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Useful Bodies : Humans in the Service of Medical Science in the Twentieth Century / Edited by Jordan Goodman, Anthony Mcelligott, and Lara Marks

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Useful Bodies : Humans in the Service of Medical Science in the Twentieth Century / Edited by Jordan Goodman, Anthony Mcelligott, and Lara Marks jhup.goodman.000-000 8/15/03 3:18 PM Page i Useful Bodies jhup.goodman.000-000 8/15/03 3:18 PM Page ii jhup.goodman.000-000 8/15/03 3:18 PM Page iii Useful Bodies Humans in the Service of Medical Science in the Twentieth Century Edited by Jordan Goodman, Anthony McElligott, and Lara Marks The Johns Hopkins University Press Baltimore and London jhup.goodman.000-000 8/15/03 3:18 PM Page iv © 2003 The Johns Hopkins University Press All rights reserved. Published 2003 Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper 987654321 The Johns Hopkins University Press 2715 North Charles Street Baltimore, Maryland 21218-4363 www.press.jhu.edu Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Useful bodies : humans in the service of medical science in the twentieth century / edited by Jordan Goodman, Anthony McElligott, and Lara Marks. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references. ISBN 0-8018-7342-8 (hardcover : alk. paper) 1. Human experimentation in medicine—History—20th century. I. Goodman, Jordan. II. McElligott, Anthony, 1955– III. Marks, Lara, 1963– R853.H8 U846 2003 619′.98′0904—dc21 2002152398 A catalog record for this book is available from the British Library. Earlier versions of the chapters in this volume were first given as contributions to a workshop on human experimentation held at the Wellcome Institute for the History of Medicine in London on 3–4 September 1998. jhup.goodman.000-000 8/15/03 3:18 PM Page v Contents Acknowledgments vii 1 Making Human Bodies Useful: Historicizing Medical Experiments in the Twentieth Century 1 Jordan Goodman, Anthony McElligott, and Lara Marks part i: What Is a Human Experiment? 2 Using the Population Body to Protect the National Body: Germ Warfare Tests in the United Kingdom after World War II 27 Brian Balmer 3 Whose Body? Which Disease? Studying Malaria while Treating Neurosyphilis 53 Margaret Humphreys part ii: Who Experiments? 4 Human Radiation Experiments and the Formation of Medical Physics at the University of California, San Francisco and Berkeley, 1937–1962 81 David S. Jones and Robert L. Martensen 5 “I Have Been on Tenterhooks”: Wartime Medical Research Council Jaundice Committee Experiments 109 Jenny Stanton 6 See an Atomic Blast and Spread the Word: Indoctrination at Ground Zero 133 Glenn Mitchell jhup.goodman.000-000 8/15/03 3:18 PM Page vi vi Contents part iii: Whose Body? 7 Injecting Comatose Patients with Uranium: America’s Overlapping Wars Against Communism and Cancer in the 1950s 165 Gilbert Whittemore and Miriam Boleyn-Fitzgerald 8 Writing Willowbrook, Reading Willowbrook: The Recounting of a Medical Experiment 190 Joel D. Howell and Rodney A. Hayward List of Contributors 215 jhup.goodman.000-000 8/15/03 3:18 PM Page vii Acknowledgments We would like to thank all of the participants, speakers, and audience for a very successful meeting. Tilli Tansey was very enthusiastic about the project and gave it her full support. We would like to thank her for that. The editors are grateful to the authors and to Jacqueline Wehmueller of the Johns Hopkins University Press for their patience and cooperation in bringing this project to a conclusion. We would also like to thank the Well- come Trust for their financial support and Wendy Kutner for her unstint- ing administrative assistance. jhup.goodman.000-000 8/15/03 3:18 PM Page viii jhup.goodman.000-000 8/15/03 3:18 PM Page ix Useful Bodies jhup.goodman.000-000 8/15/03 3:18 PM Page x jhup.goodman.000-000 8/15/03 3:18 PM Page 1 chapter one Making Human Bodies Useful Historicizing Medical Experiments in the Twentieth Century Jordan Goodman, Anthony McElligott, and Lara Marks Human experimentation has its historians but not its history. In a pio- neering attempt to outline how a history of human experimentation might be undertaken, William Bynum in 1988 pointed out that the history of this very important topic has not been explored.1 Fifteen years later, little has changed. As a start in the project of historicizing human experimentations, of which this book is a part, we propose a rough typology based, not around the familiar doctor-patient or scientist-subject axis, nor on Bynum’s valuable types-of-medicine approach, but rather on the role of the state as actor, legitimator, and provider.2 Why are we focusing on the state and not on the experiments per se? The simple reason is that the relationship between science and its subjects is not easy to historicize because its empirical disclosures come packaged as case studies and these, as we argue, are difficult to arrange and structure to give historical insight. Focusing on the nature and degree of the in- volvement of the state, on the other hand, provides the kind of sharp tool that unlocks the context and the practice of human experimentation as a historical process. We are, therefore, in total agreement with Gert Brieger jhup.goodman.000-000 8/15/03 3:18 PM Page 2 2 Jordan Goodman, Anthony McElligott, and Lara Marks when he stated that a “mere catalog of human experiments, while inter- esting and perhaps even instructive, is not sufficient.”3 Hence, we suggest a rough periodization relating to the involvement, both direct and indirect, of the state: pre-state (before the 1930s); state (1930s to 1960s); and post-state (1960s onward). Of course, we are not sug- gesting that these are rigid boundaries. The periodization is more fluid than at first appears; boundaries are soft rather than hard, continuous rather than discrete. It is, in short, more of a heuristic device than a fixed regime. Most historians would agree that the use of human subjects in non- therapeutic experimentation is a relatively recent phenomenon and that the emergence and rise of this practice coincided with a more general sci- entization of clinical medicine toward the end of the nineteenth century in both Europe and the United States. As such, human experimentation is part of a process in the history of medical experimentation, or knowl- edge making, which also included the increasing use of animals in experi- ments and the decreasing practice of self-experimentation.4 For most of the nineteenth century, as David Rothman has argued, “human experimentation was a cottage industry, with individual physicians trying out one or other remedy on neighbors or relatives or themselves.”5 By the end of that century, however, this began to change as the bound- aries of scientific knowledge were pushed back. Along with the exploration of the earth’s “dark continents,” the human body itself had become the sub- ject of exploration—and conquest. But the site of individual experimenta- tion then gave way to more general terrain that took in society per se. Thus, while the nineteenth century sought scientifically to release the “truths” of the inner self (and here one only need refer to Dr. Jekyll/Mr. Hyde), the twentieth century emphasized utopian social engineering. New departures in medical research chimed with the new age of technological progress and provided a context of boundless opportunity for those work- ing within it.6 The concept of usefulness is the point of contact between human exper- imentation, knowledge, and the state. It is necessary, therefore, to situate the relationship between medical science and the individual in the con- text of a twentieth-century modernity that privileged the body above all else. Our argument is that in the late modern period, the modern state in- creasingly used its prerogative to lay claim to the individual body for its own needs, whether social, economic, or military.7 Such a claim on the part jhup.goodman.000-000 8/15/03 3:18 PM Page 3 Making Human Bodies Useful 3 of the state and its agents obviously raises the question of consent or con- tract between it and the individual. And incidentally, it was this relation- ship that stood at the heart of the deliberations of the prosecution council and judges at Nuremberg and that has been the operative paradigm ever since. In order to historicize human experimentation, we have to move be- yond the debate over the issue of “informed consent” as institutionalized through the Nuremberg Code. In their desire to uncover and explore cases of human experimentation from the latter part of the nineteenth century, historians have begun to piece together a more complicated picture than has hitherto been sus- pected. Based on individual instances of medical practices involving human experimentation, recent studies have revealed interesting and unsuspected patterns and have raised some new and intriguing historical questions. Medical experimentation in Nazi Germany needs to be flagged here, not so much because of its horrible uniqueness (though not so unique if we consider the Japanese case too), but, as we would argue, because it renders visible what medical historians now know only too well—that such activity has been common to many advanced societies in the twentieth century.8 The role of medicine in the Third Reich—the apparent willingness of its practitioners to become accomplices in a crime against humanity—has stood as a warning beacon to the “civilized” world since 1946. Until re- cently, and largely on account of the Nuremberg trials, historians have tended to approach the history of human experimentation in a number of different ways. One of these has been the uncovering of cases of nonther- apeutic experimentation in settings that are wholly unlike those of Nazi Germany. Discovering and exploring instances of such experimentation on human subjects is an important historical exercise. The chapters in this book contribute to this approach.
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