...43141Erk A edou otion lozallat 1)111;111. cxpense \so, It riasinglvbeing Bs. 1860 America was committed to bout seen .is fundament al to the ,ithievernttit iii fundamental principles: There would be sot 11nets national put poses .11) int reased produt tivit vandfightingpoi.ertyand common schools available without t ost to rime. the young of the whoh community. Such schools would provide students of varying backgrounds witha minimutn common educationalexperience.includiet;the intellectual and moral learning necessary to the exercise of responsilde citizenship, whiltavoidingareas thatmight IH destructiveof t commitment to universality. The common school would be a community effort supporud hy taxes. And finally, the common schools would he controlledbytheoverallcommunity ,A throughelectedrepresentativesrather than by sectarian, political, or economic The traditionalview of creating an groups. enlightened citizenry aside, two primary What came after the Civil %Var can be motives spurred the compulsory education called, in the jargon of our own time. movement, There was most obviously the implementation, or at least major progress humanitarian desire to keep chiklren out toward that end There wery to be many of the mines and factories.Less often reinterpretations of the basic ,principles mentioned but present nonetheless was the The effort to make education available on feeling thatthe wilder impulses of the an equitable basis to all young people often young had to be brought under control, faltered, and continues to do so, notably in and this custodial function was turned over Thus emergedthegreat Comnion to the schools.

School Nlovement .sometimes called The immediate result, in any case, was "HoraceMann1s Crusade,"thegrand that the concept of universal education design of which was apparentinmost became atleastinnumerical terms a States by the time of the Civil %Var. There reality'. For the long term, moreover. the were stringent laws against childlabor. compulsory attendance laws had an effect Compulsory school attendance laws were on equalizing educationalopportunities bring passed. The sc hool was longernow thatitsproponentsdoubtlessdidnot a full ten months in many cities, not the forese-, For the principlc of these laws threewinter months of Colonialdays. came .o be seen as applying not just to There were uniform textbooks.likethe youngsters who might otherwise be Noah %Vebster spellers. and there were working in a sweat shop or a mill. but also more ;it'd more public set mutat y schools to thousands upon thousands of boys and (althoughittook the Nlichigan Supreme girlsthe handicapped,forexample CotliCs 1871 Ralamozoodecisionto who informer times would have been establish secondary ethic ation as tirecog.. rejected by the schools. As has been set nized portol the tax supported system), forthina number of Federal education

n la%vs and eittwr stated or implied in some never before considet oil "collegeeducationaloppoitunitiesavailableto of the most farreaching court decisions of material." I hiough sio 11 redo' al inericans (inlay IS5111111' S108 billi.1)(1 our time, compulsory. attendance is now plogt anis astheItasicLilitcational!teal lv eight pet( ell( ollie ( ;ties, N',9((.11.11 seen as being a two-way stree1 . imposing an flppuininity ants. the Nation has Ill fact III odu( 1.tilenight's()len village.1111(mg obligation not only on .111 youngsicislii gone .1 long 55 ay tto.v.iii1 making .1 the (1(.%vlu1ted nations. attend the st hoids but on diest holdsii timinitment topioyide «Mew. Ittitil,t be acknowledged that eihic.ittion educait. .111 .1 youngsteis. in fashion eiltit anon uI Is equo. Aleut to still1.111s shim ol nut. universality, more suitable titthcii ;nifty idtial needs t111,111fit'd V0111152, person willing to 01,11.1' the paiticulat 1% iii eflet tiveilet:s than in Aniein ais.In shiiit .on the eigeitt net (-ism \t'1101 litimbeis. Fin.1 significant piopoltion of

het tinnily.; Huh. a ning so( jet Y.- Folio: N101etRt'l 141 aill1.111011 110111 .1 high childi . especially t hose from ani. one time neatly 59 million people stlimit Is 1101011.t11.W111.1"Illt` disadvantaged backgrounds, muchof in1 it. thanone lout thof theeiltile t'1111 tit s(11001111g. rthicaiion in many i'llITt'llt educational prat lice just doesn't populaiiiiii 111 t tol 111,1 I ale emitted formspublic and private.tonna] and "1 a k HieIt eat ment of minor it y t't1111 .111011Ih1141 anis. and of(Mirka'Olt' informal.torplea.sure and foiplotit childien, and of the handicapped, leaves 11111111W!ti) It'.11 ills %Multi lie tatgtoiltci nun hes the liSes ill nearly hall nitichtobedesired Lackofmoney 111,t11 111.11 ifit 11511,1611g included those the .1111111 populationat onetimein continuestodeprivemanypromising programsoffeirdthrougheducational another. t the other end of the si ale.young people of a chance to reach their telesision\lore than Idpercent of the formal schooling is fast becoming standard full poiclitial. adult population I thoseTi years of age or in early childhood kindergariens have of iiiiiersal education is far closer of older alehighschool graduates. coins(' long since been common and JR'achievementthan it hasever liven, cmilparett %sit 11 49 percent ten years :tgo 110W available publii expense in more tinviNherein the world. And it.; I 1(11.11C(' and 1,1 peii ent in 1 1 n. Nearly nn peiceot than half the States.Ilut there is also a N1:11111 ;111(1 Chades Fenton N1ercer had of thet urrenthighschoolgraduates significant movement toYard nursery foreseen, it has made a major continue their education ata college or schooling. %vitt) 13 States making children10111 ribut ion peril a ps he major university. many of them under -open down to the age of three eligible tor Statecontributionto keeping mir tklimeratic enrollment- plans that smooth the path or federally supported educationprinciplesandMstitutiimsstrongand towardhigherlt.tirningforindividuals programs. The annual cost of the array ofvibrant. II

r Ear r..2

1 16 105 Henry Barnard'sCrusade

s A Ilig ill C111111el tit ill in the IS 211s.I lent,. Bat natil hated school. Pet haps that's. ii.ittgit.,.% tip to bet mine thing with Ins it tend anti t ontempot :Hy I tom hosetts. lltt, t. Mann one ot the 1 'ith leading t. hatlipions tit edut ational telot in and in tact one tit the most thstingtilslied Inoues in the 111.14)1v Id Auld it an editt at ion I fent y Bat thud shut the fitst system,atic i)11st lit tillitt Iii ltt itl it. tAilliplied tilthist hink Id Int./aline in .11net it a tin tlttni if teat hing. and helped to found the first t ()lieges sp.( i lit .11I5 est ahlished (I/Hain teat bets. I le ti siltessf idly essed for the lit st the ioto.vide t dist], on the t [indium) Id Sihimling, .11'14111d rcatiun f)f national dim ation agentthat t.vitenii 1 So7 (ttijt tsliii hot tied what is now the Hind! States Orli«. of Education. lir \VAS the only t andidate seriousl i onsideed to head it. The volume of his vilitorial work ultimately rem lied en( yclopedit propor tionst overing what would se-in to have liven eetv i tint eis able aspec, .tfeditt ation not only in the I hiuttil States hut abtoad IS well. and ;Is ;1 vigwittis and eloquent speaker no group was too small toour numil his presen«.. 1 he -common- Si hot)! he .ittended as a youth in Hari bud \vas probably tin worse I ry Barnardin his later years than others in the fledgling Republic. Sup pot thot pultl. edit( ation ,,vas;itbest meagre. primarily hecattse most people felt judged chiefly by their ;Utility to "keep :is teacher in a small school district in that whatever tax money they were it. school.- which was taken to mean terror Pennsylvania :nut later recommended that Int tautly petsuaded to part %vith could ht . iiing high spirited youngsters into idie every young man in search of a career try put to better use. Those determined to diem docility. 1"ming Barnard hiund his teat hing. for a year. as "the best way to dint :ire their t. hildren. and ,thle to afford lasses -miserable" and the discipline settle in his mind what he has learned." to do situsually turned to private academ ruel." BY the tittle he turned 12 he was so Young Barnard kept precisely to Olaf it...And so the «iintrit in school limped desperate that ht. :Ind a classmate devised a si hedule. leaving the classroom to spend along, regarded vith littIe more esteem plan to run ;1vity to sea. the next several yearssupluIrted hy his than the tocliitt.I he few textbooks Fortunately his well to do father. who father and armed with letters of ituro mattt . avail:fide tf) thy Si holars were old had thought the public school would pro dot tion from prominent New and tattered Slates ,ind chalk were te %iglu a leveling experienci . overheard the Englanders traveling it) the United States garded ;is barely toletable frills. The plotters Appalled hy his son's .nhappiness and Europe. In 1,Vashingnm he went to dinner at the White 1 louse and sat in the tit ket v.t amshat kle schoolhouses were he shipped the buy off to a private at a freciingly t old in svititersttiita baths ill (ferny. and from there young Barnard went galleries of Congress as Daniel Webster suintner. But the biggest problem was the on to Yale 1.ii vtnsui y, where he became a and1 h.nry Clay locked horns in their tem hers. (:enetally only a trifle more skilled debater and ;in ,tvid student of famous tariff debates. In England he spent day in the country with Wordsworth. In advanced than their students. they were "literatur_i . grad uating he took a job

106 117 s_ -1

OA.

"f4fiC=r-,-

....- P. wr"

.3P15. , int/S67.t'PS' the nerd: I 'ruled Mato 1/1.par-toner/I of Laitteation ( (ommissionerBarnard and his three assistants) (mt t S1.00)) per.e(lo.7/1 this two-story budding at the rented r(toms at a corner of 14th Street and Xew York ..lvenuein Washington. I) C. itIct 1.ttidht. %isited the school vhere offered freely to ;Ill. in schools ftottann that maiit 0111 only a severely 11111'11rd hitt-totting ( toddler( tained good standard... and I 11Trit 1111.1111 WILt front tote teat lung. trill were (asily ;1c- ieaSible. Stit h V anty enrollment also eo,olutitmliong t.t..sible. -The Commonst hool. he told tdlit .1111111 III the pro( o Alter a swing demonstrated that the lack ofcompulsory his telIoty legislators. -shouldno longer be Mt tough t orrniany and Italt he le.ed attendance latys meant thatlitany children regarded as common because it ischeap. Parr, until his lathei 11(.%el saw 1 school. Those that didfound final illness hroughtinferior. and attended on'y In.. the pont... hi)ille themselves in classes in chicheveryone was but common as the light and airtrc. lumped together. there being I lartftPit1 anti .2t1 no grades mon but misc. its blessings are opento all tlitiH ettleit (itItcll it) and emoved by all ,Rcincling to age ot ;Milky. 1 he school "veal" lasted hot only Mid LOCI in tritri pliitit S.I Lill -I he hill tyas pa.ssed. the Conitecti( 1 few weeks in f(iiti tit summer and a I(.: mote in winter, the 18.17 lioard of Commissioners for Cot-ninon schedule dep.nding noton the lessons to bk. It a St hook was established. andMr liarnaid single etellt ( ,otild he saidt() ht.( oyertil but on how longfunds held (out lauttchrd t timed the pleas of his associatesto leave NItHai halt] s( areei an edu t. attonal it to pay the (cachets ;mil buy icood hotthe his legislative post and becomethe com stove..I here being fortnet t no statrmyide standard mel that ultimately spanned mission's secretaryin diet t. the State's NI %cm, It v-t, lot teNtbooks. thesc hoofs settled lot what bill flirt hool tit'Ftt-i lie served lout years. calling tor a State t. ormnission eter they ( mild get their handson, the to insp.( I hen a shift in the intritical %Villa,'led a futhlit V it(H1 Li( ilities and insult( guiding prin( iple being minimum( ost. Ilona' ileW abitiliAll the Ittial.(1. programt . and to let ornitictid improte- Not .1 single dish ict hadprofessionally failed %itBarnard said, hut in fa(t inenr. fir trained tea( hetand in fact no c ()lieges in \\Chile the ( ommission %youth] have had dont. um( It itt hell) launch Tito goof ta a public the State (dieted t.trietor 11,1wei sm h training. NI( Raman] bow- ith y-littolittg, that in tirtit.w,ts til.ttii nttull Ittt puldit otttlutturt tut ppalled by what he was dis In impel Atticricati ethit ittittit intoit net,: coveritn.z. Mr liatitattl Iteonsithred lundamental toa era went pub- clehlim rat lic. speaking before that had fought so long atul lit personal titit and extensive scores of civic. hard lot (ones patent edit( ation groups. addressing al freedom. In silt h m not poontlen«. he had madean inventory of the the State legislature. ;nut he felt . ( onsistern v and growl turtling out 1)1'1i- State hoof re.....tout( es that was to be(only (HP"( Witte tl'tittlni'tl that t'titit atioll tit the /owls of omit les, pamphlets.and treatises. 0 model tot .ttiorlat ;(ssessonento. elseuvherr Virttually Aunt' ,Inttnget genet-onion slitoult1 not ht Siit't retied in arousing in . reset vt-ti Attluttg Ii itt.1 lit nugIte found that the list It, tiuust tt bit ttt (:(milecti( HI the beginnings ofa drive to hi iii hit tttt,rItl Abu (I at.eragt. ernollment in the Statr's 1.700 lit pt l improve the schools comparableto that Ate ot atherttic,, hut n trltti ',futtlIth itt st Iwo) districts tvas only t2 children. so fey muter to:ay in Massachusetts uncle!the 10ri 8 Ic-ailetsli,p of his itititil 1 Iota. e \him. an. tool- .SufliitiIiIlsIlllhIIlIthe edm anon Ohl. at Vitli illy end id the Civil ()diet legislatoi tinned edut animal le philosophies of haslIllis, Pesiallitia and Voi howevet . the Nation seemed detet lot met Niu yy as this the limn id Ins lalous hull anditurn) iivinis in rilti mined to take a tug in us belt aod set out in I le hod also managed to ( ony int e Pies' mum ti hogland.;,.finativ. Belgium. new ditections. and one of the dent Mania Van Buten that the hedei il ,mil Not way'. l'eat ut Veal MIL MI alit's was ColiglessIliall Goy eminent shuuld illidrilaku a similai Bat nal d labored mule] his sell imposed !land& passing both I h MSC'S, t IlleaSille my enony 011111041mm the N.ition as p.m editot ial and titian( ial bur,:fen. I le also 51,15 signed lino law by Piesident ,Andrew the Census of 1810. and he had launt lied humid nine tiit Itt tain (diet Milton ant en ,folinsun on Match 2, 1867. Otte week later Pt esident .1ohnson sent to the Senate tot the Cioltic, COIn Pn011 I h /1)11 tell)! ises. 1 le \vim(' books on such subjects the first such publit ,ition aimed at giving as Pestalotti atul school at chitectin e and conlifination as the first U.S, Cotmnis tem het, useful information on the AU id the kindergat ten moyement. lot example. stl(tii'l Ill Educatiim t name of I lem y (cal hiiiig nd the plc( IlistI ol all and set ved as chancellor of the I Inversity Willi al lir Was lit iii ,Vis«insin horn 1858 to 1860 mid lir Department's function was to con lake litti ptesident )1 St .1)1Ins College in Annapolis sist utl "C011riling such statistics and I acts as 1 hen ( ante the Conliectil hum 1866 to 1867 leaving the latter post shall slum the condition and progress of (h.( ision to terminate the Common School when an old dream finally came true. Thateducation in the United States and Terri Commission. a 'mini( al move that had dream was the creation of a Federal agencytories- I the inventory idea that Mr. meanwhile had a cttunterpart in MaSsa assigned to work for the improvement ot Barnard had initiated in Connecti('ut) and husras, Flirt(' I lora( e .Iitiii, the State's education not just in one section of the of -diffusing such information respecting superintendent of schools, lat ed a proposal country hut in all. the organization anti management of by the \lassachusetts legislature to abolish schools and school systems anti methods of both the superintendency and Ow State's teauhing as shall aid the people of the only te,u lwt tiaining school. Aroused by United States in the establishment and this threat to Nlann's piogram estab maintenance of efficient school systems, lishiny, a sVstrill schools. staffed and otherwise promote the cause of educa- by trained teat hets. Nlr. Barnard appeal tion throughout the country.- For these ed beton the State legislator(' and delivered purposes the new agency had an annual endorsement of his friend's el- budget of S I 3.000 and a staff consisting of tot tsI he propoSal was si,on dropped. Not Conunissioner Barnard and three clerks. so sm ( essf ul ni his mcn behalf. . Todayrenamed, its missions greatly Bat nard spent the veal after his dismissal broadened. and long since placed in the inspecting schools in other parts oldie Department of !health, Education, and Nation before ie entering the fray, as State Welfarethe Office of Education has an superintendent of st hnols first in Rhode Is- annual budget of some $6 biilion and its land and then in Connectieut. 2.800person staff administers more than By now he was also promoting. during 100 programs offering support to virtually repeated visits to Washington. D.C.. a every level and aspect of education. «mph' of odwr ideas. One was the (-stab Mr. Barnard served as Commissioner for lishment of a Federal agetRy for the ad three years. Ill and at odds with the Con- y ant ement of education . and the other . gress, he resigned in 1870 to return to I Iartford to edit his beloved journal and linked with it. a national journal to keep educators informed about useful practice serve as eminence grilse to the now vigorous in this «mntry and abroad. Failing to gen school reform ITIOvetnelli. (-rate sufficient interest in theseroposals. Upon his death 30 years later at age 89, he resigned Ins Connecticut superinten a colleague observed : Henry Barnard as Commissioner dem y in 1855 to devote Ins time to carry No one can ever write about Ameri- ing outit least one of them. The result was can or European educational affairs t he .4 werrean fournal of Education. a from 1830 to 1875 without drawing pet iodical that was to become a landmark he name of this agency was the United States Department of Edu. mo.st of his information and inspira- in educational literature. fromthewritingof I fen ry cation, and it came ahout as a tion Using his own funds, ultimately mon Barnard He had all the instincts of consequence of legislation introduced in gaging his property when other resources the Acientist, the patience of a his- Oingress by a former college president who an out. Mr. Barnard published the tormn, the poise of a state.sman, and would one day become President of the journal for nearly 30 years, initially as a the zeal of a reformer. quarterly later as often as funds and United States. Representative James A. material Iwcame available. In all he Garfield of Ohio. Such a bill had in fact Mr. Barnard himself had summed up his produced 31 volumes, each averaging been introduced on several previous occa- lift- work in a dozen words. "Schools,- he about 500 pages anti containing articles he sions. only to be resoundingly turned had said. "should be good enough for the himself wrote plus contributions from down. Some had argued that such a best and cheap enough for the poorest.- eminent educators both in the United Federal entity was at odds with Constitu Along with Horace Mann, he had made a States and Europe. A typical volume tional provisions limiting responsibility for notable contribution to the achievement of included entries covering such subjects as ethic ation to the States. Others had ob- that goal. the teaching of history. geography, natural jecte'l to whatever costs might be involved. STORY MOOREFIELD But perhaps a more pervasive impediment science. and geometry .the lyceum con OE's Office of Public A ffain Staff «-pt : "education of the factory popula had been a persistent indifference toward 108 119 Kalamazooand

t would be difficult ported high school in a lawsuit whose out- the following year. Under this to think of a more come was to play an irnportant role in the law a school district having more than characteristic local emergence of the 25,000 or so such schools 200 school-age institution in the children was authorizedto elect a school in existence today. Ifparents wanted their United States board, which inturn was empowered to a children to pre.:are for college andlearn greater source of establish grade levelsto be covered, em- foreign languages, theseproperty :iwners community ploy teachers, make rules, andif the held, they should foot the billthemselves voters of the district wished establish a klentification and rather than dip into the publictreasury to pridethan our high school to be supportedby local taxes. pay for what was essentiallya frill anyway. public high schools. So characteristicin There was some grumbhngover the in fact.As they pointed out, a -commonschool- that the 19 millionyoung people currently ( which is to say elementary) creased tax burden that resulted,but that auending them doubtless education was as far as protests went until January of assume that the had been good enoughto get one if their concept of providing secondary education 1873. Then the three prominent number elected to the UnitedStates citizens of at p:iblic expense isas firmly fixed in Senate. Kalamazoo filed a suit to restrainthe school board from using American traditionas Bunker Hill and Tito high school they tax funds to sup- Valley Forge. were belatedly port the high school or pay its principal. complaining about had beenset up 15 Not so. It was many deca(les after and to stop the townshiptreasurer from the years earlier on the third floor ofa new Revolution before public high schools building erected to collecting that portion of the schooltax al- serve the three-district located for these began to be established, andas recently as 'common" school of Kalamazoo. In purposes. In establishing 1875 opposition to them estab- the school, they argued, the board was vigorous. It lishing it the townspeople hadjumped the had was in that year that three propertyowners technically violated the,1859State law by gun a bit, acting on the assumption thata in the village of Kalamazoo. failing to put the questionto the voters in Michigan. law being considered by theState legisla- challenged the notion of the an election. publicly sup- ture would be passed. which in fact it was Many observers seem to have assumed

p KALAMAZOO HIGH SCHOOL

itifire A High School Too

that this was a "friendly" suit, brought to landmarkperhaps because of the pre clarify an.,biguous legal situation, and eminence of the jurist who wrote the in dismissi, 13 months later Circuit unanimous decision of the Michigan State Judge Charles E. Brown remarked that "as Supreme Court in upholding the Kalama - the real purpose of the suit is to establish !:)c, board's right to maintain its public the legal status of our public schools, costs high school. will he awarded to neither party.- It was The reputation of Associate Justice nevertheless to become clear that the chief Thomas M. Cooley transcended his posi complainanttaking a view against free tion on the high court bench of a new Mid secondary education that was by no means western State. His writings in various fields unc,immon in the Uni(ed States at the of the law had given him international timehad something consi(ierably more prominence. A monumental work on Con. ( or considerably less) than friendliness in slit utional Limitations had appeared five min(i . years before Kalamazoo, ao.d is still cited hat would be Charles E. Stuart. in judicial decisions at all levels of Ameri. who was to give his name to a case can jurisprudence. It is therefore possible officially recorded as Charles E that the opinion under the attribution wirt and 01 hers v. Schtml District NoI "Cooley, J.- carried more weight with Illi. the ['Wage 01 Kalamazoo and others. nois and Ohio judges than perhaps equally The complaining "others" were Theodore well reasoned opinions bearing the names P. Sheldon and Ilenry Brees, who. like CHARLES E. STUART of less celebrated jurists in Pennsylvania or Stuart. were holders of substantial New Jersey. amounts of property in Kalamazoo and involved. In 1880 howeversix years after The Kalamazoo complainants were thus substantial taxpayers. The defending the issue was theoretically settledSenatorarguing, Justice Cooley wrote, "that there "others" were the members of the school Stuart told a Kalamazoo school board is no authority in this State to make the board and the township treasurer. Mr. meeting ( called to consider enlarging the high schools free by taxation levied on the Stuar ra rural New Yorker who had high school) that he had been brooding onpeople at large. The argument is that mo.:ed to Michigan soon after being the question of public support of high while there may be no constitutional pro admitted to the bar of the Empire State. schools for the past 15 years, that his views vision expressly prohibiting such taxation, had styled in Kalamazoo in 1835. Five had not changed, and that no community f we arc asked) to regard the instruction in years later he was sent to the State could "continue to exist" under such a the classics and in living modern language legislature on the Democratic ticket, and burden of taxes as had been levied on the in these schools as in the nature not of in 18.16 he was ekcted to Congress. In 1852 citizens of Kalamazoo. Fle was in favor of practical and therefore necessary instruc the Michigan legislature elevated him to "giving every child a good school educa- tion for the benefit of the people at large, the linked States Senate ( the tion." he said. but he wanted to "stop rightbut rather as accomplishments of the few, constitutional method of choosing Senators there." A common school education is all until the Seventeenth Amendment was the-Siitte has a right to support with tax ratified in 1913). lle quickly established moneys. and that was all that was needed himself as an intimate of the most "to make a Congressman or President of prominent statesmen of the day and was the Llaited States.- ( Stuart's own formal chairman of the Democratic convention educatioti had ended with common that nominated his friend Stephen A. school ; after working on his father's New Douglas to run against Lincoln. The next York farm he had been apprenticed to a Michigan legislature had a Republican lawyer and "read his law- that way. So had majority and Democrat .Stuart was not Lincoln.) returned. Retired from the national cnator Stuart's viewpoints were politica! scene, he continued to be a local by no means uncommon at the figure of prestige and power. time. and he was not alone in tak- As such his views on just about any sub. ing his case to court. Similar suits were ject were much sought after, but he seems filed in a number of other States, with to have made no public references to similarly unsuccessful results, and in fact education prior to the filing of his suit. one such case had been heard in Pennsyl- There was thus nothing to suggest to Judge vania as early as 1851. As with Kalamazoo, these cases were appealed to the Supreme Brown ( or to the Michigan Supreme Court THOMAS M. COOLEY when it reviewed the decision) that any Courts of the States involved, but it was thing other than a legal clarilwation was Kalamazoo that became the controlling

1 1 0 1'; to be sought atter in the r or (liet 011111. 44' 111,-,:;e best f r able to pay for them, andto be paid for "iiy iho-: who seek them, andnot by genet al INCHANCERY tax:" illtit ice Cooley s,iid he hadto "confess to no hole surprise- at the proposal of sucha doctrine. as "against the rightof the State to furnish a liberal educationto the youth (/ of the State in schoolsbrought wit hin IA (.4L )tf 4717 / reach of all classes.- Education."not merely in the rudinient.s,but in an en e larged sense- was, he thought, an /4f G 11,4(///-1 important practical advantageto be supplied to all. Imt merelyto "those whose accumulated wealth enabledthem to pay for it... The analysis that followed carefullyre- iewed the legal precedents for thisposi- tion. beginning with the NorthwestOrdin- ance of1787.Which tequired that -schools and the means of education shallforever be encouraged." Justice Cooleydrew parti- ular attention to the principleinvolved in an1827NlicIngan law calling for "thees- tablishment of common schools"after the fashion (If 'TAWS Whkil ittOlia very early pr.ri)d had liven in existence inMassachu- (71 1-`./.11 (e` setts. .. The complainants. he :;aid. had no grounds for asserting that "(Th11111011 ,g/;14 svhImis" could offer onlyelementary in- /. struction and lacked authorityto support a -higher grade ol learning."Summing up, justice Cooley held that therecord "clearly and conclusively- demonstratedthat it had been a -gem-ral State policy since1817to I bring within reach of all children.free 4:" education includingI he elements of classi- alL cal education.- ftor 187-1.courts of other States confronting challengestopublic high schools invarialdyturned to Kalamazoo. It is incidentally worthnoting that in the 15 years followingthe Cooley . decision. the number of highschools in Michigan int reased froth 107to 278,with INJUNCTION. a similar growth in the States nearby. In time. Stuart v. Kalamazoocame to affect inure than high schools,heartening and reinforcingproponents of sw h other unorthodox variationson public education as kindergat tens. vocational training, communit vi ttlleges. technical institutes. and special education for thehamlicapped and the gifted. Iliese effortsto make learning more widely availableI (:ooley on Kalamazoo may he understoodto have said) are, like high school.s,indispensable parts of a system of ethical IM1 br the Founding Fathers andentrenched in each of the 50 Stateconstitutions. RARRY L. SELDEN Program Manager, OE's Division of State Assistance a 1

122 11 1 EDUCATIN'S EVOLVINGROLE

BY WENDELL PIERCE

from the beginning of American histcry, Founding Fathers metinPhiladelphia Ince Colonial days, during that hot summer of 1787 to design a three evolving government has been the centralforce in and new form of government,schools and forces in American developing an educational system, havebeen colleges were but two of many edueational life have beenin- educationandpolitics inextricably linked. In the Middle andinstitutions. The family, the farm, the fluenced, shaped, shop, and the churches were of equal if not ndinsomein Southern Colonie.s, the establishment of education came about when the governinggreater importance. stances determined Few conceived that the aim of formal by that process of bodies gave permission to various religious education should be to give all children an transmitting knowl- groupstoestablish schools or granted todeveloptotheirfull values known as educational charters to busin-ssrnen oropportunity edge, skills, and potential. Common schools for youngsters education. landowners. In the New England Colonies, the govetning bodies used the authorityof differingreligions and backgrounds The first of these has been political, the poor expressed primarily in the creation andthey had received from the crown and were rare, and the children of establish, usually received no schooling at all. When preserv ation of new forms of governance. parliament themselves to schools and the Constitution went into effect in 1789, hasbeeneconomic, support, andadminister The second outto American education served for the most reflected in the Nation's steady growth andcolleges. Thus colonists setting found a new town in Massachusetts were parttomaintainthekindofclass from a primarily its transformation distinctions characteristic of Europeat a predominantly industrial- required to reserve one building lot for the agrarian to that time. Formal educational endeavors technological economy. support of education. thatthe were not considered of sufficientnational The third force has been social, initially It isinterestingtonote Bay bearing to warrant inclusion among the the blending of disparate elements into a legislatureoftheMassachusetts Colony charteredthefirstcollegein basic laws establishing the new Federal more unified whole and more recently a republic. Instead, education was one of the striving to provide equal opportunities for Colonial America in 1636 ( Harvard) , that firstpublic school responsibilities reserved, under the Bill of all. three years later the supportedbydirecttaxation was Rights, to the individual former Colonies Woven throughout these three forces, an that collectively had become the United integral part of each, has been an idealistic established, and that three years after that the first locally elected school board was States of America. Events were in fact to and inspirational human quality formed. Thus, more than 100 years before rendereducationthesinglemost epitomized byapassionforchange, prerogativeof theColonial improvement. reform, and renewal. the American Revolution, were created the important oflegislatures that evolved into the governing The indispensable condition, thesine basicmodelsforthegovernance bodies of the quasi-independent States of qua nonof the American experience, has American education. Two principles had. emerged: educational institutions derivethe new Federal union. been the first of these forces the political. operate from Very soonafterratificationof the Although important economic factors also theirauthority to government sanction, and local schoolsConstitution it became apparent that the were involved, it was basically certain deep new form of government required a new philosophical and pragmatic differences should have some degree of local control. The broad application of those principles, view of education. A government of the betweenEnglandandtheAmerican however, was to come about only with the people,derivingitspowers fromthe Colonies over the form and function of requiredan government that led to the upheaval of the gradual evolution of the Nation itself. consent of the governed, PresidentGeorge American Revolution and the subsequent While the Declaration of Independenceeducatedpopulace. in1776 provided a stirring intellectual Washington recognized this proposition in creation of an entirely new and unusually his Farewell Address. "It is essential that dynamicpoliticalstructure.Similarly. rationale for what was yet CO be, it was the Constitutional ConventionI Iyears laterpublic opinion should be enlightened,- he that produced the cornerstone upon which said on that occasion, and he went on to Drl',r e :sEsti( Duct tor oft htiEdut at ion urge the people to promote"institutions Commission (itt he St ates a nationcould bebuilt.Whenthe 112 125 for the iteneral diffusionofknowledge.- Similarly, Thomas Jefferson. theauthor of and learning generallydiffused thro4;11 the Declaration of Independence. corn triunity a said that beingessential to., "any nation that ,t he expects to be ignorant preset.% ation of a freegovernment,. and free. . .expects what never was and shall be the duty ofthe generalassem, never willhr..; and James bly. . Madison, a .to prmide by law fora syst!.iil of prime mover in thedevelopment of the education, ascending in Constitution regular gradation andtheBillofRights, from township schoolsto a State university, declaredthat **knowledgewillforever wherein tuition shall begratis, and equally govern ignorance; anda people who mean open to all.- tobe their owngovernors must arm Thus was developedduring the early them.selyeswiththepowerwhich and middleyears of the 19th knowledge gives.- century the structure and substance ofa completely In any case. under the newly developed. new kind of schoolsystem, created and Feder a Isvs terno f h a red power sustained by State responsi bil it y for providing governments. Given the the means by latter circumstance, itwas natural that the which the people could arm themselves for impetus. both philosophicaland practical, popular governmentwas retained by the should come notfrom seeral States. The professional States thereby found educators but frompersons active in the themselves held accountablefor the success political arena. Itwas the politicians who or failure of populargovernment itself, tooi:theleadin both institutionalizingthe withintheirown bordersand educationalcomponent essential throughoutthe to the youngrepublic.Their success of the new Constitution.The deliberate but successfulresponse to this philosophical foundations challenge was to become had been the signal feature providedearlierby suchnational of American federalism. statesmen as Thomas Jefferson.James By 1827 35 Years after the foundingof Madison, and BenjaminFranklin. The the new Republic all of the original 13 practical process ofimplementationwas States and all huttwo of the 11 that had led by State legislators.notably Henry since joined the union hadmade some Barnard of Connecticutand Horace Mann provision for publicor popular education, of Massachusetts. either through their Stateconstitutions or 1 Jeffersonand Madison,although by legislation The Indianaconstitution of agreeing on the need forsome kind of basic 1816.for example, stated: education for all,were from a classical "Knowledge Newcomersto America and the schools. tradition that consideredLatin and Greek

,f.t/S1 Before child labor laws were enacted, youngsterswere as apt to be spending as much time in the.factoriesas in the schools.

26 1 1 3 as the'c9rtierstones of 'Western civilization. It was Franklin who provided the rnotNating principles for a mor utilitarian app'roach. In his -Proposals Relating to the Education of Youth in Pennsylvania.- he re.mniniended three innovations: First, emphasison Englishandmodern la Ill; IA ages . seC011 d . tffil ph .1 Sis on 111a1 in'111,1111-ti and SCICOCC: andthird, ph a SlS on experimentation and practicalapplication.t "Wh.1. theyare reading natural history." Franklin wrote. "might nuta little gardening. grafting, inoculating. etcbe taught and practiced: and now and then excursions niade to the neighboringplantationsof the best farmers.theirmethodsobservedand teasoned uponforthe informationof vouth:-1 What c'selI hcir differences of ;ipproach. howeyer lefb.rson. Aladison. and Franklin were agreed on the critic al Importance Of 001, .111 rdin t'd popillaCC. And tio. spurred by 11'0' the principles enunciated by such revered a these.theStatelegislarures set um to fulfill then educ ation l'he Virginia I."gislature, lot example, finally emu. ted in 179u ;1bill -torthe\loreGeneralDiffusionnf knowledge- that Jefferson had introduced in 177 9. althoughamendments giving great pt lIvut to local communities served to block effective implementation until the passage of new legislation in 1829. In 1812. the New York Legislature created the first To support that ConstitutionbyThis proposition has not been taken as statewide public school organization in the ensuring an educated electorate. the Staterelieving the schools of all responsibility for imparting totheir pupils some sense of young Nation.providing a State legislatures were confronted by issues that Department of Pub1U- instruction headed remain familiar today: religion, finance.ethicsantimorality.Rather,such by a State Superintendent of Schools. In andgovernance. Theadroit thoughinstruction has increasingly become more generalized,orientedtowardstandards the18311, and111s, two New England usually slow andsotnetimes painful legislatorsI lenry Barnard and Iforace manner in whUll these issues were resolvedand aspirations of the society as a whole Alannplayed prominc Iii c,k.s during the first half of the 19th centuryrather than to the tenets of a particular sweeping reform movement that was to largdy determined education's role in thesect. spread. State by-State. across the Nation. Republic's subsequent development. If schools were to be nonsectarian, how Out of that mo einem came a tont ept of 'Although silent as regards education thewere they to be supported? Obviously, education that %CAS nOt only to seme the Federal Constitution did provide guidanceschools created by religious groups and overall needs- of the society but to respond onthereligionissue. Oneof manyfinancially dependent upon donations and to such specII circunistances as the onset experimental elements in thatthe payment of tuitionas most were in massiye Wa VS of immigrants and a shift experimental document linked freedom ofColonial America and during the early from an agrarian to an nidustrial religion to the principle of separation of yearsof the Republic w.-reinherently economy'. church and staze. Neither the Federal. norexclusive and specifically unfair to the In 1837, Mann gave up the presidency of Stategovernmentscouldinterferein children of the poor. One step toward the M,nti,n hiO,ltt, SC(1.11C be«MIC the religious affairs or provide public funds toameliorating this situation was the firstsecretary. of a new State board of support churches orchurchrelateddevelopment of "free schools" where the education .As26-year old member of the activities. Proponents of a universal systemchildren of what we now term low-income Connect it ut Assern bly , Rartlarll of public elementary schoolstookthisparents were supported by public funds introduced-AnAct forthe Better thesis a step further by arguing that non- and all others paid tuition. Advocates of Supervision of Common Schools,-anti sectarianism would promoteagreater equality argued that such an arrangement uponitspassagein1838 hefollowed senseof nationalunity.animportantcontinuedandinfactfostered class N1ann's example and became the State's consideration in education for citizenship distinctions, and that these distinctions first Commissioner ofEducation. These in a republic. While disputes over variouscould he reduced only by financing the two politicians-turnededucators forms of publicaidtochurchrelatededucation of all children,cgardless of personirted the drive toward a uniquely education and over the role of religion inparentalmeans,throughpublicfunds Americanformofeducation the theschoolprogramanti curriculum raisedthroughpublictaxation.Free character, financing. anti control of which continuetoday.theoriginalprinciplepublic education limited to the children of was to prove as revolutionary in its way as remains: Schools controlled by churchespoverty, they insisted, was simply an elitist the Constitution it was created to preserve, tnay not be supported by public funds.extension of charity and in any event a 1 1 4 4 es, In any case, the pattern havingbeen set that the schools would be nonsectarianand publicly supported, the questionremained ENROLLMENT STATISTICS. ofhowtheyweretobe Percent governed. 0 20 40 Obviously,if public educationwere left 60 80 100 entirely to the pleasuresoflocal 1900 I If communities, its scope and qualitywould vary enormously, as in fact was thecase in the early years. Thus thereevolved the conceptof controlunderState mandate, with the States, throughtheir constitutions and by 1930 legislation, III/IIIIIIII est ablishingminimumst andardsand requirements for public schooling.State school superintendents and Stateboards of education,electedbythepeopleor - appointed by thegovernor, were held responsible for monitoring those 1975 standards IfIIIIIfff and requirements. Meanwhile,the day.to. day operation andmanagement of local schools waslefttolocallyappointed teachers, locally selected superintendents, divisive force in whatwas supposed to be a and locally elected school boards. ;.71..? free and equitable society. If Usually Jefferson and the latter were made independentof other Franklin and Madison had beencorrect in local officials or agencies --kept Elementary School-Age Youngsters holding immune, educationtobeessentialin as agents of the State, from the routine of maintaining the Republic, theyreasoned, local politics. High.School-Age Youngsters schooling shouldbefreetoall and This uniquely American methodof Postsecondary Education supported through public taxation.Even shared powerinlocal-State school those taxpayers who hadno children in the governance made it possible for American schools would benefit from theexistence ofeducation to be responsive both an to specificso by the middle of the 19th educatedelectorate. Some ofthe local needs and, through the broad century the warmest and in any case StateStates had by and large fulfilledthe need most decisive mandate, to the greater needs of thelarger advocates of these principleswere to be to provide enough education for e:iough society. To makesure those needs werepeople to be reasonably certain found among the elected officialsof themet, the States ultimately enacted laws that there States, and by one State legislature existedareasonably well-educated after requiring all communitiesto establish and anothertheconceptof electoratethough to besure, members of freepublic maintain public schools. And then,led byracial minorities, females, education was spelledout inthe State Massachusettsin1852, and the constitutions. theyenactedhandicapped continuedto receive short compulsory school attendance laws.And As for how the necessary shrift. money was to MEIMMU, be raised, the early public schoolswere afr variously supportedby liquorand amusement taxes,land grants,special taxes on parents of students,lotteries, andstemming from a Massachusettslaw of 1647what became the characteristic WE ARE method of support, theproperty tax. The protectedif. latter was particulaily pushed byschool districts established in some of thebigger o cities under State legislation enactedeven beforetheStates themselves began to support education. Moreover, when the States did begin to share thecost, local property taxes continued to be the chief source of school funds, as indeed theyare today. amidst muchcontroversy. Among the major elements of thiscontroversy are first, the feeling that localtax rates have been pushed just about to the limit,and second, that wide variances in the wealth of local jurisdictions seriouslyundermine theprincipleofequaleducation opportunity. The school finance issue is, in short, thorny and complex, andas with so many other basic questions in education, political decision-making wouldappear to be central to its resolution. Young textile workers in Philadelphia in 1890 enlisted in a strike for freeschooling. 1 1 5 1 911 Throughout,the primarymotivating force and rationale for education had been edu,cation for citizenship. As Horace Mann wrote Onhistenth report as secretary of the Massachusetts Board of Ed,lcation "Sincetheachievementof American independence. the universal arid ever-repeated argument infavor of free schools has been that the general intelligence which theyare capable of diffusing, and which can be imparted by no other human instrumentality. is indispensabletothe continuance of a republican government Then in the middle of the 19th century. certain social arid economic forces came to the fore to compel the educational system toexpandits baseandbroaden its horizons,firstin secondary schools and later in the colleges and universities. One of the most dramatic of these forces was an industrialrevolutionthatshiftedthe American economy from an agricultural to an industrial base and displayed an almost insatiable appetite for the Nation's human, physical. and financial resources. Of the three. the human proved the most essential. A small. experimental democracywith a limitedpopulationSeparatzon of church and state was atheme of cartoontst Thoma.s Nast In the INN, composed primarily of farmers and traders had needed to provide the majority of its staffthebusinesses,startup the new more than 90 percent of those aged 14-17. citizens with only enough educationto industries, and handle the financial affairs Even moreremarkablehasbeen the enable them to read the Scriptures. Now of an expanding and increasingly complex growth of enrollment rates in the demand was for trained people ready economy. Meanwhile the Nation itself was postseconda,y education.In 190G. less to run the factories, build the railroads. expanding. both in geographic size and in than five percent of all youth aged 18-21 population.Schoolingnolonger was were attending colleges or universities. By simply a democratic ideal but a practical 1930.this proportion had grown to 20 necessity. percent. Thday it exceeds 50 percent. And so. during the latter half of the 19-h This record comribution to the Nation's century,pubhceducationincreasingl! welfare is no better illustrated than by its included the availability of free,public economic impact. both on the individual high schools in addition to the "common" and in the aggregate. Most easily measured ttA, schools mandated earlier by State law. In is the financial benefit of education to the the 1870s a number ofcourt cases, individual. As analyses by the U.S. Census particularly theKalamazoodecision of the Bureau show, the more education people Michigan Supreme Court, established the have the higher their lifetime earnings are principle that the use of tax funds for likely tobe.For example, the lifetime educational purposes need not be limited worth of a 22-year old male shows the to the elementary level. Thus the concept following average variance according to of secondary and postsecondary education different educational backgrounds:Less as a tuition-paying proposition necessarily than eight years of schooling$159,000: reserved to only a few gave way to the goal elernentaryschoolgraduate$192,000: of providing and even requiring as much onetothreeyearsofhighschool education as pomible for all. State after $216.000; highschoolgraduate Stateadopted compulsory school $264,000; one to three years of college attendance laws covering youngsters to at $301,000;college graduate$388,000; least age 14 or 16. five years or more of college$443,000. The enrollment statistics tell the story of Obviously, oneof education's primary what happened thereafter. In 1900, some contributions has been to provide a greater 70 percent of all children aged six to 13 numberofindividualswithgreater were in elementary schools, while about personal income and employment security. ten percent of those 14-17 years of age were Nor issuch private returnthe only attending secondaryschools.By1930, justificationforpublicsupportof nearly 85 percent of elementary school-age education endeavorsthat now directly children were enrolled. amt the figure for involve nearly 30 percent of the population high school-age youngsters had climbed to and consume more than $100billion 50 percent. The current figures are almost annuallyalmosteightpercentof the 100 percent of all children aged six-13 and Gross National Product. As the individual 116 investments.Nloreover. their projections for the future indicate that this effect will be even inure powerful in the future.. In airy case. it is selfevident that n:itions with high education attainment levels tend tohavehigherpercapitaincomes, regardless of thelevel of theirnormal resources, than nations with high levels of natural resourcesand loweducation attainmentlevels.Switzerlandand Denmar k. with few natural resoui ces. are cases in point. So are Colombia and Brazil, which have ldgh lvels of natural resources

, but low education attainment levels and low per capita incomes. The United States, with high levels of both natural resources and education attainment. has the highest per capita income intheworld. The Americanlaborforce possesses more educationalapit al po person than that of any other country. and the result is to be seeninti eNation'sextraordinary econcimic developnient. But the Nation's schools ;ma college.s have been expectedtomakefurther contributions to provide more than education for citizenship and education for economic growth. From the beginning they have also been called up to fulfill a variety of social as well as political and economic functions.Itwas the schools, morethan anyotherinstitutionin American society. thatprovidedthe cohesion necessary for the creation of a sense of national unit,.It was the schools thatboretheprimeresponsibilityfor "Americanizing.'themillionsupon millions of immigrants that poured into the Nation from the middle of the 19th century through the second decade of the 20th. And ithas been the schools anti colleges of the country that have been in the forefront of more contemporary efforts to provide equal opportunities for those who once hadbeensystematically Detail from themural "Spirit of the Land Grant College excludedwomen, blacks and other celebrating the landmarkminorities,thementallyorphysically l8b2 laze /or poNtiecondart education handicapped. benefitsso does the Nation as a whole. Traditionally it had been held that while Americans have deliberately used their Higher personal incomes providea direct schools and colleges;is agents of social education produces and reproduces a body change. They have asked more of their benefitto local,State, andFederal of skilled manpower. it had little to do with governments inthe form of largertax education institutioos than any people in increased productivityas such.Physical history. In so doing they have exhibited returns. Communities in which the median capital :Ind natural resourcesthese,it what has been termed a "consistent. often income is high enjoy higher averageper was maintained, are the keys to economic intense. and .sometimes touching faith in capita retail sales. And, harking backto development Economists today respond the efficacyofpopular that earlyAmericanideal, statistics education.- that such a position ignores the birce of Paradoxically. education is considered so indicate that the more education aperson human c apit;11 that education not onlv has, the greater that person's interest in essential a part of the national experience provides trained workers but carries with it thatit politicalaffairs.The percem frequentlyleads thelistof ofthose the potential for creating and developing scapegoats when die casting ballots in Presidential elections, for Nationsuffers a TICNC goods. new technologies. new services. reversal. When the Soviet l'nionwas the example. increases in direct proportion to No otherkindofcapital. theysay, the level of education attained. first to orbit a manmade satellite.it was «mibinesallthesefeatures.Thus a American education that was held to have Beyond thesematters, a number oi number of economists now believe that the failed. The more furious the debate 06,r economists in recent years have concluded growth in real per capita income in the that education is a tar more vital factor in desegregation. the more visibly the schools United States sim t 1930 has been duc far have occupied the center of thestorm. stimulatingeco n tun itgrowththan more ..toitdvancesin knowledgeand Criticism of educa t ion is something ofa previously had been recognized education, thanto privatecapital national spirt. r,--t ? ,111,"4' /e'te..e /71,/,11( r.e/1 C ecr .,' f.//A

A JA-, Z/Ir le aeft..? 772r-er.). e-) er.. e ./..' l'e 1 7f /..... e'fits ,e4Y //e.:Ii4/ e, .,1'N.C-e / ,. i ies57,,,e ,Z.41 ee--z eee ".,al rroi ee elf 117:1'i//'..,,, e i /r6,10If.7,if 74. d 11 '416 /./.ifjit:C. 1-4'. // A a-ae..e.,..$ gore,te 4d4 4,ZWZ, e-/eeree.e. e.:/:-..e-A-) ti elyzI /1.,( -,ty-t,eP telt!,/Zetiee,//1)- /7 4(-4--, 161'"A----&--- X/&-iv.d4; "44"/6-GA /ezt%era .ifer,,t) 07././le

-74c(.1 'rejfectles 147-17/T-P2). .1zeft 4-e!,71-0-1604.7.44/Zi

9/ e 21, 40-revre ,ce/Ze ceZe,C) if 1 i;1 ,y1/44 fi-lefeve) cfe ee 40/erneZr / Jer e f/ezt;A.--X (<7140e, ,7 in/1 /-/ ( e-et ( 6 4/ .4" ,E 0 0e ee,".1-ft ,4 4' )e-et(,//.4/ "...///..4' 4 ..".714'(41(.4 e, / 1 / State among the first to provide asv.stem of free education. Article IX, Sec. 2 of the 1816Indiana Constitution put the Hoosier Some of this criticism is justified,.though it should be noted that there hasalways beena gap betweenexpectationand performance. in any case, itis apparent that elaborate adrninistrativebureaucra- cies, deemed essential to the management of mass education enterprises,frequently have proven to be barriers tosocial anti economic mobility. Morecrucially. significant numbers of youngpeople arc not benefitingappropriately from their school experience, for reasonsunrelated to the nativeintelligence.Accordingto National Assessment ofEducational Progress,the achievementofyoung Americans who are poor orblack, who live in the inner city or inrural communities or in the Southeast, lagsbehind national levels in a number ofsubjects. And yet,ashistorianHenry Steele Commager has noted, "Noother people everdemanded so muchofeduca- tion.. ..None other was everserved so well by its schools and educators." There isa story that when anaging Benjamin Franklin was leaving oneof the finalsessionsotthe Constitutional Convention, a woman asked whatkind of government the fledglingnation was to have.Franklinreplied, "Arepublic, madam. If you can keep it.- Thanksin no small part to the role of education,we've hire a tutor. kept it. 0 Classes were small in Colonialtimesin families that could afford to 118 131 HoraceMann'sClient

ur national pan wtts General Court, heworked tirelesslyto theon is peopled by advance a variety of a few visionaries humanitariancauses including psychiatrictreatment for the and many men and insane, the abolition of imprisonmentfor women of action, debtors, better prison but it is therare conditions, and temperance laws to help curbwhat seemed occupant who has to be a tide of alcoholism been both a dream- in the Common- wealth. Conceivedwith the highest of er and a doer. hopes and the best Along with ThomasJeffersbn. Benjamin intentions, each of these Franklin. and a few others. efforts provided littlein lasting socialre- Horace Mann form. Approaching belongs to thismost exclusive group. Ilis the age of ,10, Mann was the vision of a democracy reluctantly acknowledgedthe limitations created and of these efforts and constantly regeneratedby an educated concluded that adult populace. and human attitudesand behaviorswere stub- more than any otherper bornly intransigent son, he worked to make thispossible by to change. The tragic laying the foundations death of hisyoung wife further compound- of the American ed his sense of futility. public schoolsystem. A grief-stricken To be sure, he had widower in 1837, heturned his backon a both predecessors highly successful and contemporariesin the new Republic political career ( hehad who labored become president ofthe State Senate and to bring learning togreater seemed headed for the numbers of children.Mann, however, governorship) and went far beyond them, his embarked on aneducational crusade for achievements children. Thus Mann outshining anything theyhad accom- set a pattern for plished and casting other educationalreformers. As citizen, a ray of light across thepolitician, and lawyer decades, even intoour own times. Where he came to hisgreat work from outsidethe ranks of educators, others had hoped.planned, andeven made modest beginnings, generally cognizant ofthe relation between Mann brought the greater social dream and actiontogether in a way that needs of the Nationand the tasks of itsclassroom. Believing eventually enabled thechildren of an en- could mount he tire nation togo to school. a reform that would effec- tively end the needfor further reforms, With the onset ofthe American Revolu- he set aside his law booksand recorded in his tion Bicentennial, itis fitting to reconsiderprivate journal two elements of his work at the time, "Let thenext which remain generation. then, be particularly currenttoday. One was his my client." unflinching commitment eginning with Jefferson'shistoric to the ideal of declaration that "all equality of educationalopportunity. The men are created other was his brlief in equal," Mann translatedthis credo the power of the into a powerful kind public schoolto nurture and shapea sound of egalitarian social sense of personal anti public action. Through thespoken and written virtue in suc- word ( sometimes he ct -ding generations ofAmerican citizens. penned as manyas 30 3orn in 1796, the letters a day, allhandwritten witha quill) son of a Massachusettshe managed yeoman farmer, the to convince legislators,town young Horace Mann officials, taxpayers. gained what he couldfrom the sparse for- and parentsmen mal training available and women in to him in a nearby every social, economic, reli-born. Even in Colonial primitive schoolhouse. gious, and cthnicgroupthat a free and New England, To this he added where townswere required to support the wealth of lessformal lessonsto be comprehensive educationwas the birth- a learned by growing right of every American schoolmaster, the youthwere not required up in a New England child. For us who to attend the school. town and on a family homestead now hold this propositionas a self-evident Instead, parents first merely were held farmed by his grandfather truth, it is difficultto comprehend the responsible to see that in 1709. Moti- their childrenwere given a rudimentary vated and intelligent, magnitude of sucha revolutionaryconcept he graduated from in his own day. For literary and religious Brown University andJudge Tapping centuries, thosean- training by whatever cient, medieval, anti means they chose. Asa result, the extent Reeves' Litchfield LawSchool before em- renaissance men and and character of barking on a successful women who had thoughtabout education young people's education legal and political held the circumscribed essentially dependedupon the advantages career. Upon his electionto the Massachu- view of schoolingas a privilege largely belonging their parentswere able and saw fitto pro- to the well- vide.

1 1 9 132 by were to beachieved, it would come not storming a counterpart tothe Bastille or some other symbolof oppression, but by helping millions of children movethrough the portals of the schoolhouse. any of hiscontemporaries, how ever, still heldthat middle class parents could andshould pay for the education of their cwnchildren and that if free publicschooling was to be of- fered at all, it shouldonly be provided for the children of the poor.flolding this dis. tinction to be discriminatory.Mann pro- posed a new publicresponsibility for pro- viding schools in which allchildren, rich and poor. native bornand immigrant, shared a commoneducational experience. th For him, both theindividual and the pub lic interest could beserved only when three elements were forgedtogether in the crea tion of a new institution:Although there the was littleenthusiasm for the idea at time. Mann believedthat publicsupport for education shouldbe joined to public public .7"31 controlof it. And in addition to ---111mik control and support, hebelieved in public Only by bring- or compulsoryattendance. ing these three togethercould the people fashion institutionsaccountable to the common interestwhich would provide an equality of opportunity.As if he were an- ticipating and paraphrasingLincoln, Mann advocated andworked to achieve a system of educationwhich was of, by, and for the Americanpeople. Less revolutionary but noless powerful schools was Mann'sbelief in what these should accomplish.Obviously he expected them to provide all childrenwith a fund of knowledge and a sufficiencyof literary and mathematical skills. Foreseeingthat chil- dren might grow uptechnically literate while remaining uneducatedin any deeper sense, however,he also saw a role for the world, are seeking, throughdifferent people's moral By comparison, Mann'sconception was the gate of heaven. schools in developing young .comprehensive. He envi avenues, to reach character, rather thanleaving this process more radical and Without money and withoutprice, it home sioned a system of educationin which the to the vagariesof lessons learned at throws open its doors,and spreads the emergence of door of the Americanschoolhouse would and in the street. With the table of itsbounty, for all the countless "ordi- be wide open and freelyaccessible to all, Jacksonian democracy, children of the State." to positions regardless of their creed,economic condi- nary" citizens now had access by the rich and tion, or ethnic origin. Inhis words, such a equality of edu- previously monopolized Until there was truly an before had system would countenance: well-born. As a result, never cational opportunity herein the United imperative for training that the promise of there been such an distinction of rich and poor, States, Mann believed in citizenship and religiousvalues. Mann ". . . no political equality implicit inthe American between those, also saw the necessity,however, of of bond and free, or Revolution would remainunfulfilled. If it who, in the imperfectlight of this

120 1; responding to thisimperative with caution. some ciety of haves and have nots. V%-tha re By the 1830s markable prophetic Subsequent eventsmay have tempered' Massachusetts had sense he wrote: such an expansive its official sanction ended "If the optimism. Although of an establishedreli spontaneous productionsof noble and dazzling gion and thusits formal support the earth in its conception,its of Con were sufficient for all,men birth, and its gregationalism might he honest development, thepublic . Fearing that this decision in practice But as school has not would producea divisive denominational the population become a socialpanacea. increases,and Painfully we havecome to understand indoctrination whichwould make each especially as artificial how classroom the multiply, wants deeply rooted andresistant to scene of a vest pocketwar temptations Increaseand our social problems amelioration between competingsects. Mann urged the guards and arc. Segregated hous. the schools that securities must in- ing patterns,broken families, assume a more ecumenical crease also,or socie'ywill deteri poverty role, providing orate spanning severalgenerations. the moral trainingbased upon tence of racial persis- those tenets ofreligion shared by 1f, then, democracy discrimination, andthe gious bodies. all reli was .o become a viable pernicious decayof some of and enduringway of life ( a our national prospect ideals all haveworked against hese included theTen Command doubted by theperceptive French ment of Mann's the achieve. ments, the teachings of the American observer egalitarian goals. of the Sermon scene, Alexis de Tocque. so powerful and In fact, on the Mount, and pervasive have these the virtue of terforces become coun- brotherhood. Moreover, that they have he believed that fected the schools even in, in the hands of themselves. Clearly skillful teachers.not only gulf between the could theseprecepts be taught in the real and idealremains way that children such a very much withus. could understandright To their credit, h-orn wrong, butthat the children the Americanpeople would in have refusedto abandon Mann's turn translate theminto habits of ideals and which were action succumb to a motivated bya sense of self-destructive cynicism.Al- stewardship. honesty. though they haveanguished over school self reliance, anda busing, achievement commitment to hardwork and sacrifice. tests, and heterogen As David Riesman eous grouping, theyhave been unwilling later describedthe to let the schools bean instrument for phenomenon, facinga changing and less rein- forcing a classsociety. In the face traditionbound future.they were to be- of dis- come "ioner-directed- couraging and criticalreports on class. men and women, room achievements guided by a moral and mountingtaxes to gyroscope set in motion support the schools, they by their teachers.lf some might have shown little the end result object that inclination to backaway from their sounded too muchlike a abiding faith in middle.classProtestantism, it education. Expanding the time had was the best Mann's vision ofequality even further, to offer andwas in any case admirable in they have workedto open the doors of intention. Itwas open-ended, the embraced human schoolhouse to thephysically impaired, freedom and dignity. mentally retarded, the anti carried withit a high and otherhandicapped calling. sense of public children who seekto realize their can educational Ameri- At an unguarded birthright. moment. Mann reluc- qual educational tandy would concede opportunity anda that until recently. belief in the history had not vale) then itwas the task of the school power of educationto been kind todemocracies. nurture children in moral From the GoldenAge of Greece teacher, supportedby an enlightened tual values and spin- tempts at a more on. at public, to train are two great legacieswe have open society had failed children to be equalto derived from the the newly liberated as their new rights work of HoraceMann. masses eventually and responsibilities. Were he alive re Here, within today, he mostlikely would jected the demanding a single institution,two be gratified responsibilities of historic ideas would at our subsequent representativegovernment and took refuge come together. Where ments while not being accomplish in demogogues previous generations overwhelmed with and the totalitarianse had beencondemned the tasks yet curity they offered. to degrees of illiteracy, to be done. His adviceto us Mann, however, vice, andpoverty might be similar did according to the to that which he urged not accept thisapparent weakness accident of birth.now all upon his co-workers. as either could look toward Great educational inevitable or mortal. the day whenevery Drawing upon the child could become objectives, he felt,could be achieved teachings of facultypsychology and literate, productive, through sacrifice only and self-respecting. and heroic effort. phrenology, bothproto-behavioral They wouldat the ing at the Speak. sciences of his day, same time learn to be commencement at AntiochCol- he reasoned thatan in- upright andrespect. lege in 1859,Horace Mann dividual's evil ful of their fellowcitizens, with the admonished propensities wouldwither if major the new graduatesto "Be ashamed not reinforced by society, social burden ofmaking themso shifted to die while ay.-more from the church until you havewon some victory for positive facultiesof the mind could and the familyto the rela. humanity." Two cured through be nur tively untried vehicle months later hedied. His education. Not thatthe of the public school, great educational reforms process would be Horace Mann understoodthe dimensions had only begun. easy or automatic. With of this burden and but he could beconfident that his out positive moral the risk involvedbut he would win other legatees instruction in the was consummately victories in the schools, patriotismcould degenet confident that the tury and beyond. next cen- Ito school would be seliserving politics,religion into equal to itsnew challenge. destructive sectarianism, As he described it,"... the common FRANCIS and tht '- KEPPEL cratic commonwealth ( public) schoolis the greatest discovery and JONATHANMESSERLI into a rigic SO- ever made byman Respectively, Director,Aspen Institute program; and Dean. School Education of Educationat Lincoln Center,Fordham Unirenity. 34 121 Learningbythe Numbers

The monitors provided animportant hen the English 'Hie boys attending a Lancasterian relentless school -typically numbering 300 or sobut contribution to Mr. Lancaster's pedagogue Joseph search for "efficiency," oneof his favorite Lancaster emi sometimes achieving up to 500 -were remained a divided into groups of ten, eachpresided words. Money nevertheless grated to the problem. particularly duringthe system's over by a monitor who wasresponsible for by with an ['niter' States in order. early years, when he had to get 1818. his arrival his charges' general "cleanliness, about seven shil- monitors income that came to only was heralded in and improvement.- Other Such a budget there were lots of them-had tnorespecific lings per student per year. school circles with a clearly did not permit suchluxuries as degree of fanfare assignments. There was an Absentee Hence another Monitor, whose job was to ''superintend textbooks for cach child. normally reserved for visitingministers of and an Lancasterian innovation: Hebought one dazzling the Enquirees after the absentees," and had it education. Preceding him were Inspection Monitor who checked :'the ni textbook for a particular subject reports about theeffectivenessand even transcribed on large pieces ofpasteboard provernent of the classesin reading. more impressive,the remarkably low and hung on a wall. Theboys progressed ion. writing, and arithmetic." There were costof his unique system of educat Monitors in group at a time andcard at a time, iepeat- that Mr. Lan-Teaching Monitors and Mr. Lancas- It must be noted, though. Collecting ing the lessons in unison, and caster's decision to come toAmerica was Charge of Distributing and did better than if each Necessary Books and over themall a Moni.ter insisted that they not motivated solelyby a benevolent decer had worked from his ownbook. with others. tor of Monitors. A sternand arrogant man for pens, mination to share his theories least implicitly He also found a substitute Although England had warmlyembraced himself, Mr. Lancaster at sessions on writing and in paper, and ink for his approach to schooling,Mr. Lancaster encouraged those same qualities in sand . of printing. The students wrote himself had fallen intoconsiderable dis- monitors, and the atmosphere was , that had been bootcamp, Wha. he spread on wooden planks favor with his converts therebecause of his a Marine Corps the sand). scholars did they did on thebark( painted black ( to show through sometimes abrasive manner andhis casual his Improvements and often bizarre way of hancilingtheir of whichever monitor was incharg- Mr. Lancaster noted in spreading his par since th, irt Education that "anywhite sand will do, funds. So in addition to them at the time. F-specially boys print in the tran monitors were more or less ontheir own, but it must be dry. The ticular gospel, he was seeking a more they all print at the opportunities for applieddictatorship sand with their fingers: quil environment. the command given by themonitor. A boy s for theeducational theory he was were almost limitless. Scottish who knows how to print anddistinguish promoting. some years earlier a The business of theschool was con- is placed by one who clergyman and educator namedAndrew size of a gym- some of his letters ducted in a single room the knows few or none, with aview to assist Bell had devised a schemeof having older wooden nasium, with rows of backless him." pupils --monitorstake responsibility for benches stretching from front to rear. learned to younger The writing period dispensedwith, the teaching what they had During lectures the boys sat atassigned admired this boys might then be regrouped atthe drill- pupils. Mr. Lancaster so spots on these benches,Each spot bore a the monitors to turn to technique that he paid it thesincerest form Monitor sergeant oiders of taking it over, adding number ( enabling the Absentee arithmetic. Those whose"displayed pro- of flattery by simply to do his job simplyby checking those not their various embellishmentsof his own Thus number becameficiency" with numbers exceeded approach to obscured by boys) and this grasp of lettersmight get permission to began the "monitorial- Names were Mr. Lan- education -- soon to becomeknown as the the student's identification. shift to a more advanced group. never used. Mr.Lancaster having decided the students from be- Lant asterian system f tothe under caster said this kept that referring to each scholarby number coming "listless from plodding overthe standable dismay of Mr.BelP) instruction students teaching would save time. Small group same ground.- The concept of older in the various elements ofthe curricu younger studentshas a modern ring to it. spell- educa Imnlimited essentially to reading, many studentsand of course . numerous contemporary arithmeticwas n a school with so its effectiveness in ing, the catechism, and only one adult to supervisethem, and tors haying pointed to carried out by monitors whohad pro- be boys, there stitnulating the learning of tutorsand the level of the since even poor boys will Lancaster saw it not so gressed a step or two above were bound to beproblems of discipline. tutees alike Mr. boys they were teaching. Thelatter were h as a useful pedagogkaldevne. how Mr. I,ancaster said hedidn't buy the tradi- itice grouped according to"displayed profici- that the only eve.-, but as a wayof cutting costs. The example, there weretional 19th.century notion schools to get by withency.- In spelling. for recourse for studentswho misbehaved was monitors enabled his groups for boys readyfor only three-letter just one salaried pet-son.the principal could handle a beating. Sohe worked out an elaborate consideration. for words, others for those who correctional system designed,he said, to This saving was a major four letters, and so on. Sincethe school the pupils involved werethe( hildren of the make the punishment fitthe crime. A boy free public contained only one room, the groups had a heavy poor Since there were no separated themselves as bestthey could. who was repeatedly idle education wooden log hung aroundhis neck, or had schools at the time, whatever gathering into what lookedlike a number received was an exercise in his legs shackled togetheruntil he became suc h youngsters of football huddles. charity.

122 135 donations and fromhis lectures and writings, hisextravagance and ostentation were said by one of hiscritics to lief. surpass be ie maintained fourcarriages, and it was his practice when hewent out for a drive in one to haveanother tag along be- hind so he couldswitch if the fancy him. Often these struck excursions would lasttwo or thi cc days, broken bystops at some of the more elegantrestaurants along the route, where he would grandiosely iiickup the tab foreveryone present. His discom- fiting generosity alsoextended to hisstu- dents. Fie would ordercatered, expensive meals for a school'sentire student body, and one outraged donor to hiscause re- ported that itwas not unusual for him buy as many to as 5,000 toys a monthto pass out to students whowon his approval. The results were first, bankruptcy, and thena so tired of ,Nalking thatway that he pro- debtor's prison. I lespent the last penniless mised to reform. tion, having spread Years of his life in New York One who insistedon south to suchcities as City, where speaking or singingwhen he was Baltimore andWashington. D.C., one night in i 838 hewas run over by supposed far west and as horse and buggy a to be silent was placedin a basket suspend- as Cincinnati andDetroit. In this anti killed. ed front the citing,and the other heady atmosphereMr. Lancaster is system of education students the post as head accepted expired at were encouraged to laugh of the school inPhila- roughly thesame time. One by at -the bird in delphia. designed one the cage.- Truantswere manacled to their as a model of the species the Lancasterianschools had been desks, and -incorrigible- and then enrolling closing, both in boys might be 700 youngsters. England and in theUnited tied up and left Before long, States, not lwcause to spend the night however, he beganto gen- of the founder'siwuu- alone in erate criticism similar liarities but because the school, It ispossible thatsome of the to that which had of the inherentweak- boys would have beset him in nesse.s of the system itself. settled for a beating,but England. His problemis illus- Its "efficiency- r .Lancaster's code offered trated byone of his favorite translated intoa kind of mindless merit- no options. ments pronounce- Such was thesystem that the United that the poorwere poor because anization. as if humanbeings were not in- they stupidly volved. Whatever States had startedimporting from England squandered whatevermoney motivation occurredwas in 1806. New York they laid theirhands on. This focused not on City was the site ofthe statement learning huton escaping first Lancasterian schools, not only irritated thehard-up parents of punishment anti winningrewards. Cheap and others his students but were soon established in drew ridiculefrom his though the instructionwas, it was still no in Burlington. Philadelphia and benefactors. for Mr. bargain. The monitors New Jersey. By thetime Lancaster was busy were able to lead their inventor arrived proving himselfto be one of the champion other boys throughrote memorization on the scene the squanderers drills. but it movement seemed ready extant. By now ableto raise was too much toexpect them to sweep the Na- considerable to teach: a child of amounts of money,through six was not preparedto guide the learningprocesses of a baby of four, Anti despiteSir Lancaster's with toys, the largesse students felt nocommitment to the system anti infact found it terri fying. Still. Mr, Lancastermade some not in considerable contributions.While the ganization of his or- schools wasunreasonably Spartan and impersonal,he nevertheless demonstrated thatorganization was in of itself a good anti idea, and hispractice of grouping students by a combinationof age and abilitywas to become standard. all, he offered Above schooling to thepoor at a time when theywere otherwise denied and in doing it, so he planted the seedof the concept of educationas a fundamental light.Iseems more than the Lancosterian coincidence that system was succeededby a system of publiceducation for all. .JUDITH SELDEN Ms. Selden is a juniorhigh school English teacher inWeston. Massachusetts..

36 12.1 TOWARD EQUAL EDUCATIONAL OPPORTUNITY

BY JAMES FARMER

he history of black ...neu6kler .4dakt education in An. Americahas a t every stage reflected thecondition of blacksin the Na- tion's soc i et y. At the sametimeithas influenced that con ditionserving as a bellwether, a precursor of change. A Education of blacksisnotarecent phenomenon, having infact been rela- tively common in the New England and Middle Colonies, where slavery was com- paratively mild. Indeed. the Puritan con- science as typified by the Colonial preacher Cotton Mather impelled that slaves be -in- structed- so as to lead useful even though limited lives, and taught to read in order to absorb the Bible's lessons and save their -r "immortal souls.- Humanitarian concepts, epitomized in the Quakers, stressed human rights and capacities long before a coordi- nated abolitionist movement emerged to require the educating of blacksas an obligation. . ,a NIrFarmer. a founder andfoioi,1national director of CIIKE and a former Ava%ta: Secretary for Ad- minkt ration in IIEW flOWPle%111('Ilt Of theCOLItleif cccNfinority Planning and Strategy in VViv.fiington, DA: 1 2 So in the period preceding the Vet. as the Revolution 10)11 there were schools in the accelerated tilebeing caught with Northern demand by a gun. Vet teach:m Colonies pwviding rudimentary blacksandhuntanitat ianwent onin barns, in black chuiches, education whites for emancipation.so it also stilled it forblacks. geared chiefly toward woods. Schools were blokenup only to bt the hunger for educationby blacks. slave reathng. Often such school's started again and to survivetheir martyrs., were estab- and hee, who viewedlearning as the load lished with the aid of whitephilanthr iiv The passion for educationon the part (it but just as frequt ntly the to freedom and eventual equality.It sitni initiative came laity sticrtci resistance blacks was a consuming firein preCivil ft.tin free blacks and black to black education churches and by apologists for slavery War days, and it hurtled witheven great« fraternalsocieties. who agreed with Ultimately. 111.111Vof the blacks' estimate of intensity after freedom. Whoevelcould those schools becamepart of the public education's role butdrive a tunl tookpart in the building of disagreed with its desirability.Thus educa schoolsystem. FIvnintheSouth schools, anti all who could in tion of slaves in thepost-Revolutionary read felt a com Colonial days there 1,VVVe pulsion to teach others their SollIt'schools, 'War Southwati priceless skills. latgi.ly religious. for blacks. largelybystealth a But black education during thanks to .1 surreptitious act of civil Reconstruc- 111011 tole! ant attitude thanwas to prevail disobedience. Thetion w.as not, ofcourse, only a selfhelp teaching of blacks. especiallyof slaves, in the period just priorto the Civil Wai operation. Northern teachers poured come to be forbidden by law:penalties period when abolitionistsentimcnt satu- South with missionary zeal were harsh and punishmentextreme. Be and in their rated thc Nation atid- slaverevolts rocked ing found with a book ranksalsoweresomeblacks. Black was as damning aschurches anti fraternal organizations = I went

:

rt71,--Ps Frederick Douglass (above).W E DuBois (below), and Booker TWashington (right) 111.111=IMIP

it

le South In both North and South,to be are these schools were inferiorto those at- -Tided by white cnddren andso thes were I remain wht n tilt new N.111011IA as born homas Jefferson and hts «dleaguessaw te (MI radlt non of t outs(between the ngmg words of their Det laration and the ondition of tin him kstn land 'All 41 en are ated equal andndowed by cirCieator meant winte en not blat ks and not women But r. I t hes grt4Cgrila .a : 'ark d« ided that the IRtter pat t of alor ,..- da. _ isto deft tthatint onsistent - for later or44C. b`;' : nelation, to confront rathet than riska , -'401/.. "att hurto the Nation : t.s. 4 . 40.2. - ..,41- 4 1 2 5 hlacks could make genuine progress wit Mit threatening the power structure al inviting reprisals. Considering the fort: lined uptoblockracialequalitytl reasoning wentit would not be possible 1.1 many more generations or even centuric Thus nothing would he lost by postponir the demand for it . imiong the black itdvocates of tI position was Bookei 1. Vashington, who LI etiticatinnal views WM' a (aminei part of philosophy un black progress in genera I le sought to navigate the treacherous pos Reconstruction waters with diplomacy ar skill. His werc Hug hods of accommodati( and complannise,nottheprotestall ceaselessstruggleforwhichFrederic

Douglasshadearlierc.alledwhen 1 dei'Llred: 'T/W.ueWIlt) pre)/ c.s.%to ptuur re cub) but deprecate agit a t (»I leant th r p.% ritthoutpl g ci th ground Power (-011Ceares ?MtIll: iclt /Wulf di'MalldItlleivr dal and t llr;ri'r :On Vashington thought that the power co: smith. tu( a in the mushrooming drive to . -industrial education.- eclipsed trollied by his people was so alVesOltle th at tht folk recently set frc-c iirt: as the focus Southern black I()-delf1.111d- inhis day murld Focht I he task IAA. ,f) {,4trat and OW edit( anon.This developmentwas pro onlyamiihilation. When he counsel( I tunOrinMS that hardly a duc ed hva host;if intettwined histo- blacks hi "cast down your buckets why cicnt iiild hate tic-en made iii III( plohleill futcus. hot one thing, the sot IOCCOtiolli!C you are- what he had in mind wits not W. withouttheactive patch ipatItai ii ullicNW' iiitheregion. shattered hy thethey revolt but that they take up educ Icuhiji ,(Rel 11111(1( . .1.11e ending id slavery. was reorganizing itself. lionIle believed that iireparing a peop 13l11 CALI 1.111det the \Vat- I)epartnient joined As the scintered piecesfellinto place. 1.(nspecialrolesinsociety asactisal toice, with unssionary groups and Val black skilled clinics:nen were Hui% int; and and ot herskilledandcompetet aid SIP( Wilt', Iiiiliganifing and adniiiii.tvi reang into a IICW 1111(1(11C t' Was workers would make thatsocietydi ing educatiiin foito! nierslaves.(Jutof indeed truth in the view that industrial pendent 1.11R111 theln. The retillh wiculd that partnership beitycen the Auld edut ation could equip blacks to resp(nul tii dignity :Mil lespeCt. though not, to be sun theIlli,,i()11,11ry)Vel 1 u houls were ncw opportunities(Those opportunities equality. Butafterall.equlitywi Smallchildren parents t4tand Inuyed to be short lived .white iirtisansbe deemed to be :in impossible dream not t parents.andevengi eatgiandpatentsgan foicing Hacks out of theskilled trades be attained for generations. Upward mc i hi u lassiointi ne«ssit citcn as ihe idea id industrial education was flu( kcal bility would exist. but within the confin( likc food and ( lothing gave tvav ileatningbeginning to develop. I of a clear socioracial stratification,Ir a. the firs( older id tieed.The Ittileau (-dal) eanwhile many Southern whitestegration layinthedistantfuturs lished }Iowan! VinveisitY in the Nation's had come to regard such trainingVashington.s visiontvas of blacks an capital awlini ollabonitionwiththe i.a way (if building a social castewhites being as separate as -the fingers Attie; ii 111 Mk.SI,)11,11.V .31,S1/1 1,111(011 system to take the place of slavery, tvithbut as united in common purposes as th `,11( ii otheiinstitutionstor Ida( ks working with their hands ratherhand. .And the vision was not unproduc 1iit4hereduciition University. than pursuing intellectual or professional dyc .lie founded Tuskegee Institute i Talladega. Totigali,o. andI lartip (ineers. Philanthropists also supported theAlabama, specializing in industrial, mech ton ill clestined t, become clistingtikliedidea though for different reasons. seeing itanical, and agricultural studies. and raisei thirties iii black higher education. as a way ofa:: ling black advancementmillions of dollars for his far-flung educa Rut despite the freedmen's imparalle1((1 while avoitling conflictin the tense post-tional and developmental programs. Iiiingtitothymning and thi (hikeof Reci.mstruction era. Thciugh wide support from a broa goteitiment ii-ance)I missionary tea( heis Atthesame time,numerous black spectrumofAmericansociety mad re pi.e.ideit . edit( :itiontichlac ks leaders advocated industrial education and Booker T. Washington's views dominant ntailicci nitc-ii(ii to that uvuiluhh ti yvliites, built an advancement ideology around it ashis approach did not go unchallenged esiu'illiihe SouthIfv1)nd the fact the only politic and hasible course to fcd- Voices of protest were never stilled. Th that they tvere segregated. pablic schoolslow in view of the existing situation. Bigotskeen mind and acid pen of W.E. DuBois estahlishod iii Hat k. (luting Re«Histi would not oppose it.foritavoided Owfor instanci. continued to "assail the ear non were of Tutu( iiIi tiViI(111;ility 111,111 Ihnse threatening spectres of equality and power.of white America- and to voice sharp criti attellded 1),.whites. /Wit oven the bettet People North and South who wanted to seecism of Washington's compromises an( .Southern kind grant colleges. establishedblacks advance into rewarding ways of life.-indiscriminateflattery.'of whites. Dr neat the ( lose of the 19th century tvere. likebut really did not believe in equality of theDuBois, a brillant Harvard PhD.. neve the pi iv,itest hi cok. essentiallyavailablerac c.s. would support it. too. Philanthro-deprecated industrial education, but he in old v tic tin ise few lila( k. whose familios had pists. whose funds were essential, wouldsisted that there was an equally importan rnanaged it u hieve a clet.4rep of affluence. backit.In short. Ow feeling was that need foreducationincludinghighe 126 educationof an acadetnic nature. A born organized program of public agitation andthe ultimate direction of the odyssev was aristocrat. DuBois saw the hope of the fo protest he fnunded the Niagara Movementnot vet clear. There were conflicting road tune as lying in the -talented tenth-the inI ¶HPi .Its momentum was blocked, how-signs. some leading nowhere. While "as fewblackswith a liberalartseduca ever,bythe wideranging influence ofsailing ears" in an attempt to persuade' a tionwho could elevate the masses. Prog Booker T. Washington. Four years laterreluctant Nation, wearied of race effort, ress would thus be from a "pun" more than DuBois and some of the other key membersthe struggle sought its muscle in the courts. a "push.- of the movementin collaboration withBut before the turn of the century the hilethe DuBois-Booker T. ptonsinent white liberals, established theUnited States Supreme Court had in the Vashington debate centered National Association for the Advancementfamous railroad case of Messy vs. Ferguson around educationaldirection, of Colored People. Voicing the social obenunciated the "separate but equal- doc- the nub of the argument was over methods jectiyes of DuBois, and demanding aca-trnw and held that such an arrangement and objectives in black Americans efforts demic training for the gifted, an instrudid not violate the 14th Amendment. In to make their way in the Nation's society. tnent to pursue educational equality in 1908. moreoveroneyearbeforethe DuBois's method was protest. by pen and America at last came full-blown. NAACP was bornthe Court upheld a tongue. and his goals were voting rights While the vehicle for the black Ameri-Kentucky statute requiring separate and the -abolition of all caste distinctions can's early 20th century trek toward equalinstruction for blacks and whites, and it re based.. .on race and color." To mount an educational opportunity wasathand,mained consistent in that view for more than a generation.

I I ;

I

fr.tc, r" 4 ms V , V \1\1 r Pre-Revolution education of most black 744 childreninthe Colonies depended pri- - marily on the efforts of white philanthro- pzSts, who secured tutors and established schools for them. Pictured here is Anthony Benezet, a prominent Philadelphia Quaker and opponentofslavery who was instru- mental in seeing toitthat many poor blacks received an education. - With the legal basis of school segrega- tion thus firmly ensconced, the struggle in the first third of the century was for equal facilitiesinthe separate schools.This MI" quickly proved to be a (lead end. Facilities in Southern schools remained patently un- equal, but in most cases the courts held .t , that such inequality had not been properly demonstrated. The NAACP and other black organiza- tions rose to the challenge. gathering evi- dence that the courts could not lightly dis. miss and insisting that separate facilities either be made intrinsically equal or abol. ished altogether. This path was more re warding. Cases proliferated and devices used by States to avoid abandoning segre- gation became increasingly strained and -he 1960c caw an upcurgc in community pard,ipation and a growing demand that schools he costly. Missouri, for instan,e, offered to -cauntahle pa- the product. pay the tuition for a black student named 127

I FloymiGaines to attend anmu of -Stateiciw school. The Supl*CrIltb Court SUppiiIttbd his refusal to du so oinl ordered that the State either build bi1.11V sihli sil {Or in+ equal to that for whites ur bulmit hnn : 'Myer. sity of 'Missouri. Oklahoma. at' 0011 ac- tion, set up new black law schoolti less than a month. Arkansas and Delaware ad mined blacks to classes in courses not of fered in the black State college. Texa.s built a law schmil for blacks which waspromptly rejected by the Supreme Court because it could not be elittal In terms of ill11/7111i flUellCe.schooltraditioll .prestige. and faculty reputation. As a consequence of such challenges as these, legal segregation was doomed. Inequality. in the view ofthe Court. clearly was an inescapable corollary to segregation. What had occurred was more than an evolution in the Supreme Court perception of the issue. The new day also reflected a change in the mood of the Nation. By the 1 930s thepost-Reconstructionlethargy had lifted. Many people North and South who honestly had once believed that sepa rate facilities could be equal and thatthis birrangement would be a viablesolution to the problem of raceinAmerica. 110w sensed the farcical nature of that concept 44 and the absurdity of pursuing itfurther. Nloicuser. slavers: and the Civil War had faded into the dimmer past :now on stage were the children amid the grand(bildren of those bloody days.not the combat ams themsels es. filven ReconstructMn no longer was a burningrecollectionof «m temporaries. kivara urther. the New Dm-al spirit of power- ful new alliances and of change had "MR swept the land. The formation of the CIO had brought a feisty new element to laborunionism,depression-bredsocial Ts radicals were everywhere, and Idack.s be. Indu.st nal educationsuppliedsociety with skilled black workers during Reconstruction. came integral parts of the newcoalitions. Few were immune to this atmosphere. The is true, interpret.s law. Supreme Court. it -What happens to a dream deferred?" two decades the harsh realities of today's not social (Innate, but the justicesthem- asked the celebrated black poet Langston educational problems have dawned. Those selves do mit live in a vacuum. It did not Hughes. -Does it dry up, like a raisin in the realities have been much more than the take long for the climactic case to arrive, Or fester like a soreand thrll ruti slowness of "all deliberate speed" or the re- the time had «nne for the idea of desegre sun Mavbe itjust sags like a heavy load. Orsegregation through the flight of the whites gation tor equal educational opportunity. does it explode?- which often followed desegregation: rather On May I 7.1 954. the Supreme Court of they have hinged on the elusive means of the 1..inted States in Brown vs. the Board ()I Nlartin Luther King's dream of equality had become the common dream mitthe providing not just the form but also the Education explicitly stated what previously substance of quality education for millions Ida( k experience in America. The essence had mink been implied that"sepal ate of children burdened by centuries of ne- edin ational fam ilities are inherently une- of that dream has long been articulated in different ways and with varying emphasis glect. The realities have not eclipsed thc qual. A veal lacer it ordered that the de- dream, but they have awakened a realiza cision be implemented -with all deliberateand modification of interpretation.s by revolt leader Min that a long haul lies ahead. speed.- figures ranging from slave Nal Turner and the "Underground Rail. The Browndecision set inmotio That was the fountainhead frmn which prol road-conductor/fanjetTubmanto boundless energies, spawned by the ..11 subsequent activity toward equal educa- mist- of ieffersonion equalitarianism bu tional oppurtunity iii Amnerica flowed.If Frederick Douglass and DuBois. and then to Knig. pent up by delay in fulfilling that prom- the Denali ation of Independence planted ise. From Little Rock to Alabama to Ox the Nation. the In 195-1 euphoria spread among black the seed of equality in ford,Mississippi,andthroughoutth Bonen case was seen as promisinthe Americans and among their friends and advocates in white America. But in the last South. children and youth rose to irrepres harvest . 128 IA MandriCd s41.15 to appeal to be tic OO, SWIM f WM .1 related but differenttation- Itcettaililv does nut reflecta belief that blacks cannot learn unlessin classes with whites. It reflects insteadthe thought that white schools receive betterpersonnel, funding. and facilities because white par ents wield more economic andpolitical pmser and thatif black studentsare in those schools they too will bebeneficiaries of that power. Thus far thistliproach has yielded imly minimal resultsdue to the white flight to private schoolsand to the suburbs. and consequentresew egation. Meanwhile the past decade hasseen the development in. black circles of increasing concern about the quality and kind of edu cation their children art' receiving andits "relevance" to their life condition. "ibisen- grossment does 001 necessarily contradict the desegregation tifortratiwr it adds a 4 1 new and more profound dimension to that endeavor. Such a zeroing-inon the suh stance of equal educational opportunityas well as its form, springs fromtwo powerful 4 and interrelated forces whichalternately have confused and fascinatedthe Na- A tion firstblack identity. and second,a grass-roots awakening to die proposition of

.1,7 maximum feasible participation. hen blacks were told in Brown ,NINMIMIEW ys. the Board of Education that they were not beyond the pale, and in the public domainwere equal and Thetiohty and kind of education in couldnothedemeaned,self-concept black circles is aconcern 01- young and old alike. flourished. And since the rejection had been on ethnic grounds, silde and heroic dimensions and thehat not individual, nets came down. There Thus the hosing of childrento defeat thethis new self-esteemwas similarly ethnic. were of course residentialbarriersto :it her foci in the equality drive of the l9)Os schoolintegra-Black became not ugly but "beautiful." tit (14 ordered by many courts and AndI 9fiOs. 'Vilely were boycotts and n"Black studies" were demandedto aug het- (fuire)! in some instances by the Departmem the rediscovery of self. lom Rides and sit-ins at lunchcounters: ,.oter mein of Health. Education, and \-Velfare Ethnicity unleashed, however. tendsto registrationdrives were launched as the only feasible plan to comply with the Ind. with Federal support, blacks court extremes. There was much national. were law'sdemandforracially ;egisteredenma.C.se integratedism and an element of separatism;there Dr.King.whose schoolshas beconle an issue of more heat ;harismatic appeal succeeded in activatingtitan light. It has aroused massive white t re sizable minority perhaps onefourth. ofsistance and considerable black arnHva- he black population. as wellas millions of ;bites lence. Other alternatives also havebeen led marches for acrossthe-board proposed and sometimes instituted either .esegregation and dignity, an(1 there was alone or in conjunction with busing.There he Man I)on Vashington in191)3 all is the Princeton Plan. for example.under ;imulated by the decision that educational which schools are paired; there is (clinics by race were unconstitutional. also the concept of establishing clusters of schools Resistant tb o-erconle. and Southeln e pre school sev-.gation known as "educational parks" withoutre- that is. sett&gard to neighborhood boundaries.In all Ile schools Inaddated in, local and State these ITIMVS, a new motivation is involved. ws is now virtually a museum relic.But The attack upon de /dcnt segregation, the Northern jure segregation was vat ietv basedupontheconviction tringing from residential lines of racial thatsuch schools were inherently unequal.Itwas ;marcation, remains very much alive. based, too, as testimony of scholars inthe 1(1 as the black populationincreases in Brown case showed. upon the psychologi- e cities and whites int ream; in the sub cal damage done to blacks by their .bs.it being I is growing. Since the black city told in effect that they wereinn worthy of lite suburb pattern t ,t,1541 (vt,1111 is growingit)the associating with others in the society. "lite uthaswell.de Moo segregation FIEFi:.CCA 7. ROSA. is assault upon de facto segregation.to the reading there, too, and tendingto reextent that it ice its de lure twill. is really de facto and not the result of tlistricts which had beengerry 129 solution as "accul- .ind cult oral bias, see the torsorevennecessarily educated. the tests.) was hhick hate tomatch white hate: (heti. a turation" rather than changiog manv educatorsunderstandaldv took Compensatory education programs int- werc . even blackcries echoing earlier white 1 granting such contrid tonon we don't want dint view ( ik; Title I of the Elementary:Ind Second- oncs: "two. four,six, eight piolessionals. ln addition someuni MIS of to integi inv." Butsoch excesses. common ary Education Acthave proliferated, even teacheis objected to personsoutside their results. Government to mankind,do not conceal thepositive being in a positionthough with limited viewing educational contractual relatimiship sponsored research sets anunprecedent- and useful thrust of to affect thejob security of theirmembeis. improve die mawrials cud devicesthrough the eves of a the concept ofedly high priority on work to generally negIcctecl. Perhaps for these reasons Colleges and pro minotitv experience so community control of schools wasdoomededucating of minorities. In a pluralistic culture.this kind of identi its inception. But a fessional schools havelaunched ziffirmative the iliscovery ofin most cases from action recruitment so as not tobe found fication can be part of legacy of communitypartici/Hawn w truth. Today, in anv case,all signs indicate wanting in the percemagesof minority stu- mained, and the idea of*accountability for boast.and that black absorptionwith self has mel- accepted by a growing dentsofwhichtheycan black the product is now have lowedtosuchanextentthat The fail- developmental1 tr remedial Coll FM'S kind of plura- number of school administrators. die minority re "monism- is gir.ing way to a control"togainliven instituted to help continuing to celebrate ureof "community cruits succeed.Anti what this spirited lism which, while ascendency did not meanthat the issnes school systems, sel1 . can celebrate alsoothers, of no valid- activity by government, off by the "Civ- joined by community folk were is the mood of the One of the sparks thrown exploration. Moreover. and universities reflects the 1960s, and fur- ity and sparked no a Sens(' Of urgencycommunicated by il Rights Revolution" of others with no less passionjoined in takingday ther ignited in theantipoverty progr,im, minority communities. Theresults may not of "maximum feasible par up the cudgel. vet be meaningful.but a sense of move was the concept Our schools,educators have pointed ticipation." Ordinary folk,anti poor. who went is undeniablythere. out, are not yetadept at educating chil- educational op for ages hail been quiescentif not invisible. nonwhite, unit those learly, then. "equal existence. As dren of the poor, the portunity- has undergoneconsider. suddenly were bursting with of rural cultures. In the newera of par- in pre-Civil Var days.the schools were being ac- ableredefinitionsince Brown vs. ticipation, that breakdown is not aspirations of their primary target.They were mothers Chicanos and PuertoIhe Board of Educatnnt. The and some fathers, andthey know theirceptedpassively. the great-grandchildrenof slaveshave Ricans, as well as blacks,have insisted like a little children were not learning toread or com of materials of an ethnicrisen. A little advancement, than they themselves hadupon wider use food, has whetted theappetite: that is the pute any better nature to whichtheir children can relate. The goal is no learned. have further de-story of human progress. Their newfound sense ofimportanceThe Spanish.speaking longer equal accessequal right to enroll ni anded. andin many cases secured.bi- was outraged.What they demanded was in a school or sit in aclassroom. It is now lingual education. Minorityscholars. and methods and that the school whichtheir children at- majority too. have devisedequal results. It is to employ tended be accountable tothem forits Many from the materials and programs capableof closing "culture.pluralistic- and"culture-specific- achievement. And still product. and that their communityorgani aptitude, and achieve-gaps in educational zations be granwd a controlenabling them tests of intelligence, further, the objective is toraise the educa- mentalternatives to standardizedtests Nation, for the at- toevaluate andreacttotheschool's possessing ational level of the whole performance. Those in motion nowwere in general use that are seen as tainment of equality on anylevel below tenth,- but king'scultural bias disadvantageous tominority perceived to he an not Dubois's "talented students. (Other scholars,itshould bethat of excellence is now "involved fourth.- existingempty triumph]. he inner.city parents were noteduca- notedwhile acknowledging the

knr aa X6-1

(,- -uJr: !Ifi,

- 4

iots_

130 Gonzales

ot Cormtles rested .M111/IM, his forearms on the steering wheel of his camper pickup truck as he "O.L.t.! watched hisyoung- est son thread his way across the busy junior high school lawn, trumpetcase banging away under me arm, his gym clothes andsonie books ucked under the other.Joe could tell by the haze thatwas gathering off in the dis- tance near the hills that itwas going to )e a hot day, whichmeant it would probably be likean inferno in the auto mobile assembly plantwhere he worked. But right now histhoughts were with his son Frau k. justdisappearing into the schoolyard. Joewas thinking backto the days before WorldWar iiin the friend- ly, crowded barrioof his boyhood, and what school hadbeen like then. Things had sure beendifferent, he mused. There had beenno junior high school just a grammar schoolwhere all the kids wereMexican and thena four- year high school. Itwas tough in that elementary school, herecalled, and the... sure came down hardon anyone who didn't speak English.Joe winced as here membered the many times he had hadto aay after school becausehe had been :aught talking Spanishto his friends. He .emembered also thetumbledown wood- m building and the old classrooms, the called one teacher who lust in thesummer aod mud in the win- told him, loc, left You're in ourcountry now. You're in one out of 27 in a littleover a year. t-r, and watching the shinyyellow buses And then there Amcrica, in the UnitedStates, and you was his own growing frus- rive by the al!-lexicanschool to tration with his inability have to speak English.You're not in to keep up, and Toonerville," thc shantylikeneighbor- Mexico." ultimately his decision ood one block when he was in away. There thc buses the tenth gradeto quit and help his icked up all the Then there was high "American" kidsthat's school, and the truck.driver uncle load and hat we called them shock of being with"los Americanos" for unload car- sometimes, he re- rots and lettuce at the packingshed.. 'cted with a smile, the first time. At thegrammar school Joe but most of the time had been a leader, Then came thewar, and beating the ey were "gringos-or "gabachos," es a good student, with draft by joining cially when straight A'son his report cards. In up on his own. As he we were madand took high looked back, that cm to the all-white school school, it wasso different. Those white had been like entering on the other kids all seemed a new world. If it hadn't lc of town. so smart. They wereso been for the ser- far ahead of him viue, he decided,he would've And there was his and the 26 otherkids never found school's playground. from his eighth.grade out that he could make it,that he wasn't seemed to grow rocks.At least there graduating class, Before long he had "dumb," that he wasn'tinferior. And he s always a whole slew ofthem around, seen his friends begin to drop out of school remembered the promisehe had madeto matter how often hewas made to stay and go to work picking tomatoes himself that his kidswould never haveto el- school and gathera couple of or walnuts or, if they suffer through the :ket loads. That were lucky, to find otherjobs. If not, indignities and prob. was one of the they would just hang lems had in school. His kids lishments for being around thegrocery were caught speaking store down by the going to be "Americans,"not Mexicans, inish, even on theplayground. Ht.. re- corner, doing nothing. and they were going He recalled finallybeing the onlyone to make it. As Joe sat there, themorning sun 131 and Sons

tnnately the principals, first in the grain- mar school and thenthe junior high. That boy, Joe inused. The aches he brought us, but in the end hos.. muchlw made us think about who we really were and about our beautiful culture,and rea- lize how rich we were. Paul was now at the university studying to be alawyer, but there remained thevivid memoryof his militancy, his organizing theMexican students, his leadership in demonstrations demanding that the school recognizethe identity of "his'l people. "rhe traffic near the school haddied down now, and as Joe looked Out the window, almost all of the studentshad disappeared from the lawn. He thought of their youngest boy. Frank. a kidwho somehmv was a mixture of John and Pablo, and of how heJoeand Angie had changed and how their liveshad been changed by their boys. Hethought of how the schools were changing, too.. Who would have thought a few years back that they would even recognizeel dneo de Mayo, a Mexican nationalholi, day, let alone a week-long observance of it! Or who would have imagined that a whole section of the school would be in- volved in bilingual programs! Things were not perfect. Too rnany Mexican kids still weren't re-ally getting anything out of school, and too many were dropping out. Too many werestill having trouble finding an identity, when John caught in the crossfire of two cultures. warming up the cab of his camper.he re- arisenas a matter of fact, became a tenth-grader. Joe remembered And yet. things were changing. Slowly, flected on how things had worked out, but they were changing. At the veryleast his the day well when his son asked,"Dad, how hard it had been for him and it was okay to speak Spanish, Andthe wife. Angie, to make a go of things.and how come we don't speak Spanish. and Mexican playground at Frank's school was as good how determined they had been tomake how come we don't seem to have friends?" Joe recalled suddenlysuspecting as any in the State,and the buildings sure their sons wentthrough the experi. that maybe the melting pm wasn't allit were modern and attractive.Maybe one ence of what a teacherhad called the day there wouldn't be all the fuss about their own was cracked up to be.Maybe John still "melting pot," He remembered being "different," and people would be insistence on speaking English athome felt "different." and though the boy wheth seemed to be surviving the system, maybe. accepted on their merits as individuals. and never Spanish. the hassle over Suddenly the school bell clanged long buy an school was just about as unhappy an .ex er they had enough money to and loud, bringing Joe upright in his conform perience for him as it had been for his encyclopedia, their attempts to seat. He looked in therear-view mirror to what they thought wasthe way good old man. the And then later there had been the situ and pulled the camper away from American parents should act, their some- curb. Actually, it looked like it wasgoing and ation with the second boy, Paulproud. times painful experiences with PTA to be a pretty nice dayafter all. Little League and the Boy Scouts. aggressive, tough, always questioning. John, their oldest boy, had seemed to The family rebel. In fact, he insisted his "Paul." Ouch! -be everything Joe had dreamedof when name was "Pablo," not That little switch had touched off what BILL RIVERA he was in schoola good studenc, ac seemed like an endless series of negotia- Special Assistant to the Superintendent, cepted, popular, a better than average ui Los Angeles City Schools athlete. But then some questions had tions with the youngster's teachers and

132 147 NewEra FurSpecial

n aspect of indiar culture that as- Nt tonished the colonists, we art. told, was thecon- cept that the gods had a specialcon- At- cern for the men- tally and physicall} handicapped and thatall creatureson earth were obligedto share it. A The more prevalentfeeling, a legacy 014 from the Middle Ages, was essentiallyone of rejection. ltwas thus perhaps inevi- table that the initialmoves to provide education for thehandicapped entailed removing them fromeveryday affairs. Those offeredany help at all werenor- mally placed inan "asylum," a word which, along with 7i! "feeble-minded" and "deaf and dumb,"quickly acquired pejorative connotations,Tlw effort was nevertheless a majorstep forward, and it began in the NewWorld with Americans who traveledto Europe to study the pioneering techniquesbeginning to emerge there. k40, One such was ThomasHopkins Gallaudet. Not only a teacherbut a teacher of teachers, hebecame so inter- ested in the communicationsproblems confronting people who couldnot hear that he went to Paristo visit a school for the deaf that had beenstarted by a, young priest named the Abbi:de rEpeE When Mr. Gallaudetreturned to the United States he broughtwith him a deaf man who had been trainedat the school, Laurent Clerc, and in 1817they estab- lished the Nation's firstformal education- al institution for thehandicappedthe American Asylum for theDeaf, located in West Hartford,Connecticut. Mr. ft Gallaudet was in timeto gain an interna- tional reputation for hisleadership in the education of deaf and otherhandicapped children, and he is memorializedtoday by Gallaudet College inWashington. D.C., the only liberalarts college for the deaf in the world. Another importer ofEuropean tech- niques for educating thehandicapped was John D. Fisher, who hadgone to Paris to study medicine.There he be- 'rom the left: Helen Keller; came fascinated by the work being her tutor, Anne Sullivan;and Alexander Graham done Bell. in a residential schoolfor the blind that 133 Education

.74 !P

...44prict..ris. /CI "411 t , ,.'ar^'Sdkx,.. Gallaudet College, sznce 1864 theworld's only liberal arts college forthe deaf. Students rom 1893 and todayof

-

umalIONIO

, MMNIP

tikot

:CT

J.

rm.'

1 34 14 541

eduratton proponent irlimmts Calla udet. lor wimm Gallatidet Colloge i.c nameq 135 1111...M.1 had been sett tett IsValentin 11,tio, 1-1 .his Ici ill It In Iii r Iffirit SI otosIn j)tlishrci ilest II lit'l It 11.1( Win k silet ',lid SIVek thu HIM ve.I1 s Welthu hiss,1 chusetts State LegislattneSilted funds to establish in Boston the NewEngland Asy him tot the Blind (Soma 1 heIitt elIt' Blind 11,11111d he PeI kitis SChOol IOU t he anti stihcct1iictit Is telocated inits piesent site in Yareittswns Theinitial ditecti» ut the school was ,1ithysit 1,111 II,Inted Sat [Mel I (owt .and his contributions and ,reeles "." ON those id Fishei ,ilso were to be " memorializedin then cases by the .. M44;itaii' act omplishments ot tworematkable lvii x'00 (711 born both blind and men who had been rp'014'. deaf. The first was Laura Bridgman,who - eN"..6," a%N began her instiuction atPerkins in 18:17 ... I ler stit t eSS 11,010C whtn she was seven Vt,IIsclii 4 ( In it Only Inlearning to read and svrite but as an extraordinarilyeffective teacher brought new hope to the parentsof hantt . icapped chihiten aroumi theworld. ( )ne such parent was the motilemof sixvear old Ilelen Keller, who readabout Laura Bridgman's achievements and soughthelp from a graduate of PerkinsInstitute named Anne Sulhyan. With AnneSulli- van's help :mil lier ownindomitable de, termination. Ilelen Keller becamethe author of sever,d books, amuch sought ,Ifter lecturer. and one otthe most ad has evet child should be mired public figures the Nation associami." Dr. Bell was addressingthe end that each and every known. inventor given the opportunity todevelop accord- what conference not as the celebrated worked first Spuired by such examples ot of the telephone but as aspeech expert ing to his capabilities." She ita with a group of boys regarded asmisfits ((mid tie clone. ot her I HSI II MUMS from a family of speech experts.He had handicapping because of their chronic truancy.On the youngstris suffering various among other thingssuccessfully undertak conditions began us come intoexistence. of a deaf boy named theory that the school should adapt to of separating en ;he instruction they :Most clung to the practice George Sanders in Salem.Massachusetts, them rather than demand that society in special adapt to the school, she organized an un- the handicapped from anti it was in the Sandershome that he itiit there graded class in which the childienlearn- schnols, but appearing here made his first telephoneexperiments. were arrangementswhich. while segregat his invention ed with materials not watallyassociated from tither When it became clear that picture puzzles, ing hamlit ;Wised yoongSterS would bring him wealth. Dr. Bell wrote with the classroom children, at least made itpossible for shall have IllOIWV tools, paint and brushes, eventin cans. fatuilies. In to his mother. "Now we organize basic them to remain we,lt their enough to teach speech us littledeaf From there she went on to established in classes for younger children withintelli- 1871 a slay school was children.- Roston for deaf pupils, forexample. gence quotients of lessthan 50 and trade r. Beli's colon-tent wasrevealing older boys and girls. class in Providence in 181Jhfor the re but of courses for retarded in [899 for not only of his character Along the way. in 1922, sheorgaoized tarried. another in Chicago the shaky financial base ofthe crippled u Hither" and was first president of whatis now various efforts to educate thehandi. Children. One of the most effectivespokesman that in The Council for Exceptional Alesander Graham capped. It is probably fair to say inclusive for this ,ipproach was handicapped "Exceptional children" is an the 1898 conven- general. education of the only the Helen Keilexs Bell, who proposedto ("special education.'" as it is nowreferred term covering not tion of the NatitinalEducation Assiicia- thought of by the and Laura Bridgmans and MissFarrells the handicapped to by educators) was chronic truants, but also exceptionally tion that programs for public at large as essentially anexercise be established in thepublic schools. Such the turn of the gifted youngsters whose verybrightness "form ;In annex in charity, Not long after problems for them; the children, he said, would century Elizabeth Farrella young can produce school system. receiving emotionally to the public 1 in physically, mentally, and teacher at Public School Number socioecon- special instruction fromspecial teachers exempli, handicapped; children whose instruction to New York Cit y. advocated and them 1.vho shall be able to give Considering omic and cultural backgrounds set either deaf. blinuh . lied a nw paint of View. visual, audi little children win, are handicapped children not as a casteof apart; students with motor, without sending behavioral, cogni- or mentallydeficient unfortunates, but instead viewingthem astory, communication, homes or from the tive, and specific academiclearning dis- them away frinn their individuals, site dedicated herself"us the ordinary companions with WIIOTI1they are

l 2 G 15' the word "mainstreaming-seems to nac different meanings fordifferent people and programs. itsessence is the idea of providing specialeducation to exceptim al children whilethey attend regular classes. It should benoted, however, th: some educators feelimmediate total im- mersion ill regularclasses to be imprac, tical for a significantportion of handi- capped children andsuggest instead wh:i they call "progressive inclusion-that is. starting off by includingthe handicappet child in selected classroom airti..itiesfor limited spans of timeand then moving forward from there. Behind suchmoves as these is a chang, mg philosophy that is iimang/i101 increasingly being spelled out in thelaw, The educationof exceptional children isno longer per- ceived as a matter of charity or simplyas Slam wise practiceinitiated by an enlightened society determinedto capitalize to the fullest on its humanresources. The issue now is one of the handicappedchilds rights as a citizenthe proposition that the public schoolsare as fully obligated to serve exceptional children as theyare anv others of schoolage. The courts have agreed. perhapsmost strikingly in the O rd landmark 1971case of Pennsylvania Association for the Retardedv. the Com- 711071Wealt h of PellaSykanta, abilities which held in short. boys andgirls in need that the public schools of special educational possibility of difficulties of that State could programs. services, or disruptions a not ignore the educational facilities. or materials. practice that isparticularly corrosive needs of the children whose for mentAv retarded (andby implication There are an estimated handicaps are relatively the nee(ls of other seven million minw. Civil rights exceptional chiltIrenas such school-ageyoungsters in the United actions have revealed well). Bynow at least 56 lawsuits States man,: cases in which black, have some 10 or 12 percent ofthe Mexican- been filed in 25 overall school-age American, andAmerican Indian States aimed atguaran- populationplus young- teeing handicappedchildren their right another million sters have been placedin classes for the to an education and preschoolers. Particularlyretarded when :heir bringing an endto because of efforts "problem- wouldap-State and local policies undertaken during the pear simply to have been and practices that current decade, majorprogress has been a different cul- either exclude these made in affording tural background. children or provide them educationalop- them with an education portunities timulated in part by that is clearly in- commensurate with their the progress appropriate. In allmajor instances in needs. During thelast five years thenum, achieved during thepast five years, a which decisions have ber of handicapped surge of activity is been rendered, the children receiving ef- now under way courts have found for theplaintiffs. fective specialeducation services has toward strengtheningspecial education in climbed from 2.1million to nearly three all its parts. Moreand more public Special education isthus enteringa million, "rhat n(vertheless schools. for example, new era, demonstratingas it does so that leaves another are seeking to reachthe principles three millionor so who are receiving out to the severelyor multiple handi commemorated in theBi- siderably less than con- capped child. There centennial observance an adequate educaticm arc programs to is of course remain vigorous.It and one million who help the parents ofhandicapped children true that millions ofhandi- are denied access to start the educative capped youngsters a free public educationaltogether. process (luring in- are still effectively de- fancv. A search is toured from "thepursuit of happiness,- Moreover. the figuresalone (10 flf n in- on for better testing hut their number dicate the depthsof the handicapped and evaluationprocedures (particularly is dwindling. Moreand in relation to more are being offered children's dilemma,They are still minority groups). Thereare truly equal educa- more programs to involve handicapped tional opportunity,the right to achieve often than notcategorized. alinostas if Imys their potential they were something and girls more fullyin career or vocation- and thereby maketheir in less thanindividual al education. There dividual contributionto the Nation's human beings: theybear a stigma. They are renewed efforts further progress. are often separated from to serve the needs of thegifted and other children talented. In general, lot infrequently at theinstiga tion there is increasing )f- parents and interest in bringingexceptional WILLIAM C.GEER educators whosec the sters into education's young- mainstream. While Esc/wiveDirector .1"he Council forExceptional Children

2 137 TILIE ARTS IN THE SCHOOLS-- A 200-YEAR STRUGGLE

BY NANCY HANKS

tis more sad thanorder to give their children a right to study geared to help students bring home leaner shocking that two painting poetry. music, architecture, stat-bacon than their fathers had, whether the fundamentalparts uary. tai.-..-stry and porcelain,- If his vision child was to be a "noble yeoman" of of American civili.was noble histimetable went instantlyThomas Jefferson's vision or a doctoral zation developed al- awry: his son grew up to be President too. candidate in one of today's law, medical, most independently Adams's priorities may have been sound scientific, or education schools. of each other: the for the infant Nation. Physical and polit- By popular if misguided definition, the arts andgeneral icalsecurity came first;an expansive arts were traditionally deemed less neces- education.Histori- economy came next: the arts came last, ifsary, less American somehow, less mani- ally, the arts have rarely come first in ourat all. But how much really changed until festly predestined than mechanics, agricul- schools, which had sterner tasks than pur . very recently? For nearly two centuries na ture, technology, and the so-called profes- suing the Muses. "To America one school tionalleadersvoicedhigh.minded sions. Certainly the arts came to be taught master is worth a dozen poets," said Ben thoughts about the artsand then went on in the painting academies and music con- jamin Franklin. "and the invention of a attending to "matters of consequence," to servatories that grew in the 19th century. machine..is of more importance than aborrow a phrase from Antoine de Saint- But these too were trade schools that iso- masterpiece of Raphael." Exupery'sThe LittlePrince.They had lated students in their own ivory towers and John Adams made a more famous state the approval of the people who elected excluded outsiders. ment and its hopeful promise may yet be themtolead.These constituentsalso Nevertheless in the past 150 years draw- fulfilled. "I must study politics and war," elected school boards, trustees, and super. ing and singing have managed to move he said, "that my sons may have liberty to intendents of similar utilitarianstripes. slowly, almost furtively into public schools. study mathematics and philosophy. . and so practicality prevailed in education. That the arts entered the schools at all is navigation, commerce and agriculture in As the Nation became fundamentallythe near-miracle. Some highlights of how it more democratic (and as education grewhappened deserve a swift review. Miss Hanks is Chairwoman for the National Endow . less elitist) schools became increasingly vo Music in the schools had a brief heyday mrnt for the Arts. cational in the basic sense. Schooling was on thiscontinent. The firstEuropean 138 I-Cult/ (lc L.ante, a to40), whtch set down David's song in discussion of religious principles,was 'part Franciscan in Cortez's train. In 1523 hemetrical verses that could besung to tunesof the curriculum. offeredIndianchib:ren acurriculum the immigrants brought with them. modeledafterthemedieval Creative arts were still considered icing cathedral In 1721 one of Franklin's brothersprint-on the cake of aristocratic education at a schools. He taught reading and writing, of ed a book with musical notation. About course, but stressed singing. the making time when most young people got anun- this time the "singing school"was be-leaveneddietof practicaltrainingin. and playing of instruments, and music coming popular to improve church music. manuscript copying. The Spanish mission schools. These subjects,asa critic ob- It was a social and religious adjunct, hard-served, were only "accepted as a means of system reached far into the present dayly an educational one. In 1833 the United States as its patrons sought heathen Bos-refining the taste and of giving, particular- ton Academy of Music was founded withly to young ladies in private schools, the souls to save and native gold to ship home. the revolutionary purpose, By 1540 Juan de Padilla, another Spanish among others.finishing touch of art to an education in- of encouraging music in the public schools.complete without a few lessons on the harp missionary. was teaching music in what is A few years later what we'd calla pilot now New Mexico, a cultural cul de sac far and a few others in sketching in pencilor project received charmingly breathlessap-sepia." from what would become the turnpike of proval in a report to Boston'smayor. It The first public school drawing classes American development. read: In New England a were promoted by Horace Mann, who full century later, "One thing has been made evident, thatpublished a series of lessons imported from religious motives were again the primethe musical car is morecommon than has mover of educationbut without musical Germany in his Common School Journal in been generally supposed. Thereare but1844. Typically, the purpose was practical, accompaniment. The purpose of the writ- few in the school who make palpable dis-notexpressive. "Drawingisaform of ten Word was to point the way to salvationcords when all are singing.... They along a route that became increasingly preferwriting." he wrote, "and should be taught the play of a hard music lessonto any out-with it." This artthe rendering of formal narrow. In 1643 a Boston pamphleteer ex- of-door sports plained the colonists' rationale: A song introduced in theand tidy geometic formsmust have been rniddle of the session has been invariablysterile stuff. It wasn't ars gratin artis but After they had built houses and "cimyen followed by excellent effort. Itis relief to ient places for Gods worship and settled the early mechanical drawing, which hada the wearisomeness of constant study. Itex- highmarketplace demand as New Civill government ;one of the next things cites the listless and calms the turbulent we longed for, and looked after, was to England'smanufacturingcapacityex- and uneasy. It seems torenerve the mindpanded with her industrial ambitions. advance Learning... dreading to leavean and prepare all for more vigorous intellec- illiterate Ministry to the Citurches whentual action.- our present Ministers shall lie in the dust." In 1836 Calvin E. Stowe reportedto Fortunately. "It pleased God to stirup inOhio School authorities on European edu- the heart of one Mr. Harvard. . . to give cation trends. He said he observed in Ger- the one halfe of his Estate. . . towards themany "the universal success and very bene- erecting ofaCollege.andallofhis ficial results with which the arts of drawing Library" which comprised 320books. and designing and vocal and instrumental After the Connecticut General Courten- music, moral instruction and the Bible dorsed Yale's founding,itstated, "Onehave been introduced into the schools." He principal purpose in erecting this collegemet teachers who "had never seen a child was to supply the church in this colony with that was capable of learningto read andwino a learned, pious and orthodox ministry.- write who could not be taughtto sing well In 1647 Massachusetts authorized the and draw neatly, and that,too, without INNIMata first publicly supported schools witha law taking any time which could at all interfere requiring every town of more than 50with, indeed which would not actullypro- households to employ a reading and writ-mote his progress in other subjects." (If ing teacher. Many settlers balkedat thisMr. Stowe anticipated John Dewey, he also t.xtravagance and the schools were seasonal proved that his wife, the former Harriet tothepointofbeingsporadicas Beecher, had all the writing talent in the teachersmany of them ministerial candi- family.) dates awaiting a vacant pulpitrode cir- The spread of music was slow. In 1860 cuits. nderstandably,giventhe Philadelphia overseers resolved that there funda-should be a piano in every school. In 1865 mentalist standards oftheday, New Haven's first music teacherwas get- artistic subjects were avoided liketing started in school hallways. He Satanic infections. Creative curriculums, moan- ed was very difficult indeed to convince in the modern sense, were unheard of inthe authorities that ...musical instruction grammar schools with their hornbooks.should be governed by the same rules and rote methods, and hickory-enforcedregulations that obtained in other sub- discipline.Portraiture wasleftto signjects." (Then, as now, an innovator's first painters, who learned their artas appren...w6bstacle was the deportment department.) tice tradesmen. Interest in music, accord-By 1886 the U.S. Commissioner of Educa- ing to one scholar. "declined almostto thetion estimated that music was being taught vanishing point" in insular 17thcentury...,ft,i41arly in less than 250 schools. America while Monteverdi, Scarlatti, and Art was academically acceptedeven Purcell composed for Europeancontem-later, except in professional schools. poraries. What music survived here Amos wasBronson Alcott included drawing fromna- liturgical. The second book published inture for a half-hour a week in the 1830s. the Colonies was The Bay Psalm BookBut his Temple Schoolwas closed because 139 ,

! utwnat cursor of the present Office of Edu- previous observers had onlypriorities this way, according hinted at. "Thearts are not only intrin- to the Iveak- cation, ultimatelycame around tosically and directly down ofteachers'specialitiesEnglish the following point of enjoyable.-- he wrote.(20.4 percent of the view: "The element"but they servea purpose beyond them- teachers). mathe- of beauty is foundto have pecuniary asselves. They are not luxuries matics. social studies, science,health and well as aesthetic value. of education. physicaleducation, The training of thebut experiences of thatwhich makes edu industrialarts and hand and of theeve which is generated bycation worthwhile." vocationaleducation, business,home drawing is foundto be of greatest ad economics, foreign languages,music (3.8 vantageto How far have wecome toward acceptingpercent). art (3.7 percent), the worker innearly every that idea? In 1906, then "special branch of industry. Whatevertrade may seven years after Deweyeducation" and "other."According to the had set forth his idea thepresident of thesame be chosen, knowledge ofdrawing is an ad source,innonpublicsecondary vantage and in many occupations Western Drawing and ManualTrainingschools last year, there is be- Association told a convention of were 3,900 music coming indispensable.... The specializedteachers and 1.100art teachers for 1.3 mil- end sought isteachers, -There isa general awakening to not to enable the scholarto draw a pretty lion students. Only homeeconomics, in- picture but to train the hand the importance of thearts: their value isdustrial arts, and the and eve that being realized industrially, ubiquitous "othc.r" he may be better fittedto become a bread- educationally,numbered less, winner." That was written commercially.artisticallyasnever be in 1874. twofore.... With this awakening onceivably one mightinferthat and a half centuries afterthe first schools of interest it these breakdownsconceal the opened in New England. becomes increasingly clearthat the arts are proposition that artisticawareness soon to be accorded the importancethey Soon afterward. the deserve as instruments permeates the teaching of socialstudies, Western Drawing of education andhome economics, andthe rest, But this and Manual TrainingAssociation (the Na- that they have theirdefinite values notas tional Art Education ends in themselves isn't the general rule.The arts, where they Association's antece- so much as means in fit-are taught atall, dent) was organized.Its premise: "New ting for life," Similar feelingsare still being are often isolated in problems in education and expressed rigidly designated timeslots and cloistered child life con- and in the same hopefultones. rooms. In many colleges, front us as the worldgrows more dramatic. The New York State art history is in- To art we must look for Commission onsulated from paintingand sculpture by liberty from the Cultural Resources declared,"The arts notwalls mortared with mountain-fastnesses of materialismand ex only belong in theschools but the schools interdepartmental cessiye commercialism.-- and the curriculums rivalry-. Worse, occupationaljealousies still Sound familiar? are incomplete with-keep educators and That was in 1899. out them.- Undeniable thoughthat point professional creators may be, there is little evidence apart. Some teachers and theaterpeople, In the sameyear John Dewey wrote that it re-for instance,seem to get a lot of exercise "School and Society." ceives any particularpushing on thepart of thefirstof hiseducators. Using National walking their boundaries inthe belief that seminal works that stressedthe experiential Education Asso-"good fences make good development of the whole ciation data, the U.S.Office of Education neighbors" still. child. He spelledin 1973 ranked public Such parochial attitudesarc slowly break- secondary schooling down in places.

-

141 The notionofprofessionalpainters, writers, and musicians working directly with students is not new. Yet it remains too rarely applied at the scholastic level. In 1934 Grant Wood took up his brush as an associate professor atthe University of Iowa. Two years later the first artist-in residence as such was appointed at the Uni- versity of Wisconsin College of Agricul- ture. In 1970 the National Endowmentfor the Arts began its Artists-in-Schools pro- gram in cooperation with theOffice of Education.Last year 1,750 musicians poets,painters,actors,photographers, architects,and otherartists worked in 5,000 schools in all 50 States, Frequently the results have been marvelous. Of course, there have been problems too. hile the numbers of Artists-in- Schools ar..! impressive, there are many schools and millions of stu- dentsstillgoing withoutany creative opportunities.Whatanimmeasurable waste of human potential andhumane re- sources! How long will it be before teachers and administrators in every school discover or adopt ways to brinyo arts to every childways of proveni. -tic and educa- tional merit? This is one of the major chal- lenges for today's schools. At present, according to findings in New York State, "students in public and private schools can graduate without ever having personally experiencedliveprofessional arts programing, and without everhaving had the opportunity to decide for them- selves whether or not they have the interest or aptitude to participate in the arts as a professional, amateur, or spectator." That situation might have been acceptable when the Nation fought for life in a hostile en- vironment, but itis disheartening now. (And it bears mention that New York has

142

1,kt

'113

7'

Initc: thr art,. than mans whirr }lancing it.- Enhancing life. illuminating tial services, and help to make thearts arni rink hint;it tiles(' :Urtvhat the att,available to all their citizens.- Iliemayors aie aH afitint defined "anest.national goal: Ow no It la..uth I ittngth,tt American shall be deprived of theoppor- called(alitlir ai es aretunity to experience... the beauty of life" (y.01,11110, .11 eyo null;rate, Alet cm because of "ciicumsiance,int tune, back / LitIsl5Il lefi,ilts thu I5 to '21) pen 1}111 grinantl. lennitenets I it tare.- ite.te eat h 1:C.11 in .ftlending .Also encout aging is the prr).,,pect of the priigt ann.. and the Bit eidennial r elelnalion. whit 11 should not 1;;a ata rum schen thi liumhet mils he an (1« asion tin look longingly tatia ha, leseled ,iff but an oppoittinity toreally think Aron! %city theNation began, how we ,,;/,r,r1 got 111,111V lea( %chum,.%cc air today for good and illand ,11e (tying %chew %ye want to go IIM11 herel'ata %Aland): tr. MAO. rte,111i,i. ;twat(' mount among the Founding Fathers' goals the Hail of life. liberty. and the pm- til1,11 it', .111 Plearviiiisr 11,1i, sod of 11,11)1)111es,,1.1:(..ve i.r ticlii With 111(' .111, ,r,.,i1cncs, rIthir Nt ttsr, goalsttithe past two centinies, 1 tip'.111,,1, spreading itry,nri the And.tteala, Itirselttclitiltthe N.11.11)11'1; ti .H.i.rny's walls. Ret ently the t*.S. Cnrifei i"111111s !High( ,nt r t) be thepui,,uitof N1,tvors resolved 'that iiv guseiti happmes-,iluough re,111Ve )14111/e(fle Ats r'Ysr'atI.li ii ril111,11111s1M tC(111,11111 trtiir,rrt,iitt'in 111 .111 1 4 t 1

-It is the work of art,- said Archibald MacLeish. "that creates the human per- spective in which information turns to truth.- As a certified. card-carrying poet, Mr. MacLeish was of course talking not of a paintingthe usual synonym for "art-but of the arts in general. And he made a point that has particular rele- kr,.vOt- vance in this era of the American Revolu- tion Bicentennial. A contemplation of our Nation's his- tory need not mean confinement to what has been recorded in the written word. The story of .America has been told also and in ways that impart special di- mensions of appreciation and under- standingin music, on canvas, and in stone, by poets and novelists, through plays and musicals and films, even in the dance. That proposition may initially come as something of a surprise. The impulse to consider the arts simply as valuable as- pects of our national experience rather than as eloquent tellers of it. On second thought, however, numerous examples will come to mind in which a poem or a painting or a play has specifically focused on illuminating the Nation's unfolding. and in doing so has given it "human perspective.- Some random examples of the arts as history are included in these pages. More striking candidates could doubtless be suggested. It's an interesting exercise. LEROY V. GOODMAN Editor, American Education 145 Mtrul the mutic

53:111

VI; 3

2

5

4

ereerenmeee

PHILIP MINIMMIO ERIVALE MOBY DICK' 0 R THE WHITE WHALE

HER MAX I

LLI;STRATED BY - MEAD SCHAEFFER 146

KEW YORK DODD. MEAD AND COMPANY TI .+111 (4 /4'4111 / 41- .16.7.- ' ,.. ,- APO' - ..it'O. ',. .S.,..."-.7'> tc., l'''''''."'.e.,,._ ., ;:: ; ':" .47.- , 40 , , "ft 1 .. ossaa.5, V.111. La 11 l/15 I ilCd , Those of mechanics, each oiw singing hisas it shol blithe and strong, The carpenter singing his as he measures his plant The mason singing his as he makes ready for work . off work, I h e boa tn1 an singing what belongs to him in his b deck-hand singing on the steamboat deck, The shoemaker singing as he sits on his bench, the singing as he stands, The wood-cutter's song, the ploughboy'son his wa morning, or at noon intermission or at sundol The delicious singing of the mother, or of theyour %..10"-' work, or of the girl sewing or washing, Each singing what belongs to him or her and tono: The day what belongs to the dayat night the par fellows, robust, friendly. Singing with open mouths their strong melodious

14 13 There are words like Freedom Sweet and wonderful to say. szAtaminummit-mrara-ftw01. On my heartstrings freedom sings 'All day everyday. Pole There are words like laberty I I "Ihat almost make me ry. If you had known what I know You would know why.

JACOB LITT'S CJRAND AND 1MPO REVIVAL OF BRONSON HOWARD GREAT MILITARY DR EXCELLING IN SCENIC MAGNIF IC E ANY PREVIOUS PRESENTATION OF THE PRESENTING THE MOSTTHRILLING PIC OF WAR EVER SEEN ON THE MIMIC ATIROOP OF ROUGH aiDeut LicATTE MY" OF ACtir I LLE A COMPANY OF I NFANTIR. INr.J C) A CAST OF EXTRAORDINARYSTRE THIS PRODUCTION COMPLETE IS FROM THE BROA 148 15 THEATR e. NEW YORK , AND McVICKER'S THEATRE.C111 .11IN CoW A LL e '

a. `Ts "4.,1 ,

l'HE - " 10 ADyENTURES OF cV-] HUCKLEBERRY FIN/ (TOM S.IIVITR'S COMR.1DE)

BY L sage =ffts0/1 MARK TWAIN ILLUITIATID 57 WORTH BREHM

17

18 HARPER bc BROTHERS NEW YORK AND LONDON MC M K X III

44

1 19

20

I 11,1c !Atli iii ittt if h .11Hurit ;III

I lir shdi pi.tiiit 11).1(Ht.\ 11;11

I ht. silArskili-Iiilcs ()Imillitlg-(

I lit iliinitd 11-1)()Inici ,1 NIt.dit illyI kit. II( still ,inciI )(.;1(I(m)(1.111(iI .(),I Niiily 1,1;11.

I s11,111I I( )1I csl (1111(1 111 ul III Y,I1 11:Iss('

I,11111 Hui lit. yds\ ;II\\"im btu 1)(1(1\ill StIss(.\ grAsN.

Vull Hid\ 1)111 III (.;11111)111rck,

I slid!! 11(11 hy I Itcic. :111(1I)IsS. 21 Bill \III\I I.I II;II\\.,1111c1c.ci 16

"..,::. tt. ...IWO. 1 . 1

i it,... 4 .40479 .. . 5 , '11. ..-or . aro .c -,-.c .,... if...Ty:J.: .iqcOr A,.;.77.-._ .,...... 2.-. col . -4' .0'1....- 4,::-. .i' ....ec.44. .. ,_.$4-,A71...4.,. ../... Si jhatP4ce;tort: Great War Com t)yCA/(7;k?J)eI.1 ,a nclEvzron. e/Is Played und LL:tii re lice crial u7g,f 442 Times NO American play hascome in nearer to greatness! New York Woman's Home Compan TREMENDOUS! Sardonic laugh fdls its every scene. Alexander Woollcott, N.Y. .!

"HERE IS awar play without piffle; it has the ring of SUPERB ! Vt truththe only A triumph. war play that has got away from the Stark Young, truck of the stage." N.Y. Times Alan Dale, N.Y.elmerican

4c n The sneer is gone from Casey's lips, his teeth are clenched in hate He pounds with cruel vengeance his bat upon the plate; And now the pitcher holds the ball, and now he lets itgo. dy And now the air is shattered by the force of Casey's blow, Oh, somewhere in this favored land the sun is shining bright The band is playing somewhere, and somewhere heartsare light:

And somewhere men are laughing, and somewhere children shout; But there is no joy in Mudvillemighty Cases' has struck out.

k_10 "" 2 ,,,,....sIf , r

25

4. .4."4.,

pf4.,

"4

KW.

5,4

152 ILLUSTRATION KEY: 1) Detail from the "Columbus Doors," whichserve as the main entrance to the Rotunda on the East Front of the U.S. Capitol; 2) Grant Wood's Midnight Rid(' of Paul R('vere; 3) chorusfrom "Yankee Doodle"; 4) detail from John Trumbull's painting, The Declaration of Independence; 5) playbill for Maxwell Anderson'sValley Forge; 6) frontispiece from Moby Dick, by Herman Melville: 7) totem pole carved by Tlingit Indians of southern Alaska;8) scene from the play, Abe Lincoln in Illinois; 9) Harriet Beecher Stowes Uncle Tom:5 Cabin; 10) Horace Pippin's painting. JohnBrown Going to Hanging: 11) scene from the film, The Covered Wagon; 12) "I Hear America Singing," by Walt Whitman;13) "Words Like Freedom," by Langston Hughes; 14) playbill for Shenandoah by Jacob Litt; 15) Ogalala Sioux rendering of the Battle of LittleBig Horn; 16) Ethel Merman as Annie Oakley in 4 nnie Get lour Gun; 17) Charlie Chaplin in a scene from the film. The Gold Rash;18) scene from the ballet, Billy The Kid; 19) frontispiece for Mark Twain's Th(' .4 (/ventures of Huckleberry Finn: 20) from "AmericanNames," by Stephen Vincent Benet ; 211U. Rushmore, South Dakota ;22) playbill for What Price Glory. by Maxwell Anderson and L. Stallings;23) scene from Porgy' awl Bess; 24) from "Casey At the Bat." by Phineas Thayer; 25) Vaudeville, painted by JacobLawrence; 26) Harold Lloyd in The Freshman.

153 TOMORROW'S EDUCATION

BY RALPH W. TYLER

uring the 200 yearseration.abouthalf of the population enter school by formidable barriers. They of Our Nation's exis- moved up to higher levels of affluence and encounter, for example. a curriculum (and tencetheschools responsibility than those attained by their a way of presenting it) developed to serve havebeen called parents. while only about a fourth moved children from homes where theparents upon to respond todown. And while serving the needs of have alreadybuilt the needs and ex- a ground.work for society as a whole, they have also sought to schoolingby having books in the home. pectationsof a serve Americans as individuals, offeringby reading aloud from them, by engaging society marked by them opportunities to develop theirownthe children in conversations that change so continu- express special talents. pursue their own particularorderly thought and draw on ideas, and by ous. so rapid. and so extensive as to inhibit interests, and achieve their own personalinstilling confidenceintheir sons and and in some ways nullify the role of tradi- goals. tion. daughters that they can handle school The common characteristicinthesework. Boys and girls who have They have done so with amazing success. not received enterpriseshasbeenresponsivenesstothis kind of stimulation arc likely to per- Other social institutions also have made society's evolving demands and expecta-ceive school learning not only as over- important contributions to the education tions. Tomorrow's education can thus bewhelmingly difficult but irrelevant to their of our citizenry, of course, butitisthe expectedto bc shaped by tomorrow'slives. To enable them to absorb what the schools that have had the basic responsi. society, and the new demands, new probschool seeks to teach requires the construc- bility. In carrying Out that responsibility !ems. and new aspirationsitisheir to.tion of a new kind of curriculum, the use of they have taken the lead in building and Along the way, of course. it will beneces- new kinds of teaching methods, and the maintaining a dynamic and yet stable poli- sary to take care of some unfinished busi-development of approaches that engage tical and social order. They have been at ness. prominently including the challengethese particular children at a level where the heart of the development of a labor of educating all the Nation's children. Wethey actually are and help themmove for. force possessing those levels of flexibility, speak glibly of having universal elementaryward in terms of their individual abilities intelligence, and skill necessary to under- education in America. and statistically theand interests. gird the remarkable advances that have statement is accurate. with 95 percent or Another frustrating barrier standing in been made in agriculture, industry. and more of the Nation's children enrolled inthe way of such children is the continued commerce. They have helped to induct school. Results of the National Assessment Use in many places of practices geared to into the common life of the Nation millions of Educational Prog-ress indicate, however.an earlier time when the school's function of newcomers from diverse cultures, speak- that about 20 percent of these children dowas fully as much to sort students as to edu, ing different languages and having differ- not in fact acquire the skills and knowledgecate them. When the Nation was new, mt customs and folkways. They have been taught in the primary grades andare left nearly 80 percent of the labor force was en primarily responsible for creating an en- unprepared to progress either in schoolorgaged in unskilled labor, less than three ;ironment in which, during the last gen- toward responsible adulthood. percentinprofessional and managerial Characteristically coming from homes ofoccupations. Even so much as an elemen- Dr. Tyler is Director Emeritus of the Center forAd- poverty where their parents have had little tary education was not necessary to be pro- vanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences. education, they arc confronted when theyductive in primitive agriculture, manufac- 15 173 turing. and construction. and only a verythat in effect tells many children to give few men (anti no women) neededprepara up. Since 1965 national attention has been tion for the professions. It seemed sensible. focused tin finding ways of educating these then, to ration education so that the num-voungstets. and piogress slowlyis being -tt bers of people re.ceiving different ainounts made. Significant 11111iroVentellts are of schooling ,.vould correspond roughly totireless reported in only. about one third of the available opportunities. This sorting the classrooms where there are concentra. process was named over «t the schools, and lions of childt en from homes of poverty. itwas accomplished by the classroom The schimds of tomorrow will be 111On' hilly grades given out to the pupils. Marks of responSise (0 this challenge, and WC' can ex -excellent- ot "good" servt.td to encourage rt the number of .Anierican children who furthereducation.while-poor-and are truly gaining a primary education to -failure- signaled the advisability of trying increase from the present 8perci'llt to at something else. For the purpose at hand, least 9..,) percent. this weeding out process was effectiveIn Going beyluid education's Unfinished 1910, for example. about half of America's business.asecond majorresponsibility children had stopped their schooling by thefacing tomorrow's education is the orderly age of 12 but still managed to find jobs ofand effectivetransitionof youthfront one kind or another. Only ten percent went childhood to constructive parncipation in on through high school, and only three adult life. As .American societv has become percent graduated from college. specialized and urbanized. young people Sinletallit 111.111dstiid.15aretitcolnse have increasingly become more isolated Vastft diderelli. in 1970 less than fise from it. There are terser responsibilities as- cent of the men and women making up thesigned to children as their contribution to labor force weie engaged in nonfat in un maintaining the family, and fewer oppor skilled labor, while more than .10 percent tunities for thetn tO help With their parents' were engaged inprofessional.technical. occupations. to participate in adult social and other occupations requiring more thanJiff:tip:. to try out adult roles, even to obarose for the safety and welfare of the a high school education. Toward meetingtain pan.time jobs. For earlier generationsyouth drawn to it. Among other things. the needs both of the individual and ofthese were significant ways in which young that concern stimulated the enactment of laws strictly' regulating child labor. raising society at large. the schools art now ex people Were :tidedintheir progressto pected to help every child acIneve the hill adulthood. NIcanwhile, however. work left the compulsory age of school atten(!ence. limit of his or her potentiala goal at oddsthe home and farm to be carried on in fac-and establishing minimum wages. Useful with the continued use of a marking system tory and shop. and asit did so. concernand even necessary though thcsestatutes and regulations have been they havr coiit " cident ally greatly limited the (Tpnrtunity for young people to learn what work and adult life are all about. The net result of this forced isolation has been to alienate young people from the adult society. to de. lay personal and social trial uration. times to inhibit permanently the develop. 11Mnima..--_ mem of respon,i'aihty because of overpro. «tenni, frote the consequence of personal .'411 actions. Americansociety. cannot long enclure tHillotit a means fon a peacelui and effec- tive transition of youth into adoh hood. As arlangements of the past have dissolved, new provisions must be constructed. In the Communist countries.tint.transitionis largely the task of the Communist youth -- organizanons that take ovci the intivititts of voting people for several hours at the 0- end of each sr hool dav and on hoiidays. A 4 ...101111 Toughly similar function was performed in the United States dining the Depression of the 19:i0s by the National Youth AdmMis. trationand-heCivilianConservation Corps, established as emeigency tneasti;es ro provide work for young people at a ti,m of massive unempinyment. Althot9.01 these agencies aided gicat 'lumbers of American z:A7 yo..011 hey Wert' ilol integrated eit her into He schools Or die overall society. serving only lowinvoints families anti pro viding only a lititted range of %honk experi-

ence. The neyds of the future call for 11

174 155 mom permanent. more carefully planned quirements of those occupations. Useful though such developments may approach thatinvolvesallyouth ina Within the cities and in rural areas alikebe, however, it seems clear that for many vat iety of constructive adult activities inthere remains a problem pointed out in theyoung people, the problems of occupation which they take increasing initiative anti 1962 report of the Panel of Consultants on aleducation cannot be solved by the respomibility. Vocational Educationthatthe young-schools and colleges alone. Indeed, until Many community institutions and or-sters most in need of vocational educationindustry, commerce, and public agencies ganizationsneed w participateinen- in order to gain a permanent place in thejoin with our educational institutions in deavors of this sort, hut the school is in thelabor force are those from low-incomeworking out more effective ways for young best position to serve as coordinator, to homesthesameyoungstersthatthe people to gain initial employment and take the lead in drawing up appropriateschools have not been reaching. And there move ahead as they demonstrate greater plans, to help young people determine the is thy problem also of adults who need re- competence and initiative, more than a particular programs best suited to theirtraining becausetheir jobs have been third of the Nation's youth will never have needs and aspirations,and to nwnitoreliminated or sharply changed by tech. a real career. As for the schools, they also these programs toward assuring their edu.nological innovations, a situation that few willhave to make considerable adjust- cative effectiveness. schools are really prepared to deal with. ments, not only by changes in the curricu- Tomorrow's schools also can by expected Thestrengtheningofoccupational lum but by capitalizing on the resources to be deeply involved in the related issue ofeducation thus must rank high on educa. represented by people and facilities outside occupational education. Until the presentLion's agenda for the future, and moves the school. Toward that end, the schools century the number of different occupa-now under way in this direction can be ex will among other things establish flexible tions was small and the professions aside, pecteci to accelerate. One such move is theschedules so that young people may attend most required very little training. Particu-concept of -career education," advanced school part :.ime while working full time, or larly during the past few decades, however,by Sidney P. Marland, Jr., when he was perhaps drop out for a semester or two and advances in science and technology haveU.S. Commissioner of Education and now then return, and so that adults may enroll created thousands of jobs unknown to pre.being pursuedwith continuing stimulus at various periods in their lives to learn new vious generations and requiring specializedfromtheOfficeof Educationina or broader skills. knowledgeandtechnicalpreparation.number of States. Typically, the schools in Thus the traditional usefulness of appren-these States follow a pattern by which, as n equally compelling challenge to ticeship. which depends heavily on ob-part of the regular academic program, tomorrow's schools is that of char- acterdevelopment. The schools servingthcmaster and emulatinghis children explore the world of work in the example, has been significantly narrowed.elementary grades. systematically examine have always played a part in this complex One cannot easily observe what the mastervarious possible careers in the junior high process, of course, but the more traditional is thinking. and in any case new technology school years, and at the high school andsources of influence have been the home, is likely to render his proceciures obsolete. post.high school levels are afforded oppor- religious institutions, and the neighbor- For a number of reasons, then, apprentice-tunities to prepare for initial employment. hood. In earlier periods of American life, ship and on-the-job training have becoinoAnother move is the development in some newspapers and other publications gave inadequate to serve a large sector of younghigh schools of a core of educational offer- wide circulation to prevailing concepts of people. ings for all students which assures that integrity and moral conduct, and persons those who devote some of their time to seen as being exemplars of strong character Thy high schools face some critical diffi- were pointed to as models for young people culties in providing occupationai educa-vocational training are not thereby made ineligible for college. Meanwhile there is to emulate. In combination, these various tion. A recent public opinion survey, to forces helped young people expand their cite one example, showed that more thanincreasing interest in the expansion, both at the secondary and postsecondary levels, behavioral horizons beyond an impulsive, 90 percent of the parents wanted their chil- childlike concentration on the gratification dren to go to college and that more than 70of "cooperative education,- by which the student combines school and on-the-job of immediate needs. Together they pro- percent expeczyd them to do so. In most moted conduct guided by a more mature high sc;lools, however, enrollment in voca-experience. concern for what is good and proper, a tional education programs means skipping perception of long range goals and ac- the courses commonly required for college complishments, a devotion to certain be- admission, and in this circumstance many liefs and ideals, and the courage to follow parents insist char their children avoid vo- them in the face of conflicting pressures. cational training. Many other parents do As a reflection of the larger society, the not raist that barrier, of course, but here role of the schools was to reinforce these too the situation is unsatisfactory, since the concepts. schools have difficulty in pi oviding instruc- tion and working laboratories that realis- As America has become a more open, ticall:: respond to the lange of jobs that are multicultural society, however, the values ikely to be opening up. Communities that and influences of yesteryear have tended to have a large fraction of young people want- lose their potence. Many parents no longer ing vocational education are typically those insist on a particular code of conduct. Both that can offer only limited employment within the community and more especially opportunities. In rural a rz-as, for example, through the mass media, young people are morc than 80 percent of the youth m4st go confronted by varied and sometimes con- into the cities if they are to find jobs, but flicting views of acceptable behavior and few if any rural higii schools have person- standards of right and wrong. The reli- nel or facilities capable of providing educa- gious institutions no longer exert great in- tion for most urban occupations, much less fluence on the mass of children and youth. the iiiny and opportunity to keep pace with Recognition and respect are given to per- the constantly changing characxer and .i.e7 sons for kinds of achievements that have no 156 connection with moral values, and (JevO lion to ethical standards and thecourage to adhere to them seem no longer to be newsworthy. The result is agap in young people'sdevelopmentthatcommands priority attention if our society isto remain stable. Tomorrow's schools will of necessity play a vital role in filling that gap. More than any other contemporary social institution, the school lends itself to providingyoung people firsthand contact witha community in which each person is respectedas an individualwithoutregardtocoloror family income or religious or ethnic back- ground, in which people sincerelycare for one another, in which everyone is encour- aged to participate and to share in the rewards of accomplishing, and in which justice and fair play are thenorm. The schools of today are muchmore like this than were the schools of the past, andmore of those of tomorrow are likelyto thus exemplify the nature of a truly democratic society. In doing so they will also be called upon to encourage young people to iden- tify the values involved in the situations they encounter and the actions they take, helping them learn how to anticipate the consequences of those actions -.lad become sensitive to their effects on others. In these and other ways, the schools will beex- pected to make important contributionsto After a hard day's work infields character development. or factories, some youngsters have difficulty with Not just in this connection butas regards night-school classes the learning process in general, tomorrow's education will begin early in the child's life.Self-motivation,attitudestoward others, the length of time that immediate gratification is postponed formore distant rewards, perceptions of complex phenom- ena,the ability to focus attentionall these are markedly influencedby the child's experiences in the period from birth to age five. Preliminary responses to this important fact have come in the establish- ment of Head Start programs and in the adoption by several States of legislation authorizing public funds for thispurpose. 1' The future will see a broadening of the ef- fort and a refinement of it, so as to accom- modate the variables involved. Some of the more obvious of these variables are the availability or unavailability of the mother in the home, family income, the amount of the mother's education, and the number of young children in the family. It is unlikely that the schools oftomor- row will take over the early education of children whose mothers are abk to be with them for most or all of the day. who inter- act with them in a coherent and logical fashion, and who give themencourage- ment and support while at the same time setting educational tasks that requirecon- centration and effort. Where mothersare 157 aws.; at %`york, however, and no substitute is rewards at the expense uf such intrinsic re-a significant influence. "Practice makes abletoprovide such ex periences.the wards as tht. satisfactions that come frQ/11perfect."t he 18th century teacher believed, schools can be expected to assume a main seeing children learn and become moreinsisting that the child repeawdly recite the responsibility. Some will develop programs mature. Such developments are commonalphabet,meticulouslymemorizethe within school buildings. staffed by certified features of large bureaucracies, and theyScriptures. endlessly intone his sumshis teachers. Some will involve mothers and result in inflexible institutions that are in-enthusiasm stimulated where necessary by show them how to provide constructivesensitive to the needs of the clients and un-use of the hickory stick. These were the educational experiences in the home. Someable to respond effectively to changing de-principles of teaching in schools where will use adolescents and senior citizens and mands.Democraciesachieveflexibilitymore than half the pupils dropped out others as volunteer aides. All in all, earlylargely through maintaining an uneasyafter no more than three years of instruc- childhood education will become muchstability among the tensions that arise fromtion. Psychological studies have long since more comprehensive and varied. the varying needs and goals of varying sec-documented the importance of motivation , Also high on the agenda will be moves to torti of the society. The process is analogousof helping students perceive the signifi- find ways of forging stronger links among to the existence of living organisms protect-cance of what they are trying to learn, of the schools and the other major institutionsed by semipermeable membranes thatencouragement, and of relating classroom and organizations of the community. In permit water. oxygen, and food to come inwork tu the realities of life outside the part these moves wilt be dictated by theand wastes to go out. Thus they avoid theschool. Such findings of social psychology fact that as society's increasing complexity destruction that would result from com-will increasingly help to shape classroom places an increasing premium on knowl-plete openness and the suffocation thatprocedures during the years ahead, par- edge and skill, the demand for educationwould ensue from an airtight enclosure. Toticularlytowardcapitalizingonthe will exceed the ability of the schools and achieve the equivalent of the semiperme-demonstrated importance of the child's colleges to handle the job alone. Even more able nwmbrane the education system mustfriends in determining school progress and important will be a growing recognitionbe analertparticipantinthelargerin broadening the introduction of such that the school can contribute substantiallysociety, sensitive to the interests of those itpracticesasyouth-tutoring-youthpro- to the development of the community it-seeks to serve and ready to sift out thosegrams, cross-age teaching, group learning self. and that the community can serve as aelements that are trivial or mi,)guided andprojects. and other emerprises that bring major learning resourceas an object ofbring into focus for study and responsethe dynamics of human interactionto study, as a setting for instruction, and as athose that are relevant and important. bear. source of people in addition to teachers entatively.atleast.severalap- Though the word "technology" under- who haveimportantskillsfoimpart. proachesarenowbeingtriedstandably has sometimes raised the hackles Models of this kind of relationship already toward counteracting the rigidity ofof teachers, particularly when it has seem- are available. In New York State. for ex- our educational system, with results that toed to imply that education would somehow ample. Syracuse University is cooperatingclaw have concededly been more promisingbecome completely mechanized. techno- withneighborhoodschoolsystemsin than effective. The most common is the inlogical instruments and procedures prop- operating learning resourcecenters .atelusion of parents and community actionerly applied will similarly assume greater which an impressivelistof communitygroups in the planning and evaluation ofimportance in the classroom of the future, organizations and individuals participateschool programs. Another lies in decentra-and their role today is not inconsiderable. in offering instruction. Empire State Uni- lizing the administrative structure. Detroit,Technologyispart and parcelof the versity, a unit of the New York State Uni-for example. is divided into eight regions,modern textbook and its accompanying versity. capitalizes on a wide range of reeach of which has an elected school boardexercisematerials,andmostteachers sources within the State to enable studentswith a considerable degree of autonomy. Awould agree that contemporary texts offer to obtain a college education away fromthird is to establish alternative schools thatways of stimulating and guiding learning conventionalcampuses. The Universityprovide students and their parents with op-far beyond anything available in the past. Without Walls and other "open" institu-tions: the Los Angeles City School DistrictSimilarly valuable are such varying prod- tions of higher education not only make has30or more oftheseinstitutions. uctsof technologyastheincreasingly similar use of resources outside the college Another possibilityisthe proposal thatsophisticated achievement and psychologi- campus but enable students to set sche- parents be given vouchers that could be apcal test, the overhead projector (now used dules appropriate to their particular cir- pliedtothetuitionat any accreditedby teachers nearly as much as the black- cumstances and changing interests, per-school. All of these approaches have atboard), the tape recorder, and videotape haps interrupting their study from time to leastas many weaknesses as attractions.equipment. The future can be expected to time, establishing combinations of part-For the alternative school, for example, itbring not simply a wider use of such time and full-time study, and in generalis no small task to attract sufficient stu-products of technology but a broader un- making themselves at home both in thedents to operate within the public schoolderstanding of their limitations as well as community and in the pursuit of furtherdistrict's average per-pupil costs and to re-their potential. and of their appropriate education. Many more of these commun- cruit a full staff of teachers who are at therole.Educationaltelevision,programed ity-school developments will characterizesame time competent and congenial to thematerials, and computer-assisted instruc- tomorrow's education. basic ideas involved. Such departures fromtion have not replaced the teacher, nor will Concomitantly there will be an intensi- tradition nevertheless serve to alertthey. To learn to read, to acquire an un- fied movement to address the rigidity thatteachersandadministratorsthatthederstanding of the basic principles under- has come to afflict the Nation's education- schools of tomorrow will succeed only iflying ascientific phenomenon, to gain al system as it has expanded and becomethey become more flexible, more sensitive,meaning and satisfaction from listening to more complex. The symptoms ofthis in effect more human. amusicalperformancesuch achieve- affliction are to be seen in an increased There willalso be a more extensivements have as their primary requirement a insulation of teachers and administratorsapplication of advances made in sciencedetermined. sustained effort on the part of from the community, the standardizationand technology, continuing a trend that isthe learner. ofteachingapproachesandproce- now well established in the schools. The Moreover, students need to gain recogni- dures, a concern with material and statusbehavioral sciences in particular have hadtionfor successful performance,to be 158 given encouragementto try again wher they are not successful.and to appioach their work witha sense of their personal value as human beings.Perhaps there are students who are so stronglymotivated and self-confident that theycan fare reasonably ,well on their own. For thegreat majority, however, learning withouthuman interac- tion can be tolerated onlyfor short periods of time. For such studentsthe teacher is ir- replaceable, and technologicaldevices can be helpful onlyinsofarastheyserve particular purposes withinthe teacher's overall strategy. Thus usedthey are with- out question very valuable. Certainkinds of information can beconveyed by instruc- tional television, forexample, far More vividly, more precisely,more clearly, and more convincingly than byateacher's description. Programedmaterials are ex- tremely helpful for certainkinds of step- by-steplearning.Computer-assistedin- struction can not onlyaddress an indivi- dual student's specificneeds and deficien- cies but analyze andsynthesize his or her responses in numerous usefulways. Such products of technology' k t can be expected to play an increasinglyimportant role in the classroomto the extent that they give greater play to the stimulation.encourage- ment, and guidance of humanbeings by taking advantage of the , persistence, pre- NATIONAL YOUTH cision, and laborsavingcharacteristics of ADIMISISTRATI-41 the machine. In summary, the agenda oftomorrow's GIVES4"1;14.iIIIEEPS education will include thedevelopment of JOBS - .. 12000 lat TO j. educational programs capableof reaching tj ".k"' IN ,,.. - . those thousands of childrenwho today do 8000 4. SC HOOL :.., not gain so much as a primary education, '..--. the establishment of approachesaimed at IN INDIANA..... helping youth makea constructive transi- 'L.:Vat-34 tionto mi, A adulthood,and provisionsfor collaboration among the schoolsand busi- Li ness and industry toward enabling young people to find meaningfulcareers. It will - include placinggreater emphasis on char- acter development, establishingprograms for children who do )61 not obtain adequate educational experiences intheir homes. and enlisting other majorsocial institutions to join in the educativeprocess as part of the community schoolconcept. There will be a conscious effortto reduce the bureau- MOO. craticrigidity of the schools,and the capability of the schools andcolleges to respond to new circumstanceswill be en- hanced by more widespreadapplications of science and technology,. In all these variousways education will build on today and yesterdayto meet the challenges of tomorrow. As inthe past. it will know its failuresas well as its successes. - Slowly on some occasions,-rapidly,, on. others, it will changereflecting in either case the emerging requirements andgoals - it"."-C t's -4af.of the larger society ofwhich itis so inte- n4s- gral a part. 159 America's First Public High School

,...o..2c.,,,,..:f 4-4,.,./..).-... -4°147.,,,, -....4.7? y 1821 men of to fill uselully and respectably many of favorite pastime consisted of engaging in Icommerce in this those stations, both public and private. inconversations and reflections on the art of country and which he may be placed. A parent who teaching with gentlemen of like tempera- abroad recognized wishes to give hi:s child an education that ment. As a consequence young Emerson the superior dockshall lit him lOr active file, and slut!l formed the opinion that most of those ing facilities of theserve as a loundation ,ji)r eminence in his practicing this art were at best ham- port of Boston. profession, whether mercantile or handed. and to many of themei-lion/cal, is under thenecessityol "I came to the conclusion," he wrote town's 50.000 in- giving him a different education from later, "that my former course as a habitants the names of its wharfs any which our public schools can now teacher had been more savage a7ld -Rowe's." for example. and "Lewis" and no- n is h heathenkh than Christian, and that if I and "Long-were synonymous with The committee therefore recomnwndedshould ever have another opportunity of earning a livelihood. For with them came"the founding of a seminary to be called teaching and governing boys, I would try a demand for skills of a more sophis- the English Classical Schbol." and at a whether they could not be managed by ticated character than the simple require-town meeting held in Faneuil Hall on appealing to the highest motives by which ments of Colonial life. Competent chand-January 15. 1821. the citizens of Boston human beings can be moved and to them lers, map makers. bookkeepers. and the voted for its establishment. Thus was alone." like were hard to come by, however, for cwated the Nation's first public high several generations of the town's youth school in the sense that we now use that It was with that determination in mind had been left inadequately prepared to term. (Its name, incidentally, was soon that he replied to an advertisement in the enter the vibrant life of the community inchanged. the word "high" being substi- Boston Sentinel and was elected the which they lived. tuted for "classical" and it was as F.nglishEnglish Classical School's first head- The system of public instruction at theHigh School that it attracted national master. Emerson regarded the oppor- time consisted of several primary schools emulation.) tunity as an experiment, and on the providing rudimentary instruction for Now it happened at that time that a opening day of classes shared his educa- children from four to seven years of age 23vear-old mathematics instructor from tional credo with a sub-master, two and a few English grammar schools offer-Harvard had reached a major decision inushers (assistant teachers), and an ori- ing elemental studies for pupils up to agehis career. George Barrel! Emerson had ginal student body numbering 102, all 14. And there was, of course, the re- suffered from failing eyesight for some boys: nowned Public Latin School. founded in time and his nature had taken a more I intend to have perfect order. 1635. But the Latin School (long regard- contemplative turn than that of his more nezyr intend to strike a blow. ed as the preparatory school for Harvard)didactic fellows at the University. His was essentially conducted for the "haves" I shall never doubt a boy's word until he of the townthe sons of the clergy and proves himself a liar. the bankers and the physicians. For the I shall never listen to one boy's word children of the artisans, the small mer- against another. chants, the seamen, there remained only I shall not urge boys to surpas.s each the school of life. other but eVery one of them to surpass These were the circumstances that in himself; to be a better scholar and a 1820 led thr Boston School Committee to truer gentleman today than he luulbeen form a subcommittee to consider the ye.sterday. wwn's educational needs. Said its subse- quent report: Fifty years later a member of that first class, the Honorable J. Wiley Edmands, The mode of instruction now adopted compared his experiences in other Boston and thebranchesof knowledge that are schools with his days at English High: taught at our English grammar schools "In the former, the boys studied by a're not sufficiently extensity, nor other- compulsion: in the other, they were wise calculated to bring powers of the ' got actuated by ambition to learn. In the mind into operation. nor to qualify youth English High School as it appears todaLione, the perfect recitation, word for word 160 from the book. was the Nisk: in the other. a full understandingof the subject ir3s the principal object. Theone culti vated the ITICITIMN: the other.tht' think' ing and reasoning 1..iculties.In the one, fear was the compellingmotive of obedi ence to ;lumen rule. in the otherwas mutual good will nd mutualrespect between teacher and pupil.In the one was the discipline of the ferule:in the other. that of leproof andadvice." t, (. The site of this enlightenedapproach to learning was three-story brick school house located on HerneStreet in a spot cI ,1! now occupied by the MassachusettsState House. The third floorwas fitted with 11 crude desks and benchesof bare pine for the boys. while themaster's desk of the same material W.1S stratt'giCalb,"10Catcd near the only smirce of warmthin the school an open fireplace.The second story was Occupied by)0 annular and " . t, reading schools. Andon the ground floor - tinarielmis to [Who ld)WCre stationed the 1l1W11 \V3it'll and Ilern FireEngine No. ti.Itis recorded that occasionallythe stu dents found the hare ofa fire consider, abb. stronger than theirthirst for knowl edge. l'he kindly headmastei.however. 11C1IT (kali ildFshly With ',Mildc.11311l11Vs f Witt perfect order. Tice "ratio studiorinn"included 111=------1111&' ;""fx.__ aticient and modern geography.history. algebra. elements olat ts and sciences. savred geogiaphy. rhetoricand composi geometry. natural philosophy. literature and forensics.natural theology Bo5ton'5 Foglish High School(circa 1S21) .from 5ketches hy former pupils. and niokd philosophy.am1 "evidences of Christiaintv." ln addition, banking. commerce. andthe trades were reflecting a filled from the ranks of addressed in 1821. Talentedbut trapped, Yankee concern with English High a child of black, Spanish-speaking, prat ticality. there School men. and were he,ky concentrations of navigatioui. blue-collar white familieshad little in the Starting in about the 1860s.the bookkeeping. surveying.mensuration and way of a "mode of instructionto qualify population of the city(and.the student astronomical calculations, andmost roc youth to fill usefully andrespectably (ion and use of mathematical body of English High School)began to instill take on a more cosmopolitan many of those stations both publicand tricots. And so fot over a hundred complexion.private, in which he year., Names like O'Connor. may be placed." :he curriculum remained(with the addi Duclos. Weiscopf, Supported not only by and Bornstein appearedwith increasing minority groups, ion of mmiern languages).to the nn but also by generationsof the school's frequency among the formerlyAnglo- alumni, a movement developed nensc satisfaction of the communityit which re- eryed. Saxon class rosters and graduationlists. sulted in the construction People at all levels in all in 1973 of a Town pride in the school sections in- new "home" for English High was given a creasingly looked a ten pecial push by astrange thing that hap. upon English High as story high-rise in the heart ofBoston's their own special school, thekev to social celled alm.ist with the firstgraduating richest complex of educationaland cub and economic ascendancyfor their chil- tura! institutions. Its lasses. Although the schoolhad been dren in the new land. program design Mt ek't`ti cditi 3 terminal educa centers around the development ofa fine hi one respect the Bostonof a centuryarts career education curriculum. ionwnh the boys studying forthree The .ars (or less) and then taking jobs later differed little from titherurban cen-goal is to provide so ters across the country. The growing a valid response to the ell chid the faculty perform its needs of the community's task. so affluence of the middle class, the youth, for there is among Boston'syoung people a broad aused with the "spirit of EnglishHigh proliferation of private and parochial floor were the youngsters whostudied range of creative talent in thearea., of secondary schools, the flightto suburbia painting and sculpture, iere. that the universities and colleges had left behind a secondary school music, and und its graduates popudrama. Thus as it has as well prepared for lation with entirely different needs been since 1821, gher studies as any who had than Boston's English HighSchool is seeking attended those which EnglishII igh hadby that publu and privatepreparatory to provide "the towne withgraduates of time been meeting for 140years. Thus inhonor and achievement." hook. Nor did it fail in its originalob a circular twist of history, the Boston live. Within a few years. positions of system faced the same basic problem in ROB CARROLL wer in the areas of public service. the 1960s that the town fathershad Assistant Director of Staff Development, Boston Public Schools 161 me Discovering America

: In the hoginning, their function was names of the writers responsible for the n the beginning array of textbooks they use, but even so tht,y WM' SO1110- not so much to educate as toindoctri times hardly largernate. and in fact indoctrinationremained they have probably heard of Webster and than a three by a chiefif not the chiefpurpose until McGulfey, They would not be so at ease, live file card. As modern times. For the first settler, the however, with the casual organization of they grew in size purpose in living was to save one's soul. the early spelling texts. One author might and number, they The Bible was the instrument of salva- decide to expand his speller by including tion. Obviously, to know the Bible it wasthe Declaration of Independence or the tokl us who we Constitution, or both. Another, not to be were as a people necessary to be able to read it.Logically outdone, would introduce some moral ind as a Nation. They defined us. They and inevitably then, concern for literacy novided reassurance. inspired fear, and became secondary only to satisfaction oftales and perhaps even a little arithmetic. were relentless in their determination to the basic needs of food and shelter. In any case, the textbook determined in this life what the teacher taught and what the cad us to virtue and suc A hl stadents were expected to learn. The ap- Ind (in their early version,. at least) sal . Pr" proach was memorization. Prodded by vation in the next. AMERICAN SELECTION 0 I+ the teacher. the scholars painfully worked Perhaps inspired by the lessons learned their way from one lesson to the next, re- frotn them, thousands of Americans will ttirons ilk Reading andSpeaking. .mark the Bicentennial by visits to the Na- peating the words aloud so endlessly that CALCULATED . by the end of the term they had theore- tion's historical shrines and monuments. To IMPROVE. die MINDS and ter.v1Nz tically absorbed every page. Well, actual- The Boston Commons and Bunker Hill, the TASTY, of YOUTH: Independence Hall and the Liberty Bell. ly, not every page. Sonic they were bless- AND At.SiO, edly allowed to skip. These were the Nlount Vernon and the Lincoln Memo- 9f rial. Even the first visit will be like a re- To inftrat them irktheGc4 0111%0:s-roar,pages given over to advertisements 1,,and Pourteso(thittoito STATES, turn. Still. many will doubtless fail to re- other works available from the publisher, TO WHICHAUritatixco, call where they first heard about the well larded with glowing recommenda- In Ecocu hart, and Dtncr'iosun for tape. tions of their valuetestimonials, we great places of America and aboutthe flag the principal PASSIONS of the Miwø. would call themfrom presumably dis- heroes and patriotism that inspired them. 2111140 -.!ere did we first tinguished experts. A work by John Jen- Come to think of )te THIRD PART of a gjtAtsfMATICAL kins entitled Art of Writing, published in learn about Paul Re .er.George Wash Iterrrftlf1 of the ENDLISH LA N'OUA011. and Benjamin 1813, included 329 such endorsements! ington. Thomas Jeffc, Nor were any readers left in doubt as Franklin? Where did we find them. r NOAH. WERSTERrjuu.laggiaa. UTHOROf "Dupla TTTT IONS on sheHt401.1114 LAN. to what they were likely to encounter be- sketched in larger than life proportions. .110A011," " Comot cpot4of Ilsael and FUG/TP/11 Wilting'," &C. tween the (usually leather) covers of a and when did we form such lasting im- LI 4 e . text. The title of Noah Webster's blue- pressions of them? Over a span of nearly Tbanggi andAtdreca,TFIIRD EDITION. Wish -many eoleicesotaln& IISPROYIIMANTIs-by the backed spelling book, for example, was 300 years. where did we find this com- /Stmt.:1a, An American Selection of Lessons In mon bond of understanding and rev- 44 Begin..1h sheWant in Isis Cradle s,Les she hat Wont be 14. b. WASIII1GT014.".MI Reading and vh,,icing Calculated to Im- erence? How does it happen that the Pil- prove the Mind.s and Refine the Taste of grims, New Amsterdam. and the Virginia The first textbooks to become widely Youth. And ALo to Instruct Them In settlers seem about as real to us as they the Geography, History, and Politics of must have seemed to school childrenin used were not readers- they came alittle laterbut "spellers.** almost as if the the U.S. To Which Are Prefixed Rules In the Republic's earliest years? Elocution, and Directions for Expressing The answer is of course the American Colonists had taken literally the opening schoolbook, the textbook. Not the broad-statement of the Gospel according to cast media or even the daily newspaper St. John: "In thc beginning was the (although they have certainly helped) butWord. . St. John was hardly talking those "Guardians of Tradition," as about spelling, but in Colonial days and the writer Ruth Miller Elson called well into the 19th century, words as such learning. themclassroom texts, dating from the were seen as the beginning of Horn Book and the New England PrimerLong lists of words, multisyllabic and and extending in an unbroken flow of often esoteric, with little if any attention type to the handsomely bound, colorfullypaid to their meaning and none of the illustrated series of our own day. With modern publisher's concern for levels of major assists from thc adoption of free ability and interest. public schools, and later compulsory Each speller (and the subsequent read- school attendance laws, they shaped the ers and geographies andpenmanship learning process in the United States, andtexts and others) was theproduct of an to a significant degree the characterof individual author. Today's school chil- the Nation itself. dren doubtless have no notion of the 162 the Principal Passions of the Mind. Beingthe NIinds and Refine the Taste" of their youthful readers, A modern analysis the Third Part of the Grammatical Instt young people. of the volume in his series addressed to tute of the English Language. Such re Toward this latter end the 19th cell . second-graders, for example, 5howed the sounding titles seemed to give books an tury schoolbooks showed a world in vocabulary to be at the eighth-grade level extraordinary stability. Webster was able which hard work and virtuous living al- of difficulty, suggesting that youngsters to describe the 1809 edition of his text as ways led to success and happiness. The 140 years ago either were a collection of the "Thirtieth Revised Impression," threescale of values in such a world held that whiz kids or that they found McGuffey's milion copies of which had already been virtue was of greater worth than intellect.works gibberish, That the latter was the sold by that time. While literacy was acknowledged to be case would not really have mattered Itis noteworthy that Webster empha essential, scholarship was suspect. By much, however, since the essence of sized that his reader contained an 1850 the rigid dogma of particular re- schooling was not so much to impart "American" selection of lessons. The ear ligious sects had given way to more knowledge and understanding as to win- lier textbooks had of coutse been ins generalized concepts of morals and now out those youngsters unable to sur- ported from England or reprinted from ethics, with the emphasis being shifted tovive the discipline of endless memoriza- English editions, and thus reflected Bri- indaldual virtue and goodness. The idea tion. Nevertheless the texts did serve as tish standards and verities. The outbreak nevertheless persisted that the essence of warehouses for contemporary "truths" of the Revolution rendered them instantlylea-niog was not the acquisition of knowland as a source of authority for both Th.:y were "un-American," at edge as such but preToration for a nobleteachers and parents. They thus per- least to the extent that they failed to prop.life. Admirable though our forefathers formed a powerful and useful function, erlv portray the British in general and were, however, it is difficult to believe for whatever the faults of rote memoriza- the king in particular as rogues and vil- that they acquired their virtue solely fromtion, the intermingled facts and fancies lains. So in the function of the textbook their schoolbooks. The contributions of contained in the early textbooks became as indoctrinator, a layer of politics was McGuffey's texts were without question fixed in the national consciousness. for a time placed on top of the more fungreat, but their contents would in fact Perhaps the most basic of the truths damental purpose of seeking "to improveseem to have been far over the heads of they sought to convey centered around the proposition that rural people were in-

47w., herently "better" than urban people. In the country, a person's character was formed by nature, with the result that he wasn't likely to get smart-alecky, like those city slickers. Becoming wealthy was fine, in fact admirable, so long as it didn't involve becoming citified, In general, the ideal American was a male white Protestant who made his living by farming. Such indoctrination has largely faded with the passage of time, and for that matter the word "textbook" itself has be- come less than satisfactory in identifying

4 the array of separate instructionalpro- ductssomething over 300,000, accord- lingers firmly ,gripping, the thinshalt of a quill pen, ing to reliable estimates si boo! lahoied over /Ili Copy many a .1tudrut in an early American from which the 1100k, tr(lellIg theelaborate dips 111d ct niggling with the ABCs011d teacher can now select. Newdimensions accompanying writingexercum.., have been brought to the Ea ch pai.4e of the large, classroom by clothbound text contained examplesof the exact in,i; scriptol such advances as films and the teacher On blank linesbelow the teacher's writing, the videotapes, to achieve the sortie ellect, repeatedly students metfralously sought and the computer has ledto the concept topvng tracing garnished letters' of theal fdtabetand sentence.s 01 a relentlesslyuplifting tone 1 lour alter hour of the learning "system.- Withthe text- of the more gutted theytoiled, and same 0111011g tile111 ultimately went onto achieve calligraphy book as the core, asystem may include be virt natty reada ble sa ornate as to integrated supplementary films,activity "The reward for this drudgery books, programed texts, manipulative ims the hook itself, page upon pagealthe most elegant de penmanship, °Pen cherished foryears by suchscholars as Timothy Orne. vices, workbooks, and simulationkits. "Feedback-another cornputer borrow- ingis built into thesystem in the form otr1'er Of tests which the pupilscores to discover almost immediately if learninghas oc, curred or whether "recycling-is required. ..4c:F.6?;Slite, Diagnosis and progress checksat frequent intervals help both teacher andpupil identify areas where further studyor in struction is needed. 'Supplementary- is key word. Sup- plementary to i.vhat? Wny. 7:11.6VTi: rat' to the basic //wee (or basal) textimok. Studies inchild de Je.ear rat velopment have documentedthe fact of (4":t individual differences: Inany group ot (kw/. v hatever their age, dwre will 1/71Ce ded frolia rame y 11-'4...4;/ be a range of abilities,aptitudes, in tererts. and experience. The textbook 1/4/)/fitiii6-7/e,r , /kr I come far more complex thanin the for-sidered necessary for their may be designed for an "average- fifth motive years of pupils: such grade. with content scientifically our Nation's life. Where- phenomena as the industrialrevolution. selected :is the early authorswrote or assembled the age of technology, and ino.rest youngsters in the 9to-11age the entire content of the "knowl- range But the reality is thdt for their works, today'sedge explosion" lay far inthe future. some of text is the end product ofa team of re Today's fourth- or fifth-grade those fifth-grade pupils thecontent will searchers, curriculum pupil, how- ovilly simple, while for othersit will specialists, subjectever, may spend an entire schoolyear be much too challenging. matter specialists, and editors.Webster studying the history of Enter, then. ond mcGuffey multihope to include in one State or ex- the supplements, which ploring a single aspect of widen the range .few small volumes all mathematics or aad increase the depthto an extent be the knowledgecon-literature. Similarly, theteacher will yond the capacity ofany single textbook. probably use completelyseparate text- books for arithmetic, Nleanwhile the preparationand con- reading, science, tent ot instrui tional matt ital.lia.c be and health. The spellers andreaders of the 18th and 19th centuriesmade a Na- tion literate througha smattering of reading selections, arithmetic,and history that theoretically summedup all that mankind had learned. Today'sprimary school child may be grapplingwith the basic concepts ofour economic system. -AWL. In any case, despite television,despite the proliferation of filmsand filmstrips and magazines and paperbacks AdP- .the text- book itself remains thebasic instrument s / of lmw and what Americanslearn. It is worth noting that during thepast 20 years the nur`,1-- of textbooks hasmore than tripled. ifically planned as to grade level. illustrated, built on researched ..is, they continue to serve the basic unifying and organizing functions established byWebster and McCuffev and the othersthe fundamen- tal introduction to theAmerican way of

--RICHARD C. SPITZER Manager. Government Affairs Science Research Associales. Inc.

15 1LIA llustretion Sources )sage 3 Brown Brothers. 5 (top) Library of Congress; (bottom) The Butler Institute of American Art: 6 Peter A. Juley and Son from the Addison 3allery of American Art: 7 (top and right) Library of Congress; (bottom) The History of the Horn Book: 8 (top) Library of Congress; (bottom) :ulver Pictures. 10 The Illustrated London News (January. 1849).

tage 13 Library of Congress; 14 Library of Congress; 15 PHOTO RESEARCHERS (Bruce Roberts); 16 BLACK STAR (Dennis Brack); 18 .ilorary of Congress. 19 The Bettmann Archive, Inc.; 20-24 Library of Congress.

tage 27 University of Kansas; 29 Kansas State University; 30 (top) Library of Congress; (bottom) The Pennsylvania Gazette (Eugene Mopsik); 31 Carleton College ,32 Vassar College; 35 University of Nebraska; 35 National Association of State Universities and Land-Grant :olleges.

tage 41 Museum of the City of New York (Jacob Riis); 44 (top) HEDRICH-BLESSING Li. `ledr ch); (bottom) Brown Brothers, Inc.; 45 Brown 3rothers. Inc.; 46 (top left) BLACK STAR (Shelly Katz): (top right) Educational Facilities Labor,..,-.ies (George S. Zimbel); (bottom) Educational :acilities Laboratories (Ron Partridge); 49 and 50 Library of Congress.

iage 53 U S. Office of Education (Alyce Jackson); 55 (left) The Bettmann Archive, Inc.; (right) Library of Congress; 58 The Emma Willard lchool; 60 The Martin Luther King Library; 61 and 62 Library of Congress; 63 BLACK STAR (Ivan Massar); 64 PIX, Inc. (Paul Conklin).

lages 67-69 Library of Congress: 70 (top) Culver Pictures, Inc.; (bottom) Library of Congress; 71 (top) Xavier University; (bottom) John .roha: 72 U.S Office of Education: 75 National Catholic Education Association; 76 International Museum of Photography. George Eastman louse: 77 (top) Martin Luther King Library. (bottom) Library of Congress; 78 Library of Congress.

age 82 (top and bottom left) Library of Congress; (top right) U S. Department of Agriculture; (bottom right) U.S. Office of Education (Alyce ackson); 83 The Bettmann Archive. Inc.; 84 (top) Library of Congress; (bottom) BLACK STAR (Shelly Katz); 85 (top left and right) Culver 'ictures, Inc.; (bottom) PHOTO RESEARCHERS (Bruce Roberts); 86 (top and middle) Library of Congress; (bottom) The Washington Star Joseph Silverman): 89 (top) Library of Congress: (bottom) BLACK STAR (Declan Haun); 90 Culver Pictures. Inc.: 93 The New York Times, 94 lnited Press International Photo.

age 98 (top) Library of Congress: (bottom left) U.S. Office of Economic Opportunity; (bottom right) The Bettmann Archive, Inc.; 99 Library of ;ongress. 100 Brown Brothers. Inc.; 101 (top) Culver Pictures. Inc.; (bottom) Brown Brothers. Inc.; (bottom left and right) Library of Congress; 04-107 The Chatauqua Institution.

age 113 Library of Congress; 114 (top) Library of Congress; (middle) BLACK STAR (Dennis Brack); (bottom) Lorraine Gray: 115 (left) ,LACK STAR (Jack Jafee): (middle top and bottom) Library of Congress; 116 BLACK STAR (Ivan Massar); 117 U.S. Office of Education; 118 lational Education Association: 119 Yale University Archives; 120 Kalamazoo Puoiic Library; 121 (top) Michigan Department of State: aottom) Michgan Education Association: 122 Michigan Education Association.

age 126 (top) Museum of the City of New York: (bottom) Library of Congress; 127 Library of Congress; 128 (top left) Smithsonian Institution; aottom) The Bettmann Archive. Inc.; 129 (top) Library of Congress; (bottom) I.D. Ltd. (G. Zimbel); 130 National Association of State lniversities and Land-Grant Colleges; 131 (top) Indiana Historical Society: (bottom) Library of Congress; 132 Library of Congress; 134 ntioch College: 136 Brown Brothers. Inc.

age 139 PIX. Inc. (Ricardo Ferro); 140 Library of Congress: 141 BLACK STAR (Shelly Katz); 142 (left) U.S. Office of Education; (right) averford College: 143 The James Van Der Zee Institute. 144 (top) Gerald Holly; (bottom) The Moorland-Spingarn Research Center, Howard niversity. 145 (left) Dillard University: (right) Library of Congress. 148 The Alexander Graham Bell Association; 149 Gallaudet College: 150 op) Gallaudet College; (bottom) Library of Congress: 151 The Council for Exceptional Children.

age 156 U.S. Off,ce of Education, 157 (top) BLACK STAR (Declan Haun); (bottom left) National Association of State Universities and Land- rant Colleges; (bottom right) BLACK STAR (Chuck Rogers/: 158 Rutgers University; 159 (top) MAGNUM (Constantine Manos); (bottom) .S. Office of Educat:on; 160 BLACK STAR (Chuck Rogers); 161 Library of Congress; 163 (totem pole) and 167 (Mt. Rushmore) U.S. epartment of Interior: 164 ("Abe Lir 166 ("Annie Get Your Gun"), 167 ("Billy the Kid"), and 168 ("Porgy and Bess") The ew York Public Library; 165 (-Batt'nt Big Ho7n-) Mum of the American Indian; 165 ("The Covered Wagon"). 166 ("The Gold ush"), and 170 (-The Freshman") '1P.,! Museum of Modern Al.

tge 174 (left) HEDRICH-BLESSING 'Jim Hedrich): (right) System Development Corporation; 175 BLACK STAR (Paul Barton); 176 (top) brary of Congress; (bottom) Mustau17. of the City of New York: 178 (top) Lib..ary of Congress; (middle left) BLACK STAR (Shelly Katz); (middle )ht) Library of Congress: (bottom) U G. National Archives. 179 and 180 Bos'.on Public Schools; 181 (top) Library of Congress; (right) ational Institute cf Education; 182 National Institute of Education; 183 (ell`, National institute of Education; (right) Library of Congress; 184 ottom) MAGNUM (Cornell Capa): itop) The Essex Instilute 166