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Indonesian Universities: Rapid Growth, Major Challenges Indonesian Universities: Rapid Growth, Major Challenges Hal Hill, Australian National University Thee Kian Wie, Indonesian Institute of Sciences (LIPI) Presentation to the ANU Indonesia Update Conference, September 21, 2012. 1. Introduction 2. Indonesian Universities: The Context An Overview International Lessons and Regional Experiences The Current Situation Performance Indicators Inside Universities: governance and incentives 3. Major Contemporary Policy Issues University Autonomy and the BHP Case Incentives for Academic Quality Accreditation and Quality Control The Challenge of Equity 1. Introduction A very large system undergoing rapid change and transformation. HEI’s: from 2,000 students (1945) to 5.2 million at present. Essentially a creation of the second half of the 20th century; much of the growth since the 1970s. Historical legacy: a laggard compared to much of Asia. Very rapid growth, driven by: • Supply-side: large cohorts, graduating from primary and secondary schools. • Demand-side: rapidly rising incomes, crossing a threshold. • A more ‘credentialed’ labour market, eg, for teachers, pegawai negeri. • Some deregulation of the private sector. 1. Introduction (cont) Very large quality variations: from 5-7 ‘elite’ universities, to rudimentary ‘colleges’. Private sector and funding the main source of growth. Contested philosophies: • Markets v/s regulation • Egalitarian ideals v/s unequal outcomes • A hesitant embrace of globalization. Main focus of this presentation: the university sector. Much of Indonesia’s higher education actually takes place in ‘sekolah tinggi’, academies, polytechnics, etc. A substantial number of these institutions are not under the Ministry of Education and Culture. See Table 1. TABLE 1 Indonesian Higher Education Institutions, by Type, 2009/2010 Type MONE a MORA a Public Private Total Public Private Total University 48 412 460 6 87 93 Institute 6 47 53 14 26 40 Advanced school 2 1,314 1,316 32 409 441 (sekolah tinggi) Academy 0 1,015 1,015 0 0 0 Polytechnic 27 140 167 0 0 0 Total 83 2,928 3,011 52 522 574 a MONE = Ministry of National Education; MORA = Ministry of Religious Affairs. Source: Ministry of Higher Education, Higher Education Statistics, 2009/2010. 2. Overview and Context History matters! 1960, 1.6 years of schooling, 68% of the population aged 15+ had no or incomplete primary education (Barro-Lee). (Philippines: 4.2 years, 25.6%; Thailand: 4.3 years, 36.9%). Very limited support for universities, 1945-66. Hence, although rapid growth in tertiary enrolments, GER’s (see Figure 1), not surprisingly Indonesia still lags on enrolment ratios (Figure 2). In spite of the increased emphasis on education, Indonesia does not invest heavily in higher education. About 1.2-1.3% of GDP. And about ¾ of the fairly modest expenditure is in the private sector. See Figure 3. So, the key policy issue: what can be achieved with expenditure equivalent to 0.3% of GDP? NB: fuel and other subsidies in 2011 4% of GDP! FIGURE 1 Indonesia’s Tertiary Gross Enrolment Ratio (%) 30 20 10 0 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 Source: World Bank, World DataBank, Education Statistics, <http://databank.worldbank.org/data/ home.aspx>. FIGURE 2 Tertiary Gross Enrolment Ratios in Selected Countries, 2009 (%) 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 China Indonesia Malaysia Thailand East Asia & High Pacific income: (developing OECD only) Source: World Bank, World Data Bank, Education statistics, <http://databank.worldbank.org/data/ home.aspx>. Source: World Bank (2010: 11, figure 2.3, citing UNESCO, World Education Indicators 2007). Figures reflect estimates for 2004–05. Indonesian figure is from 2009 budget. 2. Overview and Context (cont) Lessons from international best-practice (Relevant for Indonesia to benchmark, for aspirational targets.) Leading universities are internationally connected, eg, with international faculty of 30+%, students 20+%. ‘Little internal mobility of students and faculty encourages inbreeding.’ Relevant to Southeast Asian examples – Singapore, Malaysia. Universities are expensive. The US is not a global leader by accident. The rising Asian success stories – eg Singapore, China – invest heavily. High-quality university governance: autonomy from govt; incentives for high performance in teaching and research; a strong academic culture. Arms-length, independent review process for everything – appointments, promotions, resource allocation. “The bedrock of university quality in the US is peer review.” 2. Overview and Context (cont) The current structure & recent trends A mixed system: under the Ministry of Education and Culture: public institutions (20% of total enrolments), private (56%); under the Ministry of Religious Affairs (11%); and the Open University (13%). Enrolments increased from about ¼ million to 5 million, 1975-2010. 60% of the growth in the private sector. See Figure 4. Moreover, the state sector is increasingly ‘privatized’ in its funding. A small group (5-7) ‘elite’ public universities, and a similar number of private. None yet in the international rankings, eg, the Asia top 100. The rest offer very basic tertiary education. Public universities: more PhD’s, more research, wider course offerings. Private universities: have grown quickly since PP60/1999; at the top end, offer good quality, market-attuned vocational courses. Little private philanthropy. Average cost/student/year about half public unis (2009). <5% of funds from govt. Figure 4: Tertiary Enrolments Enrolment Institutional Type 1975 1985 1995 2005 2010 Public institutions 131,226 458,429 853,242 1,067,560 1,470,439 Private institutions 118,900 759,134 1,450,162 2,243,761 2,739,929 Others 70,000 303,458 373,387 557,038 612,325 Total enrolment 257,126 1,521,021 2,676,791 3.868.359 4,822,693 12 2. Overview and Context (cont) Performance Indicators Building on relatively weak educational foundations (TIMMS, PISA, etc). As noted, universities largely absent from international rankings. Limited evidence suggests research productivity by international standards still very low. Eg, academic research on Indonesia. Students drawn disproportionately from wealthier families – almost one- third come from the top quintile families, just 2% from bottom quintile. Public universities little better than private in this respect. See Table 2. Gender disparities present, but not as pronounced as those by socio- economic status. The spatial concentration is probably inevitable, with higher quality institutions concentrated mainly in Jakarta, Yogyakarta, Bandung. Very limited international connections: in 2007, 5,360 international students (mostly Malaysia & TL); Malaysia had > 48,000 that year. Table 2:Tertiary Students by Parental Income (%) 14 2. Overview and Context (cont) Governance and Incentives Academic salaries & conditions: In public universities, academics earn most of their income off-campus. Salary structures are complex, much not performance-related; strong incentives to take on admin duties. ‘Full professors get paid less than managers of hamburger joints.’ (Though beginning of some reforms – dosen inti, etc.) Limited support resources, eg, libraries, conferences, sabbaticals, ‘seminar culture’, etc. Promotion: heavily seniority-based; the complex ‘KUM’ system; senior levels require Ministry approval. Very little inter-institutional mobility. Very few jobs openly advertized, open to outsiders. Virtually no peer review activities; very few competitive grant facilities. 3. Major Policy Issues University Autonomy and the ‘BHP’ Case DIKTI’s reform aimed at providing greater autonomy for the elite universities declared unconstitutional by the MK in March 2010. A setback for reform; based on spurious reasoning, that the Constitution stipulates that education is to be publicly provided, free. So private providers and fees considered ‘unconstitutional’. Behind the decision a deeper philosophical debate. A revised draft law with similar orientation was approved by the DPR in July 2012. But likely to encounter the same opposition. Result is that private universities face an uncertain regulatory & legal environment, while public universities remain financially constrained, directed to lift standards and international rankings while admitting more students from lower socio-economic groups without the enabling funding. 3. Major Policy Issues (cont) Incentives for Academic Quality A system that is reforming very slowly. Very few Indonesian academics publish in international journals: • Little recognition within their institutions. • English language proficiency still quite weak. • Limited access to international journals, networks, conferences, etc. Many Indonesian publishing outlets: PDII-LIPI estimate more than 7,000 journals. But very few are properly accredited, peer reviewed, etc. Plagiarism a serious problem. ‘Dosen Inti’ schemes have had little impact so far; deeper reforms needed. Academic promotion systems need major reform. Academic salaries not competitive. The lack of progress reinforces Indonesia’s very heavy reliance on short-term foreign consultants. 3. Major Policy Issues (cont) Accreditation and Quality Control The National Accreditation Agency for Universities (BAN-PT) was established in 1994. Advisory board of 13 senior academics advises the Minister. In practice, most study programs of both public and private universities, let alone other HEI’s, have not been accredited, owing to the shortage of well-qualified assessors and funding constraints. Thus most students are graduating from ‘non-assessed programs’. It is
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